SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. digitalised by RLC CABLE SUSPENDED 7 ROOF STRUCTURES 7. INTRODUCTION Steel-rope cables have been used for suspension bridges for more than 100 years and ropes of other materials have been used for many hundreds of years. Only in the past 40 years, however, had this principle of suspension been applied in the supporting of roofs and other members of buildings The animal skin, and its tension membrane action, and the spider's web have spurred man to develop tension systems for his use, Many primitive roofing systems used animal skins in the form of tents and are excellent examples of roofs with predominantly tensile forces. The present day architects and engi- neers have a strong interest in utilizing suspension systems for covering large areas. This is due to two important factors. The first factor is aesthetic—the variety of roof forms and building shapes possi with suspension systems present further opportunities for architectural expression. The second factor economic—suspension systems are more economical than other structural systems for supporting long span roofs. The principle of using tensioned cables in the construction of roofs was first used in A.D. 70, when the 189 x 156 m Roman Colosseum was constructed. But after this roof there was little progress in this field till 1950, The teal developments in the analysis, design and construction of cable roofs have occurred only alter the Raleigh arena, designed by Nowicki, was built in the United States in 1953. (see Section 7.5.2 for the details of this roof). Loads acting on roofs are usually transferred to the ground either by direct stresses or by bending stresses or by a combination of both. It is well-known that tension members make very efficient use of their material since the cross-section is uniformly stressed. Furthermore, no stress reductions are re- quired for buckling, Thus, tensile structures which utilize these tension members will result in optimal structures. Tensile structure may be classified as + Cable suspended roof structures, in which the cables are principal load carrying elements + Membrane structures which carry loads by membrane forces only, with no or insignificant bending + Tensegritic structures, which have continuous tension members and discontinuous compression members. Cable suspended roof structures are discussed in this chapter. The other types of tensile structures are discussed in the subsequent chapters, Suspended roof structures which make use of steel cables are economical for even very large spans. ‘These structures may be defined as structures whose principal supporting elements are tension mem- hers draped between anchorages. In addition to many public buildings, such as swimming pools, exhi- ion halls, stadia, etc. (where the economy of cost is not always the only criterion), suspended roof structures have also been used for many industrial buildings, airport hangars, etc., for which they have proved to be much cheaper than conventional roof structures. Tt has also been found that these struc- tures provide good acoustics and ventilation, They have got a higher factor of safety against fire than conventional roof trusses which fail through the buckling of compression members when the heat rises Page 271/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. 254 _ Principles af Space Structures digitalised by RLC above a certain temperature. The differential settlement of the supporting columns are resisted by the ropes efficiently. The ropes adjust themselves readily to the altered conditions without appreciably changing the stresses. One of the great problems in suspended cable roofs is the prevention of flutter. Wind forces tend t© ‘cause the roof (0 vibrate, and if the forces coincide with the natural perid of vibration of the roof, dangerous oscillations can occur. In fact flutter has been the cause of collapse of many suspension bridges. Designers adopt different methods in the construction of their roofs to minimize the likelihood of flutter, These methods are described in section 7.2.1. 7.2, COMPONENTS OF SUSPENDED ROOFS In suspended roof structures cable networks, vertical supports, anchorages and stabilizers are used to generate the roof surface. Vertical supports are needed to provide the required vertical clearances within the structure, because cables sag below their supports. The cables are supported on posts, or towers or on walls. Anchorages are required to resist the tension in the cables. Usually any one of the following is adopted (o provide sufficient anchorage: heavy foundations, pile foundations, part of building (Fig.7.la), perimeter compression rings and interior tension rings (see Fig.7.10), For attachment to the anchorages, each cable is usually equipped with end fittings, often threaded to permit a jack to grip and tension the cable and to allow the use of a nut for holding the tensioned cable in place. In addition, bearing plates are also needed for distributing the cable reaction. 7.2.1 Reduction of Flutter Stabilizers are required because of the tendency of a cable to change shape with change in loading. Thus, as discussed earlier, wind forces may induce damaging vibrations in a cable roof, unless precau- tions are taken to prevent them. One way to reduce flutter is to specify a heavy, rigid roof deck, such as precast-conerete slabs (which are post tensioned after erection), firmly secured to the cables. A second way is 10 use diagonal stays. A much stiffer structure can be obtained by using a double layer construc- tion, with primary cables braced against a set of secondary cables, each set given a different initial tension, to prevent resonance (see Fig. 7.13-7.15). With diagonal struts between the primary and second- ary cables, truss action can be developed. If pre-tension is sufficiently high in the compression chord, ‘compression induced by increasing load only decreases the tension in that chord but cannot cause stress reversal, Special damping springs may also be inserted at the intersections of the cables to reduce the flutter. An added advantage of the double layer system is that the space between the upper and lower sets of cables can be used for hiding various pipes, conduits, ducts and air-conditioning equip- ment, 7.3. TYPES OF CABLE NETWORK SYSTEMS 7.3.1 Main Types The cable network systems are usually classified as cable supported, cable suspended and cable-cum- air-supported roofs. Ina cable supported roof, the deck is covered by girders or trusses, which, in turn, are supported atone ‘or more points by cables. This type of construction is advantageous where long span cantilevers are needed, for example, for hangars (see Fig. 7.1a). In cable suspended roof’, the system of cables carries Page 272/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN RN. Cable Suspertilisgl ratitcenidiyt ds LABS the roof load directly (as shown in Fig. 7.1) and as such has a primary structural fianetion. Cable stays, as shown in Fig. 7. le can also be uscd to suspend the roof system from masts or pylons, This chapter is devoted mainly to the discussion of the various aspects of cable suspended roofs. Another class of cable roofs, which are supported by a combination of cables and air inflated mem- branes are discussed in chapter 8. 7.3.2 Examples Many excellent examples may be cited for cable supported and cable suspended roofs. But only a few of these examples are given here. A notable example of a cable supported roof is provided by the 146.5 mx 45.7 m roof of the Tilburg Railway Station in Holland. This roof is divided into four hyperbolic paraboloids which are supported on four piers at the ends of the building and also supported on cables suspended from six steel masts. Another example of the cable stayed roof is provided by the covered areas of Yishun Indoor Stadium and Sports Complex in Singapore”. They are of size 65 mx 45 mand 120 mx25 m respectively. The Indoor Stadium is enclosed by two unequal-sized pitched roofs consisting of triangulated steel trusses at 10 m intervals suspended by cables from 30 m high stee! masts and tied back to the ground with cables. The masts are spaced at 30 m and with their nets af cable spreading at different locations of the reof, creating an impressive building form for the structure. There are 7 main trusses for the big roof and 10 main trusses for the smalL roof, Each roofhhas three cross trusses and 1 edge truss, There are 7 steel masts mounted on A-frames supporting the cables, The Sports complex is using identical structural form as the Indoor Stadium’s big roof. There are 13 main trusses, 3 cross trusses, I edge truss and 5 steel masts on A-frames, Each roof truss panel for both stadia is supported by 11 cables covering a width of 20 m with 3 main trusses. Multi-stand prestressing cables of 15 mm diameter are used for the cables. The ultimate tensile load used for the cable is 1870. N/ mm? with a modulus of elasticity of 205000 N/mm?. Similar cable stayed roofs are provided for the flower market at Pescia, Italy, completed in 1980 (60 m span, 18 m wide and 3 m high space trusses are supported at 4 points by 4 steel ropes 64 mm diameter anchored in the top section of columns), Baxter Laboratories Dining Hall, Deerfield, Ilinais, USA com- pleted in 1975 (44 m X 88 m roof is suspended from 2 masts which rise 10.67 m above the roof), the Football stadium of Genoa, Italy completed in 1989 and the exhibition hall in Luettich, Belgium (see Fig, 72). The roof of the Jahn stadium, Marl i. W., Germany”, built during 1963, provides a typical example of the cable stayed grid work system as shown in Fig.7.1c. This roof has a length of 67 m and a width of 10 m. The distance between the masts is 21 m and the height of the mast 31.8 m. Under the roof hangs 2.3 m high cabin for press, and TV (see Fig. 7.3). A similar arrangement is provided for a part of the Nya - Ullevi-stadium roof at Goeteborg, Sweden, which was constructed in 1958. Brandywine Raceway club house roof at Wilmington, Delaware, USA has a cable supported roof similar to that shown in Fig. 7. la and was built in 1968". The airport hangar at Berlin - Tegel ( built in 1976) having a width of 72.5 m and length of 105 m.also has a similar roof arrangement®! ‘The first adaptation of cable-stayed bridge technology to stadium design was considered in the USA only in 1993, This resulted in the roof of the Alamo dome, San Antonio, which is suspended from four 110 m tall towers. The details of this roof may be found in Ref.89. The Stade de France, in which the World Cup Football was staged in 1998, with a 61,000 sq.m surface is France's largest suspended roof. Page 273/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. 256 Principles of Space Structures digitalised by RLC Anchorage ate gitder or truss RES TES ES Fig. 71a Cable-supported cantilevered roofs Suspender Main cabte Vs Cable stays Grid work. Fig. 7c Cablpsiayad apidhagarkFig.7.3. Cable stayed roof aver the Jahn Stadium, Germany, (Courtesy: Beratungstetle fiir Stahlverwendung) Page 275/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. 