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Sustainable bridge construction through innovative advances

Article in Bridge Engineering · January 2008

DOI: 10.1680/bren.2008.161.4.183

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Proceedings of the Institution of
Civil Engineers
Bridge Engineering 161 Adrian E. Long
Month 2008 Issue BE4 Professor Emeritus,
Pages 183–188 Queen’s University,
doi: 10.1680/bren.2008.161.4.183 Belfast, UK
Paper 800006
Received 21/01/2008
Accepted 08/08/2008
Keywords: Barry G. I. Rankin
bridges/concrete technology & Head of Technical Advisory,
manufacture/sustainability Queen’s University, Belfast, UK
Sustainable bridge construction through innovative advances
A. E. Long, P. A. M. Basheer, S. E. Taylor, B. G. I. Rankin and J. Kirkpatrick
Sustainability is now recognised as a key issue that must be
addressed in the design, construction and lifelong
maintenance of civil engineering structures. This paper
briefly discusses the generic aspects of sustainability, but
the main focus is its application to bridges. Motorway
bridges built in the 1960s and 1970s had design lives of
120 years; many, however, were showing signs of
deterioration after only 20–40 years. This led to much
(ongoing) debate on the issue of initial versus full life-cycle
costing. In order to address the highly complex issue of
the sustainability of bridges, this paper considers the
following specific areas that impinge on this important
subject: the impact on sustainability of different forms of
bridge construction and maintenance/repair/replacement
strategies; the utilisation of innovative in situ testing
equipment for assessing the long-term durability of
concrete; the development of innovative structural
designs for bridges that inherently have greatly extended
lives at minimal, if any, additional cost.
1. INTRODUCTION
The built environment has to coexist with the natural
environment with which it is inseparably linked. Energy,
materials, water and land are all consumed in the construction
and operation of buildings and infrastructure to such an extent
that sustainable development can be said to depend on the built
environment. The world’s cities have a major impact on
greenhouse gas emissions and global warming: they take up
around 2% of the Earth’s surface but account for nearly 80% of
the carbon emissions from human activities. The urban
environment influences our living conditions, social wellbeing
and health. Thus the performance characteristics and quality of
our infrastructure are of fundamental importance to urban
sustainability and the wellbeing of our environment. The
significance of this should not be underestimated, especially
bearing in mind that our infrastructure accounts for at least 50%
of our national wealth.
The burden placed on natural resources by construction activities
can be estimated from embodied energy—that is, the total
primary energy that has to be extracted from the Earth to produce
a specific product—usually measured per square metre of plan
area. In addition, the operational energy used during a structure’s
lifetime has to be taken into account. The relative proportion of
the two depends on the form of construction. In general, a bridge
Bridge Engineering 161 Issue BE4
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P. A. Muhammed Basheer Susan E. Taylor
Professor, Senior lecturer,
Queen’s University, Queen’s University,
Belfast, UK Belfast, UK
Jim Kirkpatrick
Research Associate, Queen’s
University, Belfast, UK
has high embodied energy and low operational requirements
whereas a hospital, with its demanding service conditions, has a
high proportion of operational energy. However, for bridges the
relative proportion of these energies depends on the extent of
maintenance/repair during their lifetime. If minimal
maintenance/repairs are required, the operational energy may be
only marginal. However, if extensive repairs are necessary and
considerable disruption/congestion results, the energy consumed
can increase dramatically. The challenge for designers is thus
to achieve minimum total energy used over a 120-year design
life and to persuade clients that a sustainable approach is
preferable to a minimum initial cost design.
In order to contribute to better understanding of the highly
complex issue of the sustainability of bridges, the following
specific factors will be discussed
(a) the relative merits of different forms of construction from
the sustainability viewpoint
(b) the utilisation of innovative in situ testing equipment that
allows the durability of concrete bridges to be assessed
(c) technological innovations that could lead to much more
durable and sustainable forms of construction for concrete
bridges based on
(i) the enhanced strength of deck slabs arising from
arching action
(ii) a novel flexible concrete arch system.
In terms of technological advances, the approach adopted
in research at Queen’s University Belfast, carried out in
collaboration with industry, will be placed in context.
2. SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES AFFECTING BRIDGES
2.1. The environmental impact of new bridges
The embodied energy from the use of construction materials is a
source of concern to engineers when planning, designing and
