Tor Kjellsson

Stockholm University

Chapter 5

5.1
a)
Sol:
Starting with the following information:
m1 r1 + m2 r2
R= , r = r1 − r2 (1)
m1 + m2

m1 · m2
µ= (2)
m1 + m2
we want to derive:
µ µ
r1 = R + r, r2 = R − r (3)
m1 m2

µ µ
∇1 = R + ∇r , ∇2 = R − ∇r . (4)
m2 m1

Finding R as a function of r1 :
m1 r1 + m2 r2
R=
m1 + m2

m1 r1 + m2 (r1 − r)
R=
m1 + m2

R(m1 + m2 ) = (m1 + m2 )r1 − m2 r

R(m1 + m2 ) + m2 r
= r1
m1 + m2
m2
R+ r = r1
m1 + m2
µ
R+ r = r1 .
m1

Finding R as a function of r2 :
As an exercise, redo the steps but now make the exchange r1 = r + r2 to obtain:

µ
R− r = r2 .
m2

1
Now we focus on showing that ∇1 = mµ2 ∇R + ∇r ∇2 = µ
m1 ∇R − ∇r .
To do this we first note the following:
 
∂ ∂ ∂
∇= , , . (5)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Let us define:

R = (X, Y, Z) and r = (x, y, z) (6)

r1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and r2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 ). (7)

Let’s proceed by finding ∇1 :

Note that since r1 and r2 are symmetric in their coordinates we can just con-
sider one component of ∇1 , say the x-component1 . We will therefore focus on
∂
(∇1 )x = ∂x 1
now.

Also note that r1 depends on both r, R, i.e r1 (r, R). It then follows that we
must make use of the chain rule:
∂ ∂X ∂ ∂x ∂
= + . (8)
∂x1 ∂x1 ∂X ∂x1 ∂x

By combining eq.(1) and eq.(2) we can write R on the form (X, Y, Z):
 
µ µ µ µ µ µ µ µ
R= r1 + r2 = x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 (9)
m2 m1 m2 m1 m2 m1 m2 m1
which gives:
 
∂X ∂ µ µ µ
= x1 + x2 = . (10)
∂x1 ∂x1 m2 m1 m2

In the same manner we now use eq.(1) and eq.(2) to write r on the form (x, y, z):

r = r1 − r2 = (x1 − x2 , y1 − y2 , z1 − z2 ) = (x, y, z) (11)

∂x ∂
=⇒ = [x1 − x2 ] = 1. (12)
∂x1 ∂x1

Now insert the results from eq.(12) and eq.(10) into eq.(8) to obtain:

∂ µ ∂ ∂
= + (13)
∂x1 m2 ∂X ∂x
1 If you don’t see it now, just be patient, you will see it at the end.

2
Because R and r are completely symmetric with respect to the three compo-
nents, it immediately follows that:

∂ µ ∂ ∂ ∂ µ ∂ ∂
= + = + (14)
∂y1 m2 ∂Y ∂y ∂z1 m2 ∂Z ∂z
and finally inserting these into eq.(5) gives our result:

µ µ
∇1 = (∇X , ∇Y , ∇Z ) + (∇x , ∇y , ∇z ) = ∇R + ∇ r (15)
m2 m2

If you want to test the steps by yourself you can now redo them for ∇2 :
µ
∇2 = ∇R − ∇ r (16)
m1

beware of the minus sign that appears from eq.(12).

b)
Sol:
The Hamiltonian is given by the sum of each particle’s kinetic energy and the
total potential V (r):
 2
−~ 2 −~2 2

Ĥ = ∇1 + ∇2 + V (r)
2m1 2m2

The time independent Schrödinger equation, Ĥψ = Eψ, then becomes:

 2
~2 2

~ 2
− ∇ + ∇ ψ + V (r)ψ = Eψ. (17)
2m1 1 2m2 2
The goal is now to show that eq.(17) is equivalent with:
~2 ~2 2
− ∇2R ψ − ∇ ψ + V (r)ψ = Eψ
m1 + m2 2µ r
and we will show this by first evaluating ∇21 (ψ):
  