258 Principles of Space Structures digitalised by RLC A double layer grid with an interesting hexagonal pattern at the bottom and with hyperbolic parabo- loidal pyramidal (made of polyester) units in between the top and bottom layers has been provided for the Sports Park roof at Laval, France (see Fig. 7.4). This roof structure built in 1970 and designed by S.du Chateau hangs from two masts made of circular tubes of dia. 168 mm and thickness 4.5 mm”, It covers an area of | 100 sq.m (52.5 m long and 28 m wide). “The large roof of the Bangkok International Trade and Exhibition Centre at Bangkok City constructed in 1997. is suspended by masts and tie-rod system. The suspended roof is composed of seven parallel frames which are laid side by side at a distance of 27 m and covers an area of 20,000 sqm. Each frame has (wo main stee] masts standing on reinforced concrete columns, one main steel truss girder covering 100 m span, reaction beam (36-m long) at the outer side of both columns and high strength tie-rods for suspending gitders and beams. More details about this structure may be found in Ref.81. Further exam ples of cable suspended roofs are given in Table 7.1 (see page 290) 74 SHAPES OF CABLE SUSPENDED SYSTEMS A further classification of cable suspended systems can be made according to the number of cables in the system (single or double layer) and the curvature of imaginary membranes stretched over the cables astic). Suspension systems consisting of a single layer of cables are referted to as single layer systems. ‘When viewed in plan the cables in a layer may be arranged in parallel, radial or mesh pattern. The mesh Fig. 7.4 Hanging roof over the Sports Park in Lavel, France (Courtesy: Beratungstelle fir Stahlverwendung) Page 276/687CE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. ere Cable Suspilig BBIGu Sultivtlids Cos9 arrangement is usually referred to as a cable net, Double, triple and quadruply threaded nets as well as nets of hexagonal mesh patterns have been considered in practice (see Fig, 7.5), The surface formed by a real or imaginary membrane stretched over the cable layer may besynclastic or anticlastic, A synelastic surface has the same kind of curvature in all directions; that is, concave or convex in any direction (positive Gaussian curvature) as, for example, the surfaces shown in Fig, 7.6. Ananticlastic surface has opposite curvature in the principal orthogonal directions; that is, coneavein ‘one direction and convex in the other (negative Gaussian curvature). Sometimes these surfaces are re- ferred to as saddle-shaped. Cable roofs with anticlastie surfaces are shown in Fig. 7.7. Such saddle- shaped prestressed cable nets achieve strength and stability (against flutter) via opposing tension forces between the two sets of cables. Note that non-prestressed nets (having both sets of cables with similar curvature) rely on other methods for achieving stability (e.g., dead weight). A special case of synclastic, or of an anticlastic surface is one with zero curvature in one direction. ‘Such a surface is often referred to as a surface of single curvature (Zero Gaussian curvature). A eylin- drical surface is an example of this type. PEPE (c) Quadruply threaded net () Hexagonal net Fig. 7.5. Cable net mesh pattems VW RA Fig. 7.6 Synclastic cable nets Page 277/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N_ 260 Principles of Space Structures Primary cable ‘Secondary cable (a) Stabilization through transverse cables tied to ground Edge member — Vertical columa — Primary cable “~~ Secondary cable (c) Hyperbolic paraboloidal ring on end supports (¢.g.: Arizona Coliseum) Fig. 7.7 (Contd) Page 278/687SPACE OTAUC TUBES A NLAN LAN Secondary cable Edge member (€) Boundary arches with one central arch Fi 7 Anticlastic cable nets Double layer cable systems having cables of one layer directly below corresponding layers of the other layer can be utilized for forming anticlastic and synclastic surfaces. Ridge and valley surfaces, sometimes referred to as. wave forms, can also be constructed utilizing double-layer systems. This is accomplished by stretching membrane between alternating upper and lower cables of a double layer system, A continuous wave form surface is shown in Fig. 7.8, Fig. 7.8 Continuous wave-form surface Page 275/687SPACE STRUCTURES BRAMANIAN N. 262 Principles of Space Structures digitaliserd by RLC The various types of roofs that can be constructed can be further classified on the basis of whether ot not they have to be pretensioned, It will be obvious that roofs with single curvature or positive double curvature. which consist of a single layer of cables, cannot be pretensioned except through preloading with. for example, a concrete roof™. Many examples of possible shapes of suspension systems are presented in the following section, 7.5 EXAMPLES OF CABLE SUSPENDED ROOFS 7.5.4 Single Layer Systems Single layer systems of single curvature have been utilized for many years for suspended roofs. One such example isthe pavilion constructed as early as 1896 at Nijny-Novgorod, Russia. This structure is rectan- jar in plan (30 m x 70 m) and has two-span suspended roof, cach span having a singly-curved synclastic shape. A similar single curvature roof adopted for the Notre Dame High School in Niles, Illinois was fabricated from 6 mm thick steel plates welded to form a membrane spanning 47.2 m with a sag of 2.75 m. A type of singly curved suspension system that has been utilized for these roofs is shown in Fig, 7.9. Another example of this type of roof is provided by the Lufthansa Jumbo Jet hangar at Frankfurt, Germany, This roof has a span of 130 m. In these roofs prefabricated roof deck panels are hung from parallel cables strung between towers. Actually shecable spacing is dependentupon the typeof roof deck. Close spacingiis fnerally economical A maximum spacing of about 3 m has been adopted. The flexural rigidity may be increased by means of prestressing, ifthe panels are precastconcrete elements. In this procedure, the panelsare positioned on the cables, maintaining a space between adjacent panels. A temporary load, such as bags of sand or piles of brick, is distributed over the surface thereby increasingcable tension, The joints between panels are filled with concrete, and ribs are cast surrounding the cables. After the cast-in-place concrete has hardened sufficiently, thetemporary load istemoved, thereby prestressing the panels because the cables are bonded panels by the cast-in-place ribs. This method of construction givesthe roof surface additional flexural ity. The passenger terminal at Dulles International Airport in Chantilly, Virginia (span between pairs of towers of this roofis61 m) isan examplecf this typeof prestressed construction, (See also Section 7.5.5) ‘Hanging structures, using the configuration shown in Fig. 7.9, have been built without using cables also. The following two exarnples illustrate such semi-rigid hanging roofs. Fig. 7.9 Singly curved single-layer cable-suspended roof Page 280/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. Cable Susprindtsh RawiSthyt Mest: 263 An unique semi-rigid hanging roof structure covering an area of 80 m (span) x 216 m (length) has been adopted for the Nagaro indoor speed-skating arena in Japan. The roof structure consists of LS hanging panels each having a span of 80 m and width of 18 m. The panel consists of 29 composite hanging beams and structural plywoods nailed on top surface. Each hanging beam consists of steel plate with cross section of 200 mmx 12 mm sandwiched by two glulam members with a cross section of 300 mmx 12,5 mm. The hanging beams are assembled to form an 80m span with a curvature radius of 162.5 m, Both ends of each panel are pin supported by steel columns (posts and stays). This composite roof structure made it possible to achieve a light and thin roof (300 mm thick) with extra long suspended spans (80m). Tsubota et.al., conducted various studies on this roof structure over several years and the results of the dynamic tests may be found in Ref.82. Another type of semi-rigid hanging roof has been adopted in 1985 for a rectangular plan of 54 mx 72 min Wakayama, Japan, A similar system has been adopted on a smaller scale in Kagoshima city in 1983. This roof designed by Prof. Kawaguchi is composed of transverse and diagonal members : the diagonal members are provided only in the outer area of the roof. The peripheral members with increased sectional areas constitute the boundary. They are supported by posts at appropriate distances. The weight of this roof is only 179 ¢. The interesting aspect of t#™Mesign is that the hanging roof supports are not provided with backstays””, 7.5.2 Single Layer Double Curvature Nets Hung roofs have also been constructed with synclastic surfaces curved in two directions. Rotationally symmetric synclastic surfaces may be built using tadial cables stretched between two peripheral rings as shown in Fig. 7.10, Precast reinforced concrete segments may be hung from the radial cables. This ype of structure may be prestressed in a manner similar to that utilized for singly curved roofs. The result will be an inverted shell of revolution having high flexural rigidity. Many structures of this type have been built. An interesting example of this type of cable system is the Municipal Stadium roof in Montevideo, Uruguay, which has a diameter of about 90 m. A similar roof has been adopted for the Oakland-Alameda Colosseum, California, U.S.A. This roof was built in 1966.and has a diameter of 128 m, It has a concave shell with radial cables and concrete roof cladding"!, The 122 x 97.5 m elliptical paraboloid roof at Oklahoma City” anda 116m diameter circular hyperbolic paraboloid roof in Phoe- nix, Arizona are alse good examples of this type of roof. \ Tension ring Compression ring, Central post TTI (a) Dished shell root (b) Tent roof Fig. 7.10 Single layer cable suspended soof curved in two directions Page 281/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. iples of Space Structures digitalised by RLC Cables for synclastie surfaces may also be set in a grid pattern; with a grid there is no need for an interior tension ring. For very large circular roofs, a triangular grid formed with three sets of parallel cables in each of the two layers provides very rigid arrangement if the three cables at each intersection are firmly secured and the two layers are interconnected with struts, But such grids may require more number of cables than a radial pattern. Non-rotational synclastic surfaces have also heen used to ¢on- struct cable roofs. Saddle-shaped anticlastic surfaces, such as that shown in Fig. 7.7b have also been used for hung roofs. The two intersecting sets of cables, of opposite curvature, forma uniform mesh; i.e., the intersec- tion angles of the horizontal projections of the cables are alike throughout the mesh. An advantage of this type of roof is that the intersecting cables may be prestressed against each other lo produce the required structural rigidity without requiring the temporary application of gravity loads. “The roof of the State Fair