CHAPTER 15 LABORATORY TESTS AND PROCEDURES 15.1 GENERAL Laboratories with adequate Facilities and manned by qualified personnel are essential for jon of the suitability of water supplics for public use as well ar fot Sri wo soe ta potable wae conforming t the danng water snare sipping to the consumers Tests catsed out in the laboratory ate intended to asses the quay and classify the ea water to be teat to determine the need and extent of tedtinent; to check that water his ‘been propetly prepared for each phase of treatment process; to ensute that each phase af ‘weatment proceeds according wo plan and to examine the finished water to ascertain that i conforms to the standard. Other objectives that could be served by a segular testing progaamme include: () deisnination of tne in inking water quality over tine, () provision of information to public heath authorities for geneeal public health prosection ‘purpose acl (ji) deflation of sources of contamination, Labneatory facies are thus indispensable for controling plant operation and to and improve plant peeformance which help rcarch and development. 15.2 TYPES OF EXAMINATIONS The Inboraory examin bintogal analyses, comprises of physical, chemical, bactenological and Physical analysis determines the aesthetic quality and sovess the performance of ious (Cherical analysis deteamines concentrations of chemical substances which may affect the ‘quility of water snd be indieative of pollution andl which rect warations due to teeatment — 4 requirement for control of wate teslment processes, Bacusiologiea examination indicates the presence of brcetia characteristic of pollution and herce the safety of water for consumption Biological examinations wil find application in providing information on causes of objectionable tastes and odous in water of cloggiay of fiers and dictating remotil 285153 SAMPLING “The value of any Inborstory analyst and test depends opon the method of samplirg Faire to observe proper prectutions in securing a representative sample ray result an alysis which i of lle use since may unnecesarly condemn a good water supply >t ‘now feequenty it may cenify a bad water ae satisfactory Physical, chemical and bacteriological anlyis are necessary for danking water, while physical analysis may Se adequate for industrial water excepting in food or beverage inde. Biologia ana ‘lbs eequived for limaologied work or wheze ste and edour problems ae encountered [A samples of water should be prope lbeled and should be accompanied by comple and scoumme idetifiag, and detcripive dita Data shoud inclule date and tine of ‘alletion, typeof soure ofthe sample and tempertue of water a the time of elect. Wher samples ae being collected fom the sare sampling pot fo efferent analysis, iis cssenal that the sample fo bacteologial exaninations be taken fist ‘The pacha (0 = suppled withthe sample ae enumersed in the Appendixes (52, 153, 154, 158, 156 and 18 For transport, hotles may be packed in wooden, metal, plastic or heavy Sbreboad east, wth scp comps rh n,m ye wk cmp! feltor other resent mateal or may be provided with spingLoaded comer stip to preven beatae, Polythene toles do not ted ich elabose ere. 15.3.1 SAMPLING FOR PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS Samples should be culected in containers of Pyeex glass or other inert material lice polythene. Sample botles must be carefully cleaned before se. Glass bowtles may be sased with a chonie acd cleaning mixtute by adding one live of concentrated sulphune seid slowly wih sting to 35 ml saturated sodium dicheomste solution or with an alkaline permanganste solutn followed by an oxalic acid solation. After having been cleaned, bottles must >e rinses thoroughly with tap water and then with disced water About 25 litres of the sample is ragiced for analysis. Prot to filing, che sample bose shoul be rinsed out raw or thre times with water to be collected. Care should be taken to obtain a sample that i tly representative of exiting conditions ard to handle tin such a ‘way that it dacs not deteriotats oc come contaminated before it reaches the laboratory ‘The sample should reach the place of analysis as quickly as possible within 72 hours af collecion. The time lapsed between collection and anys should be teconded in the Iaborstory report Some determinations are likely 10 be affected by storage of samples. Walls of glass coniiners are likely to absorb cations like aluminium, cadmatum, cheoraiim, copper, #fen, lead, manganese, stver or zinc which ate best coected in a separate bottle and aciified > contentrated hydrochloric or nitic acc to a pH approximately 3.5 1 einimise precipitation: and adsorption of the wall ofthe container 6ects parameters lke temperature, pH dissolved gases like carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, chlorine and oxygen tay change significantly ding transport. For this reason, Uelemninutions of pH, carton dioxide, ferzous fon, dissolved oxygen and chlorine should be carried out on the spot. Hydrogen sulphide can be preserved by fixing it with zinc acetate sunt the sample is ready for analysis Hot samples collected under pressure should be eooled while under pressure. Sample from wels should be collected only after the well has been pumped for a sufficient time 10 ensue thyt the sample willbe sepresentative ofthe ground water. 