Niezabitowska - Research Techniques in Architecture

Research Methods
and Techniques in
Architecture
Elzbieta Danuta Niezabitowska
RECEIVED
PRINCETON UNIVERSllY
MAR 2. J 20rn
SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
LIBRARY
1 Routledge
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Contents
Foreword xi
Acknowledgments xv
Acronyms xvii
Introduction xix
1 The Relation Between Science, Theory of Architecture,

and Practice 1
1.1 A Brief History of Architectural Development Perceived
as a Practical Discipline 4
1.2 Causes of Development of Science in Architecture and
Urban Planning 8
1.3 Drawbacks of Science in Architecture 9
1.4 Inter-, Multi-, and Transdisciplinarity of Architecture and
Urban Planning 11
1.5 Architecture as a Science: Literature Overview 14
The Philosophical Reflection Trend: Literature Analysis 15
A Research Trend in Architecture Aimed at Perfecting
Design Practice 20
Scientific Research Trend in Architecture 26
1.6 Scientific Theories in Architecture : Select Examples 31
The Environmental Theories That Influence the Creation
of a New Paradigm of Architecture 32
The Environmental Design Theory of Jon Lang 40
,. .. Kevin Lynch's Theory of the Urban Space Structure
The Theory of the Sign of Robert Ventu ri: Architecture as
43
a Means of Communication 45
The Privacy Gradient and Oscar Newman's " Defensible
Space " Theory 46
Christopher Alexander's Pattern Language: The Theory of
Form Synthesis 51
The Theory of the Phenomenological Approach of Christian
Norberg-Schulz 52
v □
■ Contents
Stewart Brand's Theory of Transitions and a Stratif ied

Construction of Architectural Objects 53
Select Theoretical Conceptions Pertaining to the Research
on Space Structure 56
Conclusion 60
Notes 60 ,_.,
References 61
2 The General Image of Science 66

2.1 Introduction 66
2.2 Philosophy and Its Role in the Development of Science 73
2.3 Facts and Phenomena: Their Cogn ition and Interpretation 78
Philosophical Interpretation of Facts 79
Ideological Interpretation: Ideas and Doctrines 80
Interpretation of Facts in the Sphere of Practice 80
Scientific Interpretation 81
Looking at Facts and Other Phenomena in Architecture 82
2.4 The Processes of Mental Cogn ition 84
2.5 Requirements for Research Results 87
2.6 The Attitude of Scholars to Scientific Problems 88
Notes 92
References 92
3 Basic Notions Applied in Science 94

3.1 Defining of Notions in Science 94
3.2 Paradigm 96
3.3 Scientific Theories 98
Grounded Theory 100
3.4 Laws and Generalizations 102
3.5 Research Problem 102
3.6 Research Methods 104
Research Assumptions, Theses 106
Hypotheses 108
Research Questions 109
Dependent and Independent Variables in Empirical
Research 110
3.7 The Comparison of Research Methods, Techniques,
and Tools 111
References 111
4 Scientific Research in Architecture 113

4.1 The Aims of Research in Architecture 114
4.2 Review of Literature that Pertains to the Methodology of
Research in Architecture 115
vi D
Contents ■
4.3 The Subject Matter and the Subject of Research in

Architecture 118
4.4 Scientific Research and Its Types 119
4.5 Expert Research Versus Participation Research 121
4.6 Methodology of Research Works and Its Component Parts 123
The Strategy for Conducting Research (Organization,
Selection of Methods, Tools, and Research Techniques) 124
Research Tools 124
Research Techniques 125
Triangulation of Research 126
Monitoring in Scientific Research 127
Notes 128
References 128
5 Research Process Designing 130

5.1 Basic Steps in Research Process Designing 131
5.2 Building the Research Team 132
5.3 Implementation of Research Results 136
5.4 Research Financing 136
Notes 137
References 137
6 Research Methods Applied in Architecture 138

6.1 The Method of Logical Argumentation : An Analysis and
Logical Construction 140
6.2 The Method Based on Historical-Interpretative or
Interpretative Research 143
6.3 Experimental Research 148
6.4 The Method of Quantitative and Statistical Research 150
6.5 Modeling and Simulative Research 154
6.6 Qualitative Research 159
POE: A Special Variation of Qualitative Research in
Architecture 168
6.7 Case Studies 173
6.8 Action Research Method: lnterventional Research 180
6.9 Heuristic and Forecasting Methods 181
6.10 Mixed Methods 183
Notes 184
- References 184
7 Research Techniques 188

7.1 Research Techniques and Research Methods 189
7.2 Research Techniques Applied in Architectural Scientific
Research 189
vii D
■ Contents
Description, Explanation, and Interpretation 193

Literature Research, Analysis, and Critique 196
Field Trip, Walkthrough 197
Collecting Documents, Artifacts, Photographs,
Drawings, etc. 199
Measurements 200
Statistical Techniques and Surveys 200
Correlations 210
,_,,,
Comparative Studies 212
Scaling Techniques 217
Semantic Differential 219
Observations 221
Mapping 227
Sorting 228
Interviews 230
Focus Group Interviews 236
7.3 Research Techniques That Support Decision-Making
Processes in Design and Strategic Development 238
Workshops 239
Adjacency Analysis 239
Modeling: Physical, Graphic, Virtual 239
Checklists and Scale Ratings 246
SWOT Analyses 247
Scenarios 251
Heuristic and Prognosis Research Techniques 254
Delphi Techniques 254
Brainstorming 255
Marketing Techniques 257
Summary of Forecasting Techniques 257
7.4 Pilot and Pretest 258
Notes 259
References 260
8 Practical Activities Connected with the Realization

of Research 264
8.1 Design-Related Research 264
8.2 Tools for Recording Research Results 266
Description 267
Tables 267
Cross Tabulations/Matrices 268
Graphical Charts, Schemes, Diagrams 268
Graphical Models 272
8.3 Tools for Checking the Quality of a Built Environment 272
viii D
Contents ■
8.4 Techniques for Checking Credibility of the Results of

Research 276
8.5 Errors in Understanding, Errors in the Interpretation of
the Results of Research 277
Notes 278
References 278
9 Conclusions 281
9.1 New Research Areas in Architecture 282
9.2 The Role of Professional Organizations in Science
Development in Architecture 285
References 286
Appendix 1: Preamble, Title Page, Surveys, Authorization for the

Interviewer 287
Appendix 2: The List of Research Tools Used When Checking the
Quality of the Objects and Projects Based on Select
Qualitative Criteria 292
Appendix 3: Questions in Surveys and Interviews 296
Appendix 4: Checklists of Quality Criteria for Nursing Homes for
the Elderly 298
Appendix 5: A Comparison of Factors and Attributes That Influence
the Total Wear of the Real Estate 302
Appendix 6: AEDET: General Issues 310
Bibliography 316
Index 327
ix D
1 The Relation Between Science,
Theory of Architecture, and
Practice
Without theory practice is blind, while theory w ithout practice is dead.

Blaise Pascal
Nothing is more useful for practice than theory which liberates one from the
necessity to use the tenuous method of iteration, the trial and error method.
Claude Levi-Strauss
Architecture is liable only in relation to itself, by way of its own rights, its beauty
and possibilities.
Peter Eisenman
The quotations presented above present two radical views on the topic of
practice and its role in the development of a specific discipline. The first two
statements, which come from popular scientific influences, clearly highlight the
relation with the development of a given domain of knowledge in the context
of mutual and developing contacts between theory and practice. The statement
made by famous architect Peter Eisenman-which is radically artistic-does
not accept the possibility of science interfering with architecture as an artistic
discipline only. This view is quite popular among architects, and it significantly
impedes the development of scientific theories, as well as the search for
objective knowledge on the developed environment, and it questions the funda-
mental responsibilities of an architect in relation to society for negative effects
of a solely artistic approach to the construction of an architectonic and urban
environment that can significantly influence the quality of life of societies and
individuals. Architecture came into being as a practical discipline, and just like
other engineering sciences must be based on the achievements of both practice
and science. The artistic element is important from the perspective of environ-
mental psychology, and it may not be negated, but at the same time it may not
play a dominating role, putting aside the principles of engineering art and
usability principles that are based on knowledge.
Science comes into being as a result of a specific dichotomy between
practical operations and a broader reflection upon their significance. Reflection
upon the world gave rise to philosophy, which in turn gave rise to all sciences
1 D
■ Science, Theory of Architecture, and Practice
and doctrines. If a specific scientific branch is to be developed, however,

practical operations supplemented with mere philosophical reflection are not
sufficient. If one wishes to use practical knowledge in a broader manner,
scientific research, which makes it possible to gather information that can be
generalized and applied in similar practical operations in the future, will be
needed. ,_.,
This constitutes an outline and an enormous mental shortcut that can
represent the history of development of all scientific disciplines, the progress
of which occurred in cooperation with practice, research, and their generalization,
but at the same time it is impossible to differentiate between cause and effect.
With respect to the wealth of knowledge gathered over the years of
development in civilization, science was divided into disciplines in antiquity, and
these disciplines branched out separately, creating their own research principles,
often referred to as research methods, which always make it possible to reach
the same practical effect within specified scopes. Mature sciences possess an
established scientific paradigm-a set of basic symbols, a specific language,
laws and theories, etc. If the scientific development of a given discipline causes
the previous basis of the scientific paradigm to be questioned, then, according
to Thomas Kuhn, one is dealing with the so-called scientific revolution and a
transformation of the paradigm. 1
In architecture, a discipline not yet firmly established, a problem arises
connected with the specification of the paradigm, the cohesion of which is still
doubtful.
Problems concerning the relation between theory and practice have a long
history, and their presentation is not the aim of this study. Nevertheless, it is
worth presenting the latest ideas in this scope, generally accepted in the last
decades.
Toward the end of the twentieth century, lkujiro Nonaka and Hirotaka
Takeuchi (1995), two Japanese management specialists, built a science devel-
opment model-SECl 2-in which they presented the transition from tacit
knowledge to explicit knowledge. Tacit knowledge comes into being during
practical operations, at the place of work, while explicit knowledge is developed
at research centers and at universities. Practical knowledge, which is a result
of practical operations at the workplace and in the process of socializing 3 and
externalization, 4 as well as a combination of these, allows the creation of new
scientific knowledge. This knowledge, scientifically approved, is then spread
over the world, while the implementations based on it permeate back to
practice, where after accumulation and processing they create a new lexicon
of knowledge for further intellectual reflection. This model was designed to
control the management of firms, and it perfectly shows the processes that
take place in the creation of knowledge per se, in direct contact w ith practice.
In the process of knowledge internalization and with in the scope of
developmental and implementation works, new practical and operational
knowledge comes into being, which may be applied at the workplace. On the
2 □
Science, Theory of Architecture, and Practice ■
basis of the conception presented above, which was put forth by Nonaka and
Takeuchi, one may distinguish four basic levels of science development {see
Figure 2.1 in Chapter 2), which range from the practical and scientific level to
the implementation level.
In architectural design, one can also observe a two-way flow of information
and knowledge between practice and theory.
Figure 1.1 presents the spiral of knowledge in architecture based on the
environmental approach devised by Jon Lang, in which architectural knowledge
transitions between positive theory {the one creating scientific knowledge) and
normative knowledge created in the process of work, that is, in the process of
designing. The knowledge development model in architecture was created
earlier by John Zeisel in 1981, and it was presented in the book entitled Inquiry
by Design. Zeisel shows that practice is a place where new solutions proposed
on the basis of quality research are tested and are performed on existing
buildings. The solutions that are practical are spread, while the inappropriate
ones are eliminated.
Attempts at eliminating the artificial confl ict between the practical approach
and the scientific one were made by the authors of Ways to Study and Research
{de Jong and van der Voordt, 2005). by way of a presentation of the mutual
relations and strong connections between practice and scientific research. A
similar standpoint is taken by Richard Foque from the University of Antwerp,
Belgium, in his book entitled Building Knowledge in Architecture (2010), in
which he explains the understanding of architecture as a scientific discipline,
practice, and art {see Figure 1.2).
All three approaches presented by Foque give rise to a future world based
on the existing one; however, the approach to all the three seemingly alien
worlds is different. as characterized by the questions raised by researchers
{how things are). by designers {how things could be), and by artists {how I see
things). Answers may vary, but they all lead to the creation of new technology,
Figure 1.1 new designs, and new artistic interpretations. Designing consists of being able
The spiral of
knowledge in
to connect these three seemingly distinct manners of perceiving the new reality
architecture in a skillful way.
AREA OF NORMATIVE THEORY WORKING PRODUCED KNOWLEDGE
ASSIMILATION PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE NORMATIVE KNOWLEDGE STANDARDS,

