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 Research Article
https://doi.org/10.26599/JIC.2023.9180033

New stress–strain model and intelligent quality control

technology for cemented material dam
Jinsheng Jiaa,b,(✉), Wambley Adomako Baaha, Cuiying Zhenga, Lianying Dinga, Yangfeng Wua,b
a
China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research, Beijing 100038, China
b
State Key Laboratory of Hydraulic Engineering Simulation and Safety, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China

Received: 2023-10-16 Revised: 2023-11-13 Accepted: 2023-11-30

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords Cemented material dam (CMD) can fully utilize local sand, gravel, and rock
cemented material dam materials for dam construction. It has many advantages such as flood overtopping
stress–strain model without failure, environmental friendliness, economic savings, rapid construc-
intelligent quality control tion, and so on. It has been rapidly popularised and applied to domestic and
cemented low-strength rock foreign projects since it was put forward by the first author. This paper illustrates
cemented weathered materials the reasons for the proposal of CMDs, puts forward the stress–strain model of
model test against flood overtopping the cemented mixture and the intelligent system of production quality control,
presents the model test results for CMD against flood overtopping, and introduces
the practice of dam construction with low-strength soft rock and weathered
materials.

1 Why propose cemented material dams
(CMDs)
Dams are critical infrastructures that are extremely
important for flood control, water supply, and energy
security. To date, more than 60,000 dams, with heights
over 15.0 m, have been built worldwide. To further
solve the global problems of agricultural irrigation,
flood prevention and drought relief, ecological protec-
tion, and engineering water shortages, more new dam
projects need to be carried out and some aging dams
need to be renovated. Although dam construction has a
history spanning thousands of years, the safety and
economy of dams have always been issues of great concern
to dam engineers worldwide and the relevant experience
and lessons are very profound [1, 2]. In recent decades,
especially since the 1990s, the gradual development
and continuous improvement of modern dam engineering
theory have extensively promoted the construction of
high dams, and dam safety has been significantly im-
proved. While continuously reducing project construction
costs, more attention has been given to environmentally
friendly construction methods, with particular attention
on reducing dam failures and their potential secondary
disasters. According to the statistics of the International
Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) in 2019, as shown
in Fig. 1, embankment dams (earth dams and rockfill
dams) account for a large proportion (i.e., 78.00%) of
the world’s dams, while gravity dams account for
13.00% due to their high foundation requirements and
high cost [3]. Figure 2 shows the statistics of dam failure
studied by the Chinese National Committee on Large
Dams (CHINCOLD). Among the 5109 dam failure cases
globally, earth–rock dam failure accounts for 85.94% of
the cases (or 4390 cases), and concrete dam failure ac-
counts for only 2.31% of the cases [4].
The development of embankment dams has been very
successful, as these dams can be built in a very fast and
cost-saving manner with local materials. The number of
embankment dams in China accounts for 93.00% of the

✉ Address correspondence to Jinsheng Jia, jiajsh@iwhr.com

Citation: Jinsheng Jia, Wambley Adomako Baah, Cuiying Zheng, et al. New stress–strain model and intelligent quality control technology for cemented material
dam. J Intell Constr, 2024, 2, 9180033.

© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Tsinghua University Press. The articles published in this open access journal are distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medi-
um, provided the original work is properly cited.
2 Jinsheng Jia, et al. Journal of Intelligent Construction 2024, 2, 9180033
Earth dams Rockfill dams
Gravity dams Buttress dams
Barrages Arch dams
Multiple arch dams Others
13.00% 13.00%
4.00%
4.00%
65.00%
Fig. 1 Statistics of different dam types in the world (ICOLD,
2019).
Earth and rockfill dams (4390)
Concrete dams (118)
Masonry dams (122)
Others (478)
2.31%
2.39%
85.94%
9.36%
Fig. 2 Statistics of different dam types of failure cases in the
world (CHINCOLD, 2019).
total number of dams. There is no problem with the
safety of embankment dams under typical design condi-
tions. However, under extreme conditions such as earth-
quakes, landslides, and extreme floods, once the water
level reaches the top of the dam, overtopping failure
can occur very quickly, making it difficult for downstream
residents to escape to a safe area. Although very few
overtopping flood situations occur during dam opera-
tion, they need to be given special attention, especially
when a large number of people live in the downstream
area of the dam. Due to global warming, extreme
weather events such as heavy rainfall have become
more frequent in recent years and the uncertainty of
river runoff processes has increased, hence, the original
flood control standards of reservoirs may have become
lower, and the risk of overtopping collapse and continuous
collapse of embankment dams has increased. The failure
of the secondary dam of the Xe-Namnoy Reservoir [5]
in Laos in July 2018, and the successive failure of
Edenville and Sanford Dams [6] in USA in May 2020,
Yong’an and Xinfa Reservoirs in China which were broken
during the flood season of 2021 [7], and Guojiazui
Reservoir which was in danger of overtopping during
the “7·20” torrential rain in Zhengzhou of China [8] are
all examples of dam failures resulting from extreme
weather events.
The development of concrete dams has been widely
studied. Many famous dams, such as the Hoover arch
dam and the Three Gorges gravity dam, were built with
concrete materials. Concrete dams are not prone to
overtopping failure, but they account for less than
5.00% of dams in China due to their strict foundation
requirements and high cost [4]. The development of
roller compacted concrete (RCC) dam construction has
promoted more projects to adopt gravity dams or arch
dams because of their economic and high efficiency.
However, the principle of dam construction has not
changed fundamentally. Concrete gravity dams and
arch dams are massive concrete structures. The internal
stress level within the dam body is generally low and
does not require a high level of concrete strength. How-
ever, the actual strength of concrete material is much
higher than is necessary in practice. For the Hoover
arch dam [9] in USA, the compressive stress control
standard is 3.79 MPa. The concrete design strength is
C25 and the strength safety factor is 6.5. After 60 years
of operation, the average strength of the core samples
drilled and tested was 50.00 MPa. The safety factor is
13.0. The compressive strength of concrete is usually
designed for 90 or 180 d, but there is a very long period
in the later stages of operation and the strength of concrete
will be continually increased. Ten years after the com-
pletion of Three Gorges Dam, the compressive strength
of its core samples reached 60.00 MPa [10]. The over-
strength of the material means that the amount of cement
is substantially higher than necessary, which will lead
to the occurrence of thermal cracks.
Embankment materials are quite different from con-
crete. Can a new material between the embankment
and concrete materials be developed for dam construct-
ion? Can dam design principles be developed further
based on the characteristics of these new materials?
These questions need to be answered step-by-step in
practice. By cementing natural or artificial sand, stone,
and soil with cement, fly ash, and additives, a new material
is formed, which solves not only the overtopping failure
problem in embankment materials due to dispersion but
also avoids the overstrength of concrete materials and
reduces the thermal cracks caused by high hydration
heat. The dam section is larger than the concrete gravity
dam and arch dam with a reduced foundation require-
ment. This new dam type is called CMD, proposed by
Jia et al. [11] of China during a board meeting of the
ICOLD in 2009, and the new design concept of “selecting
appropriate materials for different parts of the dam and
choosing suitable structures for different dam materials”
New stress–strain model and intelligent quality control technology for cemented material dam
was put forward at the same time. An invited presentation
on CMD was made at the ICOLD Congress in Kyoto in
2012. For the first time, CMD was described compre-
hensively at the 6th International Symposium on RCC
Dams in Spain in 2012, and the first paper on CMD was
published in the proceedings of this international con-
ference. To promote this technology around the world,
especially in developing countries, a new ICOLD Techni-
cal Committee on CMDs was formally approved by the
general assembly of ICOLD in 2013, and China’s industry
technical specification—Technical Guideline for Cemented
Granular Material Dams was published in 2014 [12].
The CMD is a new dam type in addition to embankment
dams and concrete dams and the purpose of proposing
and developing CMDs is to build dams safely, quickly,
and economically in an environmentally friendly way.
This structure has three very important features. First, it
overcomes embankment dam overtopping failures and
secondary disasters caused by quick collapse. Second, it
solves the widespread overstrength problem of concrete
dams. Third, this structure overcomes the high demand
for concrete dams on foundations and solves the problem
of constructing non-embankment dams under the condi-
tion of poor foundations.
2 Stress–strain model of cemented sand,
gravel, and rock (CSGR) materials
Cemented materials (CMs), comprising CSGR, are dis-
tinct from traditional concrete and embankment materi-
als. As such, their performance characteristics necessitate
the development of novel testing methodologies. In the
study, the objective was to comprehend the behavior of
CMs under various conditions by creating a mortar-ag-
gregate two-phase meso-mechanical model. This model
facilitated the simulation of the compression failure
process in cemented specimens with different water-ce-
ment ratios. Below are the key considerations for the
model.
(i) Exploring the meso-mechanical model. The inves-
tigation focused on the microscale behavior, as shown
in Fig. 3a, of CMs during the compressive failure pro-
(a)
Fig. 3 (a) Developed meso-scale model; (b, c) failure modes of CSGR materials with different strength.
https://www.sciopen.com/journal/2958-3861 | https://mc03.manuscriptcentral.com/jic | Journal
3
cess. This entailed a comprehensive examination of how
microcracks initiated, propagated, and interconnected
within these materials. The findings revealed a crucial
link between the macroscopic mechanical properties
and deformation characteristics of CMs and the
stress–strain relationship within the mortar matrix.
(ii) Role of the aggregate-matrix interface. An essential
observation was made, as depicted in Figs. 3b and 3c,
highlighting the aggregate-matrix interface as the primary
site of failure in CMs. The interactions and behaviors at
this interface were found to exert a significant influence
on the overall structural integrity of the material.
(iii) Stress–strain relationships and constitutive mod-
eling. In Fig. 4, the stress–strain relationships of CMs
under varying cement content and different degrees of
cementation were presented. Notably, distinct patterns
in the stress–strain curves were identified, which corre-
lated with the strength grade of the materials. It was
observed that CSGR with a strength grade of C5 and
higher exhibited a well-defined linear elastic section, re-
sembling the stress–strain behavior of traditional con-
crete. Conversely, materials with a strength grade below
C5 displayed less distinct linear sections, akin to the
constitutive curves observed in embankment materials.
(iv) Constitutive modeling formulation. To provide a
quantitative framework for these observations, an ex-
pression formula for the constitutive model of CSGR
materials was developed. This model, as represented in
Eq. (1), encapsulated the stress–strain behavior of these
materials, accounting for variations in cement content
and the degree of cementation. The primary goal was to
contribute to a better understanding of the mechanical
response of CMs and its relevance to various engineering
applications.
2.1 Experimental and numerical approach for the
meso-mechanical testing
(i) Sample preparation. Representative samples of CSGR
with varying water–cement ratios were selected to ensure
homogeneity and consistency, as shown in Table 1.
(ii) Meso-mechanical model. A two-phase meso-me-
chanical model was implemented, incorporating the
(b) (c)
of Intelligent Construction
4 Jinsheng Jia, et al. Journal of Intelligent Construction 2024, 2, 9180033