2 µ µ
∇1 (ψ) = ∇1 (∇1 (ψ)) = ∇R + ∇r ∇R + ∇r ψ.
m2 m2
  
µ µ
= ∇ R + ∇r ∇R (ψ) + ∇r (ψ)
m2 m2
 2
µ µ µ
= ∇2R ψ + ∇R ∇r ψ + ∇r ∇R ψ + ∇2r ψ
m2 m2 m2
and since we always consider functions with commuting partial derivatives we
get:
 2
µ µ
∇21 (ψ) = ∇2R (ψ) + 2 ∇R · ∇r (ψ) + ∇2r (ψ) . (18)
m2 m2

3
 Similarly one gets (do this as an exercise!):
 2
µ µ
∇22 (ψ) = ∇2R (ψ) − 2 ∇R · ∇r (ψ) + ∇2r (ψ) . (19)
m1 m1

2
Multiplying these two with the respective factor −~
2mi :
" 2 #
~2 2 ~2 µ 2 µ 2
− ∇ ψ=− ∇R (ψ) + 2 ∇R · ∇r (ψ) + ∇r (ψ)
2m1 1 2m1 m2 m2
" 2 #
~2 2 ~2 µ 2 µ 2
− ∇ ψ=− ∇R (ψ) − 2 ∇R · ∇r (ψ) + ∇r (ψ)
2m2 2 2m2 m1 m1
we see that the middle terms will cancel if we add the two lines. Doing this we
obtain:
~2 2 ~2 2 ~2 1 µ2 1 µ2
    
2 1 1 2
− ∇1 ψ− ∇2 ψ = − + ∇ R (ψ) + + ∇ r (ψ)
2m1 2m2 2 m1 m22 m2 m21 m1 m2

~2 2 ~2 2 ~2 2 m2 + m1 2
   
m2 + m1 2
− ∇ ψ− ∇ ψ=− µ ∇R (ψ) + ∇r (ψ)
2m1 1 2m2 2 2 m21 m22 m1 m2

~2 2 ~2 2 ~2
   
1 2 1 2
− ∇ ψ− ∇ ψ=− ∇ (ψ) + ∇r (ψ)
2m1 1 2m2 2 2 m2 + m1 R µ

Inserting this into eq.(17) now gives:

~2 ~2 2
− ∇2R (ψ) − ∇ (ψ) + V (r)ψ = Eψ. (20)
2(m2 + m1 ) 2µ r

c)
Sol:
Assuming now that the wave function can be written as a product of two wave
functions: ψ(R, r) = ψR ψr . We get:

~2 ~2 2
− ∇2R (ψR ψr ) − ∇ (ψR ψr ) + V (r)ψR ψr = EψR ψr .
2(m2 + m1 ) 2µ r

~2 ~2
− ψr ∇2R (ψR ) − ψR ∇2r (ψr ) + V (r)ψR ψr = EψR ψr
2(m2 + m1 ) 2µ
division by ψR ψr gives:

~2 1 2 ~2 1 2
− ∇R (ψR ) − ∇ (ψr ) + V (r) = E. (21)
2(m2 + m1 ) ψR 2µ ψr r

4
Since the right hand side is a constant and the two terms on the left hand side
are solely functions of separate variables, assumed to be non-dependent of each
other, each term must be constant. Thus:

~2 1 2
− ∇ (ψR ) = ER (22)
2(m2 + m1 ) ψR R

~2 1 2
− ∇ (ψr ) + V (r) = Er (23)
2µ ψr r
with ER + Er = E.

Note that eq.(22) is the Schrödinger equation for a free particle (no potential)
while eq.(23) is the Schrödinger equation for a particle of mass µ moving in a
potential V (r).

5.4
Q. If ψa and ψb are orthogonal and both normalized, what is the constant A in:

ψ± (r1 , r2 ) = A [ψa (r1 )ψb (r2 ) ± ψa (r2 )ψb r1 )] (24)

a)
Sol:
Requiring that ψ± itself is normalized we obtain:

ZZ
1 = |A|2 [ψa∗ (r1 )ψb∗ (r2 ) ± ψa∗ (r2 )ψb∗ (r1 )] [ψa (r1 )ψb (r2 ) ± ψa (r2 )ψb (r1 )] dr1 dr2

Z Z ZZ
1
= |ψa (r1 )|2 dr1 |ψb (r2 )|2 dr2 ± ψa∗ (r2 )ψb∗ (r1 )ψa (r1 )ψb (r2 )dr1 dr2 +
|A|2
| {z }| {z }
1 1
ZZ Z Z 
± ψa∗ (r1 )ψb∗ (r2 )ψa (r2 )ψb (r1 )dr1 dr2 + |ψa (r2 )|2 dr2 |ψb (r1 )|2 dr1
| {z }| {z }
1 1