AND INDIVIDUAL CREATED BY INDIVIDUAL CREATED BY PUBLIC BUILDING REGULATIONS, ◄
PROCESSING DESIGNERS INSTITUTIONS PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE
RESPONSIBLE GENERALLY ACCEPTED, INTERCHANGE
OF EXPLICIT • (SOCIALIZATION)
FOR BUILDING QUALITY OPINIONS INFORMATION
KNOWLEDGE
(EXTERNALIZATION) EXPERTISE FLOW
--------
DISSEMINATION OPERATIONAL KNOWLEDGE SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE BASIC RESEARCH WORKS
OF SCIENTIFIC DISSEMINATION METHODOLOGICALLY DEVELOPMENTAL ◄
KNOWLEDGE, (INTERNALIZATION) SYSTEMATIZED, CHECKED INTRODUCTORY
POPULARIZATION AND ACCEPTED BYSCIENTIFIC
ENVIRONMENT
(COMBINATION)
-~ - - - -------------
AREA OF POSITIVE THEORY WORKING
3 0
THE EXISTING WORLD Figure 1.2

Comparison of
I I I
scientific research,
Scientific Research Research by Design Artistic Production research on design
How Things Are? How Things Could Be? How I See Things? and artistic
operations
'¥ ~
Observation Observation Observation "' Source: Foque (2010,
Facts Facts Facts p. 44, Figure 1.2.2)
Visions Visions
Beliefs Beliefs
Reflection
Interpretation
Expression _..
One Hypothesis Multiple Hypotheses Individual Hypothesis
Explanatory Model Exploring Models Questioning Model
Testing Testing Testing Pointless
True or False Most Desirable Individual
Verification Verification and Application Synergic
Objective Subjective Questioning
Repetitive Unique and Not Repeatable Confronting
Universal Contextual Visionary
Cause-Effect Coincidental Communicative
Scientific Theory Hypotheses in Action Hypothesis
Static Dynamic Perpetual
Reality Explained Reality Changed Reality Questioned
w w
Applied Scientific
Research
i'
Technological
Application ~I
Design by Research
Design
i'
Application
I
H
Art
Artistic
:
Interpretation
I
'¥
THE FUTURE WORLD
This model refers to architecture, but at the same time the first two
columns, which are connected with the relationship between science and
design, refer to all technical sciences aimed at basic research, as well as
practical realization and implementation.
1.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENT

PERCEIVED AS A PRACTICAL DISCIPLINE
The art of construction has accompanied humanity since the very beginning,
practically since the times of caves, when humans searched for shelter for
protection against the outside world. Developing the interior and protecting the
entrance were the first operations connected with building. Depending on
the climate, humans were able to survive in lean-tos or mud huts before they
learned to use stones and rocks as building materials and bricks made from
clay. Along with the advent of more and more novel materials, they had to
4 0
perfect their building technique by trial-and-error methods, implementing the

principles of structural analysis by way of intuition and practice.
Together with the development of science, the art of building gets support
first in surveying, then in representation (of figures), and finally in static
calculations, thanks to which architecture has acquired the possibility of
operating vast spaces without supports. The next step in improving the
conditions inside buildings was the development of sanitary and environmental
engineering, which made it possible to modify the microclimate of interiors
according to needs. Another step forward that delineated the direction of the
research on the built-up environment was connected with saving energy and
with implementing intelligence inside buildings.
As one may learn from such a shortened presentation of the development
of the building art, architects during the whole term of the development of
modern architecture diminish the scope of competence concerning unassisted
construction of buildings. Each step in the development of sciences that support
the processes of building causes new scientific and practical specialties to arise
from architecture, and so at the turn of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
constructional engineering became distinct, and a little bit later related types
of engineering came into being. At the end of the twentieth century, facility
management appeared and took over the functional and spatial programming
in real estate. It had the authority to look after the interests of users in the
process of creating new built environments. New areas of environmental
research, such as geography, sociology, and either environmental or architectural
psychology, have had a significant influence on the development of knowledge
in architecture. At present, due to the influence of the informational revolution
and modern designing tools, people are dealing with generative and parametric
design.
Since the times of Marcus Vitruvius, the features of architecture have been
defined as firmitas (solid), utilitas (utility), and venustas (beauty), transposed
into construction, function, and form by Le Corbusier for the sake of associating
ECOLOGY
Figure 1.3
The colligation of
the Vitruvian triad
with the triad irt
sustainable
development
Source:
Niezabitowska and
Masty (2007, p. 16,
Figure 1)
5 D
this with a balanced development in which durability stands for ecology, usability
stands for economy, and beauty stands for the satisfaction of social and cultural
needs of humanity (see Figure 1.3). As a result, a broadly defined element of
social needs was added to the values that are expected of architecture.
Having analyzed the aforementioned features, one may claim that architects
are no longer liable for the durability of buildings-this is something that
constructors as well as building materials specialists deal with. They deal with
usability, but to a limited extent, since this duty is more and more frequently
directed at functional and spatial programming specialist and facility managers.
Some of the formal issues connected with artistic aspects in architecture
have not been fully specified yet, or could not have been fully defined, as they
are subject to current trends.The developing neurobiology gives rise to questions
that may indicate new research areas aimed at architecture, especially when it
comes to the last component part of architecture, which is the beauty in the
context of human needs within this scope (Eberhard, 2008). In the research on
the connections between the build of the human brain and the way architecture
is perceived by people, one has to ascertain whether there are solid preferences
that should be taken into consideration in designing when it comes to this
sphere of esthetic needs and spatial order.
When it comes to the problems of designing, the problem of beauty and
spatial order, as well as the problem of meeting requirements, is connected
with a broader scope of the depiction of design operations, namely the user of
the built environment. Some practice architects declare that the implementation
of the needs of users is not important, but only the possibilities of architects'
artistry. Such a view will evoke surprise, in view of the fact that:
• Buildings are created by labor of the hands, which is indispensable for all
contemporary individuals, and these buildings are not only residential, but
are also workplaces, hospitals, schools, and other objects of social use that
serve a specific function and were erected so that they could serve a given
purpose. As a result, buildings that are artistic but do not meet the require-
ments of the occupants/users in terms of usability are deemed socially
useless and harmful. Moreover, they generate extra costs and may pose
serious threats to the lives and well-being of the people who live in them.
Hence, they are not in accordance with the principles of a sustainable
development.
• Buildings are some of the most expensive artifacts created by humankind
(although there are many more expensive objects, such as airplanes). and
they, just like other things, should meet needs, and not just serve as monu-
ments. This is a logical effect of the market activity, where a product must
have its purchaser or else it will be deemed unnecessary and will be
demolished.
• As the design of a building is always commissioned to a specific architect
by a specific user or his or her representative, against remuneration, they
6
have the right to demand that the building meet their usable and esthetic
expectations. This means that the architect's vision does not always accord
w ith the needs of the investor, nor with the general public, who not
only will have to look at the building on a daily basis, but w ill also have
to use it.
In this context, the arrogance and nonchalance of architects who always try to
impose their artistic visions on society may come as a surprise. Hence, a
question arises: Where does such a view in the architects' community come
from?
Not so long ago, an architect designed his works solely for the client, who
defined his or her needs and set the requirements. Since the nineteenth century,
people have been dealing w ith a new phenomenon, mass construction, which
includes, above all, patronal as well as residential and cooperative estates.
They are built and have been bu ilt for an anonymous user. Publicly usable
buildings are created for organizations, wh ich in turn are built for numerous
groups of users who often present different needs, which must be sustainable
when it comes to the project (e.g. the need for low building costs and
maintenance versus the need for comfortable working conditions in the office).
Architecture is a highly marketable profession in which success is measured
by the amount of contracts and by the quality of the previous products of the
provider, such as bu ildings that gained the respect of the general public or a
specific group of users. This point indicates the course of action for the research
activities and interests of architecture. The environmental approach, which
depicts users' needs in a broader sense, constitutes a certa in challenge of the
second half of the twentieth century (Lang, 1987; Preiser et al., 1988). This
approach gave rise to the creation of the aforementioned modern profession
concentrated on the user, which is referred to as faci lity management. The
traditional process of designing includes phases related to the shaping of a bui lt
environment through the trial-and-error method, the copying of accepted models,
and the modification of accepted solutions (see Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.5 presents an extended scheme of the design process in wh ich,
apart from a reality observation, an important role is played by the personal
knowledge of the designer, as well as his or her interpretation of th is know-
Figure 1.4
Traditional design
ledge, advances in science that consist of an examination of an existing built
process environment, implementation of the knowledge stemming from usage, typology
REALITY OBSERVATION,
SHAPING OF PATTERNS BY WAY OF TRIAL-AND-ERROR
METHOD
MODIFICATION OF FAMILIAR SOLUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION O F NEW SOLUTIONS

MULTIPLICATION OF FAMILIAR PATTERN
ADDITION OF NEW ELEMENTS EXPERIMENT / TEST
7
( SOCIETY
USERS ) ( TYPOLOGY )
•
.&
...I ...
I
( ENVIRONMENT ) ( PROGRAMME )➔( PROJECT )➔( REALIZATION ) ➔( EXPLOITATION / USE )
•
.&
•••• .&
)◄ _J
I
( ) L(
.I
LOCATION VERIFICATION
I 11
•
building, ordering the knowledge, and evaluating the effects of its practical Figure 1.8
application. Schematic
presentation of the
A comparison of Figures 1.4 and 1.5, which present a traditional method design process
of designing and a contemporary diagram, shows that there are currently
numerous domains in designing that may develop only on the basis of verified
scientific knowledge. This refers to the new knowledge that pertains to the
society and its expectations (brief, using), typology, and a constant testing of
currently made objects in terms of meeting more and more refined usability
criteria, including technical and environmental.
1.2 CAUSES OF DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURE

AND URBAN PLANNING
Architects may mistake, life never.