15.3.2 SAMPLING FOR BACTERIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS, 15.2.1 Sampling Bottles Sterlized glass hotles provided with ground glass stopper having an ovetapping im shouldbe used. "The stopper and the neck of the bottle should be protected by brown paper. ‘The steiization is carried out in an autoclave at | kg/m’ pressuee for 15 minutes or by dry Iheat at 160°C for te 15.3.2.2 Dechlorination Dechloination is necessagy foe chlorinated water samples. For this, sodium thiosulphate should be added to the clean, dey sampling botles belore stedzation in an amount to [provide an approximate concentration of 100 mg/l in the sample. This can be done by ding 02 ml of 10% rhiosulphate solution to 2 250 mi bottle and the bottle is then seized, 153.23 Sample Collection “The sample should be sepresentative of the water to be tested and they should be collected with utmost eare 19 ensure that no contamination occurs atthe time of collection bt prior © examination. The sample bottle should not be opened til the time of filing, ‘The stopper vith the eap should be removed with cae to mite soiing. During sampling the stopper and the neck of the bottle should not be tovched by hand and they should be protete from contamination, ‘The boule should be held near the base filled without rinsing and the stopper replaced ienmediately. ‘The botde should not be filed completely but Slfcient ai space lee for shaking befoce analy. Then the brown papee wrapping should bie Hed to protect the sample from contamination () Sampling from Taps The ap should be opened filly and the water alowed to mun to waste for two to thece ‘minutes ot fora sient time to permit learng of the serie line: The flow from the tap should then be eestsicted to permit filing the horde without splashing, Leaking taps, which allow water to flow over the outer surface of the botle, must be avoided as sampling points It beonmes necessary to collect from that point, the leak should be attended to before sampling, When tap i notin continuous service, 8 advisable to wipe the tap free of any {getse ot preferably lamed before collection of the sample. It should be ascertained whether orthe tp from where the sample i collected is supplying water fiom a service pipe dizeatly ‘conrected with the main or with a ciscen ora storage tank. ‘his information should be set along with sample (Sampling Direct from a Source When the sample is to be collected directly ftom 2 stream, ver, lake, eservoi, springor a shallow wel, it should be representative of the water that wil be taken foe treatment ence a sample should not be taken Fon x point which is foo near the bunk ot t00 far fot the point of deawoff or ata depth above ot below the point of deaw-off. Ares of tlatve stagration in a steam should be avoided Sample fiom a rive, steam, lake, of reservoir ean often be taken by holding the botle in dhe hand neae its Base and plunging ts neck downwaed, below the susfice. The boitle should then be tumed until tne neck points slightly upward, the mouth being dtected against, the curtent. If no current exists, a5 i a reservoit, a cutrent should be artificially created by pushing the botde horizontally forward in 2 diteetion away fiom the hand, If itis rot Possible to collect samples ftom this situation, ia this way, a weight may be attached to he basc of the bottle which can then be lowed fo the water. In any case, damage to the banks must be guarded agunst, as otherwise fouling of the water can occut. Special appacahas ‘which permits mechnieal removal of the stopper of the botde helaw the sutface is requied to calect samples fom the depths ofa lake or a reserve IF the sample i tobe taken from f wel, fit with a hand-pump, water should be pumped to waste for four to five minues before the sample ie collected If the wall is fited with a mechanical pump, the samgle shouid ine collected fican 2 tap on the discharge end. If cere is no pumping mechineny, the sample ean be collected dizcely faom the well by means of a stetlized bocle attached with wight at the base. In this cas, cae shoul! be taken to avoid contamination ofthe sample by any surface scum. Where ic not possible to collet the sample direty into the botdes for ecample where there isa high hank, the sample may be obtained by tacans of astble metal jug ‘The ju is sterilized by pouring int it 3 to § ml of methylated apis and king 6 Jc such a way that the spisic comes in contact