HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS

GEOMETRY

Supporting lecturer :
Prof. Dr Usman Mulbar, M.Pd.
Syahrullah Asyari, S.Pd., M.Pd.

Arranged by :
Nurul Khatimah Syahid (200101511004)

INTERNATIONAL CLASS PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF

MATHEMATICS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL
SCIENCES
UNIVERSITAS NEGERI MAKASSAR
 CHAPTER I

PRELIMINARY

Mathematics is a unique aspect of human thought, and its history is unlike any other.
Mathematics was born and developed since the beginning of human civilization. History records
that mathematics has been widely used by society since ancient times, although in the simplest
form such as counting or measuring. This shows that mathematics appears as a solution in the
midst of the problems of social life.

The history of the development of mathematics shows that there is a real interaction
between mathematics and its applications. This means that many mathematical ideas were
developed from the real context that surrounded society at that time. For example geometry. This
branch of mathematics developed from the days of ancient Egypt, where many peasants measured
their arable land around the Nile, which was almost triangular in shape. This process gave birth to
a way how to measure the area of a triangle. From this empirical experience, it develops into
another flat shape.

Around 3000 BC, obtuse triangles have been found in the Ancient Indus Valley and
Ancient Babylon. This marked the beginning of geometry in history. At first, the concept of
geometry was described only as the principles of points, lines, lengths, distances, angles, areas,
and volumes. The concepts and principles of this geometry are still evolving to meet some
practical needs. It was about 1500 years ago that the Egyptians and Babylonians knew the
formula for the volume of a square pyramid frustum before the Pythagoreans and the Indian
Sulba Sutra.
The word geometry comes from the Greek geometrein, geo meaning earth and metrein
meaning to measure. Ancient geometry is actually a set of process rules from experience that
have been achieved through experiment, analogy from observation, guesswork, and sometimes
intuition. Geometric abstractions in the real world are three dimensions of length, width, and
height and generally exclude other qualities such as color, roughness or smoothness of a surface.
Geometry is able to standardize the same forms in nature so that it can be understood by
everyone in the world.
 CHAPTER II

HISTORY OF GEOMETRY

The introduction of isolated geometric facts goes back before the beginning of recorded
history. Of course the early Egyptians and Babylonians (4000-3000 BC) knew many practical
geometric relationships. The construction of the pyramids themselves required considerable
practical geometry.

Greek scientists agree that the Egyptians were the first to discover mathematics. Iflato, one
of the Greek scientists, said that the Egyptian god Tut had discovered many sciences including
arithmetic, geometry and astronomy. The Greek scientist Aristotle's asserts that mathematics was
born in Egypt because the priests at the time of Pharaoh had a lot of free time which allowed them
to study mathematics in depth. In addition, the Greek scientist Hirudut said that geometry was born
in Egypt at first and then moved to Greece in the 6th century BC. Furthermore, Islamic scholars
have perfected the rules of science education, especially in the 9th century AD. Here's a bit of a
brief exposition of geometry over time.abad ke-9M.

A. Ancient Babylonian geometry

Based on the historical perspective, the concept of solving quadratic equations is
built on a geometric basis (French, 2002; Krantz, 2006; Merzbach & Boyer, 2010). Euclid,
in his Elements in book 2 in the section on Fundamentals of Geometric Algebra
(Fitzpatrick, 2007) describes some logical proofs of the basics of geometric algebra. Al-
Khwarizmi also explains the foundations and proofs for solving quadratic equations
geometrically for solving quadratic equations in his book entitled Hisob al-jabr wa'l
muqabalah (Krantz, 2006; Merzbach & Boyer, 2010).
In fact, quadratic equations were implicit in the ancient Babylonian era. Shown by
the discovery of manuscripts or stone inscriptions stored in the British Museum.

Gambar Naskah Babilonian 13901

Hǿyrup (1990) mentions that Babylonian mathematicians in the ancient Babylonian period
(2000 B.C.-1600 B.C.) were familiar with and able to solve problems of quadratic
equations (although still limited). The method used by the Babylonian mathematicians was
in the form of a method which Hǿyrup (1990) called Naïve Geometry.
The following is one of the simplest problems found in the BM13901 inscription (which
has been translated), namely finding the side lengths of a square.

