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Condition Monitoring of DC-Link Electrolytic Capacitors in PWM Power

Converters Using OBL Method

Article  in  Sustainability · May 2020

DOI: 10.3390/su12093719

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 sustainability

Article
Condition Monitoring of DC-Link Electrolytic
Capacitors in PWM Power Converters Using
OBL Method
Ahmed G. Abo-Khalil 1,2, * , Abdel-Rahman Al-Qawasmi 1, * , Ali M. Eltamaly 3,4,5 and
B. G. Yu 6
1 Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Majmaah University, Almajmaah 11952,
Saudi Arabia
2 Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Assuit University, Assuit 71515, Egypt
3 Saudi Electricity Company Chair in Power System Reliability and Security, King Saud University,
Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia; eltamaly@ksu.edu.sa
4 Sustainable Energy Technologies Center, King Saud University, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia
5 Electrical Engineering Department, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
6 Division of Electrical, Electronic and Control Engineering, Kongju National University,
Chungcheongnam-do 31080, Korea; bgyuyu@kongju.ac.kr
* Correspondence: a.abokhalil@mu.edu.sa (A.G.A.-K.); a.alQawasmi@mu.edu.sa (A.-R.A.-Q.)




Received: 20 March 2020; Accepted: 26 April 2020; Published: 4 May 2020


Abstract: Since the lifespan of an electrolytic capacitor is relatively short compared to other power
semiconductor devices, the failure rate accounts for 60% and, thus, it is the most vulnerable component
of the power conversion device. Therefore, the accurate measurement of the lifetime of an electrolytic
capacitor is very important in ensuring the reliability of the entire system, including the capacitor.
In this paper, an online failure detection method for a DC-link electrolytic capacitor in a back-to-back
Pulse width Modulation (PWM) converter using the opposition-based learning particle swarm
optimization-based Support Vector Regression (OPSO-SVR) technique is proposed. In this method,
the capacitance and the DC-link capacitor power have been used in offline mode for SVR training and
testing. During the offline mode, the SVR parameters have been optimized with the OPSO algorithm
to use online to estimate the real value of the DC-link capacitor. The experimental results prove the
superiority of the proposed technique over the SVR.

Keywords: electrolytic capacitors; opposition-based learning; lifetime estimation process

1. Introduction
Electrolytic capacitors are widely used in power conversion devices for the purpose of voltage
smoothing due to their characteristics, but their lifespan is relatively short compared to other power
semiconductor devices, which is a major factor in causing failure. The failure of the individual
components will result in the failure of the power converter and the shutdown of the entire system
in which it is incorporated, thus, requiring additional cost and time associated with the individual
shutdown of the fault, as well as with the shutdown of the entire system. Therefore, it is indispensable
to determine the lifetime of the part before the failure by continuously checking the state of components
and to judge the life of the components before failure occurs. Among them, a failure diagnosis
of the most frequently occurring electrolytic capacitors ensures the reliability of the whole system.
The lifetime of an electrolytic capacitor can be predicted formally by the factors specified in the data
sheet provided by the capacitor manufacturer, but the life expectancy of the electrolytic capacitor
may vary due to factors such as the capacitor ripple current in the topology of use, and the change

Sustainability 2020, 12, 3719; doi:10.3390/su12093719 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

 Sustainability
Sustainability 2020,
2020, 12,12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
3719 2 of2 17
of 16

reliability of the capacitor to determine the deterioration state of the electrolytic capacitor in advance,
in and,
ambient temperature.
Sustainability
a fault forThere
2020, 12, x FOR
diagnosis PEER is a limit
REVIEW
continuously to accuracy,
observing therefore,
the current in order
capacitor statetoisensure the[1,2].
essential reliability
2 ofFigure
17 of
the1 capacitor
shows to determine
the failure the deterioration state of the electrolytic capacitor in advance, and, a fault
Sustainability 2020, 12,distribution of different components in a static converter [3]. It is obvious2that
x FOR PEER REVIEW of 17 the
reliability of the capacitor to determine the deterioration state of the electrolytic capacitor in advance,
electrolytic
diagnosis for capacitor
continuously is theobserving
weakest element in thecapacitor
the current converters.
state is essential [1,2]. Figure 1 shows the
and, a fault diagnosis for continuously observing the current capacitor state is essential [1,2]. Figure
failurereliability
distribution of theofcapacitor
differentto determine
components the deterioration state of the[3].
in a static converter electrolytic capacitor
It is obvious thatinthe
advance,
electrolytic
1 shows the failure distribution of different components in a static converter [3]. It is obvious that the
and,isa the
capacitor faultweakest
diagnosiselement
for continuously
in the observing the current capacitor state is essential [1,2]. Figure
converters.
electrolytic capacitor is the weakest element in the converters.
1 shows the failure distribution of different components in a static at
Temperature converter
25o [3]. It is obvious that the
electrolytic capacitor is the
70% weakest element in the converters.
60%
Failure ratio
50% Temperature at 25o
70%
40%60% Temperature at 25o
30%
ratio ratio
70%
50%
20%
60%
40%
10%
Failure