Le Corbusier
Having observed the development of architecture as a practical discipline, one

may claim that there have always been questions provoking the development
of science:
• The choice of a building plot provoked questions concerning climatic, soil,

water, and physiographic conditions. Collecting data concern ing the issues
at hand allows the next generations of architects to make locational
decisions consciously.
• The specification of the size of the building required further development
of knowledge connected with surveying, as well as familiarity with the
users' needs.
• Stability and safety of the construction, one of the most basic technical
issues concerning the realization of architecture, was a cause of develop-
ment of structural analysis.
• Function layout was initially dominated by constructional possibilities and,
along with the development of new constructional and building materials,
as well as the knowledge on the topic of the possibility of overlapping,
8 0
today it provides people with far greater possibilities of a constraint-free

layout of the interior than at the beginning of the development.
• The appearance of the building constitutes, in simple terms, the basis and
the core of architecture; it has its own dimension that is not only artistic (the
main source of doctrines is difficult to be scientifically verified at the develop-
ment stage), but also social and cultural. Knowledge of anthropology and of
culture studies is developing on the basis of a tendency analysis, as well as
the influences coming from the shaping of local and global styles and cultural
diversity.
• Location of the building within the structure of the city leads to research
connected with planning and the development of urban areas.
The most difficult part of the scientific discourse, which pertains to the problems
of esthetics of the building, is starting to develop on the basis of neuro-
physiology, which will make it possible in the future to find answers to some
rudimentary questions as to why some shapes and artistic solutions fascinate
us and some do not. and how it is connected with the build of the brain and
how predictable these reactions might be.
The construction of the basis of architectural morphology is a key element
in further research within this scope, and this is what Andrzej Niezabitowski
undertook to elaborate on in his literary works, such as O budowie przestrzennej
dziefa architektury, Podstawy metodologiczne opisu, analizy i systematyki
uklad6w przestrzennych (Spatial Construction of a Work of Architecture, and
Methodological Basis of a Description, Analysis and the Systems of Spatial Lay-
outs) (1979), "Architectonics: A System of Exploring Architectural Forms in
Spatial Categories" (2009), and On Spatial Structure of Architectonic Objects:
The Basics of General Spatial Morphology in Architecture (2017).
The rapid technical and technological civilization development, which is
forever complicating our social life, especially the development of information
science, as well as increasing demands of sustainable development, generate
new research-related challenges in architecture. It seems that if architecture,
treated as an independent discipline that deals with the spatial shaping, is to
survive, it will soon have to join the general research level that has been
present for years in similar disciplines, such as civil engineering, environmental
engineering, and information science, and it will also have to join the level of
social sciences that gave rise to a series of important discoveries within the
scope of architectural psychology and environmental sociology. Generative and
parametric design also poses a new challenge, which in the next 1O years may
change the approach to architectonic design.
1.3 DRAWBACKS OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURE
Architecture still seems to be stuck in the pre-paradigmatic phase, which leads

to some disadvantageous phenomena that hinder the development of this
9
discipline, also as a scientific one, due to a one-sided focus on the development

of designing practice. According to Pentii Routio, a Finnish researcher, these
disadvantageous phenomena that hinder the development of science include:
• basing on "honored" authorities, whose theorems resemble dogmatic

nature and which cannot be criticized per se, especially the ones that were
tested empirically, which would be impossible, because the method of
formulating these theorems excludes that;
• using research methods which do not possess a high level of self-
verification, which makes an unlimited freedom of interpretation possible;
• avoiding definitions of notions that are conscientious and precise; and
• avoiding the use of mathematical models, which really hinders a quantitative
formulation of phenomena, and consequently a scientific description and
comparison.
(Niezabitowski, 2010, pp. 158-159)
The history of architecture connected with the history of art is considered to be

the most scientifically advanced sub-discipline. A genuine, solid, and well-
established scientific technique of the history of art, which has been develop-
ing since the Enlightenment, is a strong point of this sub-discipline. Its weak
point, on the other hand, is undoubtedly connected with limiting architectonic
problems mainly to artistic aspects, along with the omittance of other issues,
essential to architecture, such as technical and functional as well as social and
cultural aspects. Moreover, the methods applied in research on artistic objects
are becoming more and more insufficient, especially when it comes to research
on objects that are complex and perform complicated functions just like
architectonic objects.
In an article cited above, Niezabitowski (2010, pp. 159-160) concludes that:
The capital of knowledge accumulated to date and the application of research

methods taken from various disciplines makes it possible to examine phe-
nomena and architectonic processes from many different, complementary
angles connected with anthropology, psychology, sociology, semiotics etc.,
where historical perspective is just one of the many possibilities. The
aforementioned capital of knowledge seems to be closing in on the critical
mass which should initiate the creation of a separate discipline which would
concentrate on the research on phenomena and the processes of how
architecture is created, how it develops and what social interaction it brings,
which above all is connected with the problem of quality .... The concept of a
built-up environment, which is much broader in scope than architecture and
urban planning but at the same time it is able to cover both concepts, is
becoming a key notion when it comes to the domain of research currently
being discussed.
10 C
Table 1. 1 Thematic domains: concepts of the discipline of architecture
(1) General architectonic domain (7) Temporal

(2) Cultural (8) Social
(3) Professional (9) Economic
(4) Scientific (10) Usability
(5) Artistic (esthetic) (11) Stability-related
(6) Morphological (formal) (12) Feasibility-related (makability)
Source: Adapted from Bax and Trum (1994)
He also states that:
Nevertheless. this research should be fused into one discipline, which could
provisionally be referred to as architecture studies or even science of archi-
tecture-keeping in mind that the name itself is not the most important issue
right now.
The scientific capital which has been gathered to date, concerning
architecture and urban planning seems to indicate that the classic Vitruvian
triad: solidity, solid (firmitas), usefulness, utility (utilitas), beauty (venustas),
maintaining in its most basic sense its timeliness, requires, however, a signifi-
cant extension and more detail in the scope of areas and research domains
essential to understanding architecture.
The need for creating an interdisciplinary science paradigm in architecture is

justified by taxonometric classification adopted in many countries as the basis
of formulation of guidelines in the scope of architectonic didactics, as well as
in professional practice, and especially in certification procedures that formal ly
confirm the qualifications of the candidates to practice a profession in Art. 3 of
the European Directive on Architecture 85/384/EEC. This taxonomy was
introduced by Dutch architecture researchers Thijs Bax and Henk Trum of the
Technical University in Eindhoven (Bax and Trum, 1994), who distingu ished 12
thematic disciplines of architecture, which were later ca lled concepts or sub-
disciplines. These concepts are shown in Table 1.1.
1.4 INTER-, MULTI-, AND TRANSDISCIPLINARITY OF

ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN PLANNING
The disciplines of science create a specific system of knowledge in which, on

,, the one hand, there are subsystems that are concentrated on narrow issues;
and on the other hand, these subsystems are open to related disciplines due
to the fact that numerous issues (scientific, technical, or social) cannot be
solved in the scope of these narrow perspectives linked to individual specialties
or domains of the research. Problems that are beyond disciplinary in their nature
and require that fragmentary research perspectives be linked often come into
being. This is the first common approach to interdisciplinarity.
11 D
Nowadays, the natural process of integration, systematization, and unifica-

tion of different disciplines of knowledge is visible along with a progressive and
rapid development of science. This process is manifested by the increase in
connections that are characterized by interdisciplinarity, 5 multidisciplinarity, 6 and
transdisciplinarity, 7 the creation of new para-disciplines and hybrid disciplines
that come into being as a result of linking a few areas into a new discipline of
science.
Architecture-a scientific and practical discipline-seems to be a system
that is intrinsically connected with interdisciplinarity. Being familiar with the
current developmental trends of science, one may claim that architecture is an
interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary domain that utilizes knowledge coming
from the following areas:
• technical science (statics, materials science, building installations, systems

of automatic building control, etc.);
• economy (usefulness and functionality);
• ecology (energy saving, natural environment protection); and
• social studies (the needs of users that are both physical, including health
and safety, and mental, along with social, cultural, and spiritual).
Moreover, it links knowledge on the process of shaping the built environ-

ment on three different scales: architectonic, urban, and spatial planning (see
Figure 1.6).
Architecture, by virtue of its connections with technology, belongs to a
group of technological sciences characterized by its practical nature, which
means that all research operations are focused, above all, on perfecting practices
connected with design, execution, and utilization. Due to the fact that a human
being is the subject of all design operations in architecture, the significance
of social research is becoming more and more recognizable, especially in
SPATIAL BUILT ARCHITECTURE

POLITICS ENVIRONMENT
t-
z
w
~
Cl.
► [ECOLOGY
]=:
HEALTH & SAFETY
ENERGY SAVING
◄- DURABILITY
(CONSTRUCTION)
0
_J NEW TECHNOLOGICAL Cl
w QUALITY ~ Figure 1.6
>
w
O:'.'. Multidisciplinarity of
Cl SOCIETY -► FORM & MEANING ◄- BEAUTY t-
architecture: the
w
CULTURE
-►
USERS' NEEDS (FORM)
~ connection of
_J
co USABILITY >
:::, technological
(FUNCTION)
~ ~ sciences, economy,
>
~
►
USERS' NEEDS
USERS' NEEDS ◄- PHYSICAL, PSYCHOLOGICAL,
ecology, and social
Cl)
:::,
Cl)
[ECONOMY
]=: FUNCTIONALITY
ENERGY SAVING
SOCIAL, CULTURAL, MENTAL sciences in the
process of
sustainable
development
12 □
terms of psychology and environmental sociology, and it is focused on meeting

the needs of a human being in a built environment. Economic aspects are an
equally important element of research on architecture, just like the processes
of planning, programming, designing, and construction contracting, as well as
the exploitation of architectonic objects and urban units.
It should be stated that both architecture and urban planning are domains
of interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, and transdisciplinary knowledge that link
together technical and humanistic sciences, as well as social and economic
ones characterized by both science and practice, and which require implemen-
tations on various levels of management and politics. What is more, architecture,
treated as a domain of practical knowledge, exhibits the necessity of including
elements of science coming from different domains that are not strictly related
Figure 1.7 to architecture, such as management, hygiene, medicine, etc. Architecture is a
An extension of the
multilevel domain that develops on the scientific, practical, design, and artistic
architectonic
research by the level. Hence, the close relationship with art, with the visual arts to be precise,
synergy, is often seen as a form of practical activity and constitutes an important element
multifaceted
of architecture.
approach and a
hybrid one inside Artistic aspects of architecture, which are crucial due to human needs
the area of dialog of and the ambitions of architects, are not easily subject to research, and remain
the knowledge in the broader phase of philosophical and historical reflection, reflected in the
creation
elaborated area of history and theory of architecture. Nevertheless, this area is
Source: Dunin-
Woyseth and Nilsson
potentially suitable for basic research, especially in the context of neurophys-
(2008, p. 146) iologic reactions of a human being in contact with the built environment.
TRANSDISCIPLINARY
SCIENTIFIC CREATIVE
RESEA CH~---- PRACTICE
DISCIPLINARY
13 □
The problem concerning transdisciplinarity and the multifacetedness of

architecture and urban planning is a subject of interest for European scientists.
Halina Dunin-Woyseth and Frederic Nilsson, scientists of the School of
Architecture and Design in Oslo and Chalmers University of Technology
Department of Architecture in Gothenburg, elaborated a model for creating
transdisciplinary knowledge in architecture, and they presented it in the article
"Some Notes on Practice-Based Architectural Design Research" (2008). They
define the research and practice area as synergetic, multidisciplinary, and hybrid,
directed at transdisciplinary research (see Figure 1.7).
The concept of transdisciplinarity in architecture and urban planning
presented by Dunin-Woyseth and Nilsson corresponds to the concept of science
and research in architecture in a close relation to design practice, presented in
the aforementioned book by de Jong and van der Voordt (2005), as well as van
der Voordt and van Wegen's Architecture in Use (2005).
1.5 ARCHITECTURE AS A SCIENCE: LITERATURE OVERVIEW
When referring to the analysis of architecture as a science, it must be stated

that it is a relatively young science in which the basic paradigm is still under
construction, and, what is more, the acknowledgment that knowledge on archi-
tecture as a science still encounters strong resistance in the circle of architecture
practitioners-designers, and also, partially, in the circles that deal with teaching.
The differentiation of the problem of architecture, that is, "the science about
architecture," which is concentrated on the theory seen as a clarification and
a description, as well as "the science in architecture," which concentrates on
the applications of theoretical knowledge in practice, should be stressed at
this point.
From a historical standpoint, since the dawn of time, literature that accom-
panies the architectonic practice has been developing, with literature that
pertains to practical problems (e.g. Palladio, 1965; Vitruvius, 1914) and esthetic
aspects of architecture (e.g. Giedion, 1949; Jencks, 1980). The knowledge of
the history of architecture arose from this trend, and this type of knowledge
does not give rise to any objections in the architectonic environment.
In spite of all the existing objections in the architectonic environment when
it comes to the approval of the scientific trend in architecture, a greater need
for reflection has accompanied the development of architecture, and it is still
developing today. One can notice a few main trends in this reflection, which
led to the creation of the so-called theory of architecture. They include:
• Architectonic literature analysis from the earliest times (from the time of
Vitruvius, at the turn of antiquity and the new era). to modern times, closely
related to the history of architecture, style analysis, and the design
workshop.
14 D
• Putting contemporary knowledge in order and an attempt at specifying

what theory in architecture is, and a classification of the trends of its
development.
• Research trends that favor ex post (existing, built) and ex ante (devoted to
perfecting the design skills) research in architecture.
• Research trends directed at the creation of scientific knowledge about and
in architecture, that is, working out the principles and rights that govern
the whole construction of the built environment and the interrelations
with human behaviors and needs, as well as culture and environmental
protection.
These trends each have their representatives in various circles around the
world, and are consistently being developed in this day and age (namely in
the last 20 years of the twentieth century and the first years of the twenty-first
century).
The Philosophical Reflection Trend: Literature Analysis