constructing a bridge. However, relatively little advice or
guidance is given in the literature as to the relative merits of
different forms of construction. A recent paper by Collings1
presents the results of a comparative study derived from an
actual project. A bridge in the UK over a river 120 m wide with
66 m of approach spans on each side was considered. The total
deck area was over 4000 m2 and the bridge allowed
consideration of shorter spans on the approaches as well as the
main river span. Three basic forms of construction were
considered for the river span—a profiled girder, a tied arch and
Sustainable bridge construction through innovative advances Long et al. 183
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 experienced designers need to be encouraged so that the most
Embodied energy during
construction: GJ/m2 appropriate forms of construction, from the sustainability
viewpoint, are selected.
Energy Type Steel Concrete Composite
2.2. Repair, maintenance and congestion
Minimum Viaduct 17$8 15$7–16$6 16$6
Girder 30$9 23$6 29$1 All bridges will require some form of intervention during their
Arch 49$8 34$3 48$8 lifetime; ideally, this, as well as all other aspects, should be
Cable- 40$3 21$1–22$1 37$7 taken into account in the design process. Even the most basic
stayed maintenance will cause congestion but the impact of
Average Viaduct 23$5 21$1–22$1 22$1
replacement can be much greater, as exemplified by
Girder 39$3 30$6 37$0
Arch 61$9 49$1 60$8 the Tinsley viaduct.2
Cable- 50$6 43$9 47$7
stayed The Tinsley viaduct is a twin-deck steel–concrete composite
Maximum Viaduct 30$8 28$1–28$6 29$2 girder bridge that carries the M1 motorway and the A631
Girder 49$3 39$1 46$6
trunk road across the Don Valley near Sheffield, UK. The
Arch 75$6 60$9 74$4
Cable- 62$6 54$8 59$3 1 km long structure has 20 spans and crosses two railway
stayed lines, the River Don and a canal. As a strategic part of the
motorway network, the viaduct carries approximately 115 000
Table 1. Embodied energy during construction (GJ/m2) for vehicles per day. However, in the late 1990s it failed to
various structural forms and materials1
satisfy requirements for the introduction of 40 t lorries and
decisions had to be taken on whether to strengthen or replace
a cable-stayed bridge. Constant-depth girders were used for all
the structure.
the approach spans. Temporary works were included, as was
an estimate of the likely repair and maintenance during the
A replacement bridge was estimated to cost £200 million;
lifetime of the three basic forms of construction (steel, concrete
however, the associated cost of congestion over the two to
and composite).
three year period of construction was considered to be around
£1400 million. This enormous additional cost, not to mention
Useful comparative tables and graphs are given in Collings’
the associated environmental impact of congestion, was clearly
paper;1 only results summarising the impact of the span and the
unacceptable. The decision was made to carry out an
form of construction on the embodied energy are included here. innovative high-technology strengthening process2 while
Table 1 shows estimates of embodied energy during construction keeping the viaduct open to traffic except for a short period
(per square metre of bridge deck). Values vary from each night. Tinsley viaduct was repaired at a cost of £80
approximately 16 to 75 GJ/m2 of deck, with the short-span million with minimal congestion—a net saving of some
concrete structural form giving the lowest values and the all-steel £1500 million.
or composite, longer-span structure the highest. The embodied
energy is also presented graphically in Figure 1, which clearly From the viewpoint of the impact of congestion, this extreme
shows that longer spans consume greater embodied energy/m2 example demonstrates the benefits of bridges that can be repaired
(not unexpected as cost/m2 also follows this trend). Figure 1 also while effectively remaining in service. In this regard, steel is more
implies that a well-engineered longer-span bridge using local amenable to strengthening; however, the availability of carbon
materials, recycled steel and sustainable cement can be almost fibre composites allows comparable action to be taken for
as environmentally friendly as a shorter-span structure where concrete bridges. It should also be noted that the
sustainability issues are not considered. Table 1 and Figure 1 cost/environmental impact of congestion is an ever-increasing
also indicate that for the spans under consideration, the more problem as many urban bridges built in the 1960s and 1970s are
architectural solutions (arches, cable stayed) have a higher now in need of remedial action. This should be considered, even
environmental burden for all materials (as well as a cost if only approximately, in the total life-cycle design of future
premium). Further comparative studies of this nature by bridges. Although possibly increasing the design cost, long-term
savings could be enormous.
80
Steel The relative importance of congestion also requires designers to
70
Composite think carefully about the selection of durable materials and the
60
Concrete most appropriate form of construction. As a consequence, in the
Energy: GJ/t