50%
30%
0%
40%
20%
Failure

10% Electrolytic Semiconductor Inductive

30% Diodes
0% Capacitor
20% Switches Elements
10% Electrolytic Semiconductor
ComponentInductive
list Diodes
0% Capacitor Switches Elements
Electrolytic Semiconductor Inductive
Component list Diodes
Capacitor Switches Elements
Figure 1. Distribution of failure of power components [1].
Component list
Figure
Figure 1. Distributionof
1. Distribution of failure
failure of
ofpower
powercomponents [1]. [1].
components
The lifetime of electrolytic capacitors is typically 1000 to 10,000 h in the case of operating under
high temperatures,
The lifetime which Figure
is not
of electrolytic 1.
longDistribution
enough
capacitors of failure
for most of1000
power components
applications [1]. case of operating under
The lifetime of electrolytic capacitors isistypically
typically 1000 toto10,000
10,000 h inh the
in the case of operating under
Thetemperatures,
high maximum temperature
which is notratings are typically
long enough for mostbetween + 85 °C and + 105 °C [4]. Figure 2 shows
applications
The lifetime
high temperatures, of electrolytic
which is not longcapacitors
enough is typically
for most1000 to 10,000 h in the case of operating under
applications
a typicalThe maximum
capacitor temperature at
characteristic ratings are typically
105 °C; between
the capacitor + 85 °C
lifetime isand + 1058000
about °C [4].h.Figure 2 shows the
To diagnose
high
The temperatures,
maximum which is not
temperature long enough
ratings for most
are typically +85 ◦ C and +105 ◦ C [4]. Figure 2 shows a
applications
between
a typical
reasons of capacitor characteristic
electrolytic capacitor at◦ 105the
failure, °C; configuration
the capacitor lifetime
of the is about 8000
capacitor shouldh. Tobediagnose the as
introduced,
The maximum
typicalreasons
capacitor temperature
characteristic at 105ratings arecapacitor
C; the typically between
lifetime +is85about
°C and8000+ 105h.°CTo
[4].diagnose
Figure 2 shows
the as
reasons
shown in of electrolytic
Figure 3. Any capacitor
aluminum failure, the configuration
electrolytic capacitor hasoftwo
the capacitor
aluminum should
sheets beand
introduced,
an electrolytic
a typical capacitor
of electrolytic capacitor characteristic
failure, the at 105 °C; the capacitor
configuration of the lifetime isshould
capacitor about 8000
be h. To diagnose
introduced, as the
shown in
shown
solution inThe
[5]. Figure 3. Any aluminum
aluminum electrolytic electrolytic
capacitor capacitor has two aluminum
can be electrically sheets andseries
represented an electrolytic
reasons of electrolytic capacitor failure, the configuration of the capacitor shouldasbea introduced,
connection
as
Figuresolution
3. Any [5]. The aluminum
aluminum electrolytic
electrolytic capacitor
capacitor has can
twobealuminum
electricallysheets
represented
and an as electrolytic
a series connection
solution [5].
of capacitor, resistor,
shown in Figure and aluminum
3. Any inductor, as shown
electrolytic incapacitor
Figure 4has
[6].two aluminum sheets and an electrolytic
of capacitor,
The aluminum resistor, and
electrolytic inductor,can
capacitor as shown in Figure represented
be electrically 4 [6]. as a series connection of capacitor,
solution [5]. The aluminum electrolytic capacitor can be electrically represented as a series connection
resistor, and inductor, as shown in Figure 4 [6].
of capacitor, resistor, and inductor, as shown in Figure 4 [6]. 120
120
Capacitance Change (%)
(%) (%)

100
100
120
Change

8080
100
Change

6060
80
Capacitance

4040
60
Capacitance

2040
20
0200
00 2000
2000 4000
4000 6000
6000 8000
8000 10000
10000
0 Time (Hours)
8000 0
10000 2000 Time
4000 (Hours)
6000
Time (Hours)
Figure 2. Capacitor characteristics under high temperature [4].
Figure 2. Capacitor characteristics under high temperature [4].
Figure
Figure 2. Capacitorcharacteristics
2. Capacitor characteristics under
underhigh
hightemperature [4]. [4].
temperature

Figure 3. The configuration of aluminum electrolytic capacitor.

Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17
Sustainability 2020, 12, 3719 3 of 16
Figure 3. The configuration of aluminum electrolytic capacitor.

R Leak

Figure 4. Electrolytic
Figure 4. Electrolytic capacitor
capacitor equivalent
equivalent circuit.
circuit.