In the first trend of the architectonic literature analysis, from a historical
standpoif1t, much importance is attached to the anthology of literature prepared
and edited by Harry F. Mallgrave in 2006 entitled Architectural Theory: An
Anthology from Vitruvius to 1870. This book provides an overview of theoretical
literature that pertains to architecture dating back to antiquity, the Middle Ages,
the Renaissance, baroque, and classicism (French and British), through
neoclassicism and the Enlightenment, the theory of picturesque and idealism,
up to historicism of the nineteenth century.
The second volume of this work, also prepared and edited by Mallgrave
and Christina Contandriopoulos under the title Architectural Theory: An Anthol-
ogy from 1871 to 2005 (2008), encompasses the following issues: early mod-
ernism and its formation between 1894 and 1914, the 1920s, the policy of
modernism (1930-1945), postwar modernism (1958-1969). the 1980s, and the
millennium tension at the turn of the ages.
This trend also includes the book by Hanno-Walter Kruft entitled History
of Architectural Theory from Vitruvius to Present (1994). which elaborates on
the development of architectonic thought from the time of Vitruvius, through the
Renaissance, the Enlightenment, baroque, neoclassicism in European countries,
with special focus on the period between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries,
in the following countries: England, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Spain.
It touches upon the significance of the French Ecole des Beaux-Arts in the
nineteenth century and the change in the paradigm at the turn of the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries in the US, Europe, and Soviet Ru~sia. It focuses on the
changes in the architecture of the US in the first half of the twentieth century,
along with the transition from vernacular architecture to skyscrapers (F.L. Wright,
E. Saarinen, L.H. Sullivan, R. Neutral. At the end, it presents a short description
15 D
of the changes and the main figures of postwar architecture between 1945
and 1970.
A book by K. Michael Hays entitled Architecture Theory Since 1968 (1998)
constitutes an overview, or an anthology of significant texts written between
the 1960s and 1990s of the twentieth century, along with a commentary. They
constitute a discussion over architecture and intellectual currents, as well as
philosophy (poststructuralism, phenomenology, psychoanalysis) of these times.
Hays cites select texts of Peter Eisenman, Robert Stern, Charles Jencks, James _.,
Stirling, Reem Koolhaas, Leon Krier, Bernard Tschumi, Jacques Derrida, etc.
Using the notion of theory in the titles of books that constitute a compilation
of articles and literature on the topic of architecture and depict the development
of the reflection on architecture, and on how the notion of architecture is
defined, professional counseling (Vitruvius, Palladio, et al.) has become
significant for the architectural thought. When it comes to the contemporary
understanding of the notion of theory, it can be understood as:
• A coherent system of notions, definitions, axioms, and theorems that

describe the chosen domain and establish the relation between notions
and axioms.
• The whole series of logical and coherent generalizations worked out on
the basis of scientific research, which constitute its natural summary.
This theory is characterized by falsifiability, a possibility of verification, and
it serves as an explanation for causes, circumstances of creation, and a
specified sequence of phenomena in a given domain. The theory made
ready in this manner allows exploiting its establishments in designing.
When analyzing the significance of theory in architecture, one may claim that
the first method of grasping the theory in architecture, which constitutes a
compilation of past ruminations over this domain, does not create a coherent
system of notions, definitions, axioms, and theorems, but it does describe, to
some extent, the domain of architecture. The majority of these views are non-
falsifiable and resemble philosophical ruminations. In most cases, this part of
the literature is associated with the history of architecture, history of the
thoughts on architecture, and the analysis of works and ruminations concerning
architectonic styles. The only studies that are verifiable are the ones that refer
strictly to the design skills (art, competence) and pertain to the principles of
style or provable facts deriving from the history of architectural development.
This reflective and humanistic method is defined by some authors as
theorizing. The notion of theorizing appears in many books devoted to the
theory and history of architecture, including the book by Kate Nesbitt entitled
Theorizing a New Agenda for Architecture: An Anthology of Architectural Theory
1965-1995 (1996). This book distinguishes four main types of theoretical
approach:
16 ::::
1. the one characterized by regulations or orders (prescriptive) ;

2. the one characterized by bans (proscriptive) ;
3. the one characterized by the affirmative and approving nature (affirmative);
and
4. the one characterized by the critical nature (critican .
The first two approaches are characterized by a normative nature, while the
remaining ones refer to the literature of the so-called " architectural theoreti-
cians ", characterized by reflective and humanistic nature. They do not refer to
theories supported by research . This is the traditional approach to theory in
architecture accepted by a majority of architects who think that, in accordance
with the nineteenth-century paradigm, architecture treated as art is not subject
to research and scientific generalization.
Paul Alan Johnson expresses a similar view on contemporary literature.
The book by Johnson, a professor at the University of Wellington, titled The
Theory of Architecture: Concepts, Themes & Practices (1994) can hardly be
classified as one of the aforementioned trends. This book was written within
the scope of a scientific ground, in which Johnson had the possibility to meet
w ith architects, who were both teachers and practitioners, from the US, the
UK, and Australia. On the basis of these contacts and conversations, Johnson
came to realize that architecture, being a practical discipl ine, is not focused
on the creation of science, while emerging literature and the reasoning of
practitioners on the topic of architecture is rather characterized by a "theory-
talk" or " design-talk, rhetoric " nature, which means theorizing during the design
process. Only the theories put forth by Roger Barker, " behavior settings ", and
Oscar Newman, " defensible space ", as well as Venturi's "theory of signs " ,8
may be included by Johnson in established architectonic theories that are
practically justified . Johnson is very critical of research based on quality
assessment (of architectural objects) completed with the assistance of the
users. He is also critical of the information resulting from environment behavior
studies (EBS), as he claims that the knowledge connected with EBS is " too
dense, too abstract, too localized and methodologically bound, or too culturally
diffuse " (Johnson, 1994, p. 62) to be useful for architects, and consequently
used in designing.
Johnson, who has a rather skeptical view on the subject of science in
architecture, presents a list of key practical problems: theoretical positions
of the practitioners (design talk). definition of architecture, architect and
professional attitudes, ethics and architecture, ordering architecture, authority
in architecture, governing concepts of architects, relationships in architecture,
and architecture expression.
Jon Lang, an American architect and scientist, sees the problem of theory
and practice in architecture differently. In 1987, Van Nostrand Reinhold published
an important book by Lang on the theory of architecture titled Creating
Architectural Theory: The Role of the Behavioral Sciences in Environmental
17 □
Design. Having compared stances presented by Johnson and Lang, whose

books came out almost at the same time, one may state that their views on
the theory of architecture, especially on its role in the environmental approach,
vary greatly. Johnson, in his book, deals with what Lang refers to as the
normative theory, which is a set of ideas on architecture and architectonic
skills, which has no scientific base, and is only based on the views and beliefs
of the academic community or designers, while Lang elaborates on the positive
theory on the grounds of the environmental research approach, which was
permanently embedded into science in the second half of the twentieth century,
and has been developing intensively ever since.
The interest of architects in the scope of environmental problems was
initiated by the conference in Florida at the Franklin Institute in 1971 under the
leadership of the American Institute of Architects titled Architecture of
Human Behavior, and it was focused on the issues of "environmental
psychology" and an earlier establishment of the Environmental Design Research
Association (EDRA) in 1968, an international and interdisciplinary organization
that joins designers-scientists who deal with social problems, students,
academic teachers, and facility managers located in the US. The aim of this
organization is to develop and disseminate environmental design research
through understanding the relation between people and their built and natural
environment, as well as assisting in creating an environment that meets the
needs of people. A year later, in 1969, a similar initiative was taken in Europe
in the form of an established interdisciplinary scientific organization called the
International Association of People-Environment Studies (IAPS), with its
headquarters in the UK, focused on research on mutual relations between the
process of shaping the built environment and people.
The activity of Pentti Rautio, who was mentioned above, may also be
found in the trend that is focused on bringing order to the scientific knowledge
in architecture. Rautio sees architecture as an element of science that he calls
arteology, a science on artifacts that are created by human hands, and
architecture is one of these creations. He is the author of a book titled Arteology:
The Science of Artifacts-Guide to Research and Development. It consists of
40 online pages. Initially, the book was published in 1995, and at present it is
constantly being updated online.
On the web page called Theory of Architecture, Rautio divides the publi-
cation on the topic of architecture in three areas:
• Descriptive studies, which are to create a report, a description of the

current or previous condition of the object, which, in architectonic studies,
refers to a building or a defined class or a series of bu ildings, as well as
people connected with these buildings.
• Explanatory studies that clarify why each building has got a specific shape.
Examples may also be taken from the past, from a current context, or
alternatively from the future .
18 :J
• Normative studies in which an attempt is made to indicate which elements

of design studies should be improved and which method should be
implemented to achieve this.
According to Rautio, in situations where the results of normative studies can

be subject to generalization and to application in similar objects, one may speak
of the theory of designing.
Routio, in his approach to the theory of architecture, refers to issues
connected with the architectonic design skills that have got a historical
significance. Literature that refers to architecture and is important to him is the
kind that includes works connected with, above all, practice.
One could determine that up until the nineteenth century, revolutions that
changed paradigms in architecture referred to esthetic problems, with
constructional problems serving as a background. The changes introduced in
functionalism led to a switch from issues that are purely esthetic to ones that
are connected with occupants, in this case a mass of anonymous occupants,
which probably results from the change in the relation between architects,
investors, and occupants, in which case investors, more and more frequently,
serve as the representatives of anonymous occupants and the needs of the
users are satisfied on the basis of what the architect sees fit. The phenomeno-
logical approach introduced by Christian Norberg-Schulz changed this simplifi ed
image of standard needs. The individual approach, which is known in historical
architecture, is becoming more and more recognized and oriented to meeting
the needs of individual clients/users .
Environmental design has become yet another shift in the paradigm, in
which the subject of the designing process relates to the relations between
people and the natural and built environment, while the decisions of the
designers are made on the basis of scientifically gathered knowledge on
the topic of the said relations.
As one may learn from this study, Routio looks at the theories of
architecture from a perspective of a design practicing architect, and when it
comes to reflection upon architecture he looks at it practically, just like
generalizations that are to support design skills. Routio's opinion on the theory
of synthesis is similar to Lang's approach in the positive theory.
A similar stance, in which the ex post (when it comes to built-up
architecture) and the ex ante (during the design process) trends are used to
improve the design workshop, is presented by scientists from the Faculty
of Architecture in Delft, from the Faculty Methodology Committee, which aims
to promote research methods in the processes of architecton ic education as
well as professional practice in order to balance out the scientific level of
students and apprentices of architecture w ith the level of the representatives
of different technical faculties, related with civil engineering.
19 D
A Research Trend in Architecture Aimed at Perfecting Design