Arena at Raleigh, North Carolina (built in 1953), depicted during construc- tion in Fig. 7.11, is aa example of a saddle shaped roof. Matthew Nowicki was the architect (unfortu- nately he died in 1950 and could not see his work) and Fred Severud was the structural engineer for this pioneering project. In this roof, a saddle-shaped cable net is stretched aver an area of 115 m x 97 m between two inclined parabolic arches. The arches are made of reinforced concrete and rest on concrete- jacketed steel supports, The cables of the net are between 13 and 32 mm thick at a mean mesh width of 1300 mm, The saddle shape of the corrugated sheet roof, covered with a heat insulation layer and bitu- men weather proofing, ensures drainage towards two points**. This is a freely suspended cable roof, slightly prestressed after mounting. A similar roof has been constructed for the sports hall at Beverwijk, Netherlands in 1971. The enclosed area with curved contour lines is 81 m long and 60 m wide. The roof is supported on a cable net with meshes of approximately 1 x 1 m°, ‘The circular, saddle-shaped roof of the Palasport, Milan, Italy completed in June 1976 has a clear span of 128 m. A massive box girder 6 by 2.5 m in cross-section, circular in plan, and following the curve of the saddle in elevation has the cables anchored to it, and resists their inward pull. It is f supported, able to twist and flex, yet also held down, for in some circumstances an upward force can occur. The cables of this roof are spaced 2 m apart. Fig. 7.11 The Raleigh Arena during assembly of cables (Courtesey: Michael Joseph Ltd.) Page 282/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. Cable SuspeHall Rab Psi rfituRe-Gos A similar roof has been constructed over the 114 m diameter sports hall in Athens"*, The upper rope of this roof is 0 mm (127 4.6 mm) in diameter and the lower rope-46 mm (127 x 3.6 mm). The mesh dimension was 4 mx 4 m. The ropes had an ultimate stress of 1600 N/ mm? and an Young's Modulus of 165 kN/mm’, Instead of using two intersecting arches, as in the Nowicki’s Raleigh Arena design, continuous planar or shaped outer rings were adopted an several large projects in the U.S. and Canada. (see Table 7.1) Itcan be noted from this table that the Oakland arena and the Garden State Art Center employ circular compression rings that lie in a plane with hanging cables. The cables in both of these shells are placed radially, The cables for the saddle shape roofs (HPs) are placed orthogonally and are attached to com- pression rings of the type shown in Fig, 7.7c. The Oklahoma Arena also employs an orthogonal system of cables, but the shel] has the shape of an elliptic paraboloid. As mentioned earlier, these raofs are covered by precast reinforced concrete stabs, with the joints grouted, and the roof shell post-tensioned. The Calgary Saddle dome consists of two sets of cables forming arigid network of 6 mx 6 m grid on top of which 391 precast concrete roof panels of extra lightweight concrete are placed. The sagging cables are forced to remain parallel to each other and dip about 14 m in the centre (see Fig. 7.12 a). The hogging cables are laid on top of the sagging cables and are permitted to assume their free geodesic shape. Stressing is carried in two stages. After the first stage stressing, precast panels were placed over the cables. Atter the second stage, the narrow strip between the precast panels was filled with cast-in- place concrete that turns the roof into a solid thin shell. No false work was required for any operation”. Acframes in pairs are used to resist the lateral loads from the roof, 753 Double Layer Systems ‘The two-layer cable system fall into the following two principal categories: (a) Lens shaped systems which are circular or elliptical in plan (b) Systems which are rectangular in plan In lens shaped systems, the peripheral horizontal forces are usually resisted by a ring beam which is stressed primarily in compression. The cable layout may be either rectilinear in the form of a square grid (Fig. 7.13) or radial as in the case of a“ bicycle wheel” system (Fig. 7.14). In cither case, the average resultant peripheral forces under uniform loading are primarily radial. ‘The cables can be arranged in the form of aconvex lens, aconeave lens or an intermediate shape ( 7.13), Adouble ring beam is required in the latter two instances. The upper and lower layers are linked strneturally by means of struts in the convex design and ties in the concave design For systems which are rectangular in plan, a ring beam solution is not often feasible, and anchorages must be provided to resist the horizontal peripheral forces (see Fig. 7.15). The cable layout ustally differs from that of the lens shaped systems in that the cables are arranged in parallel trusses, spanning in one direction only (similar to that shown in Fig, 7.9). The choice between thering beam system and an anchored system is dictated by a number of interre- Jated factors including the planning of the building, the shape of the site and the nature of the ground. If the building is high or the ground is of poor soil, ring beams are adopted, Ideally aring beam would be loaded only with uniform radidi forces, and Would therefore be subject to pure compression, In prac tice some bending will be present due to unsymmetrical loading conditions or due to the shape effects. ‘The ring beam is normally supported by vertical columns at elose spacing. Thus bending moments and shear forces in the vertical plane are present in addition to those in the horizontal plane. It is better to make the beam as flexible as possible™ Page 283/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N_ iples of Space Structures digitalised by RLC 61.65 ‘ 61.65 a (c) Typical “A” frame elevation (d) Typical cross section through ring beam Fig. 7412, Calgary’s Olypnig Sedilia Reynetml ie SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. Cable Suspe: syoor padeys suey ene Big SUONIES-SE01) (4) Jor padeys-suaj adi orerpouusonu (1) ang surtoq Sup wysy, vas ae jenuag J 10". sureog Bury Joos padrys-sua] axesueD (1) S810. weld (e) sumaq Soy WAT joo padrys-supy xonuor (i) 1D Page 285/687266 Principles of Space Structures SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. digitalised by RLC ee hare, ring AE ee oT 2 \ Eth ne PSs Suspension and stabilization mechanism (a) Stabilization cable above suspension cable (convex lens shaped) ‘Tension ring Primary cable fi Compression ring ‘Suspension and stabilization mechanism (b) Stabilization cable below suspension cable (concave lens shaped) Fig. 7.14 “Bicyclg Wheel type ” double layer systems Page 286/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. Cable Susp Cio Buttitues Ca69 J TL | Lt] ee (a) Convex tons-shaped cable tras (c) Jawerth type cable uss 1+ Bearing member (main cable), 2-Stabilizing member (Secondary cable) 3-Steut, 4-Tie/ Anchorage, 5-Diagonal Strut Fig. 745 Prestressed in-plane double layer cable trusses for rectangular buildings Some form of A frame (see Fig, 7.16 a) is used as an anchorage system. In such A-frames, the toe is carried as far forward as possible to minimize uplifton the back leg, The back leg of the frame frequently consists of a continuation of the main cables. The disadvantage of A-frame anchorages is that they ‘occupy considerable space. Page 287/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. 270 Principles of Space Structures digitalised by RLC An economical form of anchorage is frequently achieved by utilizing the main building frame as shown in Fig. 7.16 b. In anchored systems, expansion or contraction of the,cables due to temperature changes tends to set up relatively high stresses than in ring beam systems. Such counter stressed cable frassses are much stiffer than simply suspended cable roofs and are used for large span roofs. Initially developed in Europe, it has been used in several parts of the warld. Some of the possible variations in design of such trusses are shown in Fig. 7.15. Either of the two cables can be used to pretension the other through the web members. The cladding can be placed directly on the upper ‘or the lower cable. The cable carrying the cladding is often called the carrying cable and the rest of the system is merely the pretensioning system’. Cable trusses are pethaps the most popularly used among the different roofing systems, because they are easy to-erect and can be employed to cover rectangular, circular, elliptical or other plan ares conveniently. An approximate design of the cable truss is provided im section 12.6. 7.54 Examples of Double Layer Systems ‘The Johanneshov-Stadium at Stockholm, Sweden constructed in 1962 is an example of structure having counter-stressed cable trusses™ (as shown in Fig. 7.15b). This stadium has an elliptical plan with 72 - 83 m width and 118 m length. The upper cable has a diameter of 58 mm and the bottom cable a diameter of 48mm. Jawerth type cable truss system has been adopted over a rectangular area of size 37.2. m x 37.4 for the Freilichttheater in Octighcim, Karlsruhe, Germany in 1961". Similar concave lens system has been adopted for the somewhat elliptical roof of Victor-huge sports hall at Bordeaux, France built in the year 1966, A double layer synclastic suspension system arranged in a radial manner (as shown in Fig. 7.14 b) ‘was utilized for the roof of the Salt Lake Country Civil Auditorium at Utah, U.S.A. constructed in 1969. ‘The uppet layer of the cable of the 110 m diameter roof comprises of 108 radial, 59.4 mm diameter Sa Cable truss \ pL | ‘Scatin; \\ vn . ‘Frame. Tension piles ‘Spread foundation (a) Typical anchorage (b) Anchorage utilizing seating framing Fig. 7.16 Anchorage systems Page 288/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. Cable SuspONEUHAEP SAI RL G71 strands, The lower cable layer consists of 108 radial cables of 41.3 mm diameter. Cable ties, 12.7 mm in diameter, spaced 4.27 m apart, connect the two sets of cables. A similar structural arrangement was.used for the United States Pavilion at the 1958 World’s Fair in Brussels, Belgium. Figure 7.17 shows a part of this structure during the erection of the central tension ring. ‘Owing tots remarkable form it was popularly known as the ‘bicycle-wheel’. This roof hada diameter ‘of 90m and had two layers of prestressed radial steel cables, fixed to the compression peripheral ring resting an vertical walls. At the centre a tension ring had been provided. The edge compression ring resolved all the horizontal forces into tension of the top and bottom layers of the cables, preventing any horizontal force being transmitted to the supporting columns. This resulted in slender columns which resist only direct stresses, Similar roofs have been provided for the New York State Pavilion (LO7 mx 80: m elliptical roof) at New York City, U.S.A. (1965), the 80 m sports hall at Herning, Denmark, the 36,5 x 37.5 m roof over the Whorley reservoir in England, the 73.2 m roof of the Forum sports arena al Inglewood, California and the 77 mx 128 m transit hall at Schiphol, Holland. A double layered cable system has been adopted for the two domes of 40 m diameter and multi layered cable system of two domes of diameter 60 m and 120 m, far covering the stadia for the African Games in Cairo, Egypt”. The description af these structures as well as the details of their analysis and construc tion may be found in Ref.73. Fig. 7.17 The two-layer suspended roof of the American Pavilion at Brussels during construction (Courtesy: Michael Joseph Ltd.) 75.5 Some Outstanding Cable Suspended Roofs 1. The Munich Olympic Stadium Roof The roof for the Olympic Games of 1972 in Munich (covering an area of more than 70,000 sqm) was designed in 1967 and completed in 1972. This structure is the masterpiece of Frei Otto and was engineered by Leonhardt-Andrae. It consists of gigantic masts, (up to Page 285/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. 