8.00 1.2
7.00
1.0
6.00
0.8
5.00
σ (MPa)

σ/σ1
4.00 0.6
3.00
0.4
2.00
0.2
1.00

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

ε/0.01 ε/ε1
(a) (b)

Fig. 4 (a) Stress–strain curves of different cementation package degrees; (b) stress–strain relationships or curves of the rising section
of CM and concrete.

Table 1 Mix proportion of CM for meso-mechanical model and experiment

Sand ratio w/c VC value CSGR material (kg/m3) 180-d C.S

Scheme
(%) ratio (s) Water Cement Fly ash Coarse aggregate Fine Aggregates S.P (MPa)

M1 18.0 0.55 2.0 66.00 60.00 60.00 1990.96 437.04 1.20 18.80

M2 26.5 0.63 2.5 75.00 60.00 60.00 1753.71 632.29 1.20 15.60

M3 35.0 0.73 4.5 87.00 60.00 60.00 1526.83 322.15 1.20 10.40

Note: M1 is the coarsest gradation, M2 is the average gradation, M3 is the finest gradation, w/c is the ratio of water and cement, S.P is the
superplasticizer, and C.S is the compressive strength.

mortar matrix and the aggregates to simulate the internal 2.2 Advantages of the mechanical behavior of CMDs
behavior of CMs at the mesoscale.
CMDs offer superior advantages in dam construction,
(iii) Instrumentation. Advanced instrumentation, in-
encompassing structural integrity, seismic resilience,
cluding strain gauges, load cells, and digital imaging
and cost-efficiency. These dams exhibit exceptional
techniques, was used to measure stress, strain, and de-
structural integrity due to the cohesive action of cement
formation at the mesoscale.
and supplementary cementitious materials as well as
(iv) Compression testing. The samples were subjected
the adoption of symmetrical trapezoidal cross sections,
to uniaxial compression tests to replicate failure under
making them stable against hydrostatic pressures. They
various loading conditions. This process allowed for the
also resist cracking due to the relatively low amount of
recording of the stress–strain behavior and the capture
cement dosage. This is a high advantage over the concrete
of microcrack initiation and development.
gravity dam which is highly susceptible to thermal
(v) Data collection. Comprehensive data collection in-
cracks from heat of hydration from excessive cement
cluded load-displacement curves, microcrack patterns,
dosage during construction. Again, CMDs thrive well
and strain distributions within the materials.
particularly in seismic regions, due to enhanced durability
(vi) Analysis. Sophisticated analytical tools and soft-
and therefore secondary disasters downstream when a
ware were employed for data analysis, including the
block breaks or overtopping during seismic events are
identification of critical points in the stress–strain
prevented just as in the case of the concrete gravity
curves and the quantification of mesoscale material be-
dam, a characteristic that the embankment dam fails to
havior.
possess. CMDs’ seismic resilience is marked by the ability
⎧
⎪ σ ϵ ϵ 2 to absorb seismic forces, reducing vulnerability. CMDs
⎪
⎪ σ1 = 2.25 ( ) − 1.3( ϵ1 ) ,
⎪
⎪ ϵ1 demonstrate relatively high compressive strength, suit-
⎪
⎪
⎪ strength grade above C5
⎪
⎨ (1) able for low dam construction and weak foundation
⎪
⎪ σ ϵ ϵ 2 ϵ 3
σ1 = 3 ( ϵ1 ) − 3.9( ϵ1 ) + 1.7( ϵ1 ) , beds. The predictable stress–strain behavior aids in precise
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ design and assessment. Erosion resistance safeguards
⎪
⎩ C5 and strength class below C5
their structural integrity, reduces settlement, and mini-
where σ , σ 1 , ϵ , and ϵ1 are normal stress, first principal mizes maintenance costs. Finally, the consistency in me-
stress, strain, and first principal strain, respectively. chanical behavior ensures that CMDs consistently adhere
New stress–strain model and intelligent quality control technology for cemented material dam
to designed parameters throughout their operational
life, enhancing their reliability and predictability.
3 Intelligent quality control technology of
CMD
The stark contrast between CMDs and conventional
concrete or RCC dams lies in the distinctive material
characteristics of CMD. CMD mixtures inherently exhibit
relatively higher levels of water content, mud content,
and material discreteness. These unique properties ne-
cessitate advanced technological developments (listed
from (i) to (iv) below) to ensure the successful construc-
tion of CMD structures.
(i) Rapid measurement technology. Given the elevated
levels of water content, mud content, and material dis-
creteness in CM materials, researchers have delved into
the creation of rapid measurement technology. This
technology is crucial for swiftly and accurately deter-
mining these essential parameters. Rapid measurement
allows engineers and construction teams to precisely as-
sess the current state of the CM mixture, ensuring it ad-
heres to specified quality standards. This is of
paramount importance for maintaining the structural
integrity of CMD structures.
(ii) Strength control method. Controlling the strength
of the CM mixture is of utmost importance for its per-
formance as a dam material. To address this, an innovative
strength control method has been developed. This
method revolves around closely monitoring and managing
the water consumption range within the broadest and
finest gradations. By exercising meticulous control over
the amount of water utilized during the mixing process,
engineers can finely tune the strength of the CMD mixture
to meet the specific requirements of the project. This
approach is pivotal for ensuring that the CMD exhibits
the necessary strength properties to withstand hydrostatic
pressures and other load conditions.
(iii) Digital mixing and intelligent control equipment.
The development of digital mixing and intelligent control
equipment represents a significant leap forward in CMD
construction technology. These advanced tools provide
engineers and construction teams with the means to
precisely control the CM material mixing process.
Through the use of digital technology, the equipment
offers real-time adjustments to maintain the desired ma-
terial composition and strength. This digital approach
enhances the accuracy and efficiency of CMD construc-
tion, ensuring that the material characteristics align
with project specifications.
(iv) Realization of intelligent control. The culmination
of these technological advancements is the realization
of intelligent control for CMD construction technology.
Intelligent control leverages data, real-time monitoring,
and advanced algorithms to make automated adjustments
and optimize the CMD construction process. This not
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5
only enhances the efficiency of CMD construction but
also significantly improves the overall quality and safety
of the dam-building process. Through intelligent con-
trol, construction of the dam becomes a technologically
driven and adaptive process, ensuring the construction
outcomes meet or exceed quality and safety standards.
In summary, the unique material characteristics of
CM mixture, including elevated water content, mud
content, and material discreteness, have prompted the
development of advanced technologies to address these
challenges. The research and development efforts have
led to rapid measurement technology, precise strength
control methods, digital equipment, an ultra-wideband
digital control system, and intelligent control, all of
which collectively ensure that CMD structures are con-
structed efficiently, meet quality standards and are
structurally sound, thereby contributing to the safety
and performance of the structure.
3.1 Dynamic optimization control method for cementing
preparation of diversified materials
The suggested system presents a method for deter-
mining the quality grade of sand, gravel, and rock mate-
rials based on core strength, point load strength, and
crushing index. This approach enhances the variety of
raw materials available for dam construction. Natural
sand, gravel, and sand pebbles do not require screening
and washing. Also, excavated materials and weathered
materials can be utilized after simple crushing. Howev-
er, due to the simplified raw material processing, the
materials exhibit characteristics such as fluctuating mud
content, water content, and uneven gradation. Conse-
quently, the conventional concrete mix ratio method is
not applicable. To address this challenge, a double control
method that considers both the finest and coarsest gra-
dation as well as the minimum and average strength
was presented in Ref. [12]. In light of these issues, this
work focuses on the preparation approach for dynamic
optimization and intelligent control.
In conjunction with several CMD projects, a total of
1420 sets of tests were conducted, including mixture ratio
and performance tests, as well as field tests for CSGR
materials. Through big data analysis and the employment
of the grey correlation method, the impact of various
factors on compressive strength was investigated. These
factors included the fractal dimension of sand, gravel,
and rock particle size, cementitious materials,
water–binder ratio, mud content, admixture content,
and sand ratio. A prediction model based on a back
propagation (BP) neural network was developed to ac-
curately predict the compressive strength of CSGR, as
shown in Fig. 5. The results obtained from this model
were compared with the measured data from projects
like Shoukoubao, Shunjiangyan, Jinjigou, Dongyang,
and other CMDs as well as the Qianwei CSGR Embank-
ment Project of Minjiang Navigation and Hydropower
of Intelligent Construction
6 Jinsheng Jia, et al. Journal of Intelligent Construction 2024, 2, 9180033

f
d

Water–binder ratio
20.00
18.00 28 d
90 d
Compressive strength (MPa)

16.00 Fitting curve

Fitting curve c
14.00 y = 23 + 90.8x
12.00 R2 = 0.94

10.00
8.00
y = 3.4 + 60.3x
6.00 R2 = 0.97
4.00
2.00
0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.26 r
Binder to sand ratio

Fig. 5 Prediction model of compressive strength based on big data analysis and BP neural network (fc: compressive strength of the
CSGR material).