Z Z ZZ 
1
= 2± ψa∗ (r2 )ψb∗ (r1 )ψa (r1 )ψb (r2 ) dr1 dr2 + ψa∗ (r1 )ψb∗ (r2 )ψa (r2 )ψb (r1 ) dr1 dr2
|A|2

We will now show that each double integral in the square bracket is 0 by focusing
on the left one:

5
ZZ Z Z
ψa∗ (r2 )ψb∗ (r1 )ψa (r1 )ψb (r2 ) dr1 dr2 = ψb∗ (r1 )ψa (r1 )dr1 ψa∗ (r2 )ψb (r2 ) dr2
| {z }| {z }
0 0

because ψa (ri ) and ψb (ri ) are orthogonal. Do the same for the other double
integral as an exercise.

Our condition is now:

1
=2±0
|A|2

1
A= √ (25)
2

b)

Q. What is A if ψa = ψb and ψ(r1 , r2 ) is normalized?

Sol:

In this case we have:

ψ(r1 , r2 ) = A [ψa (r1 )ψa (r2 ) + ψa (r2 )ψa r1 )] = 2Aψa (r1 )ψa (r2 ) (26)
which gives:

ZZ Z Z
1 2 2
= |ψa (r1 )ψa (r2 )| dr1 dr2 = |ψa (r1 )| dr1 |ψa (r2 )|2 dr2 = 1 · 1
4|A|2

1
A= . (27)
2

6
5.5
a)

Q. Write down the Hamiltonian for two noninteracting identical particles in the
infinite square well. Verify that the fermion ground state:

√
2
ψ12 (x1 , x2 ) = [sin(πx1 /a) sin(2πx2 /a) − sin(2πx1 /a) sin(πx2 /a)] (28)
a
is an eigenfunction of H with the appropriate eigenvalue. (why is ψ11 not the
ground state?)

Sol:
The reason why ψ11 cannot be the ground state2 for fermions is that the two
particles would then occupy the same state. (We see that eq.(28) would be 0 in
that case.)

Now, from the Hamiltonian for a general two particle system moving in an
unknown potential:

~2 2 ~2 2
H=− ∇1 − ∇ + V (r1 , r2 , t)
2m1 2m2 2
we see that for the case of identical particles we must have the same mass:

~2  2
∇1 + ∇22 + V (r1 , r2 , t).

H=− (29)
2m
Furthermore, in our case we know the potential. The infinite square well po-
tential is 0 inside the well and since the particles are non-interacting the total
potential is also 0. Therefore:

~2  2 ~2 d2 d2
 
∇1 + ∇22 = −

H=− + (30)
2m 2m dx21 dx22

where the last step comes from the fact that we are only considering the 1D
infinite square well.

Now we check if eq. (28) is an eigenfunction of our Hamiltonian operator:

~2 d2 d2
 
Hψ12 = − + 2 ψ12 = Eψ12 (?)
2m dx21 dx2
by letting the Hamiltonian in eq.(30) work on the wave function eq.(28):

2 If we neglect spin.

7
 √  
~2 d2 d2
      πx 
2 πx1  2πx2 2πx1 2
Hψ12 =− + 2 sin sin − sin sin
2m dx21 dx2 a a a a a

√ "
~2 2 d2 h  πx1 i d2
    
2πx2 2πx1  πx 
2
Hψ12 =− sin sin − sin sin +
2m a dx21 a a dx21 a a

#
 πx  d2   2πx  
2πx1 d2 h  πx2 i

1 2
+ sin sin −sin sin
a dx22 a a dx22 a

√ "
~2 2 π2  πx  4π 2
    
1 2πx2 2πx1  πx 
2
Hψ12 =− − 2 sin sin − − 2 sin sin +
2m a a a a a a a

#
 πx   4π 2 
2πx2
 
2πx1

π2  πx 
1 2
+ sin − 2 sin −sin − 2 sin
a a a a a a

√ 
~2 5π 2 2  πx     
1 2πx2  πx 
2 2πx1
Hψ12 = sin sin − sin sin
2m a2 a a a a a

~2 π 2
=5 ψ12
2ma2
which indeed shows that ψ12 is an eigenfunction of H. The factor in front, the
eigenvalue, is also what we expect since we expect it to be of the form:

~2 π 2 ~2 π 2
n21 + n22 2
=5 2 (31)
|{z} |{z} 2a m 2a m
1 4

b)

Q. Give the wavefunctions and energies of the two next excited states for each
of these three cases: distinguishable particles, identical bosons and identical
fermions.