Here, the generation of capacitance C is generated at the anode and cathode, the internal resistance
Here, the generation of capacitance C is generated at the anode and cathode, the internal
Rs is represented by the resistance of the electrolyte and the insulating paper, and another small
resistance Rs is represented by the resistance of the electrolyte and the insulating paper, and another
resistance configured
small resistance configuredin parallel with Cwith
in parallel is dueC istoduethetoelectrolyte
the electrolyte leakage current.
leakage LS represents
current. LS represents the
equivalent series inductance.
the equivalent series inductance.
The
The leak
leak and and deterioration
deterioration of of the
the electrolyte
electrolyte can can be be considered
considered as as the
the main
main eroding
eroding process
process in in
these capacitors by vapor diffusion through the seals. As a result of this deterioration, the capacitor’s
these capacitors by vapor diffusion through the seals. As a result of this deterioration, the capacitor’s
internal
internal ESR
ESR changes
changes from from the the original
original value
value [7–10]. Until now,
[7–10]. Until now, the the failure
failure signal
signal diagnosis
diagnosis technique
technique
has
has been
been mostly
mostly fault-determined
fault-determined by by determining
determining the the onset
onset of of abnormal
abnormal signs signs when
when the the ESR
ESR value
value
of
of the
the electrolytic
electrolytic capacitor
capacitor deteriorates
deteriorates more more than than twice
twice as as normal.
normal. In In [11],
[11], aa pulsating
pulsating component
component
voltage/current
voltage/current signal signalof ofaacapacitor
capacitorisismodeled
modeledininaaDC/DC DC/DCconverterconverterbybya abandpass bandpassfilter (BPF)
filter (BPF) forfora
specific
a specificswitching
switching frequency
frequency range. References
range. References[12–14] proposed
[12–14] a method
proposed of estimating
a method the capacitor
of estimating the
ESR by recursive least squares (RLS) signal processing and
capacitor ESR by recursive least squares (RLS) signal processing and Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Root-Mean-Square (RMS) operation after
passing
operation theafter
pulsatingpassing voltage/current
the pulsating signal of the capacitor
voltage/current through
signal of thethe BPF, respectively.
capacitor throughBeside
the BPF, this
method, several algorithms, such as DFT (Discrete Fourier Transform)
respectively. Beside this method, several algorithms, such as DFT (Discrete Fourier Transform) [15], [15], Newton–Raphson [16],
the least square method
Newton–Raphson [16], the (LMS)
least[17],
squareandmethod
the Laplace(LMS) transform
[17], andalgorithm
the Laplace [18] were also
transform proposed[18]
algorithm to
calculate
were alsothe capacitance
proposed or ESR to
to calculate thepredict the capacitor
capacitance or ESR lifetime
to predict by theusing the voltage/current
capacitor lifetime by usinginjection the
method. As such, these methods are largely dependent
voltage/current injection method. As such, these methods are largely dependent on the on the signal processing of the BPF, whichsignal is
cumbersome to know a specific switching frequency in advance
processing of the BPF, which is cumbersome to know a specific switching frequency in advance for for each PWM power converter,
which
each PWMmust have power a very large bandwidth.
converter, which must However,
have awhen verythe bandwidth
large bandwidth. of the However,
filter is large,whenthe sizethe
of the signal is reduced due to the influence of the capacitor 0 s impedance. Furthermore, as the higher
bandwidth of the filter is large, the size of the signal is reduced due to the influence of the capacitor′s
order filter design
impedance. is required,
Furthermore, as thethehigher
filter coefficient
order filter and the hardware
design is required, implementation are difficult.
the filter coefficient and the
Instead of injecting
hardware implementation are difficult. a voltage or current signal, it is possible to measure or calculate the capacitor
rippleInstead
currentofbased on the
injecting difference
a voltage betweensignal,
or current the converter
it is possible output current and
to measure inverter input
or calculate current.
the capacitor
The direct
ripple measuring
current basedofon thethecapacitor
difference current ripplesthe
between is used in a few
converter studies
output [19,20].and
current Thisinverter
methodinput adds
more hardware in the capacitor circuit, which adds complexity
current. The direct measuring of the capacitor current ripples is used in a few studies [19,20]. This and cost. Moreover, using a toroidal
core in measuring
method adds more thehardware
capacitorin ripple current adds
the capacitor extrawhich
circuit, parasiticadds inductance,
complexity which deteriorates
and cost. Moreover, the
estimation
using a toroidalof thecore capacitance.
in measuring the capacitor ripple current adds extra parasitic inductance, which
To have more
deteriorates the estimation efficient of lifetime estimation methods, several intelligent control approaches
the capacitance.
have Tobeenhave proposed
more efficientin the lifetime
signal injection
estimation techniques,
methods, such several as intelligent
Support Vector control Regression
approaches [21,22],
have
neural networks [23], and particle swarm optimization (PSO)
been proposed in the signal injection techniques, such as Support Vector Regression [21,22], neural[24]. To implement the neural network
(ANN)
networks method
[23], and withparticle
accurate MPPT,optimization
swarm the selection(PSO) of neurons
[24]. To and layers should
implement be large
the neural so that it
network takes
(ANN)
more
method timewith in the training
accurate MPPT, stagethe [25]. The Support
selection of neuronsVector andMachine
layers should (SVM)be method
large so has been
that proposed
it takes more
as
time in the training stage [25]. The Support Vector Machine (SVM) method has been proposed and
a regression method to estimate the capacitance based on the sampling data of capacitance as a
the DC-link capacitor power. The SVM method is considered
regression method to estimate the capacitance based on the sampling data of capacitance and the DC- to have a significant advantage over
ANN. SVM haspower.
link capacitor a globalThe andSVM unique solution,
method while ANNto
is considered canhavestickain multiple local
significant minima.
advantage However,
over ANN.
using fixed SVM parameters in a wide range and continuous
SVM has a global and unique solution, while ANN can stick in multiple local minima. However, variation of the capacitance results shows
low
usingestimation
fixed SVM accuracy.
parameters Therefore,
in a wideit is necessary
range andtocontinuous
use an optimization
variation algorithm to optimize
of the capacitance the
results
Support Vector Regression (SVR) parameters for the wide
shows low estimation accuracy. Therefore, it is necessary to use an optimization algorithm torange capacitance.
To optimize
optimize the Support the selection of these parameters,
Vector Regression (SVR) parameters a genetic algorithm
for the wide range (GA)capacitance.
or PSO can be used.
However, for the sake
To optimize of simplicity,
the selection high-optimization
of these parameters, a genetic performance, algorithm and (GA)fast convergence,
or PSO can PSO be used. has
significant merit over the other optimization techniques [26].
However, for the sake of simplicity, high-optimization performance, and fast convergence, PSO has
However,
significant meritbyover using
the theother Particle Swarmtechniques
optimization Optimization-Support
[26]. Vector Regression (PSO-SVR)
method,
However, by using the Particle Swarm Optimization-Support Vector features.
the population results have random manner due to the PSO-generated Regression Therefore,
(PSO-SVR) it is
not sufficient to use PSO alone to produce a precise result when
method, the population results have random manner due to the PSO-generated features. Therefore, it is used to tune the SVR parameters.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 3719 4 of 16

The opposition-based learning (OBL) method can be used to accelerate the process of optimizing
the SVR parameters in different conditions and obtain knowledge about the corresponding global
optimum. The proposed opposition-based learning particle swarm optimization (OPSO) is used to
tune the SVR parameters to improve the capacitance estimation capability by comparing the obtained
parameters from the SVR training and the parameters that are obtained from SVR with the opposite
parameters. If the SVR with opposite parameters is better, these parameters are then used in the next
step until the estimation process is done [27].
In this paper, an AC voltage component that has a frequency of 30 Hz, which is lower than the
line frequency, and an amplitude of 10 V is injected into the DC-link voltage reference, which causes
the real DC-link voltage to oscillate with the same frequency. The effect of the injected AC component
is negligible because the number of the cycles of the injected voltage is short. The resulting AC
voltage ripple component is then extracted using a BPF to estimate the DC-link capacitance using the
OPSO-SVR method with tunable parameters by using opposition-based learning (OBL). The kernel
function in SVR is used to estimate the capacitance based on the sampling data and SVR parameters,
which are obtained from the offline training process. The proposed algorithm is validated by the
experimental results.

2. Capacitance Lifetime Monitoring

In the AC–DC–AC converter steady-state condition, the DC-link voltage stays constant except
for switching frequency-related ripple components. To estimate the capacitor circuit parameters,
the available information from the constant DC-voltage is not enough to use. Therefore, injecting a low
frequency signal to the reference voltage is required to estimate the capacitance during the disturbance.
The injected component into the constant DC-link voltage is as follows:

v∗dc,ripple = Vac sin ωin t (1)

To guarantee an accurate capacitance estimation, the DC-link voltage with the injected AC
voltage should be controlled precisely. Therefore, a feedforward component needs to be added to the
conventional DC-link voltage controller. When the PWM converter loss is neglected, the input and
output power of the DC-link can be expressed as:

C dvdc 2
= pin − pout (2)
2 dt
Equation (2) is used to estimate the DC-link capacitance by calculating the two sides of the
equation as follows:
3 
pin = ved ied + veq ieq (3)
2
3 
pout = veds ieds + veqs ieqs (4)
2
If ie∗
d
= ied = 0 for the unity power factor control of the line side, then:

3 e
pin = Ei (5)
2 q
From (2) through (5), the feedforward component of the q-axis current reference is as follows:
 ∗2 
2  C dvdc
i∗qe, f f

= + pout  (6)
3E 2 dt

Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 17
Sustainability 2020, 12, 3719 5 of 16

The total reference DC-link voltage is given as:

The total reference DC-link* voltage
* is given as:
vdc Vdc0  vdc,ripple Vdc* 0 Vac sinint
*
(7)
v∗dc = Vdc0
∗
+ v∗dc,ripple = Vdc0
∗
+ Vac sin ωin t (7)
By substituting the DC-link Equation of (7) in (6), and assuming that V dc* 0  V ac , then:
By substituting the DC-link Equation of (7) in (6), and assuming that Vdc0∗ >> V , then:
ac
* 2
dvdc
dv∗dc 2  2inVdc 0Vac cosint
(8)
*

dt = 2ωin Vdc0 Vac cos ωin t

∗
(8)
dt
Thus, by substituting the square derivative of the DC-link voltage from (8) into (6), the
Thus, by substituting the square derivative of the DC-link voltage from (8) into (6), the feedforward
feedforward component of the q-axis current reference is expressed as:
component of the q-axis current reference is expressed as:
*
iqe 
2
 2 in CV∗dc* 0Vac cos in t  pout
i∗qe,, fff f =3 E ωin CVdc0 Vac cos ωin t + pout
 (9)
(9)
3E
Figure
Figure 5 5shows
showsthethecontrol
controlblock
block diagram
diagram of of the
the AC/DC/AC
AC/DC/ACPWM PWMconverter.
converter.The Thecontroller
controller
consists
consists of a DC-link voltage control loop and two current control loops. The q-axis current is is
of a DC-link voltage control loop and two current control loops. The q-axis current
determined
determinedby bythethe DC-link voltagecontroller,
DC-link voltage controller,
whilewhile the d-axis
the d-axis current current controller
controller determines
determines the outputthe
output current
current powerpower
factor.factor. The output
The output currentcurrent of the converter
of the converter is controlled
is controlled in phase
in phase with with the
the mains mains
voltage
voltage
and canandbecan be controlled
controlled at almost
at almost unityfactor.
unity power powerThe factor. The DC-link
DC-link voltage isvoltage is controlled
controlled by the
by the current
current
of theof theqaxis
axis q corresponding
corresponding to the power,
to the active active power,
and theand the current
current of the axis of the axis d, corresponding
d, corresponding to the
to reactive
the reactive
power,power, controls
controls the power
the power factor. factor. Under
Under load load conditions,
conditions, it is important
it is important to control to
thecontrol
DC-linkthe
DC-link with a constant
with a constant reference
reference voltage voltage
while whilereference
the current the current
of thereference of the
q axis changes, q axis changes,
depending on the
depending on the
actual power actual power
component. component.
By injecting the lowBy injectingvoltage
frequency the low frequency
component voltage
into component
the reference into
voltage
the reference voltage of the DC-link, the q-axis reference of the converter and the actual current
of the DC-link, the q-axis reference of the converter and the actual current includes ripple components
includes ripple
of the same components of the same frequency.
frequency.

Figure
Figure5.5.Control
Controlblock
blockdiagram
diagram of
of DC/AC PWMconverter.
DC/AC PWM converter.

3. Capacitance Estimation Using OPSO-SVFR

3. Capacitance Estimation Using OPSO-SVFR
The proposed capacitance estimation algorithm was applied in two steps: opposition particle
The proposed capacitance estimation algorithm was applied in two steps: opposition particle
swarm optimization (OPSO), and parameters selection for SVM (Support Vector Machine) with OPSO.
swarm optimization (OPSO), and parameters selection for SVM (Support Vector Machine) with
These two steps were performed on the input data of capacitance and the DC-link capacitor power.
OPSO. These two steps were performed on the input data of capacitance and the DC-link capacitor
The two phases are discussed in Sections 3.1 and 3.2.
power. The two phases are discussed in Sections 3.1 and 3.2.

3.1. Support Vector Regression (SVR)

SVM is an alternative learning method for Multi-Layer Perceptron Classifiers that minimizes
structural risks, maps patterns into higher-dimensional feature spaces, and provides optimal
identification. SVM, using the statistical learning method, minimizes structural errors, unlike
conventional classification techniques, such as principal component analysis (PCA) and neural
Sustainability 2020, 12, 3719 6 of 16

3.1. Support Vector Regression (SVR)

SVM is an alternative learning method for Multi-Layer Perceptron Classifiers that minimizes
structural risks, maps patterns into higher-dimensional feature spaces, and provides optimal identification.
SVM, using the statistical learning method, minimizes structural errors, unlike conventional classification
techniques, such as principal component analysis (PCA) and neural networks [27–30]. For this reason,
SVM has been successfully implemented in various fields, such as prediction, classification, and regression.
Support Vector Regression (SVR) has been extended to regression problems by introducing an insensitive
loss function to SVM regression models, while SVM has been applied to the prediction of classification
problems [31]. The SVM provides an optimal separation plane (hyperplane) to solve the classification
problem. The reasons why SVM attracts attention are as follows: firstly, it is easy to interpret the results
because it is based on a clear rationale; secondly, it can achieve a higher level of accuracy than neural
networks in practical applications, such as classification and regression.
The choice of a subset of functions is an important issue when creating a regression analysis system
to construct a regression model based on SVM. It is important to minimize the number of input functions
that produce optimum predictions and models with less computationally intensive calculations. The use
of a subset of small and appropriate characteristics can facilitate the implementation of regression
decisions. The appropriate adjustment for the SVR parameters can improve the regression accuracy.
Selecting the kernel function, kernel parameters, and the penalty factors are very important factors in
the SVR design. Therefore, the proper selection of the subsets of functions and the parameter settings
of the model have a significant impact on the regression accuracy. The selection of the characteristic
subsets affects the appropriate parameters of the kernel, so it is best to obtain the subset of features and
the SVR parameters at the same time.
As mentioned earlier, SVR is a regression method for predicting an unknown function between
the inputs and outputs by using the training data. When the system input/output relationship is
obtained in the offline process, a prediction of the output value based on the obtained relation can
be obtained in the online process. The input and output data for offline training are given as (x1 , y1 ),
(x2 , y2 ), . . . .. (xn , yn ), where xi and yi are input and output vectors, and n is the number of training
data. The general function of SVR is as follows [32]:

f (x) = (w.Φ(x)) + b (10)

where (.) is the vector dot product. The slack variables (ξ and ξ∗ ), which minimize the empirical risk,
are expressed as [24]:
n
1 X
Rreg ( f ) = kwk2 + C Γ( f (xi ) − yi ) (11)
2
i=1

where Γ(·) is the cost function, and C is the penalty factor that controls how much variation is allowed
for the training data and the complexity term of the model (kwk2 ). The lack variable is introduced so
that the estimation problem can be determined even if training data exists.
The optimization solution is expressed by subject to 0 ≤ αi ≤ C, 0 ≤ α∗i ≤ C

n
X
f (x) = ( (αi − α∗i ).(ϕ(xi ).ϕ(x)) + b (12)
i=1

Through the introduction of the kernel function, the regression function of Equation (12) is
represented by Equation (13)
n
X
f (x) = (αi − α∗i ).K(xi , x) + b (13)
i=1
Sustainability 2020, 12, 3719 7 of 16

where K(xi , x j ) = Φ(xi )T Φ(x j ) is the kernel function. The bias term b can be calculated as follows:
 n 
X 
b = mean yi − (αi − α∗i ).K(xi , x) (14)
i=1

