nn ' CHAPTER ONE Characteristics of Sound Acoustics in building design is the science of sound and noise control. To lend a harmonious personality to a build- ing one must combine its architectural beauty with the acoustical spirit. In the present chapter, are described the sound characteristics and phenomena and the sound absorb- ing materials. The next chapter describes the noise control measures, while the third one gives general acoustical design principles for auditoriums, cinema halls, studios, etc. This chapter also includes detailed tables of sound absorption coefficients of various indigenous _ building materials. 1.1 Sound and its Propogation : ‘Sound’ is a physical disturbance set up in an_ elasto-inertial medium and is recognised by sensations caused in the human ear) Thus, a maid servant pounding chilly powder on the first floor sets up vibrations in the floor which cause pressure fluctuations in the air. These air pulsations fall on the ear membranes and are recognised as sound by the residents on the ground floor. Similarly, a piece of paper falling on the ground also causes such vibrations which, however, are too weak to be audible as sound. Scanned with CamScanner: sam oa ‘Sound originates from a vibrating body. When the hor! shings in a forward direction it compresses a layer gp) around it, increasing its density and temperature raolecles inthis Iyer now being at higher prssu yt the next undisturbed layer, transmit their motion to aujecent layer. That layer farther tran'mits its motion, another layer and so on. Meanwhile the body takes q ba ‘wing with the result thatthe aie around it now gets r feusing @ decrease in its density and temperature, Ty fication of ai follows is compression atthe same spexd although the air particles do not change their average posi (anes, of course, the air iselt is already in motion) with the continuous outward and inward swings of the bo there follows a definite pattern of compression and faction of layers and this effect progresses outward fk the body in all the directions, This is ealled wave motion of ‘the sound)As the compression and rarefaction effect rei som medium for is propagation, the wave motion of sous is not possible in vacuum. | G ‘any medium the wave motion of sound does not chasge 1Fimcan position ofthe vibrating particles unless the medians is already in motion relative to the observer. The overs -saximum distance of a pactisle ftom it ‘alled amplitude Even a sound of 1/100 mm amplitude) is enough to. be audible, while a sound of 1/10 m= ample & gute «lod ound“) | (Cee vibatng parte completes one et when mak 2 Complete toand-eo displacement about its mean qi brium position. The numberof such cycles per second # known as the frequency of sound.) The units of the frequea’) arecycles per Second or ej, JThesound frequency is tans by the medium transfering the vibrations from to partsles inthe form of a wave, The sound wave may CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND 3 by comparing it othe wave se up by wind on 2 freen wheat fee Although the plants do not leave their places ir stems vibrte toandso and this dbtarbance Feared fiom one end of the felt the other n the frm tra wave a standard tuning fork struck gently i produces S Single ASjueny wave motion whichis called simple tarmone motion which, when pated as a fuetion of time and dpaemony, gies ane weve) The ese vers time fora sound wave ao ress in ainda) Such single Frequency sound indiats pare fone in contradiction the mined fons of sical insirareats or human oie The mixed toves are complex in nature because they are compos ofa sties of simple harmoaie vibrations appear ing ss one compler wave (Fig. 1-b). Fig. 2a shows the actual soundwvave form of single constant note pled on Sue and phoograplied on an oslloscope, I shows pure Sinewave Fie 29 shows an atl pinogph te rman voiss note as photographed rom the seloscope, shows a ie complex nature ! AMPLITUDE ‘pan as (@) SOUND WAVE ic. 12 (a) Size wave of sound is showo a Scanned with CamScanner124 9090 nana { Sea aici f J | Stine pete “The sound wave may be pote asa fanction of pres and the corresponding tine Sach sine wave gives the | Santneous akersting pressure above the simospete pre at ine, ata prc point nthe ound eld 2 Pe= Py sin (22 f 146 ae OD where, Pe= maximum pesur-anpltude, = fresuenry of sand wave, andthe phase angle at ¢ (6) a photograph ofa human voice note, In the ease of ve ; of complex waves the effective pressure, P,, is obtained by taking the root mean square of P, values of the Component fundamental waves at time t. a Scanned with CamScanner‘ BUILDING Desioy, 1.2 Sound Velocity : Fig. 1-a, shows a as the distance of one cycle of the sound wave which'7s numerically equal to 1/f and is called waye length, IF c isthe velocity of sound then a simple. equation relates 9, f and e. 4 nae ~ Q) Cine above equation shows that a sound of shorter wave. 1eigth must have greater vibrations per second—higher frequency-—than the sound of longer wavelength, to keep the same velocity in both the cases. JThis is similar to a ease ‘of a small child walking with his ‘pape’. To cover a definite sistance without lagging behind his papa, the litle one has to make more paces than his papa docs. (Coe cess depts peal encom dexiy, humidity, temperetur, fe. Taso depends upon the intensity and frequency of the sound itself.)However for frequencies over the normal audiiliy rangécay upto 15,000 c/s and for normal room temperatures the sound speed may be sumed tobe constant Table 1 shows svete values of sound velocity through some common media, TABLE~I No. Type of medium Sound veloci 1 Ale 345 2 Water 1,480 3. Stone or Brick masonry 3,900 Timber (2) along the fibres 4,000 (b) across the fibres 1,500 5. Steel 5,000 a , |13 Sound ttt + “ne rate of low of sound energy through a unit area normal ‘Te it is called intensity, pnd is measured in wattsfom* For “D spherical wave with an effective pressure P, dynesfem® Jat an instant ¢, the intensity, I, is given by : | 1m FE exgsjem, >) Eee -@) or 1 PE vattsfem* a ‘where 9 = density of aie in glem* , land ¢ = velocity of sound in em/sec. in acoustical problems the sound intensity is expressed ‘by another convenient unit called dectbel—abreviated db- “) (6) | where I, = reference intensit aken as 10-"* wa | cater 10°" wafont Sound levels in acoustial problems ean be easily dealt in terms of pressure rather than intensity. Therefore\Csound ‘Pressure level —SPL—is expressed in terms of decibels) {The equations 3 and 4 indicate that the sound intensity is Proportional to the square of its pressure. Hence\the SPL in desibles is obtained by the following expressiva = | 10 tone (-p)* ab | = 2010847, deste = 10g a ab = (8) where Py = sleenie pressure genealy taken as 00002 dass oF microbars Scanned with CamScanner~ The reference level of 0.0002 microbars is approxi. the lowest sound pressure tht is audible to norman 8) by cat. Fhe SPL can be directly measured on a soung’ meter Fig.3). len Fig 3 (a) + Sound fore meee (Courtesy Radio Co, U: 5:4, PHONG oa, [ARACTERISTICS OF SOUND ° Fig. 3 (b) ‘Table II, shows