50
future it will be even more important to build bridges that require
40 minimal maintenance and to ensure that premature replacement
30 is avoided.
20
10 2.3. Total life-cycle ‘cost’ of bridges
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 While initial ‘costs’ are useful, a more significant factor is
Span: m ‘cost’/‘energy use’ over the bridge lifetime. In this context, the
importance of adopting integral bridges3 for relatively short
Figure 1. Variations in embodied energy with span and material spans is highlighted. Basically, by designing a bridge without
type (from Collings1)
movement joints and one that is integral from one abutment to

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 the various deterioration
Concrete manufacture mechanisms involved. In
essence, permeability
influences the primary method
Permeability/transport properties
of transport of moisture and
aggressive ions into concrete
Alkali Water Sulphate Chloride Oxygen
Carbonation diffusion
Water Salt solution and subsequent increases in
ingress saturation absorption ingress saturation ingress
transport properties are
Modification of pores
responsible for the increased
Alkali ASR gel Sulphate Corrosion of Frost Salt rate of damage. Thereafter,
attack expansion attack reinforcement attack attack
crack growth (which depends
on the fracture strength)
Strength properties accelerates the penetration of
aggressive substances into
concrete and the spiral of
Cracking
deterioration continues
downwards. The
Figure 2. Causes of concrete deterioration—physical properties interaction model4
interdependence of all these
factors and the importance
the other, maximum resistance to chloride penetration is of transport properties and strength are clearly illustrated
4
obtained. As a further step, timely and appropriate application of in Figure 2.
protective coatings while the bridge is in service can delay the
need for repairs. Using these methods and some of the innovative 3.2. Measurement of durability-related properties
approaches detailed later in this paper, the life of specific types of Recognising the importance of these parameters, researchers at
bridges can be greatly enhanced and total life-cycle cost/energy Queen’s University Belfast responded by developing
use reduced. the following in situ test methods and associated novel
test equipment
3. DEVELOPMENT OF NOVEL IN SITU TEST
METHODS (a) the ‘pull-off’ test6 for estimating the tensile strength of
concrete using the ‘limpet’
3.1. Background (b) permeability testing7 utilising the ‘autoclam’
The single most important factor that leads to premature bridge (c) assessing the diffusion characteristics of concrete using the
deterioration is ingress of moisture into concrete.4,5 The ‘permit ion migration test’.8
permeability of concrete to the macro-environment during its
service life can thus be used as a measure of durability. In the All three in situ tests have been used on site to assess corrosion-
development of a holistic model for concrete deterioration, induced damage to the Dickson Bridge in Montreal.9 The tests
Mehta5 considered the influence of environmental factors on indicated that tensile strength did not correlate well with level of
deterioration, but permeability
and diffusivity provided much
Autoclam air
Autoclam air permeability useful information.
permeability index (×10–2):
index (×10–2): Ln (mbar)/min
Ln (mbar)/min 3.3. Conclusions on in situ
35
35 test methods
30 In the assessment of durability,
30
25
the following potential uses for
25 strength, permeability and
Ln (mbar)/min

20 diffusion testing have been

20
identified.
15
15 (a) Estimating the life of new
10
structures. The equipment
10
5 was used to develop a
5 ‘mix design for
0 durability’10 and
0
important trends have
been identified (Figure 3)
3
0·7 4 that could be extremely
5
0·6 ent relevant to new
Wa 6 em
e/c
ter/ce 0·5 7 re gat construction.
me
nt 0·4 8 Agg
(b) Assessing the remaining
life of existing structures.
Figure 3. Influence of mix proportion on Autoclam air permeability index10
The good correlation