“The surface and my confrontation (the square-line) I have accumulated 45’, 1 the
wāsitum”. You pose. The moiety of 1 you break, 30’ and 30’ you make span. 15’ to 45’
you append: 1 makes 1 equaliteral. 30 which you have made span. In the inside of 1 you
tear out: 30’ the confrontation.” (Hǿyrup, 1990)

Or by using the algebraic notation we know today, it can be interpreted as follows

The problem above is to find the sides of a square, knowing that the sum of the area of the
square and the area of the sides is 3/4 (hereinafter will explain the definition of the side of
the square according to the Babylonian understanding). The solution to the problem above
is not fully explained in the inscription. There are only instructions or instructions in
solving it. The following is a version translated and interpreted into symbols from Radford
and Gurette (2000) who also quote from Hǿyrup's writings.
 The following is an interpretation of geometric shapes and modern algebraic symbols of
the problem and its solution (Hǿyrup, 1990)

B. Ancient Egyptian geometry

Egyptian geometry refers to geometry as it was developed and used in Ancient

Egypt. Their geometry is the result of the surveys needed to preserve the layout and
ownership of the farmland, which is flooded annually by the Nile.

In a manuscript written around 420 BC, the Greek philosopher said that at that time
Egyptian researchers Masih ranked highest among the great geometers who had almost the
same skill as his own.

Papyrus discovered at that time contains many concrete examples. The Rhind
Mathematical Papyrus (RMP) is one of the most famous examples of ancient Egyptian
mathematics. The rhind papyrus contains several 'workaround' problems. Usually starts
with an addition of unit fractions and looks further into unit fractions to add to get 1.
2 1
As in problem 22 which asks to solve + to get the number 1. In modern
3 30
1 1
notation this can be solved by taking the matching number and the unit fractions 𝑛 , … , 𝑛
𝑘
to satisfy the equation

From this it can be seen that the expanded number is equal to 1. Take the
appropriate N = 30 i.e. as a common multiple of the given denominator, the author observes
that
Which is less than 9 out of 30 desired, but

By adding the two equations above, we get

So the solution in question is

Regarding geometry, the Egyptian scribes certainly knew how to calculate the area
of rectangles, triangles, and circles by our usual methods. It is their calculation of the area
of a circle, however, that is very interesting.

Area

Object Source Formulas (using modern

notation)

Triangle Question 51 in RMP and Questions 4, 7 1

𝐴 = 2 𝑏ℎ
and 17 in MMP

b = base, h = high

Rectangle Question 49 in RMP and Question 6 in 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ

MMP and Lahun LV.4. question 1

b = base, h = high

Circle Question 51 in RMP and Questions 4, 7 1 256

𝐴 = ( ) 𝑑2
and 17 in MMP 4 81
 d = diameter. This uses the value
256/81 = 3.16049... for

π = 3.14159...

Volume

Object Source Formulas (using modern notation)

Cylindrical barn RMP 41 256 2

𝑉= 𝑟 ℎ measured in cubics
81

Cylindrical barn RMP 42, Lahun IV.3 32 128 2

𝑉= 𝑑2ℎ = 𝑟 ℎ (measured in
27 27
khar).

Rectangular barn RMP 44-46 and MMP 𝑉=𝑤𝑙ℎ

14 w = width, l = length, h = height

The truncated pyramid MMP 14 1

𝑉= (𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )ℎ
(frustum) 3

Moscow Mathematical Papyrus Problem 14: Volume of the frustum of a square pyramid

A truncated pyramid with a height of 6 for the length of the base 4 at the base with a length of 2
on the top:

a = 4 ; b = 2 ; and h = 6
 1 2
𝑉= (𝑎 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2 )ℎ
3
1 2
𝑉= (4 + (4𝑥2) + 22 )6
3
1
𝑉= (16 + 8 + 4)6
3
1
𝑉= (28)6
3
𝑉 = 2 𝑥 28

𝑉 = 56

Problem 56 RMP demonstrates an understanding of the idea of geometric similarity. This

issue addresses the run/rise ratio, also known as seqed. Such a formula would be needed to build
a pyramid.