SPL. values for some common types of sounds in the normal audibly range. ‘The above table shovs that when the sound pressure is 10" times or the intensity is 10% times the threshold of audi- bility the sound level in deciles is only 120 db. Tha is why this unit is convenient to express the sound level. Morcover, the human car seems to follow the logarithmic scale only. When the intensity rises from 10 to 20 unis, the auditor {eels the Ievel to be doubled only. Thus our cars are endowed by nature to be less sensitive to intense sounds than to feeble SE Scanned with CamScannerFeeling Totes of in levelin ‘Sound watisfem* db, re Sound SPL Pressu- in db tedyn- esfem® Examples fee Soe 3 et comatn oars 3 dro nal ape 70 Ordinary factory 80 Radio noise, > 9090, Trafic and factory Veryloud 10° 10020-0100. Heavy trae, MO 110 Deiling noise, shit of whist 120 200-0 120 Aeroplane noise, Limit of hearing without pai sounds which is essential to protect them from the harm ‘effects of intense sounds upto a very high und on any partition splits into three parts. On€ reflected from the surface with a reflection angle PEON | | cusactensnics oF soup u | equal to the ange of incidence, Another part gets absorbed ‘or lost in the patition and the remaining portion is ree ited housh the prion tothe other side Fs.) RerLecTeD sown woven Fi. 4: Components of ident sou ‘There is an interesting story about the sound reflection Phenomenon. In olden days there were no alarm cocks, | 59 that one had to impose strict discipline on his sleep if ‘he wanted to start his day extly morning. However, human | mind never lacked in creative imagination. ‘Ons person struck upon the idea of sound reflections and | constructed his room to obtain a desired number of suces+ | sive refletions of sound. While going to bed every sight | sta definite time, he used to utter these words, “Get up, it | is moming’. The words used to keep rellcting from surface | 0 surface in the room until $ A.M. when finally they wed to concentrate atthe ears of their master to waen him, “Get | Up, it 8 morning,” and the master wied to get UP. ‘However difclt it may be 1 imagine the sort of enclosure in the above story which would keep the sound reflecting for rs Scanned with CamScanner2 about 8 hours and stil maintain aud To of intensity during is jooraey of 11,200 km. the age of the story 8 important. Mareoeve, there are exam of ancient man's Knowledge of the sound phenomena Ss the whispering galeries, reverberant or echoing temp! ‘Whispering galleries are found in many churches ayia: Tong concave confinuous surfaces slong which the soatt fares and travels in narrow band to Tong distanees, yy famous whispering galleries are those of the St, Pauly’ Cathedral, London, where a whispered sound st one pay close fo concave srac raves lng it and can be Re “ly at about 61 m, ‘Gound eco is produced when the direct_and_ the reflesed _soundS-are-cleatly-and sepacately heard) When the refletd Sound rehes 0,05 scconds afer the arrival of direct soup teho 1s produced. Echoes are quite pronounced in. dona | | | | Fig, $+ (a) shows smund reflection from concave suface. ‘*” sound source aed “Sound Pacis () shows scundretesions frm eoonex sufte (© show reccrton of retected sound r and diet sound dat pit P+ ‘cuanacrensrcs oF SOUND 3 strytues such a8 temples. where the rteted sounds com ‘centrate in foet (Fig. 5), When the direct sound ‘is repeated Semmes as echoes, room flier is produced. Fluter sly prodaced when the sound is rected suscessively Teer hard parallel wall. Both echo and room fuer bre undesirable in bil “The acoustics of a room can be studied geometrically by placing» sound source a a specified point inthe plan. Con- er oin $s the sound source plas near a wall of the ‘ ° Ss 5 ‘The oarest fist order images and rel:ction for sound souress ia teapeoida ball = Fie 6: Scanned with CamScannerpo ry BUDS Dy trapezoidal hall in Fig. 6. A spherical wave front fy source taal in all the deton. om “Thus 0-0 is a portion of the primary wave front ata cen, stant. When the primary wave dashes against the wal at it is reflected as a wave 1-1, This reflected wave front jf fappears to originate from point S, behind the wall which is actually the mirror image of S in the plane Ay’ Similarly, the reflected wave fronts from walls AD and pe fare waves 2-2 and 3-3, The relections of the primary wang from the rear wall CD, the floor and ceiling are not showy in Fig, 6 Moreover, the images and their wave feed shown in the figure are oaly of first order. When these fist order reflections againdash on the wallsseecnd order relectiog waves are generated which in turn give rise to the thié order relections and £0 on, Howover, in acoustics only frst order reflections need be considered as the higher ony reflections are very weak Thus it is only necessary to the effects of the direct sound waves and their frst onde reflections by assuming that other sources of equal strength ame placed at the mirror images. In the case of curvilinear surfaces the method of geometrical acoustics is nat very ea AP not impossite?. 1.5. Sound Difracion = (in geometrical acoustics we neglect the effects on sound bt haviour due to intervening obstacles such as sharp core cracks or openings in partitions and doors, surface irregie lates and patches of sound-atsorbing materials (82 A. 1.10).(When the sound negotiates an obstacle the effea® ‘on its propagation depend upon the size of the obstacle i relation to the wavelength, Such efects are called. facts or scattering of sound and are studied in_physical_acoustéé| ‘Ifa sound of larger wavelength than the sizeof an openits falls on it a spherical wave comes out of the opening. TH, Se ‘CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND 1s ‘opening thus, behaves as a source of sound for the secondary of diffracted. wave front across the partion according to the ‘Huygens’ Principle (Fig. 7). WeDENT SOUND ware Pig. 7 + Direstion of sovad wave across an opening of length I when: the sound save lengh 2. much greater aL On the other hand if a plane wave, je. a wave front travelling. none direction, passes through a larger aperture as compared. to its wave length it emerges through the opening with little 4iftraction (Fig. 8). PLANE wave RE REET Incident sound wa ite fetal bya opeig te ‘than its wave length siete ty sa onaina i His 8 The size of the aperture determines the geometry of the sound’ beam to almost the same exent as it would in the case of ee Scanned with CamScannernutty z INS DEsIoy sual experience about the transmission es shows that it passes Out withouy id is diffracted when passing throu alight beam. But ou of light through sper diffeaction while the sound ring smaller than its an onning or bout HEN pertains AIVEYS to cat sapere the wave fength of light is smaller than the small Teasibie openings. Ihe range of wavelengths of visi Tight is about O-dh to O-75H (one F ie. one micron mIg7 tim), whereas the range of audible sound. wavelengths i529 amo 18,000 mm! This shows that thelower frequency sounds tre generally diffracted and uniformly seattered because of