Practice
The aforementioned Methodological Committee, under the editorship of
architecture professors T.M . de Jong and D.J.M. van der Voordt, created a
comprehensive publication called Ways to Study and Research: Urban, Archi-
tectural and Technical Design (2005). This is a very important release that
attempts at specifying the role played by scientific research when it comes to
perfecting the process of designing, and it also presents select techniques
applied in this research. In the introduction, much attention was paid to significant ,_.,
elements that allow one to create real sciences, such as language, terminology,
and description, and what is more, the criteria applied in scientific studies and
design studies were also specified. Subsequent chapters of the book are devoted
to problems such as: design research and typology, evaluation, modeling,
programming and optimization, technical studies, design studies, and studies
by design. Thus, the book constitutes a review of research, conducted by
practitioners/designers during their work, and it also provides commentary about
its significance when it comes to the development of knowledge on designing.
Van der Voordt divides the research into ex ante-performed on a finished
project or on a project being worked on-and ex post-performed on ready-
made and already finished objects.
An important achievement of this publication is the division of research
works into:
• research works connected with the creation of the theory of designing; and
• research works connected with the creation of the scientific theory in
architecture.
The following publication was really focused on the theory of designing,

something that Lang refers to as the positive procedural theory, which refers
to a series of research into the course of designing processes and designing
itself.
According to van der Voordt, one of the editors and co-authors, the book
shows that designing, as a scope of questions, matured to be an independent,
autonomous discipline, and an area of international exchange of ideas and
methods that will undoubtedly deepen our general knowledge and discover
new views. In the epilogue of the book, van der Voordt explains the basic terms
used in the book, such as empirical research, design research, typological
research, design study, and study by design.
As van der Voordt writes:
Design may differ sharply from study and research with reference to:
• its final product (a plan or building-versus research-based scientific

knowledge);
20 J
• its focus (searching for new possibilities-versus searching for desirabilities

and probabilities); and
• its character (normative, based on personal preferences, views, and
ideology-versus empirical, based on facts).
However, in practice the difference is often one of degree rather than kind .
Particularly design study and study by design, studying and designing are
alternate processes. Both are employed interactively and iteratively, in order to
arrive at a solution of high quality. In different phases and to varying degrees,
what is possible, what is desirable and what is probable receives thus more or
less attention. In the first instance, in moving to an improved design contextual
knowledge is more important than general knowledge. But, the opposite may
be true as well. Starting a design process may evoke new problem statements
and research questions, merging study and design to strongly integrated
process.
(de Jong and van der Voordt, 2005, p. 504)
The Faculty of Architecture in Delft also undertook research that is to develop

the science of architecture. The following research techniques are used in the
research mentioned above: literature overview, surveys, case studies, experi-
ments, content analyses of documents and plans, repeated analyses of the
existing data, etc., as well as research methods such as interviews and obser-
vation techniques, methods of (statistical) data collection, and data analysis.
Building Knowledge in Architecture, published in 2010 by Foque, mentioned
above, is yet another important book that touches upon the problem of the
relation between practice, science, and art in architecture, in which the author
writes at length about the nature of design activity and understanding, and also
about how the architectonic design process works. At the same time, he
stresses the significance of creating knowledge in designing through analyses
of the existing objects and through case study research .
Foque assumes that case studies may encompass a building/buildings
and its or their parts, as well as processes of designing and building. In multiple
case studies, one can come across comparative research of buildings, their
parts, and building typology. A similar situation is visible in the case of design
and construction processes, where one compares the processes and typologies
of the process phases.
Figure 1.8 depicts the types of approach to case studies in architecture
according to Foque, in scientific research and in designing. In scientific research,
•" case studies possess an analytical and reporting character, based on facts,
while in designing there are heuristic techniques that consist of conversations
and interpretation. The third type of studies that are devoted to creating science
and enriching the process of designing are synthetic and based on debates and
agreement.
21 J
◄ ----COOL - - - - - - - - r - - - - - - - · HOT----- ► Figure 1.8

I
The kind of case
Scientific Research I
I Research by Design studies of type 1, 2,
I and 3, and their
I place between
◄ ·- - EXPLANATORY - - - - - -1- - - - - - EXPLORATORY - - • ►
scientific research
I
I and research by
design
Science and Technology ) - - •-- • [,.__ _A_rt_a_nd_D_e_sig_n_ __,)
Source: Foque (2010,
p. 186, Figure 2.5.5)
Product Related ◄-- Project --► Process Related
TYPES CONTEXT
UNITS
I
BELIEFS
PARTS I
VALUES
ASPECTS I DECISIONS
,_.,,
/
/ ---- ......
''
/
~
---- ...... / ---- ......
/ /
/
'' /
'
I
'I \
/
'
I
I Type 1
Case Study
'
\
I \
I
Type3
Case Project
'y
I
Type2
Case Method
'\\
I / I I I I
I Analytlc Synthetic I
Fact I / I Heuristic I
I Argument I Discourse
Reporting \ I Understanding I I
\ \ I Interpreting
I
\ '< ~ I
'' /
I '
' I '
' /
I
----
/
' ...... ---✓ ' ......
---- ---✓ ' ......
---- /
/
The types of case studies put forth by Foque constitute an extension of

the scientific method-a case study for the purpose of architectonic research
presented in 1994 connected with the scientific method implemented by
Robert K. Yin in his book titled Case Study Research (1994) and in Application
of Case Study Research (1993) with regard to social sciences, as well as studies
within the scope of spatial planning and architecture. The book written by Yin,
apart from presenting the technique used in singular and multiple case studies,
provides a detailed description of the technical side of the preparation and
execution of the studies, organization of the research team, and reports con-
cerning the research done. This knowledge serves as training, and it is very
beneficial in this type of research, and also for architects.
The trend described above, which shows the relation between the process
of designing and auxiliary research works, began in the second half of the twen-
tieth century, along with the development of new disciplines in humanities
such as sociology (Dunlap and Michelson, 2002) and architecture psychology
(Banka, 1997, 2002; Bell et al., 2001) developed mainly in the US. The studies
drew a lot of attention of the architecture designers to the needs of the users
of architectonic and urban space. New techniques of gathering and processing
data on human needs in the built environment led to the creation of ways of
programming the functions of buildings in a more coordinated manner, along
with the ongoing activities within the buildings and the urban space.
As a result of that interest, extended ex post qualitative research on the
built environment came into being. It was aimed at finding out more about how
buildings (together with complexes and urban spaces) functioned. What is
22 D
more, it was also aimed at analyzing new, more adequate functional and spatial
programs. On the basis of these studies, in the late 1980s, Wolfgang Preiser,
Harvey Rabinowitz, and Edward White came up with the POE method that
evaluated buildings during their occupation-Post-Occupancy Evaluation (1988).
Shortly after, in 1989, Preiser published another book under his own editorship
titled Building Evaluation, in which he presents various examples of POE in
practical use the world over when it comes to the research on buildings and
urban environment.
The POE method came into being in the US and it was preceded with
ruminations on the problems with architectonic design, described by W.M.
Pena, S.A. Parshall, and K. Kelly in the book Problem Seeking: An Architectural
Programming Primer published in 1987.
The problem of applying the right methodology in the search of know-
ledge that is indispensable in programming was described in 1993 by Donna
Duerk in the academic textbook titled Architectural Programming: Information
Management for Design. The author presented numerous examples of the
environmental approach to designing and programming, as well as ways of
collecting data .
The next interesting book about programming was published in 1992 by
Henry Sanoff, titled Integrating Programming, Evaluation and Participation in
Design: A Theory Z Approach. In 2001, the same author published yet another
position, School Building Assessment Methods, which was distributed by
National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities around the world. It is a fantastic
textbook about designing and evaluating the functioning of school buildings that
correspond to local needs.
Assessing Building Performance is another position that depicts the
development of the scientific approach of experts all over the world (American,
Canadian, European, Japanese, Israeli, etc.), and it came into being under the
editorship of W. Preiser and J. Vischer in 2005. The first part was devoted to
a general overview of the problems connected with the functioning of the
buildings in which, above all, methodological problems with such an evaluation
were discussed along with an extended presentation of the POE evaluation con-
ception, called Building Performance Evaluation (BPE) by Preiser, which encom-
passes the evaluation in the context of the whole life cycle of the building.
In Chapter 2, an evaluation of the building functioning was presented in the
context of six phases of the life cycle (planning, programming, designing,
building, exploiting, and recycling), connected with its delivery and functioning.
The third part is centered upon case studies prepared with the use of various
criteria (sustainability, office work places, users' satisfaction, universal design,
etc.). In the epilogue of the book, prospects for the future were presented,
while in the appendix we may find measurement instruments used on specific
examples. A sim ilar trend of thought is shown in another book of significance,
which comes from a European environment, titled Architecture in Use: An
23 D
Introduction to the Programming, Design and Evaluation of Buildings, written

by T.J.M. van der Voordt and H.B.R. van Wegen, two Dutch architects and
scientists, in 2005. The book sheds light on architectonic problems as well
as the functional quality of the building, the problems of function and form
(flexibility, multifunctionality, form autonomy), the issues concerning program-
ming, and the requirements and methodology of designing-including the
.,.
problems with the connection between programming and the project, building
evaluation, and the methods of evaluation and quality measurement.
In that book, ex ante and ex post research tasks were clearly defined
(see Table 1.2). The table shows the difference between the design process
Table 1.2 Sample questions for the evaluation of buildings
Ex ante Ex post
Product • Does the brief give a clear and • Is the building being used in the
complete account of the way anticipated by the client and
required or desired user quality the architect?
and technical quality? • Are the users satisfied?
• Do the requirements correspond • How does the actual energy
to the wishes of the future users? usage compare with the usage
• Can the design be expected to estimate in advance?
lead to a usable building? • What do experts and laymen
• Does the design have sufficient think about the building's
visual quality? architectonic quality7
• Is the design affordable? • Does the building conform with
• Does the design conform with accepted quality standards?
the building regulations?
Process • How best can the building • How was the decision-making
process be organized? organized? Who took what
• Who should be involved in the decisions, when, and on the
process? basis of what information 7
• What are the tasks and powers of • How long did the process take,
the various participants? in total and by phase 7
• What input is required from • What tools were used to prepare

future users 7 the brief, to develop and test
plan variants, to coordinate
• How much time will be needed
different activities, and to
for the programming phase,
monitor cost and quality?
design, contracting out. and
execution? • What was done well and what
went wrong?
• What information is needed, by
whom, and when 7 • What lessons can be drawn?
• What tools are available to ensure

that the process runs efficiently
and effectively?
• What factors might affect the
success or failure of the process?
Source: van der Voordt and van Wegen (2005, p. 143, Table 5.1)
24 D
evaluation and the project being prepared from the process and building
project evaluation that is being used. In the end, the authors presented the aims
of the evaluation with regard to the project (ex ante), which do not refer to the
object that was realized (ex post).
The goals that refer to the evaluation of the project are presented below:
• determining whether the expectations were fulfilled;