withthe entire innct surface OF the jug an ‘igniting, The jog shoul! be lowered to the regited depth and then drawn wp and down two or thes times before it is inought to the surface. It should be sinsed out atleast twice before fhe sample é taken, Should the jug come in contact with the bottom or skid along be surface so that it may have collected the surface fl, the sample should be dieanded, the ji restedized and another sample drawn. ‘The water ‘com the jig should be poured into Ue hatte and the glass stopper of che bore be replnced care being take ty avd Uie Lowe ‘being caught bervcen the stopper and the neck of the bate 15.324 Size OF The Sample The volume of the sample should be sufficient for arsying out all the tests requied and in no case, it should be less than 250 4815.3.2.5 Preservation And Storage \Watee samples should be examined iramediaely after collection, However, this is seldom practical snd hence ss recommended thatthe saumples should be preferably analyzed within fone hour after collection and in wo case this ime should exceed 24 hours, During transit, the ‘eemperature of the saruple should be maintained as close as possible to that ofthe source of the sample, at the tane of sampling. "The time and temperature of storage of all samples should be recorded since they wil -d in the interpretation of the laborsiony results, Hf they can aot be analyzed wuhin 24 house, the samples must be preserved in ice ‘uni analsis. No sample sfc for bactesilogical analysis afer 72 hous. 45.3.3 SAMPLING FOR BIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS. For this purpose, cow samples should be cllected in clean two lite wide mouthed bes ‘vith plas stopper or a bakebte seew cap jn mzking this cllection, the bottle, after the stopper is temaved, i thnust as fir as possible enuth downwasd into the water. fe is then invetted and allowed to fil, One bottle is to be stoppered as such, To another battle, add 5 ml of commercial Focmalin for every 100 ml of water sample inmesately after collection, Both the botles would be despatched with the label on the sample stating the one with formalin, IF two Kizes of samples could not be collected, even 200 mi of the simple may be collected ss above and Formalin aed to one sample (10 onl of formalin added to 200 ml of water.) 15.34 FREQUENCY OF SAMPLING Te fiequency of collecion of samples for chemical analysis depends on the vaiability of| he quality of tested wats, de types of eeaiment processes used a other local Fico. Samples for genesal systematic chemical examination should be collected atleast once every dice moaths in supplies sexving wre than SH, 000 inhabitants and alleast twice year ‘on supplies upto 50.00 inhabitants. Mote frequent sampling for chetnical examination may bbe eequiced for the contol of water teatment processes Ic is messy to collect samples of both saw and treated water for examination of toxic sabseances atleast every three month aod sue frequently when sutoteance Fevels uf tak. substaness are known to be generally present in the Source of supply or where such parental pollion exis For bacteriological sampling, which controls the safety of supply to the consumer, the Feequeney of sampling and the location of sampling points at pumping stations, teatment plans, eservoirs and booster pumping stations, aswell asthe istebuion system, should! be such as to enable a peoper evaluation ofthe bacteriological quality of the entice wate supply. ‘The minimum numberof semples to be collected fram a distribution systern shouldbe 28 prescribed in Table 15.1, +nples should be taken from che different points on each occasion to enable oven Inthe event of an epidemic oe immediate danger of pollution t should be boone in mind that mich more frequent bacteriological examination wil be required than the recommended minimum frequencies for rutne bacteriological examination, For biological examinations, where seasonal growth of plankton are known to be = segue occurence, samples may need to be taken at weekly or even shorter interval, otder 1 determine the tppe of treatment Dunng treatment operations, samples fir examenation would need to be taken at short interels, probably daly. When growth of plankzon is not antipated, samples should be draw on 2 monthiy or less frequent bass Greats frequencies, determined by expecience may be needed in tacing possible entrance of pollution into water sources or more parsiclatly into distibution systems TABLE 15.1 MINIMUM SAMPLING FRE-QUENCY AND NUMBERS FROM DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM Popilaioa Seed [Maximus Tnterals | Minimum No.of amplce between succemive | tole taken fom entre Templing” | “diewibuton system a 50,000 wowedks | One sample pee 5000 of | ae ___¢_| poputaton per month [soars Fouede—f | Wore than Too,p0 ‘Gre sample per 10000) | of population per month 15.44 STANDARD TESTS ‘The standard tests