Sol:
To tidy up the notation we define:

~2 π 2
K= . (32)
2a2 m
The two next excited states would then correspond to states with eigenvalues
above 5K.

8
Distinguishable particles:
In this case the wavefunction is just the product of two single particle wave-
functions: ψ(x1 , x2 ) = ψ(x1 )ψ(x2 ) of the 1D infinite square well: ψn (x) =
q
2
a sin(nπx/a).

The first excited state above ψ12 is ψ22 :

2
ψ22 = ψ2 (x1 )ψ2 (x2 ) =sin(2πx1 /a) sin(2πx2 /a) with E = (22 + 22 )K = 8K
a
(33)
The second excited state above ψ12 can be either of these two states:
2
ψ13 = ψ1 (x1 )ψ3 (x2 ) = sin(πx1 /a) sin(3πx2 /a) (34)
a
2
ψ31 = ψ3 (x1 )ψ1 (x2 ) =
sin(3πx1 /a) sin(πx2 /a) (35)
a
both with the corresponding eigenvalue E = 10K (this state is thus doubly
degenerate).

Identical bosons:
Recall that for bosons the wave function has the general appearance:

ψ(x1 , x2 ) = A [ψa (x1 )ψb (x2 ) + ψb (x1 )ψa (x2 )] (36)

where A = √1 if a 6= b and A = 1
if a = b.
2 2

Since bosons can occupy the same state, the first excited state with energy above
E = 5K is that for which a = b = 2:
2
ψ22 = sin(2πx1 /a) sin(2πx2 /a) with E = 8K
a

The second excited state with energy E > 5K is given when either a or b is 1
and the other 3:
1 2
ψ13 = √ [sin(πx1 /a) sin(3πx2 /a) + sin(3πx1 /a) sin(πx2 /a)] .
2a

Note that for identical particles, ψab and ψba are not distinct eigenstates. For
bosons they are even mathematically identical. Thus the state ψ13 is not degen-
erate with ψ31 - they are the same state.

The energy of this state is E = 10K.

9
Identical fermions:
Identical fermions cannot occupy the same state so in this case a 6= b.

The first level is given by:

1 2
ψ13 = √ [sin(πx1 /a) sin(3πx2 /a) − sin(3πx1 /a) sin(πx2 /a)]
2a
and the second level is given by:
1 2
ψ23 = √ [sin(2πx1 /a) sin(3πx2 /a) − sin(3πx1 /a) sin(2πx2 /a)]
2a
where the negative signs come from the fact that we are dealing with fermions.
The energies of the two states are E13 = 10K and E23 = 13K.

Note here, as in the discussion concluding the ”Identical bosons”, that ψ31 de-
pends on ψ13 . Unlike for bosons where ψ13 = ψ31 , fermionic wavefunctions are
antisymmetric with respect to the interchanging of two states: ψ13 = −ψ31 .

This however does not mean that E13 and E23 are degenerate eigenvalues. De-
generacy only occurs when two linearly dependent eigenstates have
the same eigenvalue.

5.6
Q. Imagine two noninteracting particles, each of mass m, in the infinite square
well (where the potential is 0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ a and infinite elsewhere.). If one is
in the state:
r
2  nπ 
ψn = sin x (37)
a a

and the other in the state ψl (l 6= n), calculate h(x1 − x2 )2 i assuming that:
a) They are dinstinguishable particles.
b) They are identical bosons.
c) They are identical fermions.

a)
Sol:
In this case the total wave function is:
 
2  nπ  lπ
ψ(x1 , x2 ) = ψn (x1 )ψl (x2 ) = sin x1 sin x2 (38)
a a a
with n 6= l. Note now that:

h(x1 − x2 )2 i = hx21 + x22 − x1 x2 − x2 x1 i = hx21 i + hx22 i − 2hx1 x2 i (39)