theis lager wavelengths than most ofthe obstacles ina room, Figs.9 and 10 show the sound difraction around obstacy of diferent sass. The figures show that when the size of the Sntervening obstacle is large in comparison to the wavel cof the incident sound, it casts sound shadow analogous to the shadow cast by any opaque obstacle across light beam, Fig. 9¢ Am obsacie snr in sae than the wavelength of oun ines in easing sound sbadow- | ‘When sound encounters an obstacle it undergoes diffraction as wel as reflection, Therefore, while studying the acousis, of @ room both refetion and diftaction must be sti simulataneously. Sound reflection is pronouned only Wie wavelength. The fact however, * “cHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND 1” the size of the obstacle is large in comparison to the wave tength. Generally the various irregular surfaces in a hall are ig 10; Am obstacle larger ia size than the wavelength ofthe incident found casts found shadow. ‘quite large so that, the acoustics can be studied only geo- ‘metrically for the reflections. Whatever, sound diffraction ‘occurs in the hall because of uneven surfaces, openings, corners and sound-absorbing materials, helps in the sound uniformly in it. Therefore, the acoustics of a hall may be studied by studying the sound reflections alone, This is best done by model tests. Seale models are constructed for longitudinal and horizontal sections of the hall and studies are made by generating sound waves, water ripples or light reflections. The model tests generally fall into two categories: (a) optical model tests and (b) wave model tests, 1.6 Model Tests: (@) Optical model tests: In one of these methods mirrored surfaces are used surfaces are used as walls of the model. Sound absorbing portions of the model are represented by black surfaces. A light bulb is placed inside ‘eylindcical tube with slits on its surface. This light source {kept at the point on the stage where s eta ge where sound source would Scanned with CamScannerx BUILDING Desig, ves kepe Light beams through the sl il On the eet tnd the walls of the model and get reflected towards ‘audience zone, These beams can be made visible by fing the model with smoke. If the audience acca is unifory brightened and if there are no delayed reflections fron remote parts of the ceiling and the walls the hall is considera to be acoustically satisfactory. Inanother optical test the model consists of aluminiug ‘walls and ceiling which have 50% optical reflection cocficient ‘The audience is represented by opal glass surface which has almost the same optical coefficient as the sound absorption coefficient of the audience (see Article 1.9). A light source is placed at the anticipated position of the sound source, ‘The reflected rays are reduced to about 122% of their origin {lamination power and if they can still brighten the ops! | lass the acoustics would be satisfactory. (b) Wave model tests: The fundamental principle to be followed in these tes is that the wave length to dimensions ratios of the model and the prototype must be equal. Since the model of a ball i reduced to a very small scale, the wave lengths of sounds in the model must be cocrespondingly small. This means that very high frequency sounds must be used in the model In the real hall the average frequency of audible sounds may be taken as $00 e/s. If the model is constructed to a scale of Tem to 0:5 m, the sound frequency in the model must b&| 25,000 js to satisfy the above principle. Such ultrasont ; frequencies are created in the model by a suitable ultrasonie at different locations is measured by picking up the sovudé through tiny’microphones placed in the model. Ultrasosé sound is sometimes produced by a sudden electrical dischatt® (CHARACTERISTICS OP SOUND 19 of a condenser. When light is passed the waves become visible because ofthe refraction of light through the compressed and rarefied layers of air due to sound. One of the simplest wave model tests is the “ripple-tank- method’. The section of a hall is represented by a shallow tank built on glass plate bottom, It is filled with water to about 2°5 cm depth and ripples are set in it by some electric ‘or pneumatic vibrator. The wavelengths must be smaller ‘than the depth of the tank to obtain reflection, If light is hhrown from below the glass bottom the wave pattern becomes visible. The wave model tests are preferable to optical models in one respect. They give the combined effect of reflection and diffraction of sound. On the other hand the optical models are easy 10 follow visually. Fig. 11 shows a photograph of 4 rippletank of arbitrary shape, The ripples were set up by fitting a stirrer to the drilling machine available in labora tory. Fis. 11: Riple tuk model of arbitrary shape, generator which emits sound continuously. The sound be uf ‘Sound Refraction :, lar to the light refraction phenomena sound refraction ‘the phenomenon of change in direction due, to. velocity Scanned with CamScannerfie vefsadiom sound efor nortdnd a ong ep Vdwaelion thay bn ‘ove the wive front. This phenomenon is ce of open-air theatres (S60 Article 2) fon in the atmosphere the fr temperature vaviation in the 2. ’ F velocity over the wave fy changes in the sound \ ‘i Pom ne resultant dretion of the sound aye, aoe from its original direction: Ifthe temperature ig cirerom the ground surface upwards tNe SOUNE wary crestisacted down and tend to graze the ground! sui (Fie 12). feaehien ea the lel 1 ration, ‘significant in the ca z ‘WARM AIR ar i. 12: Sound refasion due to sng temperature gradient, Doted tows wind direction casing sir ele. If the temperature gradient is reverse the sound waves tt to travel avvay from the ground, thus, introducing loss yy in the open-air theatres (Fig. 13). a coo. Aik 19 + Sound refraction dhe to ing temperature gradient, Doted shows wind deeton which ents simile fet. St CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND they tend to fly off the ground, and the effect is similar to that shown in Fig. 13. On the other hand, when the wind blows in the direction of the sound propagation it makes the sound waves creep ‘along the ground and the effect is similar to that shown in the Fig. 12. 