C. Ancient Greek Geometry

In Greece, geometry had its golden age. About 2000 years ago, a theory was
discovered which we know today as the axiomatic theory. A theory of thinking that is based
on something most basic whose truth we take for granted. We call this kind of truth axioms.
From an axiom, various propositions are derived, both basic and derived. From this era, we
also get a legacy of geometry books that have not been refuted until now, namely Euclidean
geometry.
One of his best works entitled "Stoicheion" or "Elements" has represented the peak of
the mathematical revolution in Greece. "Elements" is a clear and comprehensive compilation
and explanation of all known mathematicians of his time including the works of Pythagoras,
Hippocrates, Theudius, Theaetetus, and Eudoxus.
The proof of the Pythagorean theorem is also included in Euclid's Elements. In his
book, Euclid states that: "In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum
of the squares of the legs."
 Euclid started by configuring Pythagoras shown in the image above. Then, it makes a
perpendicular line from C to the DJ segment on the square on the hypotenuse.

Then, the points H and G are the intersections of this perpendicular with the sides of the
square on the hypotenuse. It lies along the height to the right triangle ABC. Furthermore, Euclid
shows that the area of the rectangle HBDG is equal to the area of the square in BC and the area of
the rectangle HAJG is equal to the area of the square in AC. He proved the equation by using the
concept of similarity. Triangles ABC, AHC, and CHB are congruent. The area of the rectangle
HAJG is (HA)(AJ) and since AJ = AB, its area is also (HA)(AB). The equations of triangles ABC
and AHC mean:

So that

or, as will be proved, the area of the rectangle HAJG is equal to the area of the square on side AC.
In the same way, triangles ABC and CHG are congruent. So,
Since the sum of the areas of the two rectangles is the area of the square on the hypotenuse, this
completes the proof. Eulid also shows another way to prove the Pythagorean theorem with this
illustration.

Using a clear, logical and elegant style, Euclid applied the concepts of the compass and straight
lines to present 465 theorems and proofs in his book. Euclid even reworked mathematical concepts
that had been put forward by previous mathematicians, so that it was known as Euclidean geometry
which is still valid today.
There are five general axioms of Euclid in his book.
1. The same thing with the same thing equal to each other.
2. If equal is added equal, then the whole is the same.
3. If equal is subtracted from equal, then the remainder is the same.
4. Things that coincide with each other are equal to each other.
5. The whole is greater than the part.

In the Greek mathematical tradition, geoemtry has a more perfect meaning as a science than simply
counting with numbers. Then Euclid based the book on this basic idea. An important idea in
mathematics is an understanding of how mathematical insights are obtained and how mathematical
activities should be carried out.
All of this was done by Euclid based on some of these principles, including deciding on deductive
hypotheses. In this method Euclid collects all the geoemtric theorems and deduces conclusions
from conclusions about a series of proven truths or known as postulates.
There are five geometric postulates, namely:

1. It is possible to draw a straight line from any point, to any point

2. It is possible to extend a finite straight line continuously in a straight line
 3. It is possible to make a circle with center and distance (radius)
4. All right angles are equal to each other
5. If a straight line whose two straight lines make the interior angles on the same side less
than two right angles, the two straight lines drawn to infinity, will meet on the side whose
angles are less than two right angles. elbow.

D. Islamic Geometry

The beginning of Islamic science was the existence of a large-scale translation in Gudinshapur,
a city conquered by the Arabs in 638 AD. Through this translation made Islam rich in knowledge, so
that it became a center for the spread of Greek knowledge and other knowledge. Two centuries after
the translation was carried out, the Muslims also revised some of the important works of the world's
great scientists such as the works of Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, Archimedes, Hippocrates, Galen, Ptolemy,
and other scientists. The success in translating the works of these great scientists finally gave Muslims
glory in several scientific sectors such as astronomy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and medicine.

