Applicability of carbon nanotube materials in

present-day and future electrical machines

J. Pyrhönen, M. Otto, V.Ayguzina, I. Petrov, J Vauterin, F. R. Ismagilov, V. Ye. Vavilov


Abstract – The conductivity of carbon-nanotube-based yarns conductivity of metals by alloying them. Of all metals pure
is developing gradually. Individual carbon nanotubes (CNTs) silver has the best conductivity.
offer very high conductivity levels but yarns spun of them still 2.2
are in their infancy and develop slowly. Currently, CNTs are

Resistivity [cm]
2.0
typically grown with chemical vapour deposition from methane,
methanol or other carbon-rich hydrocarbons. Theoretical ideas 1.8
of using graphene as a basic material to create high-conductivity
nanotubes have also been presented lately. However, already 1.6
present-day CNT-based yarns demonstrate conductivity levels 1.4
that are considered good in principle for certain applications.
This paper studies the applicability of CNT-based winding 1.2
materials in electrical machine design. 0 20 40 60 80 100%
Copper Silver
Index Terms—Carbon Nanotube conductors, Applicability in
electrical machine design Figure 1. The behaviour of the resisitivity of CuAg alloy as a function
of Ag percentage. On the left, pure copper, on the right pure silver.
I. INTRODUCTION
The phenomenon of superconductivity was discovered
E LECTRICAL machines and drive systems represent a
fairly mature technology. New discoveries would be
needed in the area to achieving the targets set by the
already in 1911 by Heike Kammerlingh-Onnes who found that
at a temperature of 4.2 K mercury has superconducting
properties. In 1954 the superconductivity of Nb3Sn (Niobium-
European Commission. Regulation (EC) No: 640/2009 [1]
tin) was discovered at its critical temperature of 18.3 K. Nb3Sn
envisages that there is potential for cost-effective
has the ability to support high currents and magnetic fields,
improvement of the energy efficiency of motor systems.
which was found out in 1961 and started the era of large-scale
However, a true breakout innovation for radical improvement
applications of superconductivity. Nb3Sn is typically used at
in electrical machines can only be achieved by the adoption of
4.2 K. It tolerates even a 30 T flux density while remaining
totally new technologies [2]. No major improvements of
superconductive. In 1986 the first high-temperature
magnetic materials are within easy access. High-quality low-
superconductors (HTS) were discovered by Bednorz and
loss steel and amorphous materials provide already acceptable
Mueller. In 1990’s e.g. HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8 was found to be
properties. Naturally, we may expect some developments in
superconducting at a temperature of 135 K [10] and the first
these materials in the future but major improvement is
HTS cables were built. In 2019 Sumitomo Electric developed
constrained by the laws of material physics.
a HTS superconducting motor and successfully demonstrated
From the past we know that significant efficiency
the motor’s suitability to drive an electric passenger car. The
improvements have been enabled through the adoption of new
motor output power is around 30 kW with 120 Nm torque. In
materials, for example by the commercialization of rare earth
principle a superconducting motor provides larger specific
permanent magnets which are needed in the efficiency race to
torque and delivers high efficiency. However, liquid nitrogen
reach efficiency classes beyond IE4 etc. [3]-[9]. The new
is needed to maintain the superconductivity of present-day
emerging conductive materials can bring new horizons to
HTSs. There is still no evidence that superconductivity can
electrical machine technology and are expected to replace the
exist in ambient temperature and ambient pressure. The fact
traditionally used conductors during the next decades.
is, however, that despite the long history of superconductors,
Copper and aluminium as conductors in machines have
so far developments have not produced practical results that
been used since the birth of the electrical machine. Replacing
could be adopted in everyday use of electrical machines.
these by other metals has not been a viable option. Silver has
Carbon nanotube (CNT) materials have a much shorter
the best metallic conductivity but is expensive and very dense
history but already promising results have been obtained in the
and does not offer commercial potential for advanced
development of the conducting properties of these materials.
electrical machines. Nor does mixing materials provide any
CNTs may give double the conductivity of copper in a
help. For example, adding silver to copper, in practice,
nanoscale building block and gradually their conductivity has
increases the resistvivity of the alloy, Figure 1. This
been improved also in macroscopic fabrics such as fibers and
phenomenon is explained by the Drude-Sommerfeld and
yarns. They are not expected to provide superconductivity but
Bloch theorems. Therefore it is not possible to improve the
they have potential to exceed the conductivity of the metallic

J. Pyrhönen, I. Petrov and J. Vauterin are with Lappeenranta-Lahti M. Otto is CEO of Conyar BV, The Netherlands.
University of Technology, Lappeenranta, Finland (e-mail: V.Ayguzina, F. R. Ismagilov and V. Ye. Vavilov are with Ufa State
Juha.Pyrhonen@lut.fi). Aviation Technical University, Ufa, Russia.