Station. The predicted error was found to be less than dynamic optimization and intelligent control of cemen-
10%, specifically referring to the error between the titious mix ratios address the challenge of preparing ce-
measured values and predicted values of compressive mented dam materials using local materials with high
strength. dispersion, wide grading, and a maximum particle size
A dispersion device for sand and stone materials has of 300 mm while meeting performance requirements, as
been developed based on digital image processing tech- shown in Fig. 6. Under conditions where the usage of
nology and improved convolutional neural networks cementitious materials (cement + fly ash) is below
through deep learning. This system enables rapid non- 90.00 kg, the fly ash content reaches 50%, the sand ratio
contact particle size identification and grading analysis fluctuates between 20% to 35%, and aggregate clay
for sand and stone materials. The sand grain identification content is relaxed to 5%, it is ensured that the prepared
system achieves a recognition speed of up to 20,000 cementitious material meets the dam design strength re-
grains per second. A fast-determination instrument for quirements.
moisture content and clay content has also been devel-
3.2 Intelligent control system for the production quality
oped. Based on the results of aggregate grading and
of CMs
rapid moisture content measurements, as well as
strength predictions, adjustments are made in real-time In order to realize the tracking and management of
to the dosage of cement, fly ash, and mixing water. This the whole production process of the CMs mixing station,

Fig. 6 Dynamic optimization and intelligent control method for mixing process.
New stress–strain model and intelligent quality control technology for cemented material dam
a set of intelligent control systems for the production
quality of CMs was developed by using digital and intel-
ligent technology and building a stable, reliable, and
high-speed data transmission link. The main functions
of the system include error analysis of CMs mixture ra-
tio, management of CMs transport vehicles based on ge-
ographic information system (GIS) maps, rapid determi-
nation of moisture content of sand aggregate, correlation
analysis of quality inspection data of raw materials and
finished products of cementing material, intelligent pre-
diction and early warning of CMs performance. It can
realize the automatic and efficient collection of CMs
mixing production control data, dynamic regulation of
mixture ratio parameters and intelligent analysis, real-
time warning, feedback, and adjustment of mixing quali-
ty; ensure the intelligent monitoring of the whole pro-
cesses of the production, transportation, and warehousing
process of CMs in each party, form a closed loop of pro-
duction quality tracking and traceability and ensure the
high-quality production of CMs in the project. At
present, the system is successfully applied to the pro-
duction control of CSGR in Dongyang CMD.
3.3 Quality control of the whole process of CMD con-
struction
According to the principle of “optimizing construc-
tion, discovering abnormity, and timely warning”, a
quality control system was developed by using the Beidou
navigation satellite system and internet of things tech-
nology. The raw material and mixing material detection
information database, materials source and rolling quality
control, and integrated information management and
feedback analysis system were established. Specific
quality monitoring indexes were obtained from three
Fig. 7 Quality monitoring system of the CMD (GPS: global positioning system).
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7
aspects: raw material quality (water content, mud con-
tent, batching precision, etc.), mix quality (appearance
uniformity, vibrating compacted (VC) value, compressive
strength, etc.), and field quality detection (rolling thick-
ness, rolling times, rolling speed, and compactness). The
system also contains quality control requirements and
measures for each process, realizing the management of
raw material detection information, mixing system in-
formation, and rolling process control information.
Figure 7 shows the quality monitoring system of the
CMD. At the same time, the quality control index system
for the new dam is established to simulate the construction
process and reveal problems. Dynamic control and real-
time early warning ensure the construction quality and
safety of the project and realize the digital monitoring
of the whole process of new dam construction in an
area without communication signals. The results were
recognized as water conservancy advanced practical
technology by the Ministry of Water Resources of the
People’s Republic of China and brought into industrial
technical standards. The digital quality control system
has been successfully applied to CMD projects such as
Shunjiangyan, Qianwei Min River flood dyke, Shouk-
oubu, Jinjigou, and other projects. The qualified rate of
CMD construction has reached 98% and good results
have been achieved.
3.4 Relationship between the stress–strain model and
the intelligent quality control technology
The connection between the new stress–strain model
and the intelligent quality control technology for CMD
lies in their collective contribution to the successful
construction of high-quality, structurally sound dams.
The stress–strain model informs the understanding of
of Intelligent Construction
8 Jinsheng Jia, et al. Journal of Intelligent Construction 2024, 2, 9180033