272_ Prineiples of Space Structures digitalised by RLC 80 m long and having up to 3.5 m diameter) a steel cable net and guy cables built on enormous concrete foundation”, (See Fig. 7.18 and 7.19). The cable net is covered with prestressed acrylic sheets and PVC- coated polyester membranes, The cable net forms. series of hyperboloid structures suspended between the rows of stayed masts and a sweeping catenary edge cable. It was the first time in history that a cable structure on this scale had been built. The design team of Architect Guenther Behnisch together with Frei ‘Ono as the cable net expert, experimented during the long design phase with new techniques, new mate- rials and applications. ‘The development of prestressed membrane and cable net structures was greatly speeded up by the Munich roof, but it really became of age when computer techniques were developed that were able to determine the geometry for the roof and its composing elements and the statical analysis. 2. Tokyo Olympic (1964) Indoor Gymnasia The spectacular major and minor indoor gymnasa for the 1964 Tokyo Olympics were designed by Tsuboi, Kawaguchi and Tange (Architect)! ‘The major gymnasium for swimming and judo has a seating capacity of 15,000 people; the minor one for basket-ball has 4,000 seats. It has plan dimensions of 126 m x 120 m. This building is noted for its two-directional suspended roof consisting of the central swracture—resembling a suspension bridge, with supporting towers, main cables, anchor blocks and tie beams (see Fig. 7.20)—and a balance structure of secondary cables running to the periphery of the stands. The secondary cables stiffen the roof, preventing, deformation and flutter. PVC fabric Pylons Main cables Edge reinforcing cables ON Stedium ‘Cable set with acrylic panels for roofing Fig. 7.18 Schematic diagram of the Munich Olympic Stadium Roof Page 290/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N_ Cable Suspelickdletnmé sire ith C273 Fig. 7.19 External view of the Munich Olympic Stadium root (Courtesy: Beratungstelie fir Stahlverwendung) The structure is carried in the longitudinal direction by two main cables which span 126 m between the two main columns and 65 m (44 m in elevation) beyond, the sag of the cables in the centre span being 9,653 m, The cables are Inid parallel in the side spans and spaced apart at 2.58 m intervals (itis increased to 16.8 m at centre span to provide space for skylights). Fig. 7.20 System adopted for the major gymnasium of 1964 Tokyo Olympics Page 291/687BRAMANIAN N. Higitalised by RIC ‘The roof of minor gymnasium consists of a self standing main column, from the top of which hanging members come down following a spiral curve in space. The hanging members spring from the outer edge of the grand stand of 65 m diameter. Figure 7.21 shows the external view of the major and minor gymnasia, Bath structures utilize cables for the roof suspension, Because of the structural complexity of these structures, 1/30 scale roof models were used to modify the design and confirm analytical results. An ingenious damping system was devel- oped for the larger structure. More details about these structures may be found in Ref.93 and 94, 3. Main Hail of Taisekiji Temple, Japan This ball, measuring 110 m x 83 m in plan, was built in 1972. It features a semi-rigid, wheel-like suspension roof supported by curved beams that are mounted berween a tension ring at the centre and the two elliptical edge beams. The curved radial rings are in tension. Small beams connecting these curved beams serve to-adjust the flow of all stresses and to stiffen the roof planes. 4. Ice Skating Hall at Munich, Germany An already existing ice skating rink at Munich, Germany was covered by a translucent cable net structure during 1983. The prestressed cables of the nets are suspended between an arch along the axis of symmetry of the structure and edge cables on guyed masts along its circumference. (See Fig, 7.22 and 7.23), The arch which primarily acts in compression and which is stabilized by the cable net itself is designed as a space truss with triangular ¢ross section, Its members are stee] tubes with diameters of 245 mm for the chords and 83 mm for the diagonals. The two- layer-cable nets are formed by galvanized double strands, 11.5 mm diameter each, fixed with aluminium clamps at a mesh width of 750 mm, Their edge cables are locked coil ropes with 60 mm diameter. They SPACE STRUCTURES - 274 _ Principles of Space Structures : a tal te - 7 ee ee Fig, 7.21. Tokyo Olympics Indoor Gymnasia-Major (right) and minor (left) halls. (Courtesy: Beratungstelle fiir Stahlverwendung) Page 292/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. Cable Swspisaliiad Rett seMcttbel> 275 67.0m Fig. 7.22 Ice Skating Rink at Munich, Germany are anchored or supported by cast steel joints and knots, As compared to other cable: net structures including the adjacent cable net roof for the 1972 Olympic Games, where the facades are usually inde- pendent steel structures, in this case the facade has been integrated into the structure : prestressed cables of the same type as used for the cable nets are suspended between the edge cables and the ground, Glass panels are attached directly to them. Such a “membrane facade” consumes a minimum of material and permits an almost unobstructed view from the inside into the surrounding landscape, The cable net is covered by a wooden grid which carries a white and translucent PVC-coated polyes- ‘er fabric. The grid spacing is 750 x 750 mm corresponding to the netiin the upper part of the roof along the arch, and narrows continuously towards the lower edges, where the snow weightis a maximum due to the small slope of the roof. This grid scheme contributes to the very generous and pleasing interior of the hall with its increasing transluceney from the periphery towards the elevated centre, There the eye- shaped slots between the edge cables of the two nets and their suspenders from the arch are covered with clear glass. This permits the arch to be seen from the inside of the hall and makes evident that this is one of the rare cases where the structure js the building or where form follows function. 5. Duiles International Airport Building, USA This building was completed in 1962 near Washing- ton, D.C., USA. This building features a one-directional suspension roof, its parallel cables mounted Page 293/687276 Principles of Space Structures Fig. 7.23a Inner view of the cable net, the wooden grid and the translucent fabric of ice-skating Rink, Munich Fig. 7.23b. Anchorage to the cable and main arch of the ice skating rink, Munich Page 294/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. Cable Shiqjtalké Rebhgtrhebices 277 between pairs of cantilevered posts. The horizontal tension at the cable ends is countered by the bending resistance of the posts. The bending moment at theit bases is reduced by the inclined posts’ weight, Deformation and flutter of the roof planes are prevented by a roof shell made of integrated PC slabs. 6, Federal Reserve Bank of Mianeapolis, USA This suspended floor structure was built in 1974 Cables acting as catenary beams (catenary cables) are suspended from the RC cores at both ends of the building, The catenary heams are connected to wide-flange beam posts above them and to flat-bar sus- pended posts beneath them. These posts support the floors of 11 stories, The horizontal clement of the floor load transmitted through the cables acts on the truss structure (89.4 m span, 8.5 m depth) at the top of the building, but is offset by an arch in the six floors above the truss. 7, Funabashi City Central Wholesale Market, Japan This structure, incorporating a huge suspension roof of size 90 m by 252 m, was completed in 1967 on a building site of 23,000 sqm. in Funabashi, about 10 km south-east of Tokyo, The roof is suspended from cables stayed in eight directions from the tops of 12 steel pipe posts (Fig. 7.24). Thus each column supports about 1,900 m? of roof area. The columns are made by roll-bending steel plate with a diameter of 750 mm at the top and 1200 mm at bottom. The structure's circumference is completely open The roof itself is composed of a 1.8 m deep space truss laden with 100 mm thick autoclaved light weight concrete slabs and water proof shects. The roof is suspended from the columns by parallel strands - cight such strands connecting the roof with the top of each column (see Fig. 7.24). Each strand.consists of 5 mm diameter wires aligned in parallel to form a strand of hexagonal cross section (compared ta conventional wire ropes, parallel-wire strands are free from “twisting lass” and thus have higher values of Young’s Modulus), The respective strengths of a wire used is 1600 Némm? with a design factor of safety of 5.5, Maximum wire strand diameters 85 mm. The weight of mortar placed for a distance of 6 from the eaves and PC slabs at the extreme end offset the force of upward winds acting on the roof. 90m Fig. 724 Funabashi City Central Wholesale Market, Japan 7.6 ANALYSIS OF SUSPENSION STRUCTURES. ‘The structural analysis of suspension systems under static loading may be considered as comprising of two parts: (1) Determining the initial position of the system under initial loading: and (2) computing the displacements of the systems that result from changes of loading, temperature, or support position, These wo parts are explained briefly in the following paragraphs. Page 295/687SPACE STRUCTURES BRAMANIAN N. 278 Principles of Space Structures digitalised by RLC 7.6.1 Initial Shape of Suspension Systems Suspension structures may be treated mathematically as discrete or continuous systems. In the discrete approach the real structure is represented by an assemblage of elements interconnected at a finite number of nodal points at which the loading is assumed concentrated as shown in Fig. 7.25(a). At each node equilibrium of forces and compatibility of displacements must be satisfied. Mathematically, this mode! may be represented by a set of difference equations. Alternatively, a set of algebraic equations may be formed directly by considering equilibrium at each node in terms of the locations of adjacent nodes. For complex structures the set of algebraic equations may be large. Incontinuous approach, simultaneous ordinary differential