978-1-7281-9945-0/20/$31.00 ©2020 IEEE 2379

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 conductors that are nowadays used in electrical machines.
Russian scientists Radushkevich and Lukyanovich
succeeded to create the first carbon nanotubes in 1952. The
knowledge of their discovery did not widely reach the
scientific community and therefore Oberlin, Endo and
Koyama [11] reinvented the CNT in 1976. CNTs form a class
of carbon allotropes which have a tube-like structure. It is
possible to think of high-conductivity CNTs as tubes that are
created by rolling graphene to produce correct chirality. A
recent theoretical study investigates the use of graphene to
roll metallic CNTs [12].
S. Ijima first reported on the structure of CNTs. Alan
Windle, Ray Baughman and Lars Ericson produced the first
CNT fibres in 2004. Teijin Aramid and Rice university
manufactured the first high-quality conducting yarns in 2013
[13]. In 2014, Prof. Pyrhönen and Dr. Marcin Otto have used
these new yarns and developed a small permanent magnet
motor with CNT-yarn windings to demonstrate the yarn
properties. At that time, the conductivity of CNT yarns was
still much lower than that of copper and therefore a higher-
speed machine had to be used. The yarns were twisted,
insulated with polyurethane into a multi-yarn tape with
aramids on the edges to increase their strength and preclude
short circuits on sharp edges of the magnetic core. Then
simple tooth-coil windings were produced. In 2016, Dr. Otto
turned the project at Teijin Aramid into a start-up company
Conyar BV, with the goal to commercialize the novel CNT
yarns. In the meantime Conyar has developed its proprietary
technology.
Table I lists the properties of single metallic CNTs and
present-day conductors used in electrical machines.
Table I Conductor properties
Data at room temp, Single Silver Copper Aluminium
ambient pressure metallic CNT
Resistivity, cm 1 1.59 1.72
Conductivity, MS/m 100 63 58
Density g/cm3 1.3…1.8 10.9 8.96
Figure 2 illustrates the development of CNT yarn
conductivity during the first decades of the present
millennium. The curve shows that if development of CNT
conductivity continues on the current path and by use of the
wet spinning technology it may be possible to reach or even
exceed the conductivity values of copper during the 2020’s.
The latest CNT-fiber conductivities reported are on the level
of 10 … 15 MS/m. The conductivity has grown tenfold within
the short period of only one decade.
This could indicate that we are on the edge of a revolution
in the theory and design of electrical machines. When CNTs
will have reached conductivity rates equal to or better than
those of copper, the production and market prices of CNT-
based yarns may be expected to dictate the speed at which
CNTs will replace copper in the windings of electrical
machines.
The use of CNTs instead of copper may also reduce the
carbon footprint of electrical machine production. Nowadays
copper mining is an extremely energy intensive industry
which affects the environment in many ways (land use, water
and biological life near the mining zones). In the future,
electrical machine conductors can be manufactured from
synthetic methane or methanol through capture and reuse of
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CO2 from the air, and therefore presents a solution that even
may contribute to mitigating the climate change.
100 Single CNTs
Copper
Aluminium
Conductivity [MS/m]
10
10 - 15 MS/m
1 Breakthrough results
published in Science 2013
0.1
2004 2008 2012 2016 2020 2024
Figure 2. Development of CNT yarn conductivity (Chart data by
Conyar BV)
This review deals with the development of CNT yarns and
reports on preliminary studies related to current development
of the usage of CNT yarns in machines.
The structure of the paper is as follows. In section II the
status of the spinning of CNT yarns is briefly discussed.
Section III discusses a preliminary design of a 100 kW high-
speed machine using either copper or CNT conductors and
section IV concludes the work.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Wet spinning is considered one of the most promising
means of manufacturing CNT-based yarns. There are,
however, several requirements for realizing the promise of
CNT high conductive yarns. The “raw material” for spinning
consists of individual CNTs, which should have conductivity
of 100 MS/m. This means that the CNTs must all be metallic
or semi metallic CNTs and either single-walled or double-
2.65 walled CNTS (SWNT or DWNT). Figure 3 illustrates a single-
38 walled carbon nanotube structure.
2.7
Figure 3. Principal contruction of a SWNT (Figure courtesy Conyar
B.V.)
Naturally, the CNTs to be used for spinning yarns should
be without defects [14]. Every electrician knows that even one