that are employed in the analysis of water ate as follows: 15.4.1 PHYSICAL EXAMINATION ‘The parameters tested are remperatuce turbidity, colour, taste and odour, 15.4.2 CHEMICAL EXAMINATION (This includes teste for consistency and characteristics of water that affect he health of the consumers and the potabilty of water, via. pl, acidity, alkaline, harcness, calcium, magnesium, ion, manganese, coppes, ine, alaminivr, sulphaies, Suoride, chlorides, stztes total disolved, and suspended solid,) Tests for efficacy of treatment, vie, chlorine demand, face and combined resi chlorine, coagulant dosage. (©. Tests for chemical parameters which are indicators of pollution such as coral nitrogen and nitrogen in various forms like ammonia, sitsce and ita, ‘phosphate, dissolved oxygen and BOD. (© Tent for toxic chemical substances Jad, arsenic, mereury, selenium, chromium, ‘cyanide, phenolics, pesticides and hydeoearbons and (© Vest foe radioactivity 15.4.3 BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION Microscopic tests for identification and cnumertion of microorganisms other than ‘bacteria aes inchade in this catego. 1544 ScHEDULE OF TESTS “The sctedule of laboratory tests followed by 2 pasticular undertaking will vary with the sive of the plant and character of water teated, though for ordinary plants the minimum schedule svould include turbidity, colour, alkalinity, pH, hardness, cesidual chlorine, bacteria ‘count at 37°C and eolform bacterial numbers, both presumptive aed confemed, ‘Occasionally special tests may be necessary such as esiual alum, inom and manganese, taste and colour and other undesiable constituents of finished water. Where prechlosinaion is practise, residual chlorine should be testd ae ench major stage of teettment. Chlosine demand tts should be eared out in ta wate. 15 METHODS OF EXAMINATION “The physical, chemical, bactesiological and biological procedutes for the analytical laboratory examinations given in the Manual of methods for the Examination of Wate, Sewage and industrial Wastes published by the Indian Counc of Meshal Research, are to be Followed, For procedures reganling trace ad other elements not covered by the ICMR, the procehites recommended in Standard Methods for the Exinsnation of Water and Waste water prepated and published by American Public Health Association, American Water Works Astoclaion and Water Polluion Conteol Fedration ane ty be folluwe Confomnity to standard analytical methods & ienportant ifthe results of tests eared out by diferert laboratories ace to be mesningtl 155.1 REPORTING OF RESULTS Specimen fooms for reporting results of 2 short chemical examination, a complete chetnieal cxumination and bacteriological extginasio of water are given in Appendices 15.5 and 15.6. For purposes of uniformity, standard expressions should be used anid this should bbe cenely stated in the repoet ao15.6 LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES ‘Awell equipped laboratory i « prezequiste for efficient analytical control. ‘The size ard euipnent ofthe laboratory depend: mote upon the nature of the processes 10 be controlled sand to a lesser extent om the size of the plant. The laboratory could be divided into sever unis; vz. a physical and chemical lnboratory, a bactenplogial laboratory, a biological Taborstory, a preparation room and a store. For a small plant, the various units coull be combined ints one labocatory. 15.6.1. RECOMMENDED MINIMUM TESTS AND EQUIPMENT leis necessary that all watervorks should! be provided with the equipment and faites for tests mentioned in Appendices 15 7,158 and £89. The lists provide for the categories of water works Category is applicable to all State boratones and for lage water wosks with 26 outpat greater than 7.5 eld or serving « popula larger that) 101,000 and dealing with polluted surface water and practising cnaguation, acon and pest chlorination. Such laboratories would be equipped for conducting complete chemical, bacterilogieal and biological tests. It ' expected that such laboratories muy) also. undertake simple research problems, stzean Sanutation studies and other invesigitions and will asst the smallee hboratories im tha ‘eink hy supplying standard eolusins and providing ince Category 148 applicable 10 the water works with an out put upto 7.5 mld or serving. a population upto 100,000 and when the wate is coagulated, tered and chlorinated. The teats laid down ate routine chemical and buctenological’ examinations only. ‘Thus, the Ducesologjcal procedare would consist af che presumptive test for colform oganisins folloved by confirmation {in the case of finshed water onl) by the ase of liquid brow, Isolatons om solid media and cifeeentiation of coliforms into feaeal and non Feacl ems, if 's fa necessary, may be casied out by seni samples to a suitable laboratony with this fay Category IT is applicable c all other water