118 Sound Resonance: Gound waves are capable of setting physical vibration’ in Surrounding objects. The vibrating objects in turn produce sound waves, Thus the original sound level from the sound | soures is increased because of the sound added by the vibra- ting objects which include window penes, walls, entrapped tir, ec, This phenomenon is known as resonance in which | Doth,-the cause and the effect, begeting each other produce | sound,)Sound resonance is pronounced in enclosed spaces.) “"" In arom the whole air mass vibrates if sound is continuously produced from a source. The vibration of air in turn adds to nd the resonant frequencies of the room depending upon its Sinonion The virgo reson at mas, Behance mos tke arid mass thea corn In nasal frome ie the soup ore nian buggers lea rig bar. In semen the resonant Bete ofa ‘stag rom having a sed. oe iby the following expression : . tae a Suny V+ (ey) LHe 3 4 T wr i Praer = numbers taken a 0, 1, 2, 3ynoe for dilfevent modes. ee Scanned with CamScannerBUILDING Deng, owe hy = loath width, and eight ofthe room iam, 9, ’ locity of sound in msec. “Ths when we take p=1, q=0, r=0 ie. the (1,0,0) mode which gives vibrations parallel to the Tengths, the correspog, ‘The (0,1,0) mode gives frequency g ing fequeneys vibrations parallel to the width as eS When the yalay cofp,qyrare increased gradually such that resonant frequen of a toom follow an ascending serie, the vibration peaks s higher frequencies come closer or overlap each other produiy uniform sound distribution. That means it is Tikely that dy sound distribution in a hall will be erratic if only the love modes of resonant frequencies ate excited by the sous frequency. In large hall resonance may be neglected beam, the resonant frequencies are quite low. But in small rom cr important halls like the radio broadcasting, television « cinema studios, resonance plienomenon must be studied, ‘When sound is being generated in a room its presi starts building up because of the sound from the souree + well as that from the resonance, However, the genet sound. starts decaying also, due to losses in energy fit reflection, absorption and damping effect by some objet ‘Therefore, if the sound source is on for some time the 1 ‘of sound build-up and that ofits decay will be equal as4! steady state of sound level is reached in the hall. The st state is genertlyttained within about one second. 7 steady state values of the sound level depend upon the 2% of sound absorption present in the hall. However, 10 smooth characteristis for growth or decay of sound ® ‘rooms dimensions must be so selected that as far a8 P the resonant frequencies of no two or mote modes of ¥ tions shourd'be equal. All such modes having equal |.9 Sut Aso “CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND 23 frequency are excited when the sound source generates a comparable frequency thereby creating excessive resonant responses at that frequency and erratic sound characteristics. ‘Therefore the length, width and the height of the room must be related by such ratios that no two dimensions are equal cor exact multiple of another. For example, trial dimensions 5-6 m: 4-4 m : 3-5 m which bear an inharmonie ratio of about 3y°2 would be found satisfactory", Any set of trial dimensions selected with the above fact in mind may be tested for the resonant frequency distribution for atleast the lowest ten modes of vibrations : (1,0, 0), (0,1, 0), (0, 0,1), 1,0), (1,0, 1) @, 1, 1) ete. and applied to equation 9. Fig. 4 shows that a part of the incident sound energy is absorbed by the material, This loss of sound energy is because of its conversion to heat ue to frictional resistance inside the pores of the materialThe fibrous and porous nature of materials contributes to their sound absorbing capacity. Gb sound absorption coefficient of-a material is. the ratio of the sound energy absorbed to the total incident sound energy on a unit area.of the material and is denoted by «. (A material with the value of «as 0-5 indicates that 50% of ihe Sound energy will be absorbed by it per unit area Sound soe On Ceellicient of an open window is unity-The total sortie Provided by the material of surface area a 59. Subing at Sound absorption coeficiet < is obtained in ne Sito sa m ~ (10) In a hall the total sound absorpti fi a und absorption by different acousti ‘trials is given by the expretion. 2 on usta Sea tudat. , FM + sit yt = tit ER Scanned with CamScannerae 4 BUILDING Desig where xy) Ky wherein the mounting supports the mass m of a Scanned with CamScanner= BUILDING Digg | wos! CONTROL lic foree transmitted by the magn. 1e, If F is the periodi r 3 sou whch reuirs a static fre kh ‘Pafetion, it may be shown mathematically that, staat mech damping, ‘vipgaING p MACKINE 1 scone SS mounTMg ee FIG17 (0) shows the desying nature of eee vibrations with deli aural feave:y; (b) stows machine mountings suppotine* veirating mass, Tani Tw le ST ash Where J = fequeny of the driving force or of the machine a ss fa = natural frequency of the mounting with the static and Je eight of machine (without the driving force ) ‘The value of fais given by the experession: aw 1 /z ~ (21) -a fF i where ¢ = gravitational acceleration, weight equivalent of mass m, anid = total deflection ofthe resilient rad. If g = 98067 em/st and d is in em, 4:98 Bare ve (20) Thus the appropriate value of d for a given machine load is determined and its natural frequency is calculated by eqn. 21, The transmissibility is then calculated by eqn. 19. The peroentage reduction in vibrations transmitted is 100 (I-T,). ‘The value of T, therefore must be much less than unity to ob- ‘ain high isolation factors, It may be easily seen from eqn. 19 ‘hat T, to beless than unity, thevalue of should be always treater than /Z When fife isequal to V2 the isolation is zero et cent making the mounting useless. When the ratio if stil further decreases the isolation factor becomes negative meaning thereby that the introduction of such a mounting ‘tually increases the vibrations transmitted to the floor ‘ated of decreasing them. When 2 is equal to unity theeqn. 23 assumes resonant conditions showing infinite transmissi- bility (neglecting damping effect). Therefore, a careless selection Scanned with CamScanner36 MUILOING Dexgy ‘of a resent mounting may make the matter worse dees. It must be noted therefore that the ratio ify ig Tess thon about 5 to guard against low values ofthe dig frequency fof the machine during its slow startin closing-down periods. Simple mountings may have degree of freedom of vibration ic. they may oscil ate direction only—generally up and down—wigrs definite natural frequency. But if the mounting is freee oscillate in more than one coordinate direction with an i dependent natural frequency in each direction it is aig have more than one degree of freedom. When a mounting has more than one degrees of freedom its maximum nats frequency J+ must be taken into consideration. The nature frequency must be not more than about 1/5 of the disturbing frequen, f Figure 18 shows graphs drawn by combining can. 19 and eqn. 21 for various values of f and d. Apart frog ‘the required deflection a machine mounting must be looked for durability, resistance to chemicals and oils, and economy, nbn 1 OF Slow only ong latein one 2.4 Noise Control ia Ventilation Systems : In buildings the reduction of noise at the source is very important in the case of vent ir-conditioning ‘equipment. Noise from ceiling fans is difficult to control. The sound absorption available in the room helps in reducing this noise level to some extent. To keep the fan noise level within the noise criterion one ust select the fan carefully from this point of view. ‘The fan noise may also be reduced by providing acoustical eter ign eects = ‘materials and furnishings in the room, The noise level of tht NIGIEa ONTO fan depends upon its frequency or revolutions per minut: Pog mM ‘The blade frequency of a fan is easily calculated by multi = 2 3 2 Ss 3 lying its speed in revolu eee tions per second by the number ‘of blades, oe Scanned with CamScannerBUILDING DEG: tn airconditioning layout the motor and fan installed at the fresh aie intake end make considerable noise which is Aransmited to the building through its structure or through the air. ‘The motor vibrations may be isolated by flexible suspen. sions as described. The fan noise which passes through the duct slongwith the air must be minimized by absorbent duct Tinings. The duct system also carries noise due to turbulence of air flow which can be reduced by smooth changes in Girection and eross section of the ducts. The absorbent fining itself being of porous mature may offer some frictional resistance to the airflow and hence some noise. However, the acoustical lining more than compensates the factor of frictional noise by absorbing high frequency noise. The lining must huave adequate noise reduction coefficient and it must be: resistant to wear by air low, The ducts need treatment for noise reduction-only-for-a-certain length behind the air aries. When many branches of duets take off from a commen, ‘trunk at the intake it may be economical to provide a sound absorption chamber in the trunk to control noise at the source itself, The reduction in noise provided by a chamber having total sound absorption S units with cross sectional area of the trunk as A, i easily obtained from the following equation: Redstion in noite in camber =101og Sab. 22) (te ducts ae to bene with absorbent Hanks bei tive grills the lined length must be about ten times the average dinenvon of the dotcom sseton) When rooms a sonnet by venation ds, as hey ete internal 08 af one room spiced by pis and passed onto the oe fooms, The acousia ning ofthe det snot very oft against lw reqeny noe eaeing the giles, sich eration, Such noe whichis pated on frm one 722 |. ‘conta cS jo another through the ducts is called cross tak. To ESininate cross-talk sereens of filtering materials are placed fa the ducts. The ducts are enclosed in a small absorption $Samier So that their continuity is broken by an air gnp. The uxt ends abutting on air gap filled with some porous mate~ Sal or fited with screens to filter out the cross-talk and ther low frequency noises from thevair, Such filters are Known a8 ‘acoustic filters.” ‘suricture-borne noise may be isolated or prevented from ing from floor 10 floor by breaking the continuity of foors at their intersections with wall, Continuity is generally token by placing flexible materials such as bitumen. The surface finish of a floor also is not placed directly on the hard. mnareie ot R, C. C. floor base but a layer of resilient material “peneoRateD UNNG BORRo: Fig, 19: Application of Fibreglass as sound absorbioe ‘atrial 09 alls Scanned with CamScannerK "ase cENTRES ose CONTROL 6 einerpsed between the Ivo, For various foor constructions sep whet nolse insulation sce Table VII Figures 19 to 22 = Shoat the use of “brea in noie-prof construction of . footsThe figures have been supplied by Fibreglass Pilkington WoooEN BATTENS oe al Ls BOAR Fig. 20: Sound abortion treatment of walls with Fibreglss Crown ‘on sir gap. The airspace increases absorption of low te sweny sound. MAN WALL ain va FIBREGLASS CROWN 100 LING BOARD FIKED TOL, re HENS 804% FIXED 150 BATTENS AT TO EATTENS (2.0689 NOT MORE THAN Fe 2252) athod of cing fulton with Fbregls ning on btn. Fie, 21; Sound absorbent partition. () Method of insolation of suspended cling on Tbars. Scanned with CamScannerAcoustical Design Principles OES SR Here we will study particular design considerations for proper acoustical conditions in theatres, auditoriums, cinemas, radio broadcasting studios, ete. Proper acoustics of « building means two things: (@) Control of noise at an acceptable level, (@) Distinct speech or music audibility by the whole audience inside the enclosure. Noise contro! measures commonly comprise the selection -of site in a quiet area and treatment against the strucur- and ait-borne noise as described in Chapter Il. The desied hearing conditions, on the other hand, depend largely upot the shape and size of the hall, the total sound absorption available, and whether or not the hall is provided with sousd ‘amplification systems; the type of activity is also a pred minent consideration. Particular precautions are needed fr ‘various types of activities, and in this chapter the emphass is om the techniques to be adopted to achieve good heasft conditions for different types of activities. 3.1 Open-air Thea The word ‘thet’ wed to mean a place wher eset lve characters give dramatic or musialperformenc®> _poousTICN DESIGN PRINCIPLES 5 “ane stage. The motion picture is a comparatively very recent Janovation, and public entertainment in the past was only fprough theatrical performances by actors and singers. An fea theatre has no roof overhead, although it may have some enclosing barriers all around, The development of the petal theatre in the past was due to two reasons, For one thing, it was not possible, before the advent of R. C. C., to fave fiat roofs on large halls without too many column supports Which obstruct a clear view ofthe stage. Masonry domed ccilings could be provided on fairly large halls, but they ental significantly heavy load, and introduce live and dead zones of sound. Another factor in favour of open-air theatres in the past must have been the inability of the then building designers to deal with the excessively reverberant -conditions developing inside large enclosed spaces. The open- ir theatre was an easy and economical solution to the above problems. A large number of people could be accommodated inthe open-air theatres without having to worry about veati- lation and light problems which are associated with enclosed theatres, Quite often some dramatic companies equipped themselves with portable open-air theatres so that the enclos~ ing parttitons, the stage and the furniture outfit could be -earied to any city or town on important occasions like fics. Such a theatre is not amenable to effective sound-conditione ing, but it has another advantage over the buil-on-site theatre in its portability to any desired weather zone of the country, depending upon the season. These are the reasons why open- air theatres were so popular in Italy, Egypt, India, and other ancient nations, In India the magnificient dfamatic Hiterature-(such as the “Shakuntal’ by the famous ancient poet and dramatist, Kalidasa) shows that good opearair theatres must have been available Sn the century 400-300 B.C. Scanned with CamScannerBONDING Desigy 6 In this article considerations will be Id down onty fp the builtonsite type of open-air theatres. An openaie tre, if properly designed, can be very popular jn of an opens theatre 1. The site should be avay from industria oF community poise, The noise level on the site should not exceed 40 dp, ed octsioma disturbance exceding this value shoud Set occur more than once in an hour. The theatre should pre. ferably be constructed in a ‘sound shadow" cast by a hill” an embankment, etc. across noisy zones. The prevailing ‘wind direction should not be from the noisy zones towards the theatre, but away from it, 2, Tall tees must form the rear boundary of the theatre as they are very useful in absorbing external noise and preventing delayed sound reflections inside the theatre which otherwise might cause echoes. Trees and bushes also Tend a nie landscape to the theatre, 3. The floor must be properly graded as shown in Fig. 23, to give good visibility and audibly to all the rows of listeners. The slope of the floor should be towards the stags, ‘and it should be about 12° to 15° to the horizontal 4. The shape of the theatre must be such that most of the audience is drawn close to the stage. A semiciculer shape admirably satises this condition but it does not suit to the directional properties of sound, To have satisfactory Sound levels at all places a fan-shaped theatre is considered 4004, particularly when the stage walls.and proscenium rit~ force the sound levels at remote places by. reflections. 