The radial base function (RBF) is selected to solve the problem as follows:

|xi − x|2
K(xi , x) = exp{− } (15)
σ2

3.2. The O-Particle Swarm Optimization

The particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm is one of the optimization techniques that was
inspired by the social behavior of animals, and was proposed in 1995 by J. Kennedy and R. Eberhart [33].
Just as bio populations, such as ants and bees, share information about each individual0 s experience to
find food and travel to the optimal location, the PSO algorithm makes it possible to find the optimal
solution by balancing each other0 s variables. The PSO algorithm has the disadvantage of being prone
to the local minimum, but unlike other search algorithms, it can use global optimization for large and
complex functions, such as evolutionary operations, and perform better than evolutionary operations.
Due to its high speed, it has recently attracted much attention and has been applied to various fields
that are difficult to solve with existing algorithms [34,35].
The PSO algorithm represents individual potential solutions as particles, and the number is
initially determined by the dimension setting. The initialization and updates of PSO are randomly
done in each calculation step using the standard PSO. An improvement for the random behavior of the
standard PSO is obtained by initializing the swarm based on the opposite numbers. A comparison
between the position and velocity components using the standard PSO and the opposition PSO is then
done to select the optimum position and velocity.
The ith d-dimensional particle is characterized by its location vector Pti =Pti1 , Pti2 , . . ., Ptid and its
speed vector vti = vti1 , vti2 , . . ., vtid . Each particle knows its best personal location Pti,Best and the entire
population0 s best global solution GtBest . The position of the population at iteration t is Pt =Pt1 , Pt2 , . . .,
PtN , where N is the population size. Each particle updates its location according to Equations (16)
and (17):
vti +1 = wt vti + c1 r1 (pti,Best − pti ) + c2 r2 (ptG,Best − pti ) (16)

where r1 and r2 are random functions in the range of [0, 1], c1 and c2 are personal and social learning
factors, and w is the inertia weight.

pti +1 = pti + vit+1 , i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , N (17)

The constriction coefficients introduced in [34] are used to set c1 and c2 :

2
x = p (18)
ϕ − 1 + ϕ2 − 4ϕ

c1 = xϕ1 , c2 = xϕ2 (19)

where ϕ = ϕ1 + ϕ2 > 4. The optimization process is terminated when the best global solution results in
a permissible fitness using the opposite PSO. The opposition-based population initialization technique
is shown in the flowchart in Figure 6, which is used in initializing and updating the position and
velocity components instead of random initialization.
Sustainability2020,
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12,3719
x FOR PEER REVIEW 88of
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17
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Figure 6. Opposition-based learning process (OPSO).

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Opposition-based
Opposition-based learning
learning process
process (OPSO).
(OPSO).
The optimum voltage estimation using the OPSO-SVR method can be described in steps as
follows: optimum voltage estimation using the OPSO-SVR method can be described in steps as
The
The optimum voltage estimation using the OPSO-SVR method can be described in steps as follows:
•follows:
Enter the original data for estimation, known as the data preparation step.
 Enter the original data for estimation, known as the data preparation step.
Enter
• Initialize the and
Initialize original
and updatedatathe
update forparticles
the estimation,
particles using
usingknown as the
standard
standard PSOdata
PSO andpreparation
and then
then repeatstep.
repeat the
the same
same step
step using
using the
the
 Initialize
opposite and
opposite update the particles using standard PSO and then repeat the same step using the
numbers.
numbers.
opposite
• Update
Updatethe numbers.
the position
positionand andvelocity
velocitycomponents
componentsbyby using
usingstandard
standard andandopposition
opposition PSO PSOformulas
formulas to
 Update
get the the position
accurate SVR and velocity
parameters.
to get the accurate SVR parameters. components by using standard and opposition PSO formulas
to
• Performget thean
Perform anaccurate
offline SVR
offlinetraining parameters.
training processfor
process forSVR
SVRwith
withtraining
training samples
samples assessing
assessing each
each particle
particle fitness
fitness
 Perform an offline training
value of the OPSO for the SVR.
value of the OPSO for the process
SVR. for SVR with training samples assessing each particle fitness
value
Update
• Update ofeach
the OPSO
each particle
particle forvelocity
the SVR.
velocity andposition
and positionuntil
untilthe
thetermination
terminationcondition
conditionisissatisfied.
satisfied.
Update
• Construct each particle velocity and position until the termination
Construct and retrain the SVR estimation model based on the optimal parameters.
and retrain the SVR estimation model based on the condition
optimal is satisfied.
parameters.
 Construct and retrain the SVR estimation model based on the optimal parameters.
For each
For each sample,
sample, BPF ] isisthe
[|Pin −−PPout ||]
BPF[|P theinput
inputofofthe
theSVR
SVRestimator,
estimator which
,whichisiscalculated
calculatedfrom fromthethe
For each sample,
source currents, voltages,
source currents, BPF[|P
voltages, and −
the P |]
DC-link is the input
voltage, of the
while SVR estimator ,which is calculated
the estimated capacitance 𝐶 𝐶 is the
the estimated capacitance ĈĈ is thefrom the
output,
source
asas shown
showncurrents,
in Figure
in voltages,
Figure 7.
7. and the DC-link voltage, while the estimated capacitance 𝐶 𝐶 is the output,
as shown in Figure 7.
vdc
vva,dcb,c Capacitance Estimation
v
e a, b,c Capacitance Estimation
Ĉ
C
as, bs,cs C
Ĉ
eas, bs,cs
i a, b,c by OPSO-SVR Algorithm
i a, b,c by OPSO-SVR Algorithm
ias, bs,cs
ias, bs,cs
Figure 7.
Figure 7. The
The structure
structure of
of capacitance
capacitance estimation
estimation process.
process.
Figure 7. The structure of capacitance estimation process.
3.3. Capacitance Estimation Using OPSO-SVR
In this paper, it was assumed that the initial nominal value of the capacitor was 3950 µF.
This capacitor lifetime is ended when its value deteriorates to 1950 µF. In order to use OPSO-SVR
to check the capacitance value during the system operation, it was necessary to collect a number of
training data between the initial and final values.
A combination between 1950 µF and 500 µF was used to obtain the required training data between
3950 and 1950 µF and its corresponding capacitor power, as shown in Table 1. Figure 8 shows the
regression response of the trained data.
 capacitor lifetime is ended when its value deteriorates to 1950 μF. In order to use OPSO-SVR to check
the capacitance value during the system operation, it was necessary to collect a number of training
data between the initial and final values.
A combination between 1950 μF and 500 μF was used to obtain the required training data
between 3950 and 1950 μF and its corresponding capacitor power, as shown in Table 1. Figure 8
shows2020,
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12, 3719 response of the trained data. 9 of 16