works, mostly with uhe only treatment of| ore or settlement followed by chlorination. They should be equipped fox routine chemeal tests included under category I. The bactetilogical examinations necessary may be undemaken by the neasest avaiable large laboratory. "he expression, parts per million (ppm), stl used to express chemical concentrations, shoul be replaced by mifligas per te (ng/), which is much more appropriate, unless there ica spevial nae use some ocher chemical concentration unt ike mllequalents poe lite’ gne/?) oF microgram per litre (ul). The expression me facilitates the summation of sevet anions or canons responsible fr rapa particular characteristic to the water Hike haedoess Yolraes me cxpresein mics (land vmperatrs in depres centigrade (The ‘onal umber of micro-organisas devslopung on sold media should be given in signfcant tsumbers poe mn of wate, the medium, dime and temperature of incubation being stated The 2number ef coliform organisms and other oxganisms indicative of pollution should be ‘expressed in terms of "Most Probable Number” (MPN) per 100 ml or as a determined number dotained by direct plating procedures. [a biological examinations, the concentration ‘of organians per mi of sample is expressed in many instances as a simple numenal count eeasionaly the results are expressed in mg/l, but move usally in tems of area standaed tists of volameric standard wits Reporting analsical results of paniclar examination should include the proper use of signifcamt digs and the expression of confidence lima, where appeopeiate 15.6.2 Facies ‘The working benches should be of suitable height (0.75 to 1 m) with aid resistant tops. Adequate gas, elettic power and water points must be provided along the benches and services for gas clecticty and wate ean be Bited against the walls, under the bench work, as ‘mich cupanatd space as possible should be bul-in, finishing lush to che bench wor, thus providing mabstnicted floor space thoughout ‘There shoul be ample sinks and drain fines. The analytical work it the laboratory requires provision of ample window space and Ruorescent artificial lighting, A miniawm azea of 15D a eequieed for category Iaboratries, a minimum of 80m being sufficient for other categories 15.6.3 EQUIPMENT. “The eqripment in the laboratosy must be adequate to pesmit proper analytical lborniory control of poreation processes. Careful planning it necessary while equipping. the laboratory to effect proper tization of the equipment. Proper maintenance of equipment and storage of chemicals mast be in the hands of responsible analysts. A needbased planning to acquire consumable materials ike glasswaee, chemicals and reagent i in general more important than. the procurement of various special equipments. Cakibrated instruments should frequently be checked using staacds 15.7 RECORDS: A continuing programme of extmination of water snd conteliag ts quality to determine its conformity with established water quality standards calls for proper maintenance of accurite and complete records, These roends ace estetil fora review of the working ofthe plant and also for adcquate and intligent operation of water works processes and for Iaboratony activities Al) denils of actual speciic determinations, burtte readings, weights and calculations should be recorded, These information should, of course, remain a Inborttory records and fonly the foal reslt should be reported, Ths makes all boratory data avadable at any time for review any important Factor when wnustal findings ae eal to atenson, Depeniing upon the specific needs ofthe laboratory forms and cards could be designed providing spaces for entering the data and for calculations. Monthly reports ray bein single Sheets ane annual reports may be fumished in two sheets grouping physi and chemical dlta on ore sheer and bacterclogical and biological data on the other. 93Representation of data collected over a pesiod of dime by means of charts and graphs sakes ican easy and useful study for the staff and visto, 15.8 LABORATORY PERSONNEL Laboratory personnel must be quali snd suitably tained in Isboratory control. Wate analy with sufficient experience in treatments and quality contra may be kept in chatge of the laboratory ‘The minimam staff requiced for water works laboratories is given in Appendix 15.1. "The ‘ecormmended ininimum staff required for water works laboratories for groundwater soure 's presented in Appendices 13.6 and 137 49CHAPTER 16 - COMPUTER AIDED OPTIMAL DESIGN OF WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM 16.1 GENERAL, ‘The wit processes in conventional water treatment include coagulation flocculation gavity separ, sand raion and disinfection. The individ units nthe teeatnent tea ate usally designed based on the norms recommended inthe Manual These design, when implemented, may give stsfacto level of performance but not neces be opt, both factionaly and costwise, The peeormance of each teatment unit affect the eFcecy 0° the subsequent units. Howeves, decisions are offen made with ao egatd 0 the interacting satue of the various writ options aed the teatment syste are designed on individua ‘unit ass. This lege du to the nom avaablty of appropriate Operations Resessch (OR tools for tora system analysis to enable development of designs which wil produce potable ‘water of specified qualay at miimaro cost This chapter presents an approach to te ‘computer shed functional and minimal cost design of water catioent systems. 