For the first time, Islam gained in-depth knowledge in the field of mathematics, namely
through schools and the works of Indian scientists. Shortly after, he was directly influenced by Greek
scientists under Euclid's discoveries. This became a way for Muslim scientists to develop, correct and
discover, especially in the field of mathematics. Scholars who were influential during the Abbasid
period included Al-Khwarizmi, Thabit Ibn Qurra, Omar Khayyam, and Abu Wafa.

Al-Khwarizmi's geometric demonstration of the correctness of his algebraic rules for solving
quadratic equations can be illustrated by a discussion of equations 𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 = 39.

Al-Khwarizmi's geometric equation is explained as follows, given 𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 = 39 is a

rectangular shape ABCD which has side length 𝑥 to represent 𝑥 2 . Then added 10𝑥, then 10𝑥 divided
10 10
into four parts, so that each part is represented by 𝑥 as the area of a rectangle with length and the
4 4
width is 𝑥 . In more detail, the equation is illustrated in the following figure.

Al-Khwarizmi Geometric Solution

 10
The results of the picture illustrate the equation 𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 4( 𝑥), if at each end of
4
10 10
the rectangle ( 𝑥) a line with a length of is drawn, 4 small squares will be formed as following.
4 4

10
From the figure it is known that the side of the small square is so the small square represents
4
10
the area ( )2 . Dari sini dapat diketahui panjang sisi persegi baru (persegi yang paling besar) yaitu
4
10
2( ) + 𝑥 . Bila diketahui 𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 = 39, maka luas persegi baru adalah( 𝑥 2 + 10𝑥) + 4 (𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑠
4
10
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑖 𝑘𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑙). Yaitu 39 + 4( )2 = 39 + 25 = 64. Since the area of the new square is 64, then the
4
10
new side is 8. So that 𝑥 = 8 − 2 ( ) = 3.
4

Seeing how to solve the quadratic equation, it can be seen that geometry is no longer a problem
of Euclid's Elements, algebra also contains the language of geometry. With Al-Khwarizmi's work, we
can see that what he does is far from these limitations, as a geometric explanation of Al-Khwarizmi's
work is present as a helper for new thoughts on algebra.

One of the other pure geometric ideas that recurs in Islamic geometry is the parallel
line and the proof of Euclid's fifth postulate. Even in Greek times, mathematicians were
troubled by this postulate. Many attempts were made to prove it from the others. Likewise in
the Islamic world.
One attempt to answer this question is in ibn al-Haytham's work entitled Maqala fi
sharh. mus.adarat the book of Uqlidis (Commentary on the Premises of Euclid's Elements),
in which he tries to reformulate Euclid's parallel theory. He began by redefining the concept
of parallel lines, deciding that Euclid's own definition of a parallel line as two lines that
never met was inadequate. His "clearer" definition includes the assumption of the
constructibility of the lines. That is, he wrote that if a straight line moves so that one end of
it always lies on the second straight line and is always perpendicular to it, then the other end
of the line will trace a straight line parallel to the second line. The important steps in the
proof of ibn al-Haytham are as follows:
LEMMA:
If two straight lines are drawn perpendicular to the two endpoints of a fixed straight
line, then every perpendicular line that is derived from one line to another is equal to a fixed
line.
To prove the lemma above, consider the example below:

Suppose given a line, AB. GA and DB are drawn perpendicular to AB, and a
perpendicular line is drawn from G to line DB. It must be proved that GD is equal to AB. Ibn
al-Haytham's proof is by contradiction. He first assumed that GD > AB (as in the figure
below).

He then extends GA through A so that AE = AG and, in the same way, BD through B.

From point E, a perpendicular dropped to in. DB is extended, meeting at T . Then the GB and
BE lines are drawn. Triangles EAB and GAB are congruent to the sides. Therefore, GBA =
EBA, so GBD = EBT , and GB = BE. Therefore the triangles EBT and GBD are congruent
and therefore GD = ET .

Now, using his concept of motion, ibn al-Haytham imagines the line ET moving along
the line T D and remaining always perpendicular to it. When T coincides with B, point E will
be outside the line AB, because ET > AB. We call the current ET HB. Of course, when ET
reaches GD, the two lines will coincide.