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 Reinforcement
yielding
Arching
enhancement

Applied load
Bending Higher restraint
Medium restraint
First cracking Zero restraint

Mid-span deflection

Figure 5. Interaction between flexural and arching action

Figure 4. Permit, limpet and autoclam (from left to right)

(a) reduction in reinforcement (from 1$7% to 0$5% or less)

between permeability indices and durability characteristics
can allow remedial action to be taken before irreparable
damage has occurred.
However, if significant progress is to be made it will be essential
for practising engineers to work closely with those involved in
relevant research. In this context the limpet, autoclam and permit
ion migration test (Figure 4) could provide invaluable tools for
generating useful data. One is already a standard test within
Europe and efforts are being made to have the other two accepted
in Europe and other international markets (for further
information, see www.amphorandt.com).
(b) same slab depth for greater spacing of beams
(c) lower overall cost of bridge superstructure (one larger beam
at 2 m centres is less expensive than two smaller beams at
1 m centres). Generally, the modest increase in beam depth
will not be a problem unless the minimum possible
structural depth has to be achieved.
Thus, substantial reductions in costs can be achieved while at
the same time retaining comparable strength and durability
(see unbroken lines in Figure 6). Research12,13 has also shown
that significant enhancement in durability/sustainability can be
achieved by utilising

4. TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS FOR

ENHANCED SUSTAINABILITY
4.1. Background
Bridges with spans of up to 30 m constitute the vast majority of
road infrastructure bridges in service across the world. Within
this category of bridges, concrete deck slabs are widely used in
combination with precast prestressed concrete beams or steel
girders. In addition, arch bridges have been widely used in the
past for shorter spans. However, even though their durability and
aesthetics are unquestioned, the labour-intensive method of
construction has made them unpopular for many decades.
Technological advances to overcome some of these problems will
now be briefly described.
4.2. Design of bridge deck slabs based on arching action
Tests carried out by Ockleston11 on the interior panels of the Old
Dental Hospital in Johannesburg revealed collapse loads of three
to four times those predicted by the yield line method. This
enhanced capacity was attributed to the development of an
internal arching mechanism arising from the lateral restraint
(a) concrete containing fibres to control cracking or by taking
advantage of the fact that for a given degree of restraint, the
strength of slabs developing arching action significantly
increases with concrete strength
(b) conventional steel reinforcement located in a single layer at
the centre of the slab (greatly increased cover) to reduce
corrosion and the likelihood of spalling; field testing13,14 has
demonstrated that due to arching action, cracking under
service loads is well within limits and crack control has not
been found to be a problem
(c) glass/carbon-fibre-reinforced plastic reinforcing bars.
Hence, by using high-strength concrete (with or without fibres) in
conjunction with corrosion-free reinforcement, bridge decks that
Standard deck Repair
(normal durability) cost
Repair cost
Unit cost

provided by the surrounding panels. Figure 5 shows a typical

load—deflection curve with the contributions of arching and
Arching action deck
flexural action separately identified. Arching action deck (enhanced durability)
(normal durability)

Extensive laboratory and field testing programmes have been

carried out in Canada12 and Northern Ireland13 to allow strength
and serviceability benefits to be quantified. Guidance that allows Years in service
the advantages of arching action to be taken into account in the
design process is now available14,15 and the following benefits Figure 6. Comparison of total unit cost of standard deck and
arching action decks over full service life
can be achieved

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 In situ screed/concrete Polymeric
reinforcement

Individual voussoirs (precast)

Figure 7. Construction of arch unit using precast individual

voussoir concrete blocks

should be virtually maintenance-free could be produced (see

dashed line in Figure 6).
(a)