162 DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING 16.2.1 Concer A conventional water treatment system shown schematically in Fig. 16.1 favour: pplication of Dynamic Programming (DP) for minimal cost design and wt ia techn useful in solving sequential decision problems, each decision influencing the subsequer decison (9). The main advantage of dynamic programming is the reduction of effort equiped to find optimum Dynamic Programming isa simple proceduse from gompulationa, pola cFview, and one which can treat non convex now lines, discontinaous objective ane ‘onstnt functions. Since it an iterative peocedure, a telasvely small number of computer instrucaons i required. Forther consteins imposed on system duce the number of feasible solutions and therefore time requieed to establish the optimal policy. Other advantages of DP are with respect to availabilty of feasible solutions with costs and hence selection of most acceptable optimal solution based on sie conditions Dynamic Programming can geneealy be applied to any system with muli-decsion pprobiems. The system is broken into stages. The stages may be unit processes with inter relatiorships and each stage having only a few variables. In such an analysis, each sage ‘characterized in terms of four Factors as depicted in Fig, 162. 1. ‘The input state ‘So! which depeads on decisions made in the previous stages are/or on fied exteznal conditions. 498By Rn loo saan ESS, [mening wouvins] = uauwm Nee Nowe 709) 1} ve agve [oawngas Lan aig nousa sso inv 1n9v09 “voto FIGURE 16.2: FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM OF DYNAMIC PROGRAMBUNG FIGURE 16.1: CONVENTIONAL WATER ‘TREATMENT SYSTEM-SCHEMATIC 1962. Decision a’ which Fixes the design and/or operating conditions of the stage “the ourpue state’ SH which depends on Sn and dn ie,» 4A. The stage rerun, "Ra which is dependent on Sa, dn and =) a 163 APPLICATION TO WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM DESIGN ‘Water treatment system can be considered as a multistage process with stages represented by vadous unit procetses, viz coagulation floceulasion, sedimentation, and rapid gravity fiheation and states epresented by the levels of water quality parameters like txbicty oF ‘snpendd solids. "The decision variables would be the design parameters depending om the type of unit process, Le. stage, The formation flow diagram showing the sequence of cTogen input, decsion and output variables for each stage and the stage return for cach inpuedcesion combination is shown ia Fig. 163. The range of design variales, for Conventional Weatment units, a8 summarised rom the eae chapters of the Marval are given in Table 461 ‘0 Gnade), and ie, Rn= gn Sa,dn, In orler to optimize the system logically andl methodically, a thorough knovledge ofthe major vetables ofall the unt processes and thei influence on performance and cost of the “absoqueat units is necessary. Further, information on the process modes relating the design Varable tothe behaviour ofthe systems and cost mols for the individual eretmens wits Je essental, These enable the foanulation of an objective function and consteants enabling, olution of optimization problems through Dynamic Progeamening 164 PERFORMANCE MODELS 164.1 Rarip Mix UNIT ‘The rapid mix unit is an an adjunct 0 the Mloceulatoe and hence is not modelled separatdy forts functionality and should be designed a8 per the norms recommended in the ‘Mana ts performance i expected ro be satisfactory when the approprate coagolant dose ‘sapphed TABLE 16.1 RANGE OF MAJOR DESIGN VARIABLES FOR WATER TREATMENT PLANTS Gi No. System Component” Design Variable Range To apid Mis Unit Welociy Gradient” 3080 %0 900 Se Detention Time 2) to 60 See 2 Slow Mix Unit Velocity Grad 10 1075 Sec! a 10.1 40 min 3. Sedimentation Unit Surfice Overflow Rate 1.28 10 1.66 mbe 4 Rapid Sand her tration Rate 48510 60 me! amAssuming that SS, i the raw suspended solids concenteaton, pH and alkalinity of ee water are within the desirable range for effective coagulation and that all AIC) is ‘precipitated as Al (OF, the mass balance, then leads te: SS+KA =, (1s) ‘Were KA = suspended solids in mg/l due tothe akition of A. mgy/'t of coagulant, (6 0247 foe ALSO}, 16 1,0 based on stoichiomety) suspended solids concentration in mg inthe eluent fom epi max unit ps Tei geneally accepted that the principle design parameters of rapid mic are velociy gackent (Go) and duration of mixing (Ts), although cheenical fctors such as pHt ard alkalinity of water to be tated also influence the process of coagulation flocculation, The ‘intensity of agjtation is expressed a terns of power input or the velocity adient. The value ‘of G,"T, has been assumed as 1. 