Now it follows from the definition of parallelism that the line GH E is a straight line
parallel to DBT . By construction, GAE is also a straight line, so there will be two distinct
straight lines with the same endpoint, and therefore the two straight lines will close the space.
This, of course, is impossible. A similar contradiction results from the assumption that GD <
AB. Therefore, the lemma is proved.

Since GD = AB, it can easily be concluded that AGD, like the other three angles of
the quadrilateral ABDG, is a right angle. One can then easily demonstrate Euclid's postulates.
Of course, what ibn al-Haytham did not realize is that his original definition of parallel lines
implicitly contained the postulate. However, the results clarify the interrelationship between
the parallel postulate and the fact that the sum of the angles of each quadrilateral is four right
angles.
 CHAPTER III

GEOMETRY FIGURE

1. Thales (640 – 546 BC)

At first geometry was born solely based on experience. However, the first
mathematician to be dissatisfied with methods based solely on experience was Thales (640
- 546 BC). The mathematical community now respects Thales as the man who always said
"Prove it" and in fact he always did. Of the many theorems are:- The base angles of an
isosceles triangle are congruent,- Right angles are congruent,- An angle expressed in a
semicircle is a right angle. The work and principles of Theles clearly marked the beginning
of an era of mathematical progress that developed deductive proof as an acceptable logical
reason. Deductive proof is needed to derive the theorem from the postulates. Next, a new
logical statement is drawn up.

2. Eratosthenes
Eratosthenes had heard from travelers that at Syene, in southern Egypt, on the day
of the summer solstice at noon, the sun was so high in the sky that its reflection fell into
the well and the stick (gnomon in Greek) did not. is shady. on the ground floor. It was not
the same in the city of Alexandria: looking at the obelisk, Eratosthenes discovered that the
obelisk had a shadow during the day on the day of the summer solstice, like a gnomon
planted vertically in the ground. So Eratosthenes faced a terrible conundrum: the same day,
noon, no shadow in Syene and shadow in Alexandria.
Then, two logical hypotheses were available to Eratosthenes:
1. The first hypothesis: the earth is flat, the sun is very close, and therefore its rays
strike the earth at different angles.
2. The second hypothesis: the sun is far from the earth and therefore the rays are almost
parallel. If the earth's surface were curved instead of flat, the shadow differences
between Siena and Alexandria could be explained. And if the earth's surface is
curved, the earth itself must be round. Eratosthenes chose this second hypothesis.

Many philosophers have suggested this hypothesis in the past. Pythagoras had
shown that a sailor sitting on the mast of his ship could see further than the horizon of a
sailor standing on deck. Similarly, Aristotle also noticed that the earth's shadow is round
during a lunar eclipse, indicating that the earth is not flat. Finally, thanks to his powers of
observation and intelligence, Eratosthenes provided irrefutable evidence.
If the earth were round, two gnomons, one in Alexandria and the other in Syene,
would have to cross the center of the earth if we are to imagine expanding it. Eratosthenes
showed that since the sun's rays were parallel, the "alpha" angle at the center of the earth
between the Alexandria Obelisk and the Fountain of Siena must equal the angle formed by
the shadow of the Alexandria Obelisk. An "alpha" angle is the two interior angles formed
by intersecting parallel lines.
 Eratosthenes used and a theorem attributed orally to one of the seven ancient Greek
sages, Thales of Miletus. Thales of Miletus also traveled to Egypt, where it is said that he
managed to calculate the height of the pyramid of Cheops without measuring it directly.
Thales will notice that the relationship between a gnomon's size and its shadow is exactly
the same as the relationship between a pyramid's shadow and its height. This finding was
passed down to posterity as a "set of like triangles," which you know in elementary school
as "Thales' Theorem." This is probably the first mathematical theorem in human history.
With this valuable theorem, Eratosthenes was able to approximate the measurement
of the circumference of the Earth. He discovered that on the day of the summer solstice in
Alexandria, at noon, the angle "Alpha" was 7 degrees, which is one-fifth of the
circumference of a circle. Based on the length of the camel caravan's journey, he estimated
that Siena and Alexandria were separated by 5,000 Egyptian stages (or 157.5 m).
Eratosthenes only needed to multiply 5000 by 50 steps to arrive at the result that the
circumference of the earth was 250,000 furlongs (or 39,735 km). Plus or minus 5%, that's
actually the circumference of the earth.