single high-restance resistor in a series can turn the whole
series into a high-resistance series. Actually, at the moment
the most difficult problem related to the spinning of a CNT
conductor is the quality of the spinning raw material.
Manufacturers are not yet capable of supplying 100% pure and
defect-free CNTs. Currenly, the raw material is composed of
a distribution of different-quality CNTs which makes the
process of spinning high-quality yarn very challenging.
To get good spinning results the individual raw-material
CNTs should be at least 5 µm long. The spinning process must
be capable of orienting the CNTs in the same direction to
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 produce a crystalline structure where mono-chirality of the
CNTs facilitates good inter CNT contacts within fibers.
An important matter is also the safety of use of CNT-based
materials. It is known that certain types of MWCNTs may
cause severe pulmonary problems to humans and therefore a
lot of effort is invested in assuring all CNT production
processes being safe for people and the environment.
Figure 4. illustrates non-oriented ropes of CNT raw
material.
Figure 4. Raw material for wet spinning: non-oriented ropes of CNT.
(Figure courtesy Conyar B.V.)
The wet spinning process is schematically described in
Figure 5.
CNT / Acids
dispersion
winding
Coagulation washing drying
Figure 5. Wet spinning process of CNT yarn manufacturing (Figure Courtesy
Conyar BV)
The wet spinning process is capable of orienting the riopes
of Figure 4 and connecting individual ropes to each other so
that a highly-conducting yarn is created.
Figure 6. Oriented CNT-based ropes after wet spinning process. Most of the
originally non-oriented ropes are now oriented to produce a well-conducting
material that can be used even in the windings of electrical machines. (Figure
courtesy Conyar B.V.)
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III. THE POTENTIAL OF USING CNT-BASED CONDUCTORS IN
ELECTRICAL MACHINES
In industrial machines the share of stator and rotor Joule
losses is high. There is also a high demand to manufacture
motors which deliver better efficiency and better performance.
To reach ever increasing levels of IE-efficiency even the
conductivity of aluminium is not always high enough in the
rotor of die-cast induction motor, and copper casting must be
used. The share of industrial induction motor losses is
following the values given in Figure 7.
0.70
0.60
0.50
stator Joule loss
0.40
0.30 rotor Joule loss
0.20
Iron loss
mechanic loss
0.10
stray load loss
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
P N / kW
Figure 7. Share of different losses in industrial induction motors [15]
If we select, for example, an industrial induction motor with
11 kW power the share of Joule losses is close to 70%. This
fact underlines that there is high potential for improved
efficiency if better conductors would be available for
application in induction motors. It, however, also indicates
that present-day CNT conductors are not yet good enough for
use in standard products.
However, we may consider other types of machines to
pioneer CNT conductors: In permanent magnet synchronous
machines (PMSMs) the power factor is higher than in
induction motors and there are no rotor currents. Therefore,
the share of Joule losses in a PMSM is much lower than in
industrial induction motors. In the case of a high-speed PMSM
the share of Joule losses may be considered almost
insignificant while iron losses and friction losses are
dominating.
For this reason, a small PMSM with 15 000 r/min was
selected for the building of the first CNT-motor demonstrator.
The permanent magnet synchronous motor, which was built in
2014 in LUT laboratories, had extra-low voltage (7V line-to-
line), had a power of 40 W and despite very poorly conducting
CNT material used in the stator windings produced 70%
efficiency which could be regarded even good taking account
of the power of the motor. The motor was rotating a small
centrifugal fan in the demonstration, Figure 8. This motor
design is in more detail reported in [16].
 measured temperature coefficient of the winding material was
0.0008/K.
Since then, significant improvement in the production
capacity and price of CNT yarns has taken place and, for
example today, Conyar BV is capable of manufacturing 0.05
… 0.3 mm CNT yarns from which it is possible to assemble
up to 2 mm2 insulated conductors that can be used in different
products.
Studies to apply CNT-based conductors have been reported
e.g. in [17] where the authors suggested to use special motor
topology to get advantage of the CNT-conductors. They also
concluded that major improvent in the conductivity is needed
before the CNT-technology could be widely adopted.