• determining whether goals were reached;
• drawing attention to unintended and unforeseen effects;
• increasing understanding of the decision-making processes;
• letting off steam; and
• providing material on which to base improvements.
(van der Voordt and van Wegen, 2005, p. 144, Box 5.1)
According to van der Voordt and van Wegen , the goals of the evaluation that
do not pertain to the project, but to architectonic problems per se, are as
follows:
• theoretical development;
• development of tools;
• design guidelines;
• policy recommendations; and
• database of reference projects.
(van der Voordt and van Wegen, 2005, p. 144, Box 5.1) !
:
1,
I:
When it comes to research directed at perfecting the design practice, we can
also notice a number of literature titles with reference to the design process of
urban environment. One of the key titles, which broadly depicts the city as a
notion of environmental quality in which a contemporary man lives, is Jan
Gehl's book titled Cities for People (2010). In this book, the author criticizes
contemporary cities dominated by cars and billboards, suffocating in a world
full of air pollution and of low quality of life. Gehl, a Danish architect and
urbanist, was the architect responsible for the reconstruction and reorganization
of cities both in Europe and in North America, as well as Australia and the Far
East (e.g. New York, Seattle, San Francisco, Melbourne, Bogota, and Moscow).
He presents examples based on different cities on different continents, showing
that a better quality of life within a city may be reached by means of correctly
utilized public space, as well as friendly conditions for both pedestrians and
cyclists.
The analysis of the aforementioned literature shows that despite the fact
that it is more focused on the practice and on perfecting the processes of
designing, one should take note of the fact that the authors do not rule out, nor
negate, the need for, as well as the possibility of, development of the science
•" itself in architecture.
25
Parametric research, which refers to the use of computer programs in

variant analyses of architectonic form and the construction of their structure, is
a new, rapidly developing research trend for the sake of the design practice.
Scientific Research Trend in Architecture

The last trend of research development in architecture, aspiring to create a
science in architecture and about architecture, has been developing more and
more intensely, and since the 1980s there have been some new releases of
books in this scope. The most important positions are:
• John Zeise!, Inquiry by Design: Tools for Environment-Behavior Research

(1981) and Inquiry by Design: Environment/Behavior/Neuroscience in
Architecture, Interiors, Landscape and Planning (2006).
• Rorbert W. Marans and Daniel Stokols, Environmental Simulation (1993).
• Robert K. Yin, Case Study Research: Design and Methods (1994).
• Linda Groat and David Wang, Architectural Research Methods (2002).
• Nicholas Walliman, Your Research Project: Designing and Planning Your
Work (2001 ), Social Research Methods (2006), and Research Methods:
The Basics (2011 ).
The book by Groat and Wang, two American scientists, is the most signifcant
and important bibliographical position of the works mentioned above. In this
academic textbook, they exhaustively present the problems connected
with research in architecture, in the context of general methodology of scientific
research. They characterize the philosophical trends through the creation of
methodology of scientific research. They define the basic notions w ith in the
scope of methodology, and they also distinguish the tactics and research
strategies that are applied today. Moreover, they specify the standards that
should be met by the research done. They stress the fact that in architecture,
one has to deal with interdisciplinary as well as transdisciplinary research
because only these types of research may exhaustively express the complex
problems with technology, society, and art, and that pertain to issues that are
both scientific and practical. This is the first book in the world that depicts the
whole picture of problems connected with scientific research in architecture.
A similar trend of ordering the most useful methods in architecture is
visible in the case of Yasser Mahgoub, an architect and a scientist from Qatar
University, who created a collective table of methods implemented in research
on architecture (see Table 1.3). According to Mahgoub, architectonic research
constitutes a search for new knowledge and new ideas on the topic of a built
environment. Consequently, the research may be conducted in various, sub-
disciplinary manners, which include building technology, environmental behavior
studies, the history of architecture, and computer technology. In accordance
with the above, architectonic research uses various methods, depending on the
subject matter of the studies. Mahgoub arranged the research methods in his
26 J
table in a certain hierarchical order, ranging from theoretical and experimental

methods to descriptive and practical methods, depending on the nature of
a given problem. He excellently compares different research methods and
approaches recommended for architectonic research. Moreover. he selected
basic strategies of architectonic research: ontological, epistemological, and
methodological orientation.
Literary titles by Nicholas Walliman, a British author of several textbooks
for students of architecture on both designing and research, focused mainly on
methods used in social studies, are of utmost importance in the scope of
popularizing methods used in scientific research in architecture. These titles
include Your Research Project: Designing and Planning Your Work (2001) and
Social Research Methods (2006). These books are of high didactic significance
when it comes to the preparation process of a new generation of architects
and scientists. In Your Research Project, Walliman touches upon issues such
as research methods, research problems, theory and nature of knowledge,
concepts, language, and argumentation. He also takes a look at issues connected
with ethics in science, as well as the issue of preparing research proposals.
Social Research Methods, on the other hand, is concentrated on issues
connected with the planning and designing of research, the collection and
analysis of data, and the notion of writing up research . When it comes to
data analysis, he concentrates on the description of research techniques applied
in social studies, that is, quantitative and qualitative research as well as data
collection methods.
The remaining positions. mentioned above, refer to specific research
methods such as case studies (Yin, 1994) observation method, along with
research techniques of this method (Zeise!, 1981, 2006). More on those
methods in Chapters 6 and 7.
Environmental simulation research is presented by R.W. Marans and
D. Stokols in their aforementioned book Environmental Simulation (1993).
The book is preceded with an introduction that sheds light on some
theoretical, ecological, methodological issues and the trends of the research
conducted, along with an exhaustive presentation of the planning and t he
realization of this type of research. A series of examples of computer-based
research was presented on regular and even real-scale mock-ups, in various
built (e.g. hospital, old people's home) and urban (city and natural landscape)
environments.
The recapitulation of described research streams in arch itecture is presented
in Table 1.4.
..
,. Neurobiological research on brain and hormone reactions of the organism
on esthetic experiences constitutes a new scientific field that might create
solutions to problems connected with esthetic preferences in the futu re. A new
research center that was built in San Diego in 2002, called the Academy of
Neuroscience for Architecture (ANFA) has been conducting research in th is
scope.
27 □
Table 1.3 Architectural research methods
Curiosity-oriented
M ission-oriented
Theoretical Interpretative Experimental Survey Simulation Qualitative Action
research research research research research research research
Ontological Knowledge Knowledge Knowledge Knowledge Knowledge Knowledge Knowledge
assumptions is created is created is created is created is created isa ~ ially is created
by devising by by by by constructed through the
logical, developing developing developing improving reality and process of
abstract alternative and testing and testing our under- cannot be change;
theories of interpret- general general standing of generalized generalized
some reality tations of theories theories the behavior knowledge
reality in that apply that apply of complex less
order to to items of to all systems important
understand interest social/ through
the human psycho- simulation
condition logical
issues
Epistemo- We know We know We know We know We learn We know Participants
logical through through our only what only what about the only by learn from
assumptions our own intuition we perceive we can world by developing trying to
reasoning combined through our measure simulating an in-depth improve
capabilities with senses and test an artificial intimate existing
reason ing (logical (logical world understand- situation
positivist) positivist) ing about
individua ls
Disciplinary Philosophy, History and Natural Social Artificial Cultural Practice
base mathe- the arts sciences sciences sciences anthro-
matics pology,
ethnog-
raphy
Research Develop Develop Identify Casual Develop- Describe Focus in on
goal(s) theory interpreta- casual links, explanation, ment of situation developing
tive, casual test theory insight holistically practical
t heoretical explanation, about the and from result.
understand- test theory behavior of perspective solving real
ing complex of problems,
systems participants set change
in motion
Methodo- Logical Bot h Experi- Quasi- Deduction Case Diagnosis
logical abstra ction, inductive mental and experi- to build studies, development
orientation use of and quasi- mental, model, thematic/ and imple-
deductive deductive experi- induction induction to content mentation of
logic mental, evaluate analysis action plans,
induction, simulation evaluation of
" scientific results action plan
method"
Key method- Logic Develop Validity, Validity, Develop a Empathy, Empower-
ological crit ical reliability, reliability, model to descriptive ment, may
concepts perspective bias, test bias, test simplify orientation emphasize
of null of null reality training
hypothesis hypothesis
Variables Emerge Emerge Pre- Pre- Pre- Emerge Emerge
during during determined determined determined during during
research research and emerge research research
Table 1.3 continued
Curiosity-oriented Mission-oriented
Theoretical Interpretative Experimental SuNey Simulation Qualitative Action

research research research research research research research
Control or Not Not Necessary Usually Compar- Not Not

comparison relevant relevant comparison isons relevant relevant
group groups emerge as
established result of
in analysis simulations
Data analysis Not Descriptive, Usually Usually Varies Usually Depends on
relevant possibly parametric non- from thematic client
augmented (correlation, parametric descriptive or content specifics of
with t-test, (rank and analysis, the situation
quantitative ANOVA, correlation, quantitative descriptive after used to
approaches regression) chi-square, to focus diagnose the
MCA) quantitative problem
Participant's None Provides None None Varies Usually as Actively
role in firsthand depending an participates
research record of on informant
event definition
of the
artificial
systems
Researcher's Seeks Seeks Seeks to Seeks to Extrapolates Interactive, Collaborates
role theoretical theoretical be objective be objective behavior of often as with client
interpreta- 1nterpreta- simulated participant
tion tion system to observer
real world
Political Ignored Often an Controlled Controlled May be Described Included as
pressures integral part by research by research relevant part of the
of inter- design or design or depending action
pretat1on ignored ignored on the research
definition content
of the
artificial
system
Research Presentation Presentation Presentation Presentation Presentation Present Describes
report of logical of inter- of statistical of statistical of model's holistic the context
(implemen- conclusions pretation proof test and logic, portrayal of and outcome
tation and (academic (usually (academic interpreta- comparison participants of the
communica- focus) academic focus) tion of and settings research
tion) focus) (academic simulation (academic (program-
focus) results to or matic focus)
reality pragmatic
(academic focus)
•' or pragmatic
focus)
Architectural Design Theories of Material Post- Thought Participant Demonstra-
examples optimization architectural testing occupancy experiment, observation tion projects,
approaches, history and evaluations, gaming- advocacy
mathemat- theory behavioral simulation, planning
ical theories, mapping mock-ups,
algorithms computer
simulations,
cost-benefit
analysis
Source: Mahgoub (2008)

Table 1.4 A list of research trends in architecture along with authors who present them
Data Author's name Publication title

The philosophical reflection trend: literature analysis
1994 Paul Alan Johnson The Theory of Architecture: Concepts, Themes, & Practices
1994 Hanno-Walter Kruft History of Architectural Theory from Vitruvius to Present
1995 Pentti Routio Arteology: The Science of Artifacts-Guide to Research and Development
1996 Kate Nesbitt (Ed.) Theorizing a New Agenda for Architecture: An Anthology of Architectural
Theory 1965-1995
1998 Michael Hays Architecture Theory Since 1968
2005 Harry F. Mallgrave Modern Architectural Theory: A Historical Survey, 1673-1968.,..
2006 Harry F. Mallgrave (Ed.) Architectural Theory: An Anthology from Vitruvius to 1870
2008 Harry F. Mallgrave Architectural Theory: An Anthology from 1871 to 2005
and Christina
Contandriopoulos (Eds.)
A research trend in architecture aimed at perfecting design practice
1987 William Pena, Problem Seeking: An Architectural Programming Primer
Steven Parshall,
and Kevin Kelly
1988 Wolfgang Preiser, Post-Occupancy Evaluation
Harvey Rabinowitz,
and Edward White
1989 Wolfgang Preiser (Ed.) Building Evaluation
1992 Henry Sanoff Integrating Programming, Evaluation and Participation Designing: A Theory Z
Approach
1993 Donna Duerk Architectural Programming: Information Management for Design
2001 Wolfgang Preiser and Universal Design Handbook
Korydin Smith (Eds.)
2001 Henry Sanoff School Building Assessment Methods
2005 Taeke de Jong and Ways to Study and Research: Urban, Architectural and Technical Design
D.J.M. van der Voordt
(Eds.)
2005 Theo van der Voordt Architecture in Use: An Introduction to the Programming, Design and
and Herman van Wegen Evaluation of Buildings
2005 Wolfgang Preiser and
Jacqueline Vischer (Eds.) Assessing Building Performance
2010 Richard Foque Building Knowledge in Architecture
2010 Jan Gehl Cities for People
Scientific research trend in architecture
1981 John Zeisel Inquiry by Design: Tools for Environment-Behaviour Research
1987 Jon Lang Creating Architectural Theory: The Role of the Behavioral Sciences in
Environmental Design
1993 Robert Marans and Environmental Simulation
Daniel Stokols (Eds.)
1994 Robert K. Yin Case Study Research: Design and Methods
2001 Nicholas Walliman Your Research Project: Designing and Planning Your Work
2002 Linda Groat and Architectural Research Methods
David Wang
2006 John Zeisel Inquiry by Design: Environment/Behavior/Neuroscience in Architecture,
Interiors, Landscape and Planning
2006 Nicholas Walliman Social Research Methods
2007 John P. Eberhard Architecture and the Brain: A Knowledge Base from Neuroscience
2008 John P. Eberhard Brain Landscape: The Coexistence of Neuroscience and Architecture
2008 Yasser Mahgoub Architectural Research Methods
30 D
1.6 SCIENTIFIC THEORIES IN ARCHITECTURE:

SELECT EXAMPLES
A scientific theory, a methodology, a system of theorems, logically and factually

ordered, interrelated by means of specific logical relations that appear in given
science and that meet the criteria of scientificity and methodological correctness.
(Nowa Encyklopedia Powszechna
[New Universal Encyclopedia]. 1997, p. 361)
In other words, a scientific theory creates a system of notions and definitions,

axioms and theorems that establish the relation between these notions and
axioms that constitute a unified system of notions that describes the select
field of knowledge. Consequently, it may be assumed that theory in architecture
is also made by a system of notions, definitions, and theorems and rights that
describe spatial, social, cultural, and technical relations in a built environment.
On the basis of the previous section devoted to literature of the subject
matter, it may be gathered that the notion of theory in architecture is perceived
in many ways. In accordance with the above, this section will be focused
on select, generally accepted architectonic theories, also in the scope of environ-
mental psychology, which came into being on the basis of the scientific research
that was conducted and that gained global acceptance of the environment of
scientists in the scope of architecture. When it comes to the selection of these
theories, suggestions included in basic literary positions, cited above, were
taken into consideration (Groat and Wang, 2002; Johnson, 1994; Lang, 1987).
Johnson (1994) indicates-as it was mentioned above-that the theories
important to architecture are the ones put forth by Robert Barker (behavioral
settings), Oscar Newman (defensible space). and Robert Ventury (complexity
and contradiction). Groat and Wang (2002), on the other hand, indicate the
following: Kevin Lynch (image of the city), Stewart Brand (layered structure of
a building). Christopher Alexander (a pattern language), and Christian Norberg-
Schulz (genius loci).
Johnson (1994, p. 5) defines the theories in architecture in the following
way: "Architectural theory inhabits this internal world constituted by our
assumptions, concepts, ideas, attitudes, intentions, history and creations," and
further citing J. Merquior, "theory may be seen as domesticating an area of
knowledge and, by normalizing its exponents, producing 'useful creatures'
whose performance is mediated by certain punishments ingrained during
education and carries on in professional life" (Johnson, 1994, p. 3). He writes
too that:
it is useful to consider three theories that have held sway in architecture for
many years now, two having a behavioral base-Oscar Newman's "defensible
space" and Roger Barker's "behavioral setting" theory-and the third having
a semantic base, the theory of signs by which architecture is construed as
31 D
language consisting of a vocabulary arranged according to a grammar by which

meaning is conveyed.
(Johnson, 1994, p. 13)
As was stated in the previous section, devoted to the overview of literature,

one may distinguish four main problem areas defined as theories. They include:
1. The humanistic type theory of generalization, humanistic reflection that

encompasses historical reflection, pertaining to the history of architecture ~•
and the analysis of trends and ideas, as well as developmental goals,
descriptions, and interpretations.
2. The positive scientific theory-proven, reliable in practice in the scope of
technical sciences, social sciences, economy, etc.
3. The normative theory that functions as a compilation of regulations justi-
fied by customs, as well as views in the form of unproven hypotheses and
theoretical concepts pertaining to beliefs and phenomena that may
constitute a scientific trend.
4. The trend of views of the unproven type " theory talk, " in wh ich doctrines
proclaimed by authorities are included-usually pertaining to the esthetics
and trends in esthetics, as well as ideas and manifestos.
The notion of positive and normative theory was introduced by Lang, and his
division of knowledge is the clearest to date in terms of architecture. It refers
to both the theory of design in architecture and in science on/in architecture.
The theory of design encompasses problems connected w ith:
• the process of design organization;

• design tools;
• the processes of generating ideas and concepts;
• research processes that enhance the processes of design; and
• the realization of ideas in the design processes (e.g. sustainable develop-
ment, universal design, etc.).
In the second half of the twentieth century, many new scientific theories
appeared in architecture as a result of a rapid development of environmental
psychology and sociology, and hence they will be described briefly.
The Environmental Theories That Influence the Creation of a

New Paradigm of Architecture
In the wake of the great interest in the problems of ecology and natural
environment in the 1950s in the US, environmental psychology became a
distinct, independent scientific discipline. As stated by Banka (2002, p. 28):
"The central research area in environmental psychology was then the analysis
32 □
of human behavior in various environments, but mainly in architectonic, urban

and geographical ones." Then the author continues:
The influence of the contemporary architectonic thought on the development

of psychology comes from the fact that environmental psychology and archi-
tecture possess the same practical goal, which is expressed in the optimization
of the environment of humans through the integration of all the factors that
refer to it.
(Banka, 2002. p. 35)
Barker-an American psychologist who is one of the creators of ecological

psychology-had the biggest influence on the development of the environmental
approach to architecture. His theory "behavior setting" has the largest predictive
quality of all the psychological theories in the history of science. Even Barker
came to realize that his method allows one to predict with a 90 percent certainty
what people will do in certain systems of behavior. The notion of behavior
setting means the location of a large number of behaviors; interdependence
between the patterns of behavior that are being realized and the physical
environment. The activity center is based on the dependence between the
fixed patterns of behavior and the physical environment. Fixed patterns of
behavior represent collective behaviors of a group rather than the behavior
of an individual.
Thanks to "behavior setting, " one may understand the dependence, inter-
relations that occur between the spatial organization (internal or external), and
human behaviors. Simply speaking, behavior setting may be explained as fixed
ways of human behavior that are characteristic of certain activities that occur
in specific spatial conditions (e.g. a hospital, a church , etc.). where one may
meet a set, a system of behaviors characteristic of given activities, and forced
by a given spatial environment. The conditions created by architecture may
either facilitate the course of these activities, or hinder or even disorganize it.
"Standing patterns of behavior" -fixed patterns of behavior, a social component
of the set of behaviors that remains in mutual interrelations with the physical
"milieu" (an environment)-is a notion that is very important when it comes
to the clarification of architectonic problems in this context. Due to the fact that
the fixed patterns of behavior are independent on the environment, one must
include them in designing.
By designing the functions of specific rooms and because of their
furnish ings, we impose certain behaviors of users in specific rooms (e.g. a bed
in a room would suggest that the place is a place for sleeping, and that no one
is going to spend the night inside the toilet, not unless it were an emergency).
If one should plan the spatial organization incorrectly, then one may cause
disorganization in human behaviors, which may in turn lead to inappropriate
behaviors (e.g. aggression among crowds, fights for territory, unlawful actions) .
33 D
The behavior setting theory by Barker was mentioned at this point due to
the fact that the research and methodology context of this theory, as well as
its significance to the trend of the research development, which is the environ-
mental designing that includes the social and individual needs in designing, is
very interesting. Barker distinguished three features of the ecological unit in
which one may observe a specific set of behaviors:
1. self-generating units (this has got nothing to do with the researcher

_.,
intervention);
2. each unit has its place in time and space; and
3. there are clear differences between specific units.
(Banka, 2002, p. 85)
In each ecological unit, there is a program of a behavior setting (e.g. when it

comes to public offices, both the staff and the applicants are the members of
the setting). The program marks out the ways of behaving in both the staff and
the applicants, and it is approved in the spatial shaping of the physical space,
that is, in a building. Staff members are more familiar with the program of
behavior setting than the applicants, but it is the leading person who has got
the biggest influence on the program and is most familiar with it.
Behavior setting possesses a set of specific features: population (number
of people within a group), leaders, objects (buildings, places within buildings or
urban area), users, timetable, and other observable and quantifiable features. If
one delved deeper into the theory, he or she would come across the notion of:
behavioral local point, which is a concentration point of social behaviors that is

connected with a large number of attractive functions in architecture (rich
in terms of behavior), it is also a place of maximum visibility and accessibility
which offers unlimited possibilities of sitting and eating. One may ask, how big
should the center be to be able to play the integrative role and not generate a
pathology (e.g. in the event of crowded or potentially dangerous places).
(Banka, 2002, p. 89)
This theory came into being between 1947 and 1972 on the basis of human
behavior research in two locations, namely two small towns: Oskaloosa, in the
US, with a population of 830 citizens, and Leyburn, in the UK, with a population
of 1,310 citizens. In this context, a lot of attention is drawn by the duration of
this research, its extent (ranging from research on children and their familiarity
with behavior settings to larger entireties, such as a locality as a whole), and
thoroughness. It may also be stated that the created theory came into being on
the basis of observations of behaviors and their spatial and social context, in
which the level of adoption of a behavioral setting of specific groups of people
in specific spatial and social contexts was examined. The long duration of this
research allowed for it to be monitored and for the observed behavioral settings
34 D
to be evaluated in terms of durability. Small localities that do not exhibit a rapid

growth played the role of a natural laboratory.
Barker's concept, "behavioral setting," which constitutes behaviors
conditioned by the surroundings and the context of the place, is timely in
architecture and it proves correct in practice. The practical significance of this
theory is highlighted by Alexander et al. (1977) in A Pattern Language. Due to
the fact that the behaviors encompassed in the behavioral setting are normalized,
Barker's theory does not include weird and deviant behaviors such as vandalism,
drug addiction, or vagrancy. This is a theory that turns out to be locally practica l
within territorial borders of the behavioral setting (a building, urban space).
The research that was started by Barker et al. in the 1960s, initially chaotic
and dispersed, is becoming more and more orientated, and as stated by Bar'lka
(2002, p. 31):
A cooperation was formed between personality, social, developmental, cognitive

and experimental psychologists and architects, planners, geographers and
sociologists interested in urban problems. In the seventies, hundreds of
researches were conducted that pertained to the problem of density, personal
space, territoriality, environmental cognition and environmental stress.
At that time, it was the first textbook for architects, written by David Canter and
Terence Lee, titled Psychology and the Built Environment (1974), that defined
the role of psychological knowledge in the shaping of the space that accords
with the mental needs of users.
Along with the growing problems of social nature in social life, architects,
designers, and developers started putting questions to psychologists and
sociologists about how built environments are perceived by people, on the one
hand, and how to design an environment to gain the expected behavior of the
users, on the other hand (Dunlap and Michelson, 2002). And so, both new
disciplines have had a great influence on the questions raised, and at the same
time on the development of science in architecture, as well as on the perfection
of the processes of both urban and architectonic design.
On the basis of this research, it was stated that the reaction to a specific
environment may be a specific behavior of people using it. The human-environ-
ment relation, researched by psychologists in the context of the influence of
the environment on shaping the behavior of the users, showed that the way
people live in a built environment is, to a large extent, imposed by the designer
in a more or less conscious manner.
The relations of a human being with a built environment are shown, among
others, in Abraham Maslow's needs pyramid (see Figure 1.9). created in the
1950s (Maslow, 1954). At its base lie basic needs, physiological needs, and the
needs connected with safety. When these needs have been satisfied, one has
to face higher needs, such as group affiliation, as well as prestige, cognitive,
esthetic, and self-realization needs. All these needs are reflected in the
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7 SELF-REALIZATION Figure 1.9