material behavior, while intelligent quality control tech-
nology applies this knowledge in real-time to ensure
that CMD structures meet the expected performance
and quality standards. These two components work
hand-in-hand to bridge the theoretical understanding of
material behavior with its practical application in con-
struction, enhancing the efficiency, safety, and overall
quality of CMD projects.
3.4.1 Structural integrity and performance
(i) Stress–strain model. The stress–strain model is pri-
marily concerned with understanding how CMD materials
behave under various loading conditions. It provides
critical insights into the material’s structural response
and deformation characteristics.
(ii) Intelligent quality control technology. Intelligent
quality control technology is essential for ensuring that
the CMD mixture maintains the desired material compo-
sition and strength. Monitoring and adjusting parameters
in real-time ensures the structural integrity of the dam
during construction, in alignment with the predictions
of the stress–strain model.
3.4.2 Water content and strength optimization
(i) Stress–strain model. The stress–strain model can
help in understanding how variations in water content
and other factors affect the mechanical properties of
CMD. This knowledge is fundamental for optimizing the
dam’s strength and performance.
(ii) Intelligent quality control technology. Intelligent
control technology plays a crucial role in monitoring
and adjusting the water content and material composition
during construction, directly impacting the strength and
structural properties of the CMD, which aligns with the
insights gained from the stress–strain model.
3.4.3 Real-time adjustments and quality assurance
(i) Stress–strain model. The stress–strain model pro-
vides a theoretical foundation for predicting how CMD
materials will behave under load. However, in practice,
the material may exhibit variations due to factors like
material discreteness.
(ii) Intelligent quality control technology. To account
for real-world variations and ensure that the CMD
meets quality standards, intelligent quality control tech-
nology, including digital mixing equipment and the
rolling control system, offers real-time adjustments.
These adjustments align the actual construction process
with the predictions of the stress–strain model, con-
tributing to the quality assurance of the dam.
3.4.4 Overall efficiency and safety
(i) Stress–strain model. Understanding the stress–str-
ain behavior helps in designing CMD structures that can
withstand expected loads, contributing to their safety
and long-term performance.
(ii) Intelligent quality control technology. By integrat-
ing the stress–strain model insights into the construction
process through intelligent control technology, the con-
struction becomes more efficient and most importantly,
safer. Real-time adjustments to material properties ensure
that the dam meets the required safety standards during
and after construction.
4 Erosion capability test and validation of
CMD against overtopping
A dam breach model test system was designed to
check the erosion capability of the cemented soil face
slab and the reliability of CMD against overtopping
floods with the recycling of water. It can stably supply a
flow rate of 2 m³/s and when the overtopping reaches
0.5 m on the dam slope, it can create a maximum flow
velocity of 6.0 m/s at the middle part of the dam slope.
Flood overtopping erosion tests were conducted using a
1.6 m high and 1.0 m wide CMD model. In Hei-
longjiang, the embankment in the Pangtoupao flood
storage area is reinforced with cemented soil (Fig. 8a).
The overtopping erosion of the CSGR dams at Hongkou
and Dahuaqiao (Figs. 8b and 8c) showed that under ex-
treme flood conditions with a maximum single-width
flow rate of 61 m³/s and a maximum water head of
8.0 m on the dam crest, the CMD will not breach due to
flood overtopping. Model simulation tests indicated that
the rockfill dam model breached due to overtopping in
843 s (as shown in Fig. 9a) while the CSGR materials
with a designed strength of 6.00 MPa (at 180 d) exhibited
strong erosion resistance and would not suffer from
overtopping erosion failure. The cemented soil with a
designed strength of 4.00 MPa (at 180 d) showed that
after 28 d, it resisted overtopping erosion for 10 min
(Fig. 9b) and could withstand 44 h of erosion without
breaching failure (Fig. 9c). Under prolonged erosion
with a flow velocity of 5.6 m/s at the downstream middle
part of the dam body, only localized surface erosion oc-
curred with a maximum depth of 9.7 cm. Also, in Fig.
10a, it could be noticed that the CMD dyke in Qianwei
underwent a test with an extreme flood in 2020 and did
not breach but the concrete-faced rockfill dam (CFRD)
technology applied to a dyke nearby experienced a
breach as shown in Fig. 10b.
5 Construction of cemented soft rock dams
The maximum height of the Jinjigou sandstone CMD
(Fig. 11) in Sichuan province is 33.0 m. The length of
the dam crest is 72.0 m, and the width is 8.0 m. The up-
stream slope of the dam is 1:0.35 and a 0.6 m-thick re-
inforced concrete layer was placed as an impervious
layer. The downstream slope is 1:0.75, and enriched CM
was placed as a downstream protection layer. The dam
site is located in the red zone. Natural sand and gravel
could be used, but this material is located 60 km away
on average. Sandstone at the dam site is abundant, with
New stress–strain model and intelligent quality control technology for cemented material dam 9