5. The direction of the prevailing wind must be from the stage towards the audience (see Art. 1.7). 6. The stage walls and ceiling must be designed to obtain maximum throw and diffusion of sound towards reiiol® ssn DESIGN INCI a 4, The back wall of the stage must be vertical, with plain Savex corrugations for reflections. The corrugations if not be less than about 1°5 m wide to be effective fing low frequency sounds. The side walls should of outwards to avoid fluttering of sound and to Sain beneficial reflections. The sound level distribution may psimated by the method of images (see Art. 1.4). The Pes intensity drops off as the inverse square ofthe distance. ie ie walls ate also provided with corrugations. The stage Jetng should slope upwards so as to arrest and throw the Fetgone sound onto the audience, The musicians elo enjoy Joey own performance if the sound lingers there for some fen. The splay of the eciling should be such that the sound fetetions are almost parallel to the gradient of the floor. Ir the floor of the theatre slopes at about 12° the orchestra arms sopesi (45 + 12) be. 51 © thehorzon For large stages however such a high angle of inclination ofthe ceiling must be avoided for considerations of cco- omy. This can be done by pitching the shell at a smatler iscination and providing its undersurface with corrugations A the dosed ination of(25-+-4)" whee 0 is the slope the floor (see Fig. 23). This keeps the height of the shell at fie curtain edge within 4-5 m and at the same time controls the outgoing sound for beneficial reflections. 1. The capacity of the open-air theatre. (if unaided by ‘ound amplification equipment) should not exceed about 600 sions if they are to hear clearly and the actors are to speak YYthout strain, With adequate sound amplification (Art. 3.7) tte theatre may accommodate about 2000 persons. ‘The area of the theatre excluding the stage may be caloulat- ‘tat the rate of 0801 9g.m, or person, including 898295, Das e Peet b Si Scanned with CamScannerLONGITUDINAL SECTION coUSTICAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES oa verges, ete, If the seats are so staggered that every seat js displaced sideways from the one in front by half the width of the seat, the area provided should be about 1 to 1-20 sq. mm pet person. 4, The internal noise that originates from the audience is gocrally because of scuffing on the floor. Therefore floor spaces which serve as aisles, pathways ete, must be treated with resilient surfacing such as bitumen tiles or fibre boards. 9. Sound absorption by the audience, unoccupied seats and the air must be taken into account in the design. 10. Factors such as humidity, temperature, fog, and wind velocity which affect the sound transmission, must be consi- ered. 3.2 Anditorioms General considerations for acoustical design of enclosures for dramas and musical performances are given below. Public lecture. halls. call for similar considerations except those regarding the time of reverberation, which should be slightly less im the latter case. 1, The site must be in locality where the nose level is tot more than about 40 db, Otherwise special noise-proof constructional measures must be taken, especially where the Yenilation provided is throvgh diect openings inthe wall However, good acoustical conditions can be achieved only if ventilation is not through windows so that they can Be kept eloed during. the peformance, as in an air-conditioned coclstre, Tut in the latter ease, the nose from the motor and fan or the duct noise must be attenuated as explained in Act. 2-4 2. The volume provided in the halls should be at the following rates: Scanned with CamScanner i6 DUILOING Desigy | soooSTICAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES é a, Lecture halls : 3-0 cu m to 4-0 cu m per person ‘The length of the hall should be less than 45 m. When it ». Concert halls : 4-0 cu m to 5:5 cu m per person, cqeeeds 45 m. persons at the rear notice delay between the a ; wement of the actors and the sound coming from them, setae of fara athe Mihr rats, whooah nox‘, HIE aerepnny iu du 1 the difeame tee sures better ventilation anc is disor hich bee nt “erence in the velocities of ee ee oes tea and ight, which becomes noticable te sun eackes pone free wer 1/7 of a second, To avoid excessive 1¢ hal incon alone seo tas also casy to, bry Wwith for satis. | Caoacity “According to 1S 2526-1963, the length to which ale or cia rane © Ohi lS pabouy geckos edo tho halatall “aoe be uss a High cele ee are Bitlet tera twice the free height of its tip end from the floor (under the igh reverberation tines are desired. For Western symphony orchestra quite high values of reverberation time are specineg, | "™**)> : and therefore in the Western counties some auditorium, | 4. The provision of sound absorbing materials must satisfy However rberation ‘onomical provide a volume of as much a8 8-5 eu m person, the formula given by eqn. 12 for the optimum reverberation ‘The sound level inside the al mast be about 65 ab oe) ime. The vale ofthis time may be obtained fom Fig, 15 any and lstnet listening conditions, This can be attaineg | ‘Thettal absorption must be taken into account for ealelating without amplifying the sound if the volume of the hall is | the noise insulation factor by eqn. 17 and the internal noise ‘ot more than 1500 cum, This means that ifthe eapaciy | ‘iustionbyeqn.18, Acoustical treatment with sound absor~ ‘of the hall is to be more than 500 persons (at the rate of} | bis€ materials is generally needed on the rear portions of the x myperson) sound amplication becomes necessary, ceing and side walls, the rear wall and the balcony, for 3. The shape of the hall is an important consideration; | inating delayed reflections which are responsible for Imus be Such tat acoustical defects such as ‘echoes, flutter, | hoes. Acoustical materials_must_be_applied_in_patches, i, Wy of i istribution, to ood Sound foci, ete. are avoided and at the same time, beneficial ee bution, to obtain Soiind rellections are possible to reinforce the sound leet, S2u0d difisios) The floor must be