3. Pythagoras (582-507 SM)

After the death of Thales appeared Pythagoras (582-507 BC) and his followers
known as the Pythagoreans continued the steps of Thales. The Pythagoreans used the proof
method not only to develop the Pythagorean Theorem, but also to the theorems on the
number of angles in a polygon, the properties of parallel lines, the theorem about
incomparable quantities, and the theorem about five regular solid shapes.
In its history, Pythagoras has bequeathed several things as follows.
1. A point is a unit that has a position
2. The point is analogous to the monad, second row, superfies to triad, and body
to tetrad.
3. The Pythagorean theorem is a plane surrounding a point that is completely
filled by six equilateral triangles, four squares, or three regular hexagons.
4. The interior angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles
5. Ordinary solid construction
6. Preliminary knowledge of spheres and the twelve pentagons

That's not all, there are many more discoveries of Pythagoras that contributed to the
world of mathematics, especially geometry.

4. Plato
Plato was a mathematician and philosopher who had a great influence on
mathematics, including geometry. Plato is a person who was born in 427 BC. If you know
Aristotle (one of the great mathematicians in the world), then you should know that Plato
was his teacher.
 Apart from Aristotle, Plato was also one of the greatest teacher mathematicians in
Classical Greece who contributed greatly to Euclid's Elements. Using a philosophical view,
Plato helps to distinguish between mathematics and applied mathematics by broadening
the distinction between "arithmetic".
However, Plato's influence on mathematics cannot be separated from Pythagoras.
Plato has claimed to have learned all about Pythagoras and incorporated it into his
philosophical works. In Plato's philosophical view is the study that leads to the possible
construction of compasses and rulers as well as three classical construction problems such
as how to use tools to design three angles, construct a cube twice the volume of a given
cube, and make a square whose area is equal to a given circle.

5. Euclid (300 SM)

Not many people were lucky enough to gain lasting fame like Euclid, the great
Greek geometer. Although during his lifetime figures such as Napoleon, Martin Luther,
Alexander the Great, were much more famous than Euclid, but in the long run his fame
may surpass all those who are called.
Apart from his fame, almost no detailed information about Euclid's life can be
known. For example, we know that he was active as a teacher in Alexandria, Egypt, around
300 BC, but when he was born and when he died is completely dark. In fact, we do not
know what continent and in what city he was born. Although he wrote several books and
some of them remain, his place in history lies primarily in his great book on geometry
called The Elements.
In The Elements, Euclid combines the school work he already knew with all the
mathematical knowledge he knew in a systematic comparison to a stunning result. Most of
his work is original, as a deductive method he demonstrates most of the necessary
knowledge through reasoning. In Elements Euclid also explained algebra and number
theory as well as he explained geometry.
The significance of The Elements does not lie in the statements of personal
formulas it makes. Almost all the theories contained in the book have been written before,
and have also been proven to be true. Euclid's contribution lies in the arrangement of the
materials and problems and their overall formulation in planning the preparation of the
book. Here involved, most importantly, the selection of the arguments and calculations, for
example about the possibility of drawing a straight line between two points.
After that, he carefully and carefully arranged the arguments so that they were
easily understood by those who followed him. Where necessary, he provides instructions
on how to solve unsolved issues and develops experiments on missed problems. It should
be noted that the book The Elements is not only an extension of the strict field of geometry,
but also contains extensive sections on algebra and the theory of addition.
 The Elements book has been the standard handbook for more than 2000 years and
is the most successful book ever compiled by mankind. So great was Euclid in compiling
his book that from its form alone it was able to get rid of books that had been written before.

As a training tool for the logic of the human mind, The Elements is far more
influential than all of Aristotle's treatises on logic. The book is a complete example of
deductive structure and at the same time an amazing thought of all the creations of the
human brain.

It is fair to say that Euclid's book was an important factor for the growth of modern
science. Science is not just a collection of careful observations nor is it just a sharp and
wise generalization. The great results obtained by modern science come from a
combination of empirical investigative work and experiments on the one hand, with careful
analysis and well-founded conclusions on the other.