equations, or partial differential equations are utilized to represent the real structure. It is. assumed, in effect, that the cable segments are curved as shown in Fig. 7.25. This situation can exist only if distributed loads are applied, The details of the analysis are outside the scope of this book; the interested reader may refer to the papers and books given at the end of this chapter. Membrane without shear resistance (a) Discrete (b) Continuous Fig. 7.25. Discrete and continuous representation of suspension structures 76.2 Displacements Resulting from Changes of Loading Three types of behaviour characterize the cable element: Changing geometry, non linear behaviour and dynamic action, Since cables have very little bending stiffness, they must change configuration in order to continue to carry loads in tension. ‘As the cable geometry changes to accommodate the loads, this same change in geometry creates differences in cable forces, Cable deflection also changes the geom- try with increasing load producing deflection which change the geometry—which change the cable forces. This behaviour results in non-linear displacement curve, an important characteristic of cable elements. The governing equations for displacements of suspension systems can be derived utilizing either a discrete or a continuous mathematical representation of the structure. For most theories the initial position of the structure and the initial forces in all membranes must be known beforchand, If a discrete approach is utilized, the formulation results in a set of non-linear algebraic equations. A con- linuous approach leads to a set of non-linear differential equations. ‘The displacements have.also been calculated by methods based on the minimization of the total poten- tial energy of the system. Simpler discrete problems can also be solved by using numerical methads. Many methods of analysis are available and the references given at the end of this chapter can be con- sulted for forming the equations and for solving them, For simplicity in analysis, counterstressed double-layer suspension systems can be considered as com- prised of independent planar suspension systems analyzed by using any one of the available methods. Various approximate methods of analysis and design charts are also available!**4 55 Page 296/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. Coble Suspenneh teitnoe iy rep C79 7.6.3 Dynamic Response of Suspension Systems ‘The characteristic of cable-suspended systems which makes them so attraetive for spanning large areas, that is, the efficient utilization of tension members having negligible flexural rigidity, also contributes towards the major structural disadvantage of such a system, The disadvantage is the inherent instability of suspension systems under time dependent loading, Because cables are light and flexible members, they are particularly sensitive to vibration, flapping, rippling, fluttering and galloping, all forms of dy- namic behaviour, Wind is the prineipal cause of dynamic behaviour, although movement of vehicles, machinery and sound waves may also contribute. Lift and vortex shedding created by wind, impose dynamic forces that create behaviour patterns in relation to the ratio of the frequency of the exciting force to the natural frequency of the cable, Although more information is available on the dynamic behaviour of suspension bridges and guyed towers, not much information is available on the free and forced vibra- tion of cable-suspended roofs. One approach to the design of cable roofs for dynamic loading would be to choose cable parameters (span and sag) such that the frequencies of anticipated exciting forces would never occur in the vicinity of a cable natural frequency, One way of doing this is to increase the mass supported by the cable. As discussed earlier, precast concrete panels may be used to increase the mass. Anather way of doing this is to increase the damping of the cables. The total damping of a cable may be increased by adding external damping by means of mechanical-shack absorbers. Detailed information on the dynamic analysis of these structures is available in Ref. 25 and 75. 7.6.4 Natural Frequency of Double Curved Single-Layer Systems When two cable subsystems of opposite curvature are tied together the natural frequency of the complete system does not correspond to the natural frequency of either subsystem alone because the subsystems are stressed against cach other. The computation af the natural frequency of double-curved nets has been described by Jawerth and Schulz”, Procedures for calculating approximate values of the natural fre- quencies of symmetrical and unsymmetrical modes of vibration for double curved nets, rectangular in plan, are presented in Otto and Schleyer"* together with examples of such calculations. Double-Layer Systems: An alternative method of increasing the natural frequency of a cable-system through prestressing is the concept of utilizing two layers of cables separated by struts or tied together ‘with ties as in the bieycle wheel system (Fig. 7.14b). Similar to the doubly curved single-layer system the natural frequency of the complete double-layer system is different from the natural frequency of either of the subsystems. 7.7 CONSTRUCTION ASPECTS OF CABLE ROOFS 7.7.1 Structural Strand and Rope In the preceding parts of this chapter, the term cable has been used to-indicate a flexible tension member. Structural strands and ropes are most commonly utilized as cables. A strand is an assembly of steel wires, wrapped helically around a centre wire in one or more symmetrical layers and has a cross section shawn in Fig. 7.26a, A rope is composed of a plurality of strands wrapped helically around a core as shown in Fig. 7.26b. For better protection against corrosion, the strands are locked as shown in Fig. 7.26¢. These strands are smooth surfaced. ‘They are made up of shaped wires laid in concentric layers around a central core of round wires, Page 297/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. Higitaliserd by ALG ‘The cables are invariably of high tensile steel, and they are normally steel wire ropes up to 100 mm dia. Typical minimum breaking loads are 240t for 30 mm dia, and 530k for 75 mm dia. ropes. Working loads of up to 45 per cent of minimum breaking strength are commonly used. . In shell system roofs, concrete prestressing cables and anchorages are frequently used in place of conventional wire ropes. 280 _ Principles of Space Structures (a) Strand (b) Rope {¢} Locked strand Fig. 7.26 Cross section of Structural Strand and Rope 7.7.2 Cable Fittings Many kinds of terminal attachments are available to facilitate the connection of cables to the structure: and to anchorages. There are two types of terminal fittings; viz,, swaged and zinc poured sockets, Zine poured sackets are the most widely used type of end-terminal fittings. In this type of fitting, the wires at the end of the cables are broomed out, cleaned and usually immersed in a flux solution. The wires are then placed in the socket basket and pure molten zinc is poured into the basket surrounding the individual wires Swaged fittings are often used on the smaller ropes and strands. In this type, the cleanly cut cable end is inserted into a close-tolerance hole in the end of a steel fitting which is then placed in adie block of a hydraulic press, The fitting is of a softer steel than the cable wires so that when the die block is under controlled pressure, the softer steel of the fitting flows plastically around the wires. After an initial squeezing, the fitting may be squeezed several times with the fitting rotated in the die between squeezings. Other types of fittings used with cables consist of tumbuckles with both eye-fittings and jaw-end fit- tings, wire rope clips, wire rope thimbles and anchor shackles, Some of these fittings are shown in Fig. 7.27. More details about cables and cable fitting are available in Ref. 61. 7.7.3 Placement and Tensioning of Cables Prior to shipment of the cables from the manufacturer they are prestretched. While the cable is under dead load tension, itis usually marked with a longitudinal line to indicate its untwisted position, meas~ ured and marked where intermediate field connections are to be made, and marked for fitting with proper end fixtures at the specified length. The cables are then shipped to the construction site. on reels whichare: large enough (o prevent the loss of prestretch properties by excessive bending. Since end fittings allow Iength adjustment of only asmall fraction of the total length, high accuracy in calculating and measuring, cable lengths is required. One exception has been noted in the practice of attaching end fittings at the Page 298/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. Cable Subpatted ROS! SuG6RleGe 281 Bearing —» (a) Swaged socket (b) Swaged sacket {f) Zine-poured socket B a (g) Zinc-poured socket (h) Zine-poured socket (2) Closed bridge socket ) Open bridge socket Fig. 7.27 Cable fittings cable manufacturing plant. In the North Carolina State Fair Pavilion, difficulty in calculating the lengths of guys for the main cables caused the contractor to decide to swage the fitting on one end in the field’ When cables are ready for stringing, they are unrecled below their final position, One end is attached to its anchor and the other end, with adjustable fitting is brought to its anchor. An adjustment is then made to bring the cable to a predetermined position. The position of anchors can often be controlled at this stage to minimize the force necessary to position the cable. For example, a tension ring can be raised above its free hanging position to allow more sag in the cable". However, cable sags are often of such small magnitude that a large force is required to bring the cable into position, Initial cable tensions are often of relatively large magnitude, and therefore itis necessary to specify a sequence of placing cables to avoid overstressing the supporting structure. This is especially true when the anchor is a compression ring or arch which should be loaded telatively uniformly to prevent locally critical bending”. ‘The specified cable pretension is obtained either directly, by measuring the cable force with a cali- brated jack, or indirectly, by adjusting anchor positions and sag. In structures such as guyed cantilevers or parallel planar systems, where there is no interaction between the sets of cables, the initial tension is usually obtained by controlling a position. Page 299/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. 