(a)

Maximum peak flow rate: 3670 m3/s

H = 8.0 m

Maximum peak flow rate: 5500 m3/s

(b) (c)

Fig. 8 (a) In Heilongjiang, the embankment in the Pangtoupao flood storage area is reinforced with cemented soil; (b) Dahuaqiao
in Yunnan and (c) Hongkou in Fujian have successfully withstood flood tests.

(a) (b)

(c)

Fig. 9 (a) Rockfill dam breached due to overtopping erosion in 843 s; (b) cemented soil dam resisted overtopping erosion for
10 min; and (c) CM resisted overtopping erosion for 44 h without breaching.

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10 Jinsheng Jia, et al. Journal of Intelligent Construction 2024, 2, 9180033

(a) (b)

Fig. 10 (a) CMD dyke in Qianwei underwent a test with an extreme flood in 2020 and did not breach; (b) CFRD dyke nearby experienced
a breach.

Fig. 11 Jinjigou sandstone CMD.

an average saturated uniaxial saturated compressive
strength of 32.80 MPa. The lowest value of the com-
pressive strength is less than 29.00 MPa, and the softening
coefficient is 0.71, which is characterized by soft rock
[13]. Soft sandstone aggregates in the red bed area
were successfully applied to Jinjigou sandstone CMD for
the first time. The mixing proportion below 402.0 m el-
evation is as high as 50% and above 402.0 m elevation
is 60% [14].
In-situ direct shear tests of the CMD were carried out
for 50% and 60% of the sandstone aggregates. At the
same time, different interlayer surfaces were also tested,
such as the surfaces between dam body interlayers, the
contact surface with concrete, and the contact surface
with enriched CM. CM was constructed by layered
rolling, and each layer was approximately 50.0 cm
thick. The cold joints were brushed with a high-pressure
water gun and paved with M15 cushion mortar with a
thickness of 10–15 mm. The mix design of the CMD is
shown in Table 2; among them, enriched CM was vibrated
by adding enriched slurry with a mass fraction of 7% in
the same mix of the CM.
In the in-situ direct shear tests, the horizontal pushing
method was adopted. Shear piers with a size of
50.0 cm × 50.0 cm × 50.0 cm under the condition of
artificial immersion saturation are shown in Fig. 12.