Euclid's influence on Sir Isaac Newton was very pronounced, since Newton wrote
a famous book by the name of The Principia in geometric form, similar to The Elements.
Various scientists have tried to identify themselves with Euclid by showing how all their
conclusions logically stem from original assumptions. Not to mention what
mathematicians like Russell, Whitehead and the philosopher Spinoza did.

Now, mathematicians have understood that Euclid's geometry . It is not the only
geometrical system that has become a solid and solid foundation and can be planned as
well, they also understand that during the last 150 years many people have formulated non-
Euclidean geometry. In fact, ever since Einstein's theory of relativity was accepted,
scientists have realized that Euclid's geometry is not always correct in applying the real
problem to the horizon.

At the proximity of "black holes" and neutron stars -- for example -- where gravity
is high, Euclid's geometry does not give a precise picture of the world, nor does it provide
a precise description of space as a whole. However, these examples are rare, because in
many respects Euclid's work provides the possibility of approximate approximations to
reality. Recent advances in human science have not diminished either the result of Euclid's
intellectual endeavors nor the significance of his place in history.

6. Archimedes
Archimedes was the greatest Greek mathematician in history who was born around
287 BC in the port city of Syaracuse. By perfecting integration using Eudoxus' fusion
method, and finding the area and volume of many objects, Arhimedes became the inventor
of many devices including systems, pulleys, and levers. In mathematics, he developed
methods similar to the coordinate system of analytic geometry and the limiting process of
integral calculus.
 Archimedes also performed the first calculation to estimate the area of a circle by
using the Pythagorean Theorem to find the area of two regular polygons: the polygon
inscribed within the circle and the polygon in which the circle is bounded. Since the actual
area of a circle lies between the area of the inscribed polygon and the circumscribed
polygon, the area of the polygon provides the upper and lower bounds for the area of the
circle. Archimedes knew that he did not find the exact value of but only an approximation
1 10
within those limits. In this way, Archimedes showed that is between 3 7 and 3 71 which is
proportional to the actual value of approx 3,1416.

In geoemtry, Archimedes focused on characterizing curves based on the theory of

Euclidean proportions which he discovered so that the parabola has a property whose
abscissa is measured along the axis of the point which is usually known as the square of
the coordinate.
Unfortunately, the Archimedes era became the last golden age of geometry because
after that Hellenistic mathematics began to decline. However, several influential
mathematicians emerged, such as Proclus, author of the Commentary on Euclid's first
book. With his abilities, he commented on previous works to create new works that could
survive into modern times.

7. Al-Khawarizmi
Muḥammad bin Mūsā al-Khawārizmī (Arabic: ‫ ) محمد بن موسى الخوارزمي‬or known as
Al-Khwarizmi is an expert in mathematics, astronomy, astrology, and geography from
Persia. Born around 780 in Khwārizm (present-day Khiva, Uzbekistan) and died around
850 in Baghdad.
For most of his life, he worked as a lecturer at the Honorary School in Baghdad
founded by the Abbasid Caliph Al-Ma'mun, where he studied natural sciences and
mathematics, including studying translations of Sanskrit and Greek manuscripts.
In the 9th century AD, this Muslim mathematician named Khwarizmi had
developed geometry. Initially, the eminent mathematician learned geometry from a book
called The Elements by Euclid. He then developed geometry and discovered many new
things in the study of relationships in space. As a fun fact, it was Al-Khwarizmi who coined
the terms secans and tangens in trigonometry and astronomy investigations. He also
invented the Number System which is very important for the modern number system. In
the Number System, al-Khwarizmi contains the terms Cosine, Sine and Tangent to solve
trigonometric equations, the isosceles triangle theorem, calculation of the area of a triangle,
a quadrilateral and the calculation of the area of a circle in geometry. Al-Khwarizmi's
research is considered a major revolution in the world of mathematics. He linked geometric
concepts from ancient Greek mathematics into new concepts.
8. Abu Al-Wafa
Abu al-Wafa Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Yahya Ibn Ismail Al-Buzjani was
born in the small town of Būzjān or Būzhgān (Khurasan, Iran), Nishapur region, now in
Khurasan, Iran on June 10, 940 AD/328 H. He comes from an educated family and quite
well established. It is a unique characteristic of Muslim scientists, who are not only experts
in one field where apart from being a mathematician, he is also well-known for mastering
the field of astronomy.