282 Principles of Space Structures digitalised by RLC ‘In net systems, the main cables are placed and adjusted for position, After the system of cross cables is placed. the net is prestressed by jacking a tension force inta the cross cables, The tension in the main cables is usually not measured or directly controlled. In radial systems the load carrying cables reach maximum tension, prior to live load application, under full dead load. The scaffolding under the tension ring is generally set low enough that the ring raises off the scaffolding when the latter part of the dead load is applied, In double-layer systems. only the preload or dampening cables reach maximum tension when the struts or ties are inserted, As dead oad is added, the tension in the load-carrying cables increases and the tension in the preload cables decreases, Because uniform loading of the supporting structure is important, means for measuring and adjusting tension is provided. Practice appears to vary as to whether: another adjustment of individual cables is made after the dead load is in place. In radial systems, where uniform loading on the rings is important, a final cable adjust- mentis common. Typical weights for individual cables 150 m-300 m long are 2-12 t and for an individual 90m span cable truss, 3 t. The erection of individual cables: or simple prefabricated cable trusses therefore presents no great difficulty. ‘Whatever construction method is used, it is normal practice to use anend fixing for the cables which incorporates a device for taking up any slack required for ereetion purposes. 7.8 DESIGN OF CABLE ROOFS 7.81 General Considerations The stractural design of cable-supported roofs are affected by erection procedures to a greater degree than is the design of roofs utilizing conventional framing systems. The sclection of suspended system— single-layer or double-layer, anticlastie or synelastic, stiffened by flexural members or unstiffened, self anchored or externally anchored—is largely dependent on architectural requirements. The configuration of the cable system is influenced to a great extent by structural considerations such as, for example: foundation conditions which may determine whether the system is self-anchored or externally arichored, the methods of stabilizing the roof against undesirable response to dynamic loading, and the choice of dimensional parameters such as clearance, sag and inclination of anchor stays so as to minimize the forces in the cables. The forces which the structural system must be designed to resist include dead load, live loads, wind Joads, erection loads including prestress forces, and such effects such as temperature change, cable stretch and creep of reinforced concrete supporting members, It has to be noted that partial live loading is usually more severe with regard to deflections of the cable systems. 7.8.2 Design of Pure Cable Systems The design process of a lens-shaped cable system under symmetrical loading has the following steps** 1. adepth-span ratio is assumed the size and number of the top and bottom cables are assumed. 3. a prestress for the top and bottom cables is assumed ( the geametry in the weightless condition is determined entirely by this prestress) 4. the dead load is applied, and the alteration in cable stress and consequent change in geometry are evaluated Page 300/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. Cable Susyntne btiRersdtiwpeuiads C283 5. the.superimposed load is then applied, and the changes in cable stress and geometry are again evaluated 6. acheck is made that the allowable stresses are not exceeded and that the geometry of the system is adequate For practical purposes at each stage (e.g., roof slope sufficient for drainage). If the result is unsatisfactory, the process is repeated as necessary, until all the criteria are satisfied. Inacircular roof with a symmetrical cable layout in plan, the calculations for symmetrical loading can be carried out for a single truss in an isolation, and are relatively simple. For non-symmetrical layouts, however, or for asymmetrical loading arrangements, itis necessary to consider the whole roof structure including the ring beam as an interrelated structural system, ‘The design process for a double-curvaturé net is basically similar to that for a two-layer system. 783 Design of Shell Systems A shelltype cable structure is subject to two entirely different structural states. During the application of the greater part of the dead load (during the construction of the concrete shell) it behaves as.a pure cable structure. After the completion of the shell and application of prestress, it acts as a prestressed concrete shell structure. ‘The design and construction process for a typical dished shell system has the following steps**: 1. Aconstruction system is chosen having regard to the economic and other factors prevailing at the site 2. The thickness of the shell and the dimensions of any ribbing are assumed 3. Asag-span ratio is assumed and the structure is designed as a normal shell subject to the required loading conditions 4. The ring beam is designed as part of the shell structure The size and number of cables necessary to give the prestress required to neutralize the tensile shell stresses are evaluated. 6. The exact construction sequence is determined 7. The cable network, including the ring beam, is analyzcd sequentially for every loading combination met with during construction. 8. Accheck is made on the cable stresses and geometry at each stage and the process repeated until all the criteria are satisfied. 7.84 Design for 183 m Span Bicycle Wheel Roof” ure 7.28 a and b-show the plan and ctoss-section of the bicycle wheel roof. The design superimposed Joading is 750 N/sq.m. ‘The cladding consist of light metal decking with 25 mm fibre board plus waterproofing membrane, ‘The cables are galvanized HT spiral strand $4 mm 60 mm in the upper layer and 75 mmx 60 mm in the lower layer. The purlins are cold rolled zeds at 3m centres, and the steuts are CHS tubes. The ring beam is of reinforced concrete 6.5 m wide and 2 m deep. The central cage (tension ring) is of welded steel work. The structural characteristics of the roof are: initial prestress in weightless condition—upper cables 92 t, lower cables 92 t force in cables under full load - upper cables 50 t, lower cables 220 t maximum deflection due to superimposed loading 730 mm maximum force in struts 16.4 ¢ eR ee Page 301/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. 284 Principles of Space Structures digitalised by RLC 335 mm diaSieel — -—Central cage ne wiee [ 54-mm cables Treno + tt 183 m dia 75 mm ess 183m (b) Cross section Fig. 7.28 Design example of bicycle wheel roof 7.8.5 Design of 183 m Span Dished Shell Roof* Figure 7.29 shows the plan, cross-section and certain details of the dished shell roof. The design super- imposed loading is 750 N/sq.m. The cladding consists of precast concrete panels with concrete infilling and a waterproofing mem- brane. The cables are 12/18 mm low relaxation prestressing cables in normal prestressing ducts. The precast concrete cladding panels are of 16000 N/cu.m lightweight concrete 3 mx 3m, as shown in 7.29. The ring beam is of reinforced concrete 4.0 m wide and 1.4 mdeep. ‘The rainwater run-off is estimated at 31,500 lit./h and is dealt with by three pumps (one on standby) which remove the water to the perimeter of the Yoof. An emergency overflow weir is provided at the central eye. The structural characteristics of the raof are: 1. Force in cables after erection of precast units but before concreting filler strips 90 t, 3. Prestress applied to cables (after losses) varies from 42t to 125 t. 3. Maximum deflection under full downward superimposed loading 57 mm. In the examples. described, the design of the cables has been carried out by means of a computer analysis without taking into account the distortion of the ring beam. The design of the ring beam is based onan approximate method. Page 302/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. Cable Suspellf RUGS UBIE Gos Precast concrete panels > Ring beam 12/18 mm \,_prestressing \ ie fa) Plan (5) Cross section In situ concrete filling cs 1 Precast concrete panel 1 5 T1218 mm prestressing cable Hy \ 3.00 m | (e) Detil of section A- A Fig. 7.29 Design example of dished shell roof 7.8.6 Ring Beams®® The problems of constructing a large ring beam are similar to those of building a high level viaduct The ring beam is a substantial structure supported on long slender columns of up to 30 m above ground level. Good repetition is normally obtainable, the ring beam clements and columns each fre- quently numbering 100 or more. Where lifting equipment of the appropriate capacity is available, precasting of beth columns and ring beam segments derives advantages from the high degree of repetition. These benefits also occur where Page 303/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. 286 _ Principles of Space Structures digitalised by RLC structural steel work is used and to a lesser degree in the case of in situ reinforced concrete. The choice between the three constructional media is based on considerations of speed, plant availability and economy. 787 Cable Anchorages Whenever possible the standard fittings of the cable manufacturer should be used. The proposed erection procedure should be considered together with the configuration of the anchoring structure in selecting the fitings. Provision should be made for adjusting cable lengths for both space location and for initial presiress. The end anchorage should be protected from corrosion due to atmospheric conditions, water scepage and vehicular damage, 79 ANCILLARY PROBLEMS. 7.9.1 Drainage “The volume of water generated by large stadium roofs can be very great. For example; the surface area of acircular 300 m dia, roof is approximately 7 ha and at 75 mm/h rainfall the short term run-off is 90,000 Uk. With convex Iens-shaped systems, double-curvature nets, and cable truss systems, the roof can usu- ally be arranged to drain towards the exterior of the building, and hence no special drainage problems are created. With dished structures, however, all run-off water flows to the centre of the roof, must be disposed of either by pumping tothe rim ofthe roof or by a drain suspended in mid-air within the building (the later arrangement being visually unsatisfactory), Where pumps are used, it is desirable to provide a central aperture fitted with an overflow weir to ensure that, in the event of pump failure, no build-up of water on the roof is possible, Standby pumps are also required for important buildings. 79.2 Water-tightness For water-tightness and to avoid potential trouble due to roof movements at points where cables pen- etrate a roof, itis desirable to place cables either completely below or completely above the roof surface. If cables must penetrate a roof, the joints should be caulked and sealed with a metal protected, tubber- like collar. The large movements which can occur in cable structures due (o changes of loading of temperature are, of course, a major problem of water-tightness. Here the relatively greater rigidity of double-layer systems is advantageous. [t is also possible to construct the system so that the movement is concen- trated in predetermined areas. These locations can be protected with skylights or special water-tight expansion joints. Instlations may be used to prevent large thermal movements. The best way of preventing the leakage of water into the building is to provide monolithic prestressed decking. The cable roofs can also be clad with light metal sheets such as corrugated aluminium, tongued and grooved timber boards or lightweight slabs or panels covered with waterproof membrane, Gunite concrete may be sprayed on metal roofing to provide water-tightness, Some details of covering cable rool structures are shown in Fig.7.30. Page 304/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. Cable sul NBN RET EYRE aan 793 Lighting® In large covered stadia, a high degree of natural lighting can be achieved by using a pure cable structure, and by substituting transluccnt or transparent roof cladding for the more usual opaque type. With shell systems, partial natural lighting can be achieved by providing a large central opening which is roofed by a pure cable structure incorporating translucent roof cladding, or which is left uncov- ered. Swessing Plastic or cable ligheveight \ Panels Felt Insulation board “~ Ke | if 2 Suspension = ae cable = @ PS E one geeast in pancls ook Cover ploe = Pressed metal cable fixing ‘™!"