Table 2 Mix proportion of sandstone cement material

Water Cement Fly ash Admixture Sandstone* Riverbed gravel (5–40 mm) Artificial sand
Sandstone percentage
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3)

50% 85.00 60.00 60.00 1.20 1057.00 558.00 555.00

60% 90.00 65.00 65.00 1.35 1255.00 441.00 439.00

M15 cushion mortar 280.00 222.00 222.00 4.44 — — 1210.00

enriched slurry 600.00 1184.00 — 11.80 — — —

Note: *Sandstone is a primary broken aggregate with a maximum particle size of 150 mm.
New stress–strain model and intelligent quality control technology for cemented material dam 11

The maximum normal stress of the shear plane is
1.00 MPa, which is located at the center of the preset
shear plane and perpendicular to the shear plane and
was applied in 3–5 stages. The shear stress (τ) direction
is parallel to the predetermined shear plane and was ap-
plied in grades 8–10 according to the estimated maximum
value. The typical cut surface is shown in Fig. 13. The
curves of shear stress–shear displacement (μs) and shear
stress–normal stress at typical measuring points are
shown in Fig. 14. The direct shear test results are shown
in Table 3.
The test result shows that the curves of shear
stress–displacement have an obvious linear ascending
stage, indicating that the CM with sandstone has a certain
shear capacity. It can also be seen from the test results
that the shear friction increases from 1.04 to 1.10 MPa
and the shear cohesion increases from 0.34 to
0.50 MPa. The shear strength meets the stress demand
of a medium-sized or low dam and is stable with respect
to the sliding of Jinjigou CMD. The CM with sandstone
exhibits an obvious peak strength state and a residual
strength state and the peak strength is approximately

Shear pier

Shear slot

Shear slot

Fig. 12 Shear piers. Fig. 13 Typical sections of the cut surface.

2.00 2.00
y = 1.05x + 0.40
1.60 1.60 R2 = 0.9780
σ = 1.00
0.25
1.20 1.20
0.50
τ (MPa)

τ (MPa)

σ = 0.75
1.00
0.80 0.80
σ = 0.50 0.75
0.40 0.40
σ = 0.25

0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 0 0.40 0.80 1.20 1.60 2.00
μs (10−2 mm) σ (MPa)
(a) The relation curve of contact surface with (b) Shearing resisting
enriched cemented material shear σ–τ–μs

Fig. 14 Shearing resisting curves of the contact surface with enriched CM.

Table 3 Results of the direct shear test

Shearing resisting Residual strength

Sandstone percentage Shear plane
f
′ ′
c (MPa) fR cR (MPa)

50% Dam body 1.10 0.38 0.81 0.24

Dam body 1.08 0.34 0.81 0.30

60% Contact surface with C15 concrete 1.04 0.53 0.95 0.30

Contact surface with enriched CM 1.05 0.40 0.99 0.25

′ ′
Note: f is the shear friction; c is the shear cohesion; fR is the residual shear friction; and cR is the residual shear cohesion.

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12 Jinsheng Jia, et al. Journal of Intelligent Construction 2024, 2, 9180033

10%–30% higher than the residual strength, showing a
plastic–brittle failure mode. The high residual strength
indicates that the CM still has strong shear resistance after
shear at the layers or contact surface. As a result, it can
be explained that this structure has a high resistance to
failure.
6 Construction of cemented weathering ma-
terial dams
The Xijiang Reservoir in Guizhou Province is located
in the Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Pre-
fecture. The original recommended design was a CFRD,
which required a high quantity and quality of materials.
However, due to its location upstream of the Qianhu
Miao village in Xijiang, the secondary disasters caused
by the dam’s overtopping collapse are issues that need
special attention. Using a RCC dam would result in high
costs, so the decision was made to choose CMD. The
highest dam of the Xijiang CMD is 48.5 m, the axis
length of the dam is 198.5 m and the crest is 6.0 m
wide. A C20-reinforced concrete with a thickness of
0.4 m is used as the impervious panel on the upstream
side. Enriched CMs are used between the panel and the
dam body and they are 0.5 m-thick on the downstream
side. Available materials for the Xijiang CMD come
from riverbed excavation at the engineering site and
abandoned materials of the Xijiang tourist road excava-
tion, as shown in Fig. 15. According to the strength or
weathering state, the original rock can be divided into
Material A, Material B, and Material C. The compressive
strength of Material A is above 15.00 MPa (below the
top of weak weathering), of Material C is between 5.00
and 10.00 MPa (the upper part of strong weathering),
and of Material B is between 10.00 and 15.00 MPa (the
lower part of strong weathering).
According to the characteristics of the Xijiang Reservoir
and the cement materials properties, mix proportion
tests and rolling tests were carried out. The recommended
mix proportion scheme is shown in Table 4. The designed
cement material strength is C1808 (i.e. 8.00 MPa after
180 d), but considering that the quality and safety of
rolling the lower part of the dam is crucial. The cementing
material used was 130.00 kg/m3 (65.00 kg/m3 for cement
and 65.00 kg/m3 for fly ash) before the flood season. An
XG626H single steel wheel vibration roller and high-fre-
quency vibration were used for on-site cement material
construction, with a rolling speed of 1.0–1.5 km/h and
static rolling 2 times + vibration rolling 8 times. The
dam body was continuously paved and bedding mortar
was added after exceeding the allowable paving time.
The thickness of the mortar was 10–115 mm. If the time

(a) (b)

Fig. 15 Sand and gravel materials of the Xijiang CMD: (a) riverbed excavation materials; (b) tourist road excavation abandoned
materials.