10
 so we study each of the three terms on the RHS separately. Starting with the
two first terms we obtain:
ZZ Z Z
∗ 2 ∗
2
hx1 i = 2
ψ (x1 , x2 ) (x1 ) ψ(x1 , x2 )dx1 dx2 = x1 ψn (x1 )ψn (x1 )dx1 ψl∗ (x2 )ψl (x2 )dx2
x1 x2
| {z }
1
ZZ Z Z
hx22 i = ψ ∗ (x1 , x2 ) (x22 ) ψ(x1 , x2 )dx1 dx2 = ψn∗ (x1 )ψn (x1 )dx1 x22 ψl∗ (x2 )ψl (x2 )dx2 .
x1 x2
| {z }
1

More compactly this is:

Z
hx21 i = x21 ψn∗ (x1 )ψn (x1 )dx1 = hx2 in . (40)
x1
Z
hx22 i = x22 ψl∗ (x2 )ψl (x2 )dx2 = hx2 il . (41)
x2

Note that we dropped the indices i = 1, 2 on xi . Even if they are separate co-
ordinates they both span the same space (the distance within the square well).
Therefore, when you integrate over the whole space the index is not important.

Now we insert our ψn into eq.(40):

2 a 2 2  nπ 
Z Z
hx2 in = x2 ψn∗ (x)ψn (x)dx = x sin x dx (42)
a 0 a

and note to our horror that there does not seem to be a ready made expression
in either Physics Handbook nor Mathematics Handbook for x2 sin2 (Ax).

However3 , the primitive function of x2 cos(Ax) is listed and we can rewrite

sin2 (Ax) = 21 (1 − cos(2Ax)). Therefore:

2 a 2 2  nπ  2 1 a 2
Z Z  
2 2 2nπ
hx in = x sin x dx = · x − x cos x dx
a 0 a a 2 0 a

 a " ! #a
1 x3 x2
  
1 2x 2nπ 2 2nπ
= − cos x + − sin x
a 3 0 a (2nπ/a)2 a 2nπ/a (2nπ/a)3 a
0

a3 a3
     
1 1 1 1
= − = a2 −
a 3 a 2n2 π 2 3 2n2 π 2

We conclude:  
2 2 1 1
hx in = a − . (43)
3 2n2 π 2
3 Thanks to Daniel Blixt for pointing this out!

11
It obviously follows that:
 
1 1
hx2 il = a2 − 2 2 . (44)
3 2l π

Now we evaluate the mixed term hx1 x2 i:

ZZ
hx1 x2 i = ψ ∗ (x1 , x2 ) (x1 x2 ) ψ(x1 , x2 )dx1 dx2
Z Z
= x1 ψn∗ (x1 )ψn (x1 )dx1 x2 ψl∗ (x2 )ψl (x2 )dx2 = hxin hxil .
x1 x2

Following the same structure as above, we now calculate hxin :

1) Use sin2 (Ax) = 21 (1 − cos(2Ax)) :

2 a 2 1 a
Z  nπ  Z  
2nπ
hxin = x sin2 x dx = · x − x cos x dx
a 0 a a 2 0 a

2) Integrate the first term and look up the second term:

 a "
#a
1 cos 2nπ x sin 2nπ


1 x2 a x a x
hxin = − +
a 2 0 a (2nπ/a)2 2nπ/a
0
 2   
1 a 1 a
= − 0 =
a 2 a 2
a a
hxin = a − +0= (45)
2 2

This gives us:

h(x1 − x2 )2 i = hx21 i + hx22 i − 2hx1 x2 i

   
1 1 1 1 a a
h(x1 − x2 )2 i = a2 − + a2 − −2· · =
3 2n2 π 2 3 2l2 π 2 2 2
  
2 1 1 1
= a − + 2 2 . (46)
6 2n2 π 2 2l π

12
 b)
Sol:
To save some time we refer the reader to the derivation in the text book (section
5.1.2) of:

h(x1 − x2 )2 i = hx2 in + hx2 il − 2hxin hxil − 2|hxinl | (47)

where: Z
hxinl = xψn∗ (x)ψl (x)dx. (48)

Comparing eq.(47) and the one at the top of this page we see that the only
difference is the last term. Let us therefore focus on this one:
Z a
2 a
Z  nπ   
∗ lπ
hxinl = xψn (x)ψl (x)dx = x sin x sin x dx. (49)
0 a 0 a a