® 1d supports f jon ald supports for Suspension. Trehewetght pancls Paint and cover fillets or @ plaster soffit 4b) Felt Vermiculite serced ‘Cover filles or eae plastered soffit between cables Aluminium Aluminium faced plywood expansion strip \ Plastic strip Movement joint Stressing cables —a @ (e) U Bolt fixing for cables Fig. 7.30 Methods of covering roof structure Page 305/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. 288 Principles of Space Structures digitalised by RLC 7.9.4 Heating and Ventilation Services™ The type of roof cladding, which is of course influenced by the choice of structure, can have an important effect on the heat gain or loss in a building. For example, the use of large areas of translucent cladding can lead to a substantial build-up of heat within the building. In this respect, the concrete shell is superior to other forms of cladding, because af its better resistance tothe passage of light and heat and because of its capacity to retain heat. Providing.an opaque roofing material having reasonable insulation properties, a standard of spectator comfort appropriate to sports activities can be achieved at low service cost. 795 Fireproofing Little has been published on the fire resistance of cable assemblies and fire rating requirements are not mentioned in most building codes. Usually the fire rating for these systems should be taken as the same as that required for ether structural systems. When concrete decking is used as the roofing, cables are often grouted into the roof and protected against direct flame impingement. However, many structures exist in which the cables are exposed either outside or inside the building. Sprinkler systems may also be used in cable roots. 7.10 ERECTION OF CABLE ROOFS ‘The erection sequence is the most important aspect in any cable supported roofs, Considerable planning in erection is required to obtain the intermediate alignments which will ensure that the final structure has the proper configuration. The erection stresses should also be considered in the design. The sequence of erection operations for a cable roof is fairly uniform among various types of struc tures. Construction begins with cable supports which include anchorages, buttresses, rings, masts, ete. Next, the cables are placed and adjusted to some preliminary position (see Section 7.7.3). Roofing and other dead loads to be supported by the cable systems are then placed on the structure without tight interlocking. The cables are then given a final adjustment before proceeding with tightening the sup- ported structure and finishing the roof surface. Many exceptions could be cited in which the general procedure has been varied by adding, omitting, or interchanging steps. So the sequence should be consid ered only as a very general outline, Allerection is customarily carried outusing conventional cranes. Erection times are quite short in cable roof construction, Roofs of about 70,000 square metre area were completed in four weeks in North Carolina and forty days in Montevideo, Another great advantage in erecting cable roofs is the small amount of scaffolding required. Cantilevers, parallel systems and nets can be constructed with 0 temporary support for the roof. Radial systems require temporary support only for the tension ring. 711 ECONOMY The cable suspended roofs are more economical than conventional roof systems due to the Following reasons; it is cheaper to buy large quantities of cables; the number and cost of fittings do not increase proportionally ta the span; the erection of a large span cable roof is as easy as for a smaller span. The economy of cable roof systems is generally affected by the mode and degree of prestressing. For exam- pple, if they are prestressed by gravity loading, heavy supporting structures and foundations are required to support the dead loads, thus increasing the cost of the building, Page 306/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. Cable Susphingl td Reel beng thrbs. 289 ‘The cost information available indicates that cable roofs are economical for spans in the range of 100-150 m, Extensions made from existing data show that this economy may be achieved up to spans of 300m and more. For example, foran increase from 100 m to 200 m in diameter, the resulting increase in overall weight was found to be only 55 per cent", The weight of the high tension cables used in some existing cable suspended roofs may be found in Table 7.1. The estimated cost of shell roofs in relation to span, as evaluated by Butler is shown in Fig, 7.31. Pumps ‘Water proofing Precast cladding Rs fm? of roof area (USA 1960) rma (USA. 1964) 2 = E = 2 o 50 100 150) 200,250 300 Fig. 7.31 Estimated cost of Dished Shell Roof in relation t Span™ 7.12. NEW TRENDS” Suspension structures can be applied to building design in a number of ways, such as cable nets and suspension arches. One approach to supporting a roof by suspension is the cable-stayed suspension roof as shown in Fig, 7.32 a. Such roofs can be made lighter still by reducing the bending stresses in the members by providing the main frame with intermediate supporting points (Fig. 7.32 b). The arrange- ment of back-stays and anchor blocks is important, as are rust prevention measures for the cables and the metal fixtures in outdoor locations, ‘Setting a new trend are ‘self-anchored! structures, in which the main members are prestressed. Repre- sentative of this approach is the heam string structure (Fig. 7.32 c), a development of the cable-stayed suspension roof. The prestcessed steel cables radiate outwards and upwards from a steel tension ring just beneath the roof to a slightly higher compression ring. made of steel or reinforced concrete, set atop the building's main frame. The roof slabs supported by the cables can be thin, since each slab needs to span only the short distance between cables. Stress analysis of the beam string roof is easy, and the members are easy to make. ‘An example of a beam string structure is provided by the Sports Hall of Science and Engineering Dept, Nihon University, Japan. This structure has a span of 58 m and was constructed in 1985. An optimum reat slope is obtained by imparting adequate prestressing by cables to the heavy-weight, large Page 307/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. 290__ Principles of Space Structures digitalised by RLC Table 7.1 Some examples of Cable Suspended Roofs si ‘Country. use, ‘Size, area ‘Shape ‘Surucural Roof ‘HT steel in No. date completed wpe cladding — cables weight, kg/squm 1 US Pavilion, Brussels, 90 m dia. Circular Bicyclewheel Light 3.90) 1958 6.500 sq.m weight 2. Utica NY, USA, 76 m dia, Circular Bicyclewheel Light 186 Municipal 4,180 sq.m. weight Auditorium, 1960 Workers’ Gymnasium, 90 m dia, Circular Bicycle wheel Light a Beijing, China, weight 1961 4, New York Stare 80mx 107m — Elliptical, §~—Bicyclewheel Light ee Pavilion, NY 6.600 sq.m weight World Fair, 1965 5. Palasport, Genoa 67 m dia. Circular Bicycle wheel Light 1 Sports Stadium Overall dia. ‘weight (Central area only) 162.0, 1965 3,700 sq. 6. Salt Lake County 110 m dia Circular Bicycle wheel Light dL72 Auditorium, USA, 9,476 sq.m. (concave type) weight 1969 7. National Sports Outer dim- elliptical “Bicycle wheel. «= PVC. 8.00 Comples, Kuala Lumpur, ension of coated (Total Malaysia, 1998 Stadium: polyester cost 286 m x 225.6 m membrane of (width of roof Toot 66.5 m) 800 38,500 sq.m DMim*} 8. Montevideo, Uniguay 94 mn dia Circular Radial cable Concrete 2.05 1958, Sports stadium 6,970 sq.m dish (shell) 9. Villita Assembly Hall 40 m dia. Circular Radial cable Light = USA, 1960 1,300 sqm dish weight 10. Chicago Airport S8mdia. Circular Radial cable Concrete 7.15 Restaurant, USA, 2.840 sqm dish (shell) 1963 11, Oakland - Alameda 128 m dia. Cireular Radial cable Concrete 6.64 Coliseum, USA, Sports 12,820 sq.m dish (shell) Stadium, 1966 12. Madison Square 123 m dia. Circular, Radial cable Concrete 8.01 Gardens, NY, USA, 11,970 sq.m dish (shell) Sports Stadium, 1967 13. Hampton Roads Coliseum, 98 m dia. lar Radial cable Light 3.76 USA 7,430 sq.m dish (stiff weight ened by falded cladding) plate (Conse Page 308/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. Cable Suspetnalitsh René at heagtitds291 si Country, use, Size, area, Shape Suewral Roof HT steel in Ne, date completed type cladding cables weight, Keysq.m. 14, Tidewater, Virginia, 98 m dia. Radial cable Light — USA, Fair Hail, 1969 7,430 sqm. dish on arches 15. Raleigh Arena, USA, 115 mx 98m Elliptical Cable net on Light a Livestock Arena, 1953. 5,570 sqm. (saddle shape} arches weight 16. Oklahoma City Arena, 122 m x 98m, Elliptical Double curvat- Conerete = — USA, 1964 9,480 sqm. ure net (shell) 17. Arizona State Fair 116 m dia. Circular Double curvat- Concrete — Arena, USA, 1966 10,590 sqm, hyperbo- ure net (shell) lig para- boloid 18. San Juan Coliseum, 96 x 96 m _ Double curva- Concrete = — USA, 1973 square ture net 19, Calgary saddle dome, 135.3 m Saddle Double curvat- Concrete = — Canada, 1986 dia. shape ure net (shell) 20. Skating Stadium, 183 mx 113m Rectangular Cable truss Light _ Holland 20,600 sqm. weight 21. Stockholm lee 83 m span Reclangu- Cable truss Light 6.10 Stadium, Sweden, lar Gawerth weight 1964 System) 22. Fencing Stadium, Qimx6lm — Rectangular Cable truss Light ~ Olympics, Mexico, 5,550 sqm. weight 1968 23. Sports Stadium, SO m span Rectangular Cable truss Light ie Eisspom, Germany weight 24, Schiphol Transit 77m span Rectangular Cable truss Light 342 Store, Holland weight 25, Billingham Sports 6lmx40m Near ree= Cable truss: Light = Centre, UK. 1968 2,440 sqm. tangular oft arehes weight 26. Sports Stadium at 96 m span Rectangular Selfanchored ——Corruga-. | — Karlsruhe, Germany, suspension ted sheets 1984 bridge type system suppor- ling a steel grid 27. Olympic Stadium, 308m x237m Elliptical Radial cable Fibre glass — Rome, Ital truss: coated. 