IV. ON THE POSSIBILITY OF USING CNT-BASED WINDINGS IN

A REAL CASE

Figure 8 LUT demonstrator motor using CNT-based winding
material
For each phase a 10 mm wide and 120 cm long tape was
created by gluing twisted CNT yarns with aramid yarns at the
edges, Figure 9. These tapes were then wound on the stator
teeth, Figure 10.
As CNT materials start to be commercially available, there
are certain applications where the new technology can be
considered for beneficial applications. We take here as an
example a high-speed permanent-magnet auxiliary power unit
generator as an example.
The generator has 100 kW output at 60 000 r/min with
copper windings. The generator main dimensions are given in
Table II. [18]

TABLE III
HSPMG PARAMETERS
Parameters PMSG PMSG with CNT
Power, kW 100 100
Rotational speed, kr/min 60 60
Number of poles 4 4
Frequency, Hz 2000 2000
Phase current, A 153 153
Power factor 0.96 0.96
Phase voltage under load, V 239 239
Current density, A/mm2 3 3
Number of stator slots 24 24
Figure 9 CNT-based winding material and a clamp connector used Stator outer diameter, mm 137 137
Stator inner diameter, mm 70 70
at winding ends. Rotor diameter measured at PMs, mm 59 59
Stator active length, mm 165 165
Number of turns in phase 8 8
Number of parallel branches 4 4
Winding space factor 0.55 0.55
Mass of winding material, kg 5 0.7
Total mass of the generator 20 15.7
Phase resistance at 20 °C,  (58 0.0018 0.0068
MS/m /15 MS/m)
Temperature coefficient of resistivity 0.004 0.0008
1/K
Phase resistance at 115°C Cu/155°C 0.0024 0.0071
CNT, 
Winding losses, W 169 499
Joule losses/all losses 0.043 0.118
Joule losses/output power 0.00169 0.00499
Stator core losses, W 2360 2360
Windage losses, W 870 870
Rotor eddy-current losses, W 13 13
Extra losses, W 500 500
Total losses, W 3912 4242
Efficiency, % 96.2 95.9
Experimental data
Figure 10 CNT-based winding on stator teeth Phase current, A 168 -
Phase voltage under load, V 220 -
The motor measured resistance was 0.4  including all
connections, yielding 2.4 MS/m average conductivity. The In Table II we can see that the share of Joule losses in the
initial copper winding machine is only 0.11% of the input