Now we make use of the following trigonometric identity:

      
 nπ  lπ 1 π(n − l) π(n + l)
sin x sin x = cos x − cos x (50)
a a 2 a a
and from Physics handbook we find:

cos(bx) sin(bx)
g(x) = x cos(bx) =⇒ G(x) = 2
+x (51)
b b
which gives:
         a
π(n−l) π(n−l) π(n+l) π(n+l)
2
Z a
1 cos a x sin a x cos a x sin a x
xψn∗ (x)ψl (x)dx =   2 + x  π(n−l)  −  2 − x  π(n+l)  

a 0 a π(n−l) π(n+l)
a a a a
0

The second and fourth terms are 0 while the rest evaluates to:
     a  
π(n−l) π(n+l) (
1 cos a x cos a x 1  −1n+l
− 1 −1 n+l
− 1 0 if l + n = even
2 −  2  =   2 −  2  =

−8anl
a a π 2 (n2 −l2 )2 else.
 
π(n−l) π(n+l) π(n−l) π(n+l)
a a a a
0

since cos(π(n ± l)) = −1n+l .

This means that the additional term now is:

−128a2 n2 l2
−2|hxinl |2 =
π 4 (n2 − l2 )4

128n2 l2
   
2 2 1 1 1
h(x1 − x2 ) i = a − + 2 2 − 4 2 . (52)
6 2n2 π 2 2l π π (n − l2 )4

13
if n + l is even. Otherwise we get the same answer as in the previous problem.

c)
Sol:
The only difference for fermions lies in the last sign:

h(x1 − x2 )2 i = hx2 ia + hx2 ib − 2hxia hxib + 2|hxiab |2 (53)

so we immediately get the answer:

128n2 l2
   
2 2 1 1 1
h(x1 − x2 ) i = a − + 2 2 + 4 2 . (54)
6 2n2 π 2 2l π π (n − l2 )4

if n + l is even. Otherwise we get the same answer as in problem a). Note that:
1) The average distance between two particles being in fixed states might differ
depending on if they are distinguishable or not.

2) If they are indistinguishable they are either closer (bosons) or further (fermions)
apart from distinguishable particles in the same state.

5.7
Q. Construct the total wavefunction for three particles in the orthonormal states
ψa , ψb , ψc for the cases of a) distinguishable, b) bosonic and c) fermionic parti-
cles.

a)

For distinguishable particles the total wavefunction is just the simple product:

ψ(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = ψa (x1 )ψb (x2 )ψc (x3 ) (55)

and since ψa , ψb , ψc are all normalized the product has norm 1. compare this
result to eq.(5.15) in the text book.

14
b)
For identical bosons we have to form a completely symmetric combination with
respect to the interchange of any two of the three particles. The number of terms
will be the same as the number of permutations, so for n states this will give n!
number of terms. In our case we have three particles so the total wavefunction
is a product of six terms:


ψ(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = A· ψa (x1 )ψb (x2 )ψc (x3 )+ψa (x1 )ψc (x2 )ψb (x3 )+ψb (x1 )ψa (x2 )ψc (x3 )


+ψb (x1 )ψc (x2 )ψa (x3 )+ψc (x1 )ψa (x2 )ψb (x3 )+ψc (x1 )ψb (x2 )ψa (x3 )

The remaining thing now is to find the normalization constant A. This is easy
since each term has norm 1 (compare with the answer in a)) so A2 = 6. Our
1
normalization constant is then A = √ .
6

c)
For fermions we also need n! terms but the total wave function should be anti-
symmetric. This means that it has to change sign for each interchange of two
fermions. You could do this either by using the result from problem b) and just
change sign on three terms to make the total wave function antisymmetric, or
use a faster way; the Slater determinant

 
ψ (x ) ψb (x1 ) ψc (x1 )
1  a 1 
ψ(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = √ ψa (x2 ) ψb (x2 ) ψc (x2 ) (56)
3! ψ (x ) ψ (x ) ψ (x )
a 3 b 3 c 3


1
ψ(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = √ · ψa (x1 )ψb (x2 )ψc (x3 )+ψb (x1 )ψc (x2 )ψa (x3 )+ψc (x1 )ψa (x2 )ψb (x3 )
6


−ψc (x1 )ψb (x2 )ψa (x3 )−ψb (x1 )ψa (x2 )ψc (x3 )−ψa (x1 )ψc (x2 )ψb (x3 )
(57)
which works for any number of elements (note that the normalization then be-
comes √1N ! ).

15