8 x 10" 16.4.2 SLow Mix (FLOCCULATION UNIT) The flocculation should be designed co generate paticle aggregates such thar the seueablity and élterability ofthe suspension aze improved. ‘The important attibutes i the setting are the floc size, density and viscosity of water. The effluent from the rapid mix uit 's the mluent to the flocculation unit. Assuming that no seement of floc particles occuts in he Nocculation basin, then the concentration of suspended sols in the efllent woull remaic unchanged Hence, BRE = 99, (62) Where SS, = suspended sods concentration in che aluent to the foceulaion unit ‘S5P" = suspended solids concentration in the efMuent from the flocculation unit. Although the mass of suspended sols remains unchanged inthe process of flocculation, the size of Hoe particles is increase de to intexpactice contact brought about by the applied ‘elosity gradient The sizeof flo aggregates thus formed is related to the velocity gradient 38 under a= (63) Where, d = volume average diameter of the floc, mm G = applied velocity gradient, S" a & a constant and ‘Wis an exponen, the vales of which can be determined experimentally For this eecommended range of velocity gradient, the following relationship has beet developed for alum flo, a aoe 16.4) a8FIGURE 16.2: INFORMATION FLOW DIAGRAM FOR WATER TREATMENT PROCESS 199In the desivation of the sbove celatonship, cis assumed that the velocity gridien: is lifsem and constant in the floceulation uni. ‘The currently accepted criteia for design af slow mix unit ae based on the concepts petlocmance is a inet function of "Gs" and "Ts" which are independent and hence their ‘imensionless product “Gs Ts” is eeganded as the most significant parameter. ‘The value of ‘Gs. Ts inthe range 210 4 10" has been assumed. 1164.3 SEDIMENTATION UNIT Effciney of sting i primacy governed by the size and density of floc particles and the setling basins are designed on the bass of surface overflow rate which is elated to the setting velocity of the suspended particles tis presumed that floe aggregation i compete in the Docculator self and that any further agglomeration during setling insignificant. 70 Reynolds aumber less than 1, the seing vlocky can be estimated using wellknown Stock’: sation given below Loy £608 063) ‘Where, Yg=_ setng velocity of foc patiles, m/s 5 = scederton due wo gig, m/s? 3, = specific gravity of foe particles 4 = volume average diameter of fla, m ¥ = Kinetic Viscosity, m/s For floc particles of size larger than tmm, the Resnole's mumber exceeds 1 and ehe Stole’s law is not applicable In such cates and for Reynolds number upto 50, the setting velocity can be estimated using Hazen's Equation patients 065 For an ideal sedimentation tank, surface overflow rate tepresents the setling velocity of paricles which are removed 100 percent However, ia prictite, the effcieney of the basin is reshced dae to various factors such as currents sauce by inertia of the incoming war, turbulent flow, wind, density and temperature grdients, ete which result in short eicuitng, of the flow. Mathematically she efficiency of suspended particles eemoval i expressed as as)whee, suspended solids removal efficiency Sy 8 = coufccne thar identfis basin peformance \y, = surice overflow rte Fr idea! bain QYA= sequted sustae overow rate to achieve the dese efficiency the value of is assumed ‘for best possible performance, 1/8 for very good ‘performance, 1/4 for pood perfomance, "1/2 for poor performance and I! for very poor performance A well designed! sedimentation basin, iespoctive of the influent suspension concentration, should produce a seted water of turbidity less than 20 NTU or suspended solid Fess than 50 mg 16.4.4 RapiD SAND FILTRATION Fitrion is an important step in the sols emoval chain. Mathematical oerulations presentec by most ofthe researchers For predicting filter performance have litation. Le the ‘development af modes, some idealised assumptions are made with regatd to the nature of Suspension which often deviate significantly feom seal ie situations. Also these models do ‘hot eliminate the need For some empiical constants. A method has been proposed for prediction of filter performance and demonstrate ts usefolness fo a variety of suspensions ting dlferontchetnical coagulants and iter media. Te was observed dhat the sempoval of particles per unit depth theough a flter bed is qute sma to the Chi-square probability Usinbutém. The variate 'U' of this ditibution is considered a