finished with linoleum E os ard or tile covets als must be fully ut remote places, Model studies (Art. 1-6) are. usefl ome Soft board or tke covering. All seats must fcom this point of view. A rectangular hall wth splayed sage | w?hOWered, Two-thirds of the total senting capacity may walls and a pitched reflecting ceiling is quite satisfactory | ®*85umed to be present at any time for calelatng the sound and easy to construct, Other common shapes are the fan- | "Sorption provided by the occupied seats. {ype oF the horseshoetype. The length to width ratio should | $. The floor of the all should be iacined at not ess ot exceed 2, and the height should be about 2/3 of the width | bow & degrees To. the_horizoatil, Wilk for halls upto 1500 cu m. For ti i igger halls the eight may be | Hats this inclination ensures a elearance in sight of about gran 3 of the width, For proportions of the dimensions | 12 cm from two conseeutive rows. This clearance helps in 324 fheir effet on the resonance characteristics of the hill | Mltory reception aso, The sets, provide better audiovisual Ae ‘ception if staggered, and in that ease the sight clearance Scanned with CamScanner0 BULDING DESIGN ay be reduced to about 10 om. The slope of the balcony shall be such thatthe ine of sight is not inclined by ‘mon than 40" with the horizontal : PLAN ooate LOUGITUDINAL sEeTION Fig. 24: Plan and Longitudinal Section of a typical rectangular sdiorum showing sound rections Jn horizontal and vertical plane ‘The seats should be so arranged that they face towards the eentral portion of the stage, This is achieved by arranging ‘them in concentric ares drawn from a point located behind the curtain at a distance equal to that between the curtain ‘and the rear wall which carries the balcony. Back to back cousTent DESIGN PRiNcrn # ganoe between tW0 rows should be 85 em to 105 em, and fp width of each seat should be 45cm to 5S em. The observers ihe front row should not be required to tit the line of t by more than 30° from the horizontal to look at the ftkst object on the stage. The front row therefore should pe placed at not less than 3-5.m from the eurtain fine, The lnger the curtain, the greater the distance from the front fo to obtain easily the full horizontal and vertical feld of hw 61fan existing auditorium building has adomed ot parabolic ll oof its acoustics will not be satisfactory. Such a. ceiling Jon be corrected by providing suspended panels not less than bs sq. m in size and adjusted at different heights to obtain lie desired sound reflections. Alternatively continuous Ins ceiling may be provided in the desired shape. 3.3. Cinemas: Most of the considerations mentioned for auditoriums are lwsful for motion picture houses. Some additional points Imust be borne in mind for designing a cinema, |. The sound in motion pictures is reproduced by elestro- soustial devices which are generally designed to produce uicient souind level inthe hall—about 65 db. ‘Therefore the diner need not take the special precautions that are necessary bring. about sound reinforcement by reflections, but he ens himself with the power output of the amplier for te given capacity of the hall. For a capacity of 500 persons Ps smplifer of a minimum of 10 watts is adequate, and for ery additional 500 persons the power handling. capacity "the ampliice must be raised by 10 watts, However, sound tections have to be studied 0 avoid the possibilty of ‘toes, nutter and other defects Scanned with CamScannerHe pA BUILDING Disigy 2. The volume of the hall may be such that cach persgy js provided a space of about 4-5 cu m. The total volume ‘and the total sound absorption must be related (0 the optimu, reverberation time for the motion pictures as given by Fig 15. In cinema houses the wall behind the sereen is also to be treated acoustically to eliminate sound reflections which appear to come from behind and around the loudspeakers, 3, Because of high sound level production in cinemas the Paoise level may be allowed f0 Beas Fot details of seats arrangement, floor slope, ete. see auditoriums discussed in Art, 3. 3.4 Schoo! Auditorium: very good school or college has oF aspires to have its own Auditorum which is required to serve a variety of purpose, Without an auditorium-open or enclosed, built and fabulously furnished —a schoo! isi heid's house where students flock into packed classes to dip their minds into the lowing sermons of teachers, and disperse without learning their cultural heritage. The schoo! auditorium ses tte, a ies for proetng instruc a entertaining films, and an assembly hall for popular leet Seite, Soman Spl Tanna ike ideor a matches may be arranged if the auditorium floor is fat ‘Thus, a8 the school auditorium is meant for multifarious acts facut dsgn mus be a compromise bets i ied earlier for auditoriums and fot The reverberation time may be taken from Fig. 15. ite Hone may be ished Aa with softies or imbe locks. Flat floors are useful for indoor games. Timbe ysmicAt, DESIGN PRINCIPLES B punks on joss may be used for lk dances andoter lta Herammes in whic the partiipants are many more than eopd be accommodated on the stage, These auditoriums are os yently hited by municipal authorities for various functions Ar enera terest inthe town. IF the Noor is finshed lat the orSiare should be so designed that itis easly removable ry at the same time it should provide adequate average wMination to the seating line to obtain clearance for sight ire audibility. It is better to stagger the seats than to have ‘hom of different heights. Allematively the seats may be {nided into a few bays of gradually increasing height towards therear, the rows in the same bay, however, being of the same ght. One of the important points in the school auditorium design sits location with respect to classrooms and industrial or trafic noise, It should be safeguarded from class room tose, and vice versa, although only a few classes may be funning while a function is in progress inthe auditorium: ‘The auditorium may be shaded from traffic and other noises by interposing store rooms etc. or planting trees of main taining a garden around it 3.8. Studios: ‘The studios which need the most careful acoustical designing ae radio-broadcasting studios, sound-recording studios and ‘elevision studios. In, the studio, sound is picked up by & Iiccophone for transmission to distant places or for record: ing it on films for future reproduction. Some special problems Pertaining to studios are discussed below. 