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 power while in the case of CNT yarns it is 0.34%. In both
cases, the share of Joule losses is very small compared to other
losses in the high-speed generator. As a result, we may
conclude that the CNT-winding-based approach is already
today feasible from a technical point of view. For example, we
could consider a new CNT-type generator for use in the APU
of an aircraft because with 4.3 kg savings in machine mass and
with an increase of the specific power from 5 kW&kg to 6.4
kW/kg of the generator there may be clear benefits to be
obtained for example in fuel savings of the aircraft. Similarly,
high-speed permanent-magnet motor technology with CNT-
based windings could bring specific power benefits in any
airborne application, such as electric air-conditioning systems
etc.
Figure 11 illustrates the stator of the machine stator frame
and the copper winding. The outer layer of the stator is missing
from the figure revealing the cooling liquid conduit of the
machine. Figure 12 illustrates the temperature disctirbutions
of the real Cu-wound version and the hypothetic CNT-
winding version.
Figure 11. Stator of a 100 kW, 60 000 r/min PMSM for APU-use
Figure 12. Temperature distributions of the 100 kW, 60 000 r/min
machine with Cu windings (a) and CNT windings (b). Parameters
used in the thermal simulation: Losses depicted in Table II, insulation
layer thickness in the stator 0.5 mm, insulation layer thermal
conductivity 0.025 W/mK, thermal conductivity of the winding
region 0.5 W/mK, thermal conductivity of the stator core 50 W/(Km),
boundary condition of the outer surface of the stator core 1500
W/(m2K) (coefficient of convection), temperature 50° C
V. CONCLUSION
The latest technological developments in growth and yarn
spinning of CNTs carry a promise for continued improvement
of CNT conductivity levels, even up to those of copper at
130˚C, which is the usual working temperature of copper in
electric motors. For the electric motor industry to benefit from
further developments in the CNT field, the availability of
high-quality CNTs is a prerequisite. Economic production
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across the entire supply chain, including low-cost production
of CNTs and low-cost spinning processes, is required to
enable the wide-spread adoption of the technology.
There is still a way to go before this will be achieved and a
shift towards the adoption of the new technology could really
start taking place. We, however, may anticipate that carbon-
based conductors will be used in the future because they offer
a more environmentally friendly solution than the present-day
metallic conductors.
Global copper mining impacts can be reduced and, further,
as soon as the conductivity of CNT yarns will exceed the
conductivity of metals, significant savings in energy
consumption can be achieved. Electrical machines, which are
already today energy efficient, may perform in the future even
more efficiently and at the same time massive electrical
machines can be designed to be more leightweight as the
density of CNT yarns is only one sixth of the density of
copper.
The big copper mining industries will soon have the
opportunity to shift their business towards a low-carbon future
by contributing to the establishment and development of new
production lines capable of manufacturing high-quality and
low-cost new CNT conductors.
Today, in practice, the windings of almost all electrical
machines are made of copper. Replacing copper with CNT
yarn will require a learning process. We could start with
building the next generation of CNT-yarn based motors, larger
than the one that was built at LUT in 2014, and test these to
develop the theory and design methodology to be ready for use
of the CNT technologies in the near future. As a next step, we
suggest to build high-speed machines for application, for
example, in aircraft auxiliary power unit (APU) systems,
where the stator winding resistivity of the permanent-magnet
generator is of lesser importance.
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VII. BIOGRAPHIES
J. Pyrhönen, Senior Member IEEE, was born in 1957 in
Kuusankoski, Finland, received the Doctor of Science
(D.Sc.) degree from Lappeenranta University of
Technology (LUT), Finland in 1991. He became an
Associate Professor of Electrical Engineering at LUT in
1993 and a Professor of Electrical Machines and Drives in
1997. He is engaged in research and development of
electric motors and electric drives.
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Marcin J. Otto. CEO of a start-up Conyar BV. National of
The Netherlands. Master of Science in Physics, PhD. Solid
State Chemistry. After starting his career as a scientist,
moved to High Performance Fibers Group of AKZO and
later of Teijin Aramid where he was account manager
responsible for marketing of aramid fibers in tires. Marcin
combines an entrepreneurial, customer-oriented approach
to business development with scientific knowledge to create a new and
complete supply chain. Presently, he runs Conyar BV, a company developing,
producing and selling electrically and thermally conductive yarn made of
carbon nanotubes.
Valentina V. Ayguzina, postgraduate student,
Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology,
Lappeenranta, Finland.
In 2016 she graduated from the Ufa State Aviation
Technical University, Department of Electromechanics.
J.J. Vauterin, born in Kortrijk, Belgium, received her
Master’s degree in philosophy from Gent University (1985),
and her Doctor’s degree in philosophy from Lappeenranta
University of Technology (2012). She is working as an
associate professor at the LUT School of Energy Systems,
where she is engaged in research on issues of knowledge
management and societal impact surrounding energy
systems development.
I. Petrov Ilya Petrov received D.Sc. degree in 2015 from
Lappeenranta University of Technology (LUT), Finland. He
is currently a researcher in the Department of Electrical
Engineering, LUT.
Flyur R. Ismagilov, member IEEE, professor, head of
Department of Electromechanics, Ufa State Aviation
Technical University, Ufa, Russia.
In 1973, he graduated from the Ufa Aviation Institute
Department of Electromechanics. In 1981, he received the
Ph.D degree in electrical engineering from Ufa State
Aviation Technical University, Ufa, Russia. In 1998
received the D.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from Ufa
State Aviation Technical University.
Viacheslav E. Vavilov, Member IEEE, assistant professor
of department of Electromechanics, Ufa State Aviation
Technical University, Ufa, Russia.
In 2010 he graduated from the Ufa State Aviation
Technical University, department of Electromechanics. In
2013 he received the Ph.D degree in electrical engineering
from Ufa State Aviation Technical University, Ufa, Russia.