Table 1. Training Data.

Table 1. Training Data.
SVR OPSO-SVR
Measured
Estimated Estimated
[FEstimated
Measured Value ValueSVR ] Value OPSO-SVR Estimated Value
[µF] Value
[µF ] [F ] Value [F ][µF]
A 3789 3786 3787
A 3789 3786 3787
B 3323 3320 3320
B 3323 3320 3320
C 2857 2855 2856
C 2857 2855 2856
D 2394 2393 2395
D 2394 2393 2395
E 1928 E 1928 1922 1922 1924 1924

3.8
A
3.6

3.4
B
3.2
Capacitance [mF]

2.8
C

2.6

D
2.4

2.2

2
E
1.8
600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Flitered power [W]
Filtered
Filtered capacitor
capacitor power
power [W]

Figure
Figure 8. 8. Regressionmodel
Regression model of
of the
thetrained
traineddata.
data.

Figure Figure 9 shows

9 shows the the flowchart
flowchart of of theproposed
the proposed method.
method. First,
First,a asuitable
suitablesetset
of sampling data data
of sampling
(x j , y j )( xwere
j , y j ) were specified.
specified. The The SVR
SVR parameters
parameters were
were computed
computed through
throughthe offline
the process.
offline Then,
process. theThen,
optimized parameters
the optimized parameters were used online for any DC-link capacitor power x to estimate the unknown
used online for any DC-link capacitor power x to estimate the unknown
Sustainability 2020,
capacitance
capacitance 12,value.
value.x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17

OPSOSVR
Estimation

Figure 9. Capacitance
Figure 9. Capacitance estimation
estimation processprocess using opposition-based
using opposition-based learning
learning particle particle swarm
swarm optimization-based
optimization-based Support(OPSO-SVR).
Support Vector Regression Vector Regression (OPSO-SVR).

4. Experimental Results
For validating the performance of the proposed OPSO-SVR algorithm, an experimental setup
was implemented on a reduced scale in a laboratory, of which, the configuration is shown in Figure
10.
 OPSOSVR
Estimation

Figure 9. Capacitance estimation process using opposition-based learning particle swarm

optimization-based
Sustainability 2020, 12, 3719 Support Vector Regression (OPSO-SVR). 10 of 16

4. Experimental Results
4. Experimental Results
For validating the performance of the proposed OPSO-SVR algorithm, an experimental setup
was implemented
For validatingonthea performance
reduced scaleofin a laboratory,
the of which, algorithm,
proposed OPSO-SVR the configuration is shown setup
an experimental in Figure
was
10.
implemented on a reduced scale in a laboratory, of which, the configuration is shown in Figure 10.

i con i inv

ic
e1 L iasa s ia
v1 v + va
e2 ibsibs
1 vdc ib
vv
2 2
vb I.M.
I.M.
e3 icsics ic
v 3 3 - vc

switching

eas , ebs , ias , ibs Isolation Amplifier

Optical Fiber

Converter PWM

A/D A/D
Converter Converter
DSP
TMS320C33
D/A
Converter AM85
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW C30 Host Computer 11 of 17

Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEWFigure

Figure 10.
10. System
System configuration.
configuration. 11 of 17
μF, which had only an error of + 0.042 [%] in comparison and can also be compared with the measured
value
μF,Thein Table
which had1.only an error ofvoltage
+ 0.042 [%] in comparison and can component
also be compared with theinmeasured
The reference DC-link voltage with the AC-injected component is shown in Figure 11. The
reference DC-link with the AC-injected is shown Figure 11.
value
The in Table
amplitude of the
amplitude 1.injected
of component
the injected was was
component 10 V10
and the frequency
V and waswas
the frequency 30 Hz. Figure
30 Hz. 12a,b
Figure shows
12a,b the
shows
control performance
the control performance of the converter
of the d- and
converter q-axis
d- and currents,
q-axis which
currents, cancan
which be considered satisfactory.
be considered satisfactory.
The measured AC power component of the DC-link capacitor and its filtered waveform are
shown in Figure 13a,b. The bandpass filter with aVcut-off
dc frequency of 30 Hz was used to pass the 30
*
Hz power component, as shown in Figure 13b. The Vdcestimation
Vdc process in two different capacitances
340 [V]
was performed and shown in Figure 14a. For case D, for V example, the expected capacitance was 2.395
*
dc
340 [V]

20 [ms]/div 10 [V]/div
20 [ms]/div 10 [V]/div

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Reference
Referenceand
andreal
realDC-link
DC-linkvoltage with
voltage thethe
with 30 30
HzHz
component.
component.
Figure 11. Reference and real DC-link voltage with the 30 Hz component.
iqe iqe*
iqe iqe*
0 [A]
0 [A]
4 [A]/div
(a) 4 [A]/div
(a)

ide ide*
0 [A] ide ide*
0 [A]
4 [A]/div
(b) 204[ms]/div
[A]/div
(b) 20 [ms]/div
Figure 12. Real and reference currents (a) q-axis current control, (b) d-axis current control.
Figure 12. Real and reference currents (a) q-axis current control, (b) d-axis current control.
Figure 12. Real and reference currents (a) q-axis current control, (b) d-axis current control.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 3719 11 of 16