9. Abu Kamil
Abu Kamil Shuja' bin Asalam bin Muhammad bin Shuja' al-Hasib al-Misri or
known as Abu Kamil. He is known as the successor of al-Khwarizmi. Abu Kamil was one
of the greatest mathematicians in Islamic civilization. Abu Wafa is a versatile scientist. In
addition to being good at mathematics, he was also famous as a famous engineer and
astronomer in his day. His writings on geometry were very influential on the development
of Western geometry, especially a number of algebraic descriptions of geometric problems.

10. Ibnu Haitham

Abu Ali Muhammad al-Hassan ibn al-Haitham or Ibn Haitham (Basra, 965 – Cairo
1039), known among scholars in the West, by the name of Alhazen, was an Islamic scientist
who was an expert in science, astronomy, mathematics, geometry, medicine, and
philosophy. In the field of geometry, Ibn al-Haitham developed analytical geometry that
connects geometry with algebra. In addition, he also introduced the concepts of motion and
transformation in geometry. Ibn al-Haitham's theory in the field of squares is the first theory
in elliptic geometry and hyperbolic geometry.

11. Umar Khayyam

Umar Khayyam was born in Persia (Iran) on May 18, 1048 AD with the full name
Ghiyath A-Din Abu'l-Fath Umar ibn Brahim Al-Nisaburi A-Khayyami. Linguistically,
Khayyam means 'tent maker'. The name was used, because his father named Ibrahim was
a tent maker. Khayyam's hometown is called Nishapur. He lived during the reign of the
Seljuk Dynasty in the 11th century AD. He began his education in Basra before being
appointed as a government employee in his hometown. But soon, he decided to move to
Baghdad. His love for knowledge and thirst for experience led him to go to Egypt. While
in Egypt, Haytham studied mathematics and astronomy. Haitham is not only an expert in
geometry, but also in astronomy, medicine, and philosophy. 9 He also did many
investigations into light and provided inspiration for Western scientists such as the German
astronomer Johannes Kepler in creating microscopes and telescopes.
12. Nasir al-Din Tusi
Khawaja Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Hasan Tusi, better known as Nasir al-Din
Tusi, or simply Tusi in the West, is Nashiruddin ath-Tusi is an Islamic thinker who is not only
known as a philosopher, but also as an astronomer, mathematician and scientist. scientists
whose ideas are still used today. He is a writer whose work is mostly in mathematics.
 CONCLUSION

The history of the development of mathematics shows that there is a real interaction
between mathematics and its applications. This means that many mathematical ideas were
developed from the real context that surrounded society at that time. Around 3000 BC, obtuse
triangles have been found in the Ancient Indus Valley and Ancient Babylon. This marked the
beginning of geometry in history. At first, the concept of geometry was described only as the
principles of points, lines, lengths, distances, angles, areas, and volumes. The concepts and
principles of this geometry are still evolving to meet some practical needs. It was about 1500 years
ago that the Egyptians and Babylonians knew the formula for the volume of a square pyramid
frustum before the Pythagoreans and the Indian Sulba Sutra.
The word geometry comes from the Greek geometrein, geo meaning earth and metrein
meaning to measure. Ancient geometry is actually a set of process rules from experience that have
been achieved through experiment, analogy from observation, guesswork, and sometimes
intuition. Geometric abstractions in the real world are three dimensions of length, width, and height
and generally negate other qualities such as color, roughness or smoothness of a surface. Geometry
is able to standardize the same forms in nature so that it can be understood by everyone in the
world.
The Greek scientist Hirudut said that geometry was born in Egypt at first and then moved
to Greece in the 6th century BC. Furthermore, Islamic scholars have perfected the rules of science
education, especially in the 9th century AD. Here's a brief overview of geometry over time.
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