measure of the clogging process and is slated 0 the filtration data a follows: the tio of concentration at any time "and sand depeh “to dhe inluent concentration ‘a egaited tothe cumulative probably 2, in the Che squace dstibuton, ie ok ces) “The Fleration time in hours is equated to the degrees af feeedom te. the = 1 dager ‘of Freedom. ‘The variables such as filtration rate, diameter of sand grain and the filter sun Gime are _souped inte a single term 'G' as under G= ans RA arse (69) wre soF 4 = 0505) (1+ UG, mm 1 = oer time, brs. Sida the wales heados at time sand siz, Faion sate and the fter nent suspension concentration have been groupe nt a singlet! filtration rate, n/e R as.) Where, HL = increase in headloes atthe end of °¢, SS, = influent suspension concentation ,mg/) From the above wo group terms, the performance prediction models developed dee a (1) aaa | OP Gan é 6 _ a | omadng—2 5) (6. mf aur] 9 From the value of vacable ‘U' objtined from sbove selatiouship, the probability “P- i ome al es [SES sl le come he of Cage din empl mem ge exes Beers 2. 129! eee yt leary asta) Using de above functional eelaionships, che iter pevformance can be predicted for variows combinations of influent suspended solids concentations (SS), sizeof filer sand (0) lkation ‘ate Fi, depth of filter bed (1), length of Ser an (y Bilkrate quahty §§, and heaoss (1) ‘A propery designed rapid sand flte should be capable of producing a ftered water with turbidity of less than 1 NTU or SS concentration less than 2 mg/l 3a1645 DisiwFecrion, reatmant processes such as coagulation flocculation, sedimentation and rapid sand ftation reduce to varying degrees the bactecal content of water. However, they do not recesariy always produce a water safe from bactedological point of view. ‘Terminal Gsinfcction is, therefore, essential to ensure bacteriological safety of the finished water CChlosine and chlorine compounds ae commonly used for disinfection in Tia. The dose of chlosine depends on the quality oF the Btered water. Ifthe Fitrate turbidity is consistently less than 1 NTU, the chlorine dose eequired may emain more or ess uniform. 165 COST MODELS: "The cost of the water treatment system includes costs of rapid mic unit, slow mix unit, sedimentation tank snd rapid sand Altes. These costs (civil, mechanical and clectia!) depend on the siz(@) of the individual treatment units adopted, While civ co8t mainly inchides cost of constriction, the mechanial and electrical costs, eelate to the equipments and accessories necessaey (or effective operation of the treatment nits, These costs include the costs of turbine agtator/Mloceulating propeller, motor and gear assembly etc. for rapid sna slow mix (occulation) units, costs of scraper bridge, end eazeage deve, tration drive lit for ereular lanier and the costs of appurtenances suck as rate setter, cate of flow Controller, ow indicator, heudioss indicator, aie blower, backwash water pump ete for rapid srvty flier, The costs can be modded sepactely for individual treatment nis and texpresed in the funetional form as unde: Cost = f fueface atea or volume or diameter) For a given design flow, the costs oF other components of water works such as raw water ‘pumps, transmission mains eleze water reservoir, disinfection, lear water pumps et 28 as0 the manpower component would remain the same ierespective of vasation in the siz(s) of the treatment unite and therefore ae not considered in the economic analysis 16.6 PROBLEM FORMULATION, ‘Theze snukd be a number of designs which would satisfy the product quality standards prescdhed in the Mania. The objective, thetefor, should be to minimize the system cost Satistjing all the conetrsins. A rational comparison of vatous feasible designs should be based on the capitalized cost oF total annual cost of the system. Hence, the objective Function wil be minimize 2, Z= Pi asia) Where, Gi = annwal cose (AC) ofindcital treatment unit AC = ACC + DCW + DMEQ + ENERGYannualized capital cost annual maintenance cost of civil works ‘sonal maintenance cost of mechanical equipmnents/ machinery ‘energy = annul energy cost once Hente ace = oc He, en Where, CS = Capital cost ie cost (both civil and mechanical) of the treatment unit © = rate of interest n= umber of ears over which the capital cost & to be repaid ConsrRaints ‘Suspended sods concentration in the effluent from clarifier © 50) mg/l Suspend sols concentration in the filtered water © 2 mg/l © Diameter of dariice © 0m + Detention time, DT in clasifee2-< DIT< 4 hes 1 Weieloading rte < 60 m/e Length of filter sun > 24 hrs Maximum headloss inthe ker be! S 2m. SOLUTION ‘flow chart for computer aed functional and minimum cost design of wate treatment syste s presented in Fig. 164. The major inputs required ar: (© Design data on inpu, decision and state variables and step length Ga for Formulating the eost models for treatment units so