The measured AC power component of the DC-link capacitor and its filtered waveform are shown
in Figure 13a,b. The bandpass filter with a cut-off frequency of 30 Hz was used to pass the 30 Hz
power component, as shown in Figure 13b. The estimation process in two different capacitances was
performed and shown in Figure 14a. For case D, for example, the expected capacitance was 2.395 µF,
which had only an error of + 0.042 [%] in comparison and can also be compared with the measured
Sustainability
value 2020,
in Table
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12,xxFOR
2020,1. FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 1212ofof17
17

00[W]
[W]

20
20[ms]/div
[ms]/div 500
500[W/div]
[W/div]
(a)
(a)

00[W]
[W]

20
20[ms]/div
[ms]/div 500
500[W/div]
[W/div]
(b)
(b)

250
250[W/div]
[W/div]

00[W]
[W]
(c)
(c) 50
50[Hz/div]
[Hz/div]
30
30[Hz]
[Hz]
Figure
Figure13.
Figure 13.Measured
13. Measured DC-link
MeasuredDC-link
DC-link power
power (a)(a)
power (a) unfiltered
unfiltered
unfiltered ;(b)
pin −pppininout ,;,; (b)
ppoutoutBPF (b)
[Pin𝐵𝑃𝐹[𝑃
− Pout ];−(c)
𝐵𝑃𝐹[𝑃 ];]; (c)
−𝑃𝑃harmonic(c) harmonic
harmonic
spectrum
spectrum
of BPF[Pinofof
spectrum out ].
P𝐵𝑃𝐹[𝑃
−𝐵𝑃𝐹[𝑃 −−𝑃𝑃 ] ]

CC
Ĉ
Ĉ==1924
1924μF
μF
CC
Ĉ
Ĉ==2395
2395μF
μF
(a)
(a)

00[W]
[W]
1000
1000[W]/div
[W]/div
(b)
(b) 100
100ms/div
ms/div

Figure 14.
Figure 14. Estimationperformance
performance of the proposed
proposed method: (a)
(a) estimated capacitance,
capacitance, (b)
Figure 14. Estimation
Estimation performance ofof the
the proposed method:
method: (a) estimated
estimated capacitance, (b)
(b)
BPF[ |Pin − Pout |. ].
BPF
BPF[ [ PP
ininPP
outout ] ] .

This also shows that the expected rate of rapid change in capacity was fast. For further investigation
This
This also
of OPSO-SVR shows
shows that
alsoaccuracy, a setthe
that the expected
expected
of random rate ofofcapacitance
rateof
values rapid
rapid change
change inin capacity
estimation capacity was
was fast.
fast. For
were implemented For further
further
under five
investigation
investigation
different of OPSO-SVR
poweroflevels;
OPSO-SVR accuracy,
Table 2 accuracy, a set of random
a set of random
shows the calculation values
values
of the mean, of capacitance
of capacitance
maximum, minimum, estimation
estimation were
were
and standard
implemented
implemented
deviation. Tounder
under
confirmfive
five different
thedifferent poweroflevels;
power
superiority levels;Table
OPSO-SVRTable2over
2shows
thethe
shows thecalculation
SVR calculation ofofthe
method, Figure themean,
mean,
15 showsmaximum,
maximum,
that the
minimum,
minimum, and
and standard
standard deviation.
deviation. To
To confirm
confirm the
the superiority
superiority ofofOPSO-SVR
OPSO-SVR
proposed method was faster than SVR, which made it better for online capacitance estimation. over
over the
the SVR
SVR method,
method,
Figure
Figure1515shows
showsthatthatthe
theproposed
proposedmethod
methodwas wasfaster
fasterthan
thanSVR,
SVR,which
whichmade
madeititbetter
betterfor
foronline
online
capacitance
capacitanceestimation.
estimation.

SVR
SVR

OPSO-SVR
OPSO-SVR
100
100ms/div
ms/div
 (a)

0 [W]
1000 [W]/div
Sustainability 2020, 12, 3719 (b) 100 ms/div 12 of 16

Figure 14. Estimation performance

Table 2. of the proposed
Capacitance method:
monitoring error.(a) estimated capacitance, (b)
BPF [ Pin  Pout ] .
Measured Power Power = Power Power = Power
= 1 kW 1.5 kW = 2 kW 2.5 kW = 3 kW Mean Max Min STD
This also shows
Capacitance
that the expected rate of rapid change in capacity was fast. For further
[µF] Error Error Error Error Error
investigation of OPSO-SVR accuracy, a set of random values of capacitance estimation were
3789 0.08% 0.09% 0.14% 0.125% 0.11% 0.000917186 0.14% 0.09% 0.00037
implemented
3323 under
0.07%five different
0.13% power
0.2% levels; Table 2 shows
0.05% 0.09% the calculation0.13%
0.001609477 of the mean,
0.03% maximum,
0.0045
minimum,
2857 and standard
0.1% deviation.
0.09% To confirm
0.15% the superiority
0.1% 0.08% of OPSO-SVR
0.000960228 over the
0.15% SVR method,
0.08% 0.0004
Figure 15 shows that the proposed method was faster than SVR, which made it better for online
2394 0.1% 0.085% 0.115% 0.14% 0.075% 0.001053874 0.14% 0.075% 0.00023
1928 0.112% 0.13% 0.12% 0.09% 0.085% 0.002759459 0.13% 0.085% 0.0195
capacitance estimation.

SVR

OPSO-SVR
100 ms/div
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 17
Figure 15. Capacitance estimation using SVR and OPSO-SVR.
Figure 15. Capacitance estimation using SVR and OPSO-SVR.
In addition, it was noticeable that the speed and the accuracy of the SVR algorithm was less than
In addition, it was noticeable that the speed and the accuracy of the SVR algorithm was less
OPSO-SVR, as the latter method tuned the SVR parameters in every step to achieve the correct value
than OPSO-SVR, as the latter method tuned the SVR parameters in every step to achieve the correct
faster.
value faster.
The estimated capacitance, the capacitance power variation, and the derivative of the DC-link
The estimated capacitance, the capacitance power variation, and the derivative of the DC-link
voltage in the steady state condition are shown in Figure 16a–c. The estimation error for the SVR
voltage in the steady state condition are shown in Figure 16a–c. The estimation error for the SVR
algorithm was about 0.35%, while the estimation error was 0.28% in OPSO-SVR for the same
algorithm was about 0.35%, while the estimation error was 0.28% in OPSO-SVR for the same conditions.
conditions.