1. Studios are generally located away from towns $0 as to have low ambient noise levels. The noise criterion for a Studio is about 25 db and hence adequate T. L. ratings must be available from all barriers. Scanned with CamScanner™ BUILDING. Desigy 2. The sound picked up by a microphone in a studio whey zepraduced in another room is sinilar tothe sound heard py 4 person deaf in one ear. When a person hears a sound with both the ears he can locate the sound source in direcian ihout looking at it. This is possible because the humen brain can recognise even the slighteast diference in soung levels received by the two eats If the source is, say, to the TeRt of the recciver the left car receives the sound earlier than the right ear docs, and hence at the left car the sound level is correspondingly higher than atthe right ear. Ths differenes in SPL enables the brain to locate the sound “souree, Such 4 distinction in SPL is obviously not available for a person ‘who has only one ear with normal hearing capacity, In the studio sound picked up by a single microphone or a set of Imierophones feeding into a single channel for broadcasting ‘or recording purposes produces the same effect as that of Mono-aural hearing. In the case of monaural hearing the brain not only fails to locate the sound source but it also feels that the room is reverberant and noisy. Such is the case with the studio sounds when reproduced. ‘The reverberant condi. tions increase with the distance between the microphones and the performers, because with the distance the proportion of background noise or secondary sounds feeding into micro- Phones also increases, Therefore there can be two types of precautions that can be taken to reduce the unnecessary magnification and inte ‘mixing of sounds in the case of studios. One is 10 keep the zisrophones as close to the source as possible, The microphones must be directional, and should Rot have wide pick-up angles which result in extraneous reception, ‘The important pre- caution is to keep the studios at comparatively lower values than those required sricAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES ‘ ra cause of the monaural hearing effect as well asthe fact ie he sound is to be reproduced in another room which pats own reverberation characteristce, While selecting eration time one has to consider the frequency ie tn studios the performances ‘may range fom fe si ‘o/s to 10,000 e/s. Therefore to maintain appro- fection condoms for eve perfomance Be nea rae a ee eee fac considerable skill on the part of the designer. The absor- rion may be provided by thick curtains placed near the walls ‘hich can be rolled up oF let down as required. Sometimes rable cnet srs are edn the wal, The convex carvature helps diffusion of sound and the amount of abso Sree be vid by rotating the pael to expos te sid yortion, The acoustical treatment must be scattered on the ‘whole area to avoid erratic sound decay or growth. 3. The studio may or may not be designed to accommo- date audience, If it is meant only for performers about ‘um of volume per artist may be provided. If audience also is to be accommodated an additi vue of 2 cum per person may be provided. Thus (0h ‘soup of ten artistes and an audience of 500 persons whe of the studio may be fixed at 1270 eum. 4.The shape i an important factor ine dvien of sai. Te length, with and height of th stan should be in such Yovortions that no two dimensions wil be equal or wil Sara ratio of whole number. For the sled dimensions ths resonant frequencies of at last the lowest ten modes Should be caleulated, The frequencies of erent modes “ vibrations should not be equal. See Article 1. ‘tailed discussion of this aspect Scanned with CamScanner16 3.6 Miscellaneous Buildings : In residential buildings the main problem is of noise contr, The noise control measures described in Chapter 1 may bbe adopted. The location and orientation of the bu with respect to the direction and level of noise isan imports | consideration. Although adequate noise insulation can te obtained from masonry walls special care has to be iskes to increase the transmission loss of windows, Windows, to be effective in noise control, must be of double or triple gam ane type or cavity type, and sealed with resilient material at the frames. The cavity between the glass panes shoul be filled with acoustical materials. The floors should also be specially designed to prevent structure-borne noise, | Hotels must be planned in such a way that the guest rooms are adequately protected from noise from the common rooms Such as reereation and games room, dance hal, dining. hall, ete, 3.7 Sound Amplification : Some actficial augmentation of sound is essential when the =. pacity of an auditorium or an open-air theatre exceeds 500 ~*<™ to 00 persons, This ean be easly done by sound ampiaion _tuipment which consists of microphones, amplifier and low “speakers as shown in Fig. 25. The sound arpiiation systam must use equipment of s00d quality so as to provide distinet sound output with iinimum of noise. The noise inthe system may be eile internal noise ofthe equipment or the external noise enti through the microphones. To avoid the latter, the microphowes ‘must be seasitive within just about 120° angle in front, $° that extraneous noise from behind or the sides is excluded Refletions of the amplified sound should not be allowed ‘© reenter the misrophonss. Such delayed feedbacks PUTLDING Desi | cgysriCAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES n sible for the usual loudpeater howling. ‘The loue ‘a respond well to a wide range of frequencies, _, o<) «<) stenconiowe syste! aveurice osreaceas siueue-cuanues_ seston 25: (4) shows te stam te aod (2) Shows the trerchanselsterenpnls ten. The amplifiers must have the desired power es vats for every 500 persons without giving rise to = hum. Pode fe from humning aoe, speakers convert eletial impulses into sounds their efficiency must be high. Their response to Scanned with CamScanner» a Te male g 5 88 & 32 sea wide range of frequencies must be fairly g00d. The sougg) |Z Go ee sce ae from loudspeakers comes out inthe form of & conical am) j and covers only the group of persons tovands which itis] 2 | Ege 8 92 33 feed Thofre,f obi al oversea soup ae] S| speakers smounted ata height of 393 m to-4'Sey goes 2 | a : | Sage od deed in diferent diesions vo obtain ng) @ | g| 8 ES $ SF FR 3 coverage. 3 li Ina singlochannel system one oF more microphones kad {| hn to a single amplifier and hence the output from the amplie| 2 £8 § £8 # $8 32 8 hen reprodund camot give the binaural hearing ae] & |? One ses the aeox moving on esse bat he sound coms) Ee | gang fiom a Sted point, Therefor, for good audiowsual con] @ 68) BE 2 tions it is essential to preserve the condition in which an| & is ' obser can empieeen with hive dosed, he movae| 2 |$e| og ggg | Actor from the diteion of his voie. Such a synchronisation] 3 2) SEE | of sound and movement is possible in the ease of a thee} 2/2 | chal yen oFeounTampiaion k's iawn atowee] | nly gg og mg ag g ionic sytem. Fig. 25 shows the layout fora sereptons| 8 | «SBE OBOE OEE ‘oem, ei | |: ail. ¢ Ci See ee) p\B) os Ele aR fe) eee eee te © z|F | Ele | 9b By ‘ee8 i il) | aE Sl) | sega gly Bae. iF | Bzeade daa 8i5' 5 Nelby 2 al zi/2 9 4. yah age a|a @¢ ‘hae aas Scanned with CamScanner[26 CLM pons Oe nan Sosa 300 nos sea (ie tno sea {tye FOU 06g UaOID SN wep ‘vonage Ce ee seonpond SHON, oeyfieg wandiogy pines ONS sSioNGONA SsVIOMUEIA GEDVANN ANY GIOVE JO ALATAVA V YOM SLNSIONAIOD NOILAOSTY GNDOS “ho ato. - 0 LO = @o 80 = wo = Fo = wo to a v0 mo ae = wo ——_-—__ = ____eowpou orp igor or aoe wa “oN, 3 2N Tapia » nmtapoeg a Scanned with CamScanner