Table 4 Mixed proportion of the Xijiang CMD

Material usage (kg/m3)

Mix Scheme
Water Cement Fly ash Material A1* Material A2* Material B1* Material C2* Sand A2*

1 120.00 60.00 60.00 1561.00 — — — 669.00

2 115.00 65.00 65.00 — 713.00 — 1025.00 398.00

3 115.00 60.00 60.00 — — 1516.00 — 673.00

Note: *Material A1 is the tourist road abandoned Material A, Material A2 of different grade is also from the tourist road abandoned
Material A, Material B1 is the tourist road abandoned Material B, Material C2 is the foundation pit excavation C, and Sand A2 is the
mechanism sand of foundation pit excavation A.
New stress–strain model and intelligent quality control technology for cemented material dam
is longer than the allowable time of bedding paving,
then the cold joint can be constructed by high-pressure
water blanking. It is advisable to slightly expose coarse
grains in sand and then lay 10–15 mm thick cushion
mortar. The observation of core drilling and groove
breaking showed that the excavation was compacted
and cemented well and there was no obvious crushing
phenomenon of the highly weathered foundation exca-
vation materials.
The Xijiang CMD project adopts local engineering
waste materials to build the dam, greatly reducing the
impact on the environment, saving project investment,
and further expanding the application range of cement
materials. When the laying height of the Xijiang CMD
reached 11.0 m, due to continuous rainfall, the dam ex-
perienced dam flooding, as shown in Fig. 16, which
lasted 8 h. The cement material on the dam surface has
hardly been affected by the flood. The overall operation
is good, showing the characteristics of high resistance
against overtopping during the construction period.
7 Conclusions
As a new type of dam, this study proposes a novel
stress–strain model for CSGR, which elucidates the initi-
ation, development, and propagation of internal micro-
cracks during the compressive failure process. To address
significant issues such as the water content, clay con-
tent, and material discreteness in the construction mate-
rials of CMD, various technical approaches have been
proposed, including the dynamic optimization control
method based on widely sourced CMs, intelligent man-
agement of the mixing quality throughout the entire
production process of cemented sand, gravel, and rock,
and quality control measures for the construction of
CMD. These measures have realized the intelligent control
Fig. 16 Dam flooding of the Xijiang CMD in the construction period.
https://www.sciopen.com/journal/2958-3861 | https://mc03.manuscriptcentral.com/jic | Journal
13
technology for CMD construction. A dam breach model
test system was designed to check the erosion capability
of cemented soil face slab and the reliability of CMD
against overtopping flood with the recycling of water.
Flood overtopping erosion tests were conducted using a
1.6 m high and 1.0 m wide CMD model and meaningful
results have been achieved. The overtopping erosion of
the CSGR dam at the Hongkou and Dahuaqiao showed
good results under extreme flood conditions.
Through engineering applications in Jinjigou CMD
and Xijiang CMD, the adaptability and superiority of the
CMD’s new technologies have been further demonstrat-
ed. With the continuous improvement of dam construction
theory and technology, CMD will undoubtedly receive
more attention and importance. Cemented dams have
been proposed and developed based on practical needs,
but there is still a need for continuous exploration in
the areas of material and structural evolution, process
dynamics control, and safety assessment. These explo-
rations should be based on practical experience and foster
continuous innovation and creativity.
Acknowledgments
This research is financially supported by the National
Key R&D Plan of China (No. 2018 YFC0406801).
Declaration of competing interest
The authors have no competing interests to declare
that are relevant to the content of this article.
Author contribution statement
All authors have given approval to the final version of
the manuscript.
of Intelligent Construction
14 Jinsheng Jia, et al. Journal of Intelligent Construction 2024, 2, 9180033

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Jinsheng Jia is a professor of China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research (IWHR), vice
president of Chinese National Committee on Large Dams, honorary president of International Commission on
Large Dams. He has near 40 years of experience in research on projects related hydropower and water re-
sources, especially on structure and material of high dams. He has contributed more than 175 papers to
many journals, has been awarded 6 national prizes in technique progress and 13 ministerial prizes for his ex-
cellent professional work, and has been engaged in many large projects, including Three Gorges Project, Ertan
Arch Dam, Xiaolangdi Rockfill Dam, Xiaowan Arch Dam, Shuibuya CFRD, Bakun CFRD, etc.

Wambley Adomako Baah is a Ph.D. candidate at IWHR. His major is Hydraulic Structure Engineering, and he
is primarily involved in the study of materials research for cemented material dams.

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