5. DEVELOPMENT OF A NOVEL Arch SYSTEM

Brick or stone masonry arch bridges have been utilised for
thousands of years and have proven durability. However, it is no
longer economically viable to construct a masonry arch in the
traditional way due to the costs of accurate centring and
preparation of masonry blocks. In order to provide a viable
alternative, researchers at Queen’s University Belfast, in
collaboration with Macrete Ireland Ltd, developed the flexiarch
system made of unreinforced precast concrete voussoirs. The arch
system is constructed and transported to site as a ‘flat-pack’ and
polymer grid reinforcement is used to carry the self-weight
during lifting as it takes up the form of an arch. The voussoirs are
precast individually, laid contiguously in a horizontal line with a
(b)
layer of polymer grid reinforcement placed on top. Subsequently,
an in situ concrete screed is placed on top and allowed to harden
to interconnect the voussoirs. The preferred method of
construction of the arch unit is shown in Figure 7. It should be
noted that the alternative method of casting the whole system
in situ has been investigated and rejected because

(a) the manufacture of precision wedges is difficult and fixing

them during casting is problematic
(b) removal of the arch from the formwork is difficult and could
result in damage to the system.

The arch unit can be cast in convenient widths to suit design

requirements, site restrictions and available lifting capacity.
When lifted, the wedge-shaped gaps close, concrete hinges form (c)
in the concrete screed and the unit is supported by tension in the
polymer grid. The arch-shaped units are then placed on precast
footings and all self-weight is then transferred from tension in
the polymer to compression in the ‘voussoir’ elements of the
arch (Figure 8).

The novel arch system has been demonstrated16,17 to be a viable

alternative to long-established methods of construction for spans
up to 10–12 m. Furthermore

(a) as the arch system is cast horizontally, it can conveniently

be transported to site in ‘flat-pack’ form
(b) centring is not required during installation so the process is
greatly simplified and speed of construction enhanced
(d)
(c) long-term durability is assured as there is no corrodible
reinforcement Figure 8. ‘Flat pack’ arch ready for lifting (a) arch unit during
(d) the system is cost-competitive with less aesthetic reinforced lifting (b) arch located on tapered seating units (c) full
arch (d)
coucrete box culverts.

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 Tests have shown that when the FlexiArch is used in conjunction
with lean-mix concrete, it is exceptionally strong and
serviceability requirements are easily met.18 A number of arch
units have been supplied and installed by Macrete; clients
have been impressed with the speed of construction and the
limited site preparation when compared with that required
for box culverts.
6. CONCLUDING REMARKS
The sustainability of infrastructure is now accepted as a key issue
in many parts of the world. It is essential that the construction
industry recognises the important role it has to play and responds
positively to the associated challenges. Within our national
transportation networks, crucial for continued economic growth,
bridges form a critical part. Deficiencies in the
durability/strength of bridges that necessitate repair/replacement
can lead to considerable disruption/congestion within the
network and have a very negative impact on sustainability. Thus,
bridge engineers will have to integrate aspects of sustainability—
such as the relative merits of different forms of construction,
maintainability and associated congestion—into the total life-
cycle cost design process.
Innovative research carried out over the past 30 years at Queen’s
University Belfast has been aimed at increasing the durability of
concrete structures and bridges in particular and has led to the
following conclusions.
(a) The availability of improved in situ test methods paves the
way for greatly enhanced durability by design for new and
existing concrete structures.
(b) Advances in structural design based on research on arching
action in bridge deck slabs can lead to virtually
maintenance-free systems.
(c) The flexible concrete arch system, which can be transported
to site in ‘flat-pack’ form and avoids the need for centring,
has great potential.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The input of research students and colleagues at Queen’s
University Belfast and support from EPSRC, DRD (Road Service)
NI, ICE, Research and Innovation Fund, Invest NI and KTP are
gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
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Engineering, 2006, 159, No. 4, 163–168.
2. MILNER A. L. Tinsley viaduct strengthening, UK. Proceedings
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Trends in Bridge Design, Construction and Maintenance,
Kuala Lumpur, 2005, 1, 225–236.
3. HIGHWAYS AGENCY. Design of Integral Bridges. HA, London,
1996, BA 42/96.
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for deterioration of concrete structures. Construction and
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