1990 with PTFE. (Teflon) 28. Football stadiurn, - Elliptic al Radial cable Membrane — Torina, Italy, trusses anch- made of 1990 cored by exte- fibre- tal stayed glass and frames PTFE with 60% trans- lucence 29. Sports Palace, 50m span Cable truss Light 3.61 Sweden weight (Caned) Page 309/687292 _ Principles of Space Structures SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N_ digitalised by RLC st Country, use, Size, area Shape Structural Roof HT steel in No. date completed type cladding cables weight, kyisqam, 30, Supermarket. ai 43 m span Rectangular Cable truss Light 2.78 Mons. France weight 31, Sports Hall, Sala, 45 m span Rectangular Cable truss Light 4.88 weight 3 . 57 m span Rectangular Cable truss Light 259 Poznan, Poland weight 33. Sports Hall, 61 mspan Rectangular Cable truss Light 2.98 Kerkrade, Germany weight MM. Sports Palace, 93m span Rectangular Cable truss Light 5.22 Helsinki, Finland weight 35. Industrial Building, 45 m span Rectangular Cable truss Light 2.69 Pomezia, Italy weight I e $ (a) Cable stayed suspension root t ‘~ + 1 t (c) Beam string roof t Fig. 732 Different types of Suspension Roof Structures. Page 310/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. Cable Susyitiagiia atic hit ids\295 span soot. Furthermore, the adoption of a sliding roof construction method results in improved structural safety and. quality, and greatly reduced construction time. A novel concept proposed recently is that af the prestressed steel truss (PSST), in Which the bottom chord members are prestressed (Fig. 7.33). This is regarded as a hybrid of the (russ structure and the suspension structure. Prestressing of the bottom chord members permits control of stresses and deflec- tion in the truss main frame. The PSST approach saves weight, and the design and manufacture of the truss main frame are almost the same as for conventional truss structures. (b) Tension applied to bottom chord menibers lifts truss, reducing deflection Fig. 7.33 Principle of PSST (Prestressed Steel Truss) structures The PSST structure is particularly effective in creating a flat structure. It does not require a compli- ig method or high-level design and execution techniques. Use of the PSST makes it possible to construct wide-span structures that were difficult to build with conventional plane (russes due to their ited spanning capability. REFERENCES 1, Aizawa, M, Tanaka, S., and Tsubota, H., Theoretical Analysis of Pretensioned Cable Structures, Proceedings of the 2nd Internatianal Conference on Space Structures, University uf Surrey, Sept. 1975, pp. 220-230, 2, Avent, R.R., Nonlinear Field Analysis of Structural Nets, Jowrnat af the Structural Div., ASCE, Vol. 95. No, ST5, Proc. Paper 6556, May 1969, pp, 889-907, 3. Bandel, H.K.. The Hanging Cable under Theee-Dimensional Loading and Temperature Change (in German}, Der Bauingeniewr, Vol. 37, No. 4, 1962, pp. 145-146. 4. Barnes, M.R., Application of Dynamic Relaxation to the Tepological Design and Analysis of Cable Membrane and Pneumatic Structures, Proceedings of she Ind Intemational Conference on Space Structeres, University of Surrey, Sept. 1975, pp. 211-219, Page 311/687294 Principles of Space Structures SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. Higitalised by RIC 3. 6 Berger, H.. Shaping Cable Supported Lightweight Tensile Structures, Bulletin of she [ASS, Vol. XVI-3, No. 62. Dec. 1976, pp. 23-32. Buchoich. #4... and Dixon, R., The Design and Analysis of Cable Roof for Gdsal Sports Centre, Bradford, U.K. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference an Space Structures, University of Surrey, Sept. 1973. pp. 202-210. Cable Construction in Contemporary Architecture, Booklet 2264 A, Bethlehem Steel Corp... Bethlehem, Pa. Cable Suspended Roof Construction—State-of-the Art by the Subcommittee on Cable Suspended Structures of the Task Committee on Special Structures of the Cammittee an Metals of the Structural Div.. (AB, Sealzi-Chairman), Journal of the Structural Div., ASCE, Vol. 97, No, STG, Proe, Paper 8140, June 1971, pp. 1715-1761, ‘Cables Support Steel Plate Roof. Engineering News Record, Vol, 175, No. 19, Nov. 4, 1963, pp. Davies, RM, (ed.), Space Structures, Biackwell Scteatific Publications, Oxford, 1967, Chapters 74 to 79 and 86. Dean, D.L,, and Ugrate, C.P., Analysis of Structural Nets, Publications, Jaternasional Assoeiation of Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE), Vol. 23, 1963. Esquittan, N., and Sailard, ¥., (ed.), Hanging Roofs, Proceedings of she JASS Colloguium, Paris, 1962, Published by North Holland Publishing Co., 1963. Fischer, €., dr, Cable Supported Warehouse Roof provides Large Open Area, No. 9, Sept. 1966. Faster, E.P., and Beaufait, F.W., Analysis of Cable-Net Panel Roof System, Iiternational Jaurnal af Computers aud Structures, Vol, 9, No, 5, Nov. 1978, pp. 501-521 (the listing af a computer program is given for the analysis of these structures). Fresh Forms and New Directions from a Special Kind of Problem Solving, Architeeiural Record, Vol. 143, No, 5, May 1968, Gexsert, RM, et al.. Cable Roof Structures, Booklet 2318, Rethleem Steel Corporation, Bethlehem, Pa, 1968, Gero, 4.S., The Analysis of Cable Networks Using an Iteration Technique, Architectural Science Review, Vol. 10,'No, |, Mar, 1967, pp. 2-5, Gero, 4.5.. The Behaviour of Cable Network Structures, Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference ‘on Space Structures, University of Surrey, Scpt. 1975, pp. 368-378. Gero, JS., The Preliminary Design of Cable Network Structures, Butfetin of the IASS, Wot. XVII-3 62, Dec. 1976, pp. 7-22. Greenberg, D.P., Inelastic Analysis of Suspension Roof Structures, Jowrnal of she Structural Div., ASCE. Vol. 96, No. STS, Proc. Paper 7284, May 1970, pp. 905-930. Hua, HW., Engineered Structures at Expo'67, Civil Engineering, Vol. 37, No. 3, Match L967. Jatemational Conference on Tension Roof Strectures, London, Proveedings, April 1974. Jawertk, D., and Selute, H., On the Natural Prequency and Aerodynamic Stability of Suspended Roofs tin German}, Der Siafdbau, Vol. 35, No. |, Jan, 1966, Jonatowshiy JJ. and Birnstiel, C., Inelastic Stiffened Suspension Space Structures, Journal of the Structural Divs, ASCE, Vol. 96, No. ST6, June 1970, pp. 1143-1168. Krishna, P., Cable-Suspended Roofs, MeGraw Hill Book Co., New York, 1978, pp. 314 (the listing of a computer program for the analysis of these structures is given. This book also gives more information about the static and dynamic analysis of cable roofs). Krishna, P., and Agarwal, T-P., A Study of Suspended Roof Model, Journal of the Structural Div, ASCE, Vol. 97, No. ST6, June 1971, pp. 1671-1684. Krishna, P.,and Natarajan, P.R., Behaviour of Doubly Curved Cable Roof Networks, Bulletin of the JASS, No. 34, June 1968. il Engineering, Vol. 36, No. Page 312/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N. digitalised by RLC TENSILE MEMBRANE STRUCTURES GENERAL Membrane structures are ones in which the main load-carrying members transmit applied loads to the foundation or other supporting structures by direct tensile stress without flexure (bending) or compres- sioa. Theit cross-sectional dimensions and method of fabrication are such that their shear and flexural rigidities, as well as their buckling resistance, are negligible. The main advantages of membrane structures are their curved surfaces, spacious atmosphere and membrane material's translucency. They are as soft as clouds in contrast to the rigidity of concrete structures. A further advantage is that they are easy to ship and erect. Their flexibility allows them to be coiled, rolled or folded into small packages. Cables are often used to reinforce the membranes. These cables can be hundreds of metre long, requiring no splices or internal connections. They can be raised and connected to their end supports by cranes, winches or helicopters, requiring no scaffolds™. In fact, the erection time for a fabric structure is much shorter than that for a conventional structure. * Memibranal structures fall into the category of tension structures. As already discussed in the previous chapter, there: are two broad classes of tension structures: cable structures consisting of uniaxially stressed members, and membrane structures consisting of biaxially stressed members. In order to elimi- nate the compressive forces in the membrane structure, they are to be pretensioned or prestressed which means that tensile stresses are to be built up in the surface to the extent that they are stable even after the application of external loads (dead load, snow, etc.). If we exclude the preloading of the structure with mass or weight as done in the case of hanging roofs, there remains two basic methods to apply the necessary prestress : mechanical prestress of the surface applied from its periphery and pncumatie pres- sure, the first leading to surfaces with negative Gaussian curvature or saddle shapes, the second to-posi- tive Gaussian curvature or dome shapes. Ithas to be noted that tensile forces can be applied only to the surface or the membrane; the supporting structures for equilibrium necessarily contain compression members, ¢.g., masts, compression rings, etc. From this it follows that the art of designing such tensile membrane structures consists in finding, for each case, a reasonable compromise between the free use of the shapes tensile membranes permit and the eost to be paid for the supports. The optimal cases the self-balunced structure, ¢.g., a pneumatic cushion surrounded by ating acting in pure compression, Another principle problem of these structures is that theircurved surfaces usually donot comply with the functional space requirements thus leaving a volume which isof no use but increases the cost of heating / cooling and maintenance. ‘With respect to the structural design itself one cannot but emphasize the interrelation between the type of a membrane structure, its manufacture and its geometry, the latter being responsible for its load bear ing behaviour (Fig. 8.1). Thus the designer of tensile membrane structures has the choice between — Cable nets with quadrangular (“square”) meshes Cable nets with triangular meshes Page 316/687SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N.. Tensile Memitirgibestinenntiyy ALC Geometry and load bearing behaviour Type of membrane Manufacture af the stroctural surface Forces cannot flow on linget path besause of limnited shear stiffness deal membrane shell behaviour The shear stiffness of the fabric and its coating determine the level of the membrane shellebehaviour Ideal membrane shell behaviour ‘Thin metal sheet | membrane Fig. 6.1 Interdependence between type of membrane, the manufacturing, the geometry and the load bearing behaviour! — Textile (foldable) membranes — metal (non- foldable) membranes ‘Whereas cable nets usually requice a cladding, the textile and metal membranes act also as cladding. From the above discussions, we may categorize membrane structure into four sub-classes: 1, Air-supported structures in which an enclosing membrane is supported by a small differential air pressure, e.g., stadia roofs, inflated temporary shelters or store houses. 2, Air-inflated structures in which highly pressurized tubes or dual-walled masts are used as structural members in a space structure, ¢.g., inflated beams, columns, or arches: dual-walled sbells; air cushion roofs. Page 317/687