2000[μF]
Ĉ = 2395 μF
C
(a)

0 [W]
1000 [W/div]
(b)

0 [kJ]
500 [kW/F/div]
(c) 200 [ms/div]

Figure 16. 16.

Figure Capacitance
Capacitance estimation in steady
estimation state:
in steady (a) estimated
state: capacitance,
(a) estimated (b) (b)
capacitance, BPF[|Pin−−𝑷Pout|],|], (c)
𝑩𝑷𝑭[|𝑷 𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒖𝒕
2
(c) BPF
BPF[[0.5dv / dt]]. .
0.5dvdcdc2 /dt

The SVR and OPSO-SVR estimation performance for different capacitance readings is concluded
The SVR and OPSO-SVR estimation performance for different capacitance readings is concluded
in Figure 17. In Figure 18, the estimation error of Table 2 is drawn to show the percentage error in
in Figure 17. In Figure 18, the estimation error of Table 2 is drawn to show the percentage error in
different load powers. The estimation accuracy for both methods was acceptable and close to the
different load powers. The estimation accuracy for both methods was acceptable and close to the real
real value.
value.

Table 2. Capacitance monitoring error.

Power Power
Measured Power Power Power
= 1.5 = 2.5
Capacitance = 1 kW = 2 kW = 3 kW Mean Max Min STD
kW kW
[F ]
Error Error Error Error Error
3789 0.08% 0.09% 0.14% 0.125% 0.11% 0.000917186 0.14% 0.09% 0.00037
3323 0.07% 0.13% 0.2% 0.05% 0.09% 0.001609477 0.13% 0.03% 0.0045
2857 0.1% 0.09% 0.15% 0.1% 0.08% 0.000960228 0.15% 0.08% 0.0004
2394 0.1% 0.085% 0.115% 0.14% 0.075% 0.001053874 0.14% 0.075% 0.00023
Sustainability 2020, 12, 3719 13 of 16
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17

Capacitance Estimation
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
1 2 3 4 5

Measured Value SVR Estimation OPSO-SVR Estimation

Figure 17. Measured

Figure 17. Measured and
and estimated
estimated capacitance using SVR
capacitance using SVR and
and OPSO-SVR.
OPSO-SVR.

Estimation Error
0.25%
0.20%
0.15%
Error %

0.10%
0.05%
0.00%
3,789 3,323 2857 2394 1928
Capacitance μF

1 KW 1.5 KW 2 KW 2.5 KW 3 KW

Figure 18.
Figure 18. Estimation
Estimation error of OPSO-SVR.
error of OPSO-SVR.

5. Conclusion
5. Conclusions

This paper
This paper presented
presented an an online
online method
method to to detect
detect the
the deterioration
deterioration condition
condition andand lifetime
lifetime for
for
electrolytic capacitors in AC–DC–AC converters. The main advantage of the proposed algorithm is
electrolytic capacitors in AC–DC–AC converters. The main advantage of the proposed algorithm is the
the of
use usea of a digital
digital controller
controller to estimate
to estimate the capacitor
the capacitor lifetimelifetime
withoutwithout any additional
any additional hardware hardware or
or sensors,
sensors,
which which
adds addstono
no cost thecost to the
power power
and and
control controlThe
circuits. circuits. The algorithm
proposed proposed is algorithm
based onisinjecting
based on a
injecting a low-frequency voltage component to the DC-link reference voltage and then extracting
low-frequency voltage component to the DC-link reference voltage and then extracting the fluctuated
the fluctuated
capacitor power,capacitor power, which
which determines determinesstate
the deterioration the of
deterioration
the capacitor. state
Thisofalgorithm
the capacitor.
is based This
on
algorithm
the OPSO-SVRis based on the OPSO-SVR
technique technique
by determining by determining
a relationship between a relationship
the capacitorbetween
value andthe its
capacitor
power.
value and its power. The validity of the algorithm was verified through experiments on various
The validity of the algorithm was verified through experiments on various experimental conditions,
experimental
and conditions,
the variation and the variation
of the estimation error was of analyzed
the estimation errortowas
according the analyzed
capacitance according to the
measurement
capacitance measurement environment. The experimental results confirmed that the capacitance
environment. The experimental results confirmed that the capacitance estimation was a low estimation
estimation
error, whichwas
wasawell
low below
estimation
0.2%,error,
makingwhich
this was
method welleffective
below 0.2%, making the
for detecting thisstate
method
of aneffective for
electrolytic
detecting the
capacitor state
in the of anconverter
PWM electrolytic capacitor
system. Thein the PWMalgorithm
proposed convertercan system. The proposed
be implemented byalgorithm
software
can be implemented by software without adding or replacing hardware. Therefore, it can be
considered as low cost, and it can be directly applied to commercially-produced converters and
Sustainability 2020, 12, 3719 14 of 16

without adding or replacing hardware. Therefore, it can be considered as low cost, and it can be
directly applied to commercially-produced converters and existing converters, which are versatile
technologies. Moreover, this method has more advantages, as information about the DC-link ripple
current is not necessary because it depends on the estimation of the capacitor power and the change in
the DC-link voltage.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.G.A.-K. and B.G.Y.; methodology, A.-R.A.-Q.; software, A.G.A.-K.;
validation, A.-R.A.-Q., A.M.E. and A.G.A.-K.; formal analysis, A.M.E; investigation, B.G.Y.; resources, A.M.E.;
data curation, A.G.A.-K.; writing—original draft preparation, A.G.A.-K.; writing—review and editing, A.M.E.;
visualization, A.-R.A.-Q.; supervision, A.G.A.-K.; project administration, A.M.E..; funding acquisition, A.M.E.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: Deanship of Scientific Research, Majmaah University: No. R-1441-119.
Acknowledgments: The author would like to thank Deanship of Scientific Research at Majmaah University for
supporting this work under Project Number No. R-1441-119.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
Vac the peak voltage of the injected AC voltage
ωin the angular frequency
C the DC-link capacitance
Rleak Capacitor leakage resistance
vdc the DC- link voltage
pin the line side converter input power
pout the load side converter output power
ved , veq the line side d-q axis voltages
ied , ieq the line side d-q axis currents
veds , veqs the load side d-q axis voltages
ieds , ieqs the load side d-q axis currents
E the magnitude of the source voltage
W the weight vector
B the bias
Φ the nonlinear function
r1 and r2 random functions
ε the variance
c1 and c2 personal and social learning factors
w the inertia weight

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