Maslow's hierarchy
pyramid of needs in
6 ESTHETIC NEEDS
architecture
5 COGNITIVE NEEDS
4 PRESTIGE, ESTEEM NEEDS
3 SOCIAL, BELONGING NEEDS
2 SAFETY NEEDS
1 PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
architectonic environment both at the building functionality, urban complexes

level and at the cultural level. When defining the needs of users of the built
environment, architects are, as a rule, concentrated on two lower tiers (i.e. on
the physiological and safety needs). The remaining ones are satisfied depending
on the awareness of the investor and his or her financial capacity, oftentimes
without the participation of the architect.
Fritz Steele also turned his attention to the problems of human needs in a
built environment (Steele, 1973), but from a different angle. He distinguished
six categories that describe the nature of human experience in the physical
environment: safety and shelter, social contact, symbolic identification, task
instrumentalization, pleasure, and development.
The problems of the satisfaction of human needs in a broader scope, also
in relation to the built environment, were also undertaken by Manfred Max-
Neef (a Chilean economist), along with Antonio Elizalde (a sociologist) and
Martin Hopenhayn (a philosopher) (Max-Neef et al., 1991 ). They created a
l1 taxonomy of these needs (see Table 1.5), calling them "the scale of human
I
development" from the perspective of ontology. They started their list with the
specification of the condition of being a human being, by distinguishing
conventional and economic wants, which are unspecified and unquenchable,
then they move on the cultural conditions (actions and activities) based on
spatial conditions, indispensable in terms of the satisfaction of these needs.
Unlike Maslow's system, there is no hierarchy of needs (apart from basic
needs that refer to the basis of physical existence); they are simultaneous,
complementary, and their exchanges and the process of reaching a compromise
constitute the basis of satisfaction.
The problem connected with satisfying needs bothered not only psych-
ologists. It is also an integral economic, cultural , and sociological issue. Due to
the market significance of architecture, the satisfaction of needs of the users
and meeting the expectations of the market is one of the basic problems of this
domain.
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Table 1.5 The taxonomy of human needs
Needs categories Needs according to existential

according to
axiological
categories BEING HAVING DOING INTERACTION
SUBSTANCE Physical health, mental Food, shelter, work Feed, procreate, Living
health, equilibrium, rest, work environment,
sense of humor, social setting
adaptability
PROTECTION Care, adaptability, Insurance systems, Cooperate, Living space,
autonomy, equilibrium, savings, social prevent, plan, social
solidarity security, health take care of, environment.
systems, rights, cure, help dwelling
family, work
AFFECTION Self-esteem, solidarity, Friendship, family, Make love, caress, Privacy, intimacy,
respect, tolerance, partnerships, express emotion, home, space of
generosity, relationships with share, take care togetherness
receptiveness, passion, nature of, cultivate,
determination, appreciate
sensuality, sense
of humor
UNDERSTANDING Critical conscience, Literature, teachers, Investigate, study, Settings of
receptiveness, method, experiment, formative
curiosity, astonishment, educational policies, educate, analyze, interaction, schools,
discipline, intuition, communication mediate universities,
rationality policies academies, groups,
commun ities,
family
PARTICIPATION Adaptability, Rights, Become affiliated, Settings of
receptiveness, responsibilities, cooperate, participative
solidarity, willingness, duties, privileges, propose, share, interaction, parties,
determination, work dissent, obey, associations,
dedication, respect, interact, agree on, churches,
passion, sense of express opinion communities,
humor neighborhoods,
family
IDLENESS Curiosities, Games, spectacles, Daydream, brood, Privacy, intimacy,
receptiveness, clubs, parties, dream, recall old spaces of
imagination, peace of mind times, give way closeness, free
rec~essness, sense to fantasies, time, surroundings,
of humor, tranquility, remember, relax, landscapes
sensuality have fun, play
CREATION Passion, determination, Abilities, skills, Work, invent, build, Productive and
intuition, imagination, method, work design, compose, feedback settings,
boldness, rationality, interpret workshops,
autonomy, cultural groups,
inventiveness audiences, spaces
for expression,
temporal freedom
IDENTITY Sense of belonging, Symbols, language, Commit oneself, Social rhythms,
consistency, religion, habits, integrate oneself, everyday settings,
differentiation, customs, reference confront, decide settings that one
self-esteem, groups, sexuality, on, get to know belongs to,
assertiveness values, norms, oneself, recognize maturation stages
,~ historical memory, oneself, actualize
work oneself, grow
FREEDOM Autonomy, self- Equal rights Dissent, choose, Temporal/spatial
esteem, determination, be different from, plasticity
passion, assertiveness, run risks, develop
open-mindedness, awareness,
boldness, rebelliousness, commit oneself,
tolerance disobey
Source: Max-Neef et al. (1991 , pp. 32-33, Table 1)

As of yet, the environment of architects is accustomed to a schematic way

of thinking that physiological and safety needs are the same for all people. The
level of satisfying their needs, established by custom, constitutes a certain
canon that architects are imbued with the moment they start their academic
education. The other needs that come from higher tiers of Maslow's pyramid
are marginalized for the sake of originality of architectural works, along with the
omission of socially and culturally important needs. On the basis of this research,
it transpired that individual adjustment to the environmental conditions may
give rise to environmental stress. The theory of environmental stress came into
being in the 1960s (Selye, 1974). It introduces the notion of stressors, that is,
environmental disturbances that directly influence health and adaptive reactions
of people. These stressors might be, for example, improper lighting, noise,
vibrations, climate conditions, heat, chemical substances, radiation, and the
electromagnetic field. Handicaps or other disabilities that may hinder normal
functioning in an environment, especially in a housing one, may also be a
stressor.
The person-environment fit model theory (PE fit) is also focused on
psychological problems concerning disabled people and individuals who do not
cope with life in an environment. Initially, the PE fit theory pertained mainly to
relations between the workplace and the psychological needs of an employee;
however, the relations between environmental competence and environmental
barriers are visible in all environmental relations.
The theory of environmental adjustment level that came into being in the
1970s assumes, on the other hand, that people differ from each other in terms
of the level of preference, and each person possesses a unique, optima l level
of reaction to environmental stimulation. In the 1970s, M . Powell Lawton and
Lucille Nahemow built a model of environmental pressure to describe the
environment of older people (Lawton and Nahemow, 1973). According to
environmental competence, people grow accustomed to a specific place of
residence, while the satisfaction with this location increases along with the
acquisition of skills to perform certain tasks. Physical and social factors remain
in relation with one another and determine the level of satisfaction. This per-
spective is similar to the theory of Kurt Lewin (1951 ), which pertains to the
need of possessing one's own space.
Both theories, the competence theory and the PE fit theory, had a decisive
influence on the development of a new area of knowledge, which is the concept
of universal design that encompasses the problems of the design of a built
environment adjusted to all people, including the elderly and the disabled.
Environmental psychology also introduced the notions of privacy and
territoriality, which, of course, is connected with the feeling of safety. The need
for possessing a territory, in which a human being feels at home as well as
safe, is a characteristic and natural feature. Robert Sommer (1969, p. 33) puts
forth the following definition: a territory "means a geographical area which
through a personalized (personality-related and characterized) and physica l
38 ..J
marking is protected against its violation ." Territoriality is also connected w ith
the feeling of privacy. A human being wishes to fee l at ease on his or her
territory, which means that they do not wish to be seen or heard, nor do they
wish to see or hear other people. The disturbance of privacy (e.g. noise) may
cause somatic diseases such as hypertension or may cause mental problems
such as neurosis, the feeling of peril, etc.
Daniel Stokols (1978) and Irwin Altman (1975) stated that limiting physical
space also causes stress and evokes the feeling of danger in people. Excessive
clusters of people in one space causes that place to be perceived as too
crowded, and hence an "escape place." Hence, units are in pursuit of a state
of privacy that generally leads to the construction of territories which have
privacy. Being in possession of one's own territory and maintaining privacy (the
theory of life space by Levin) allows one to be in control of stressors that
disturb well-being in an built architectonic and urban environment.
The opposite of a wish to escape is the feeling of place attachment. Place
attachment (Werner et al., 1985), along with social bonds, possess a decisive
significance on the devotion to a place of residence and the attitude of the
citizens to the activity space.
Bryan Lawson and Christian Norberg-Schulz take note of the significance
of space in the life of people. Lawson (1997) defines space as an element that
separates people and obliges them to be together. Norberg-Schulz (1971) claims
that people must understand the spatial relations to better function within an
object.
The theory of proxemics. created by Edward T. Hall, an American anthro-
pologist, published in The Silent Language in 1959, constitutes yet another
important position to understand the influence of a bu ilt environment on people
and their behavior. As an anthropologist, he noticed that the distance in contacts
is perceived culturally differently, but generally the relations between people
and also an imals are connected with distance between each other. He also
shed light on the influence of the phenomenon of over-density on behavior. Hall
states that space is one of the main parameters of life.
Moreover, Hall established a few types of distance that influence the
perception of architectonic and urban space in relation to people: intimat e
distance, individual distance, social distance, and public distance. In the event
that these distances are disturbed in a built or urban environment, there might
be an occurrence of pathological behaviors, aggression, vandalism , or escapism.
This theory, as well as the need for safety, territoriality, and privacy, is at
,., the base of Newman's privacy gradient, and it is also important for the
ruminations on the topic of discrepancies between the requirements of
ergonom ics and the need for distance perceived by people in urban spaces and
objects (e.g. in long, windowless corridors, or in narrow underground passages),
which is also mentioned in Czynski (2006) and Czarnecki (2011 ).
Fam iliarization with the built environment, as well as creating cognitive
maps that enable comfortable movement within one , seems to be the most
39
Table 1.6 A set of select basic environmental theories that significantly influence the development of
architectural theories
Years of
twentieth
century Author Theory .,
1940s-1970s Roger Barker Behavioral setting
1950s Abraham Maslow Maslow's hierarchy of needs (pyramid) : physiological, safety,
belongingness and love, esteem, self-actualization, and self-
transcendence needs
1960s Hans Selye Environmental stress theory
Robert Sommer Privacy and territoriality
Edward T. Hall Proxemics (personal space and territory)
1970s Fritz Steele Six categories describing the nature of human experiences with
the physical environment: safety and refuge (shelter), social
contact. symbolic identification, task instrumentalization,
pleasure, and development
Dean B. Baker, Person-environment fit model (PE fit)
Robert D. Caplan,
and Van Harrison
M . Powell Lawton and Environmental pressure model
Lucille Nahemow
Kurt Levin Levin's f ield theory and the life space
Daniel Stokols and The theory of overcrowding, the concept of the escape space
Irwin Altman
1980s Carol M . Werner,
Irwin Altman. and D. Oxley Place attachment theory
important factor in terms of the shaping and legibility of the environment. The
perception theories became the basis for creating the map theory, the image
of the city by Lynch.
Environmental psychology and sociology still develop and enrich the
knowledge of human needs within the built environment. Table 1.6 presents
..'
aforementioned theories that played an initiatory role in the development of
science and environmental theories in architecture .
The Environmental Design Theory of Jon Lang

Jon Lang, who created the theory of environmental design, played a special
role in the process of inclusion of environmental problems into the theory of
architecture and practical activities. The conception of this theory was presented
in the book mentioned above, entitled Creating Architectural Theory: The Role
of the Behavioral Sciences in Environmental Design (1987) .
As mentioned above, Lang distinguishes two types of architectural theory:
normative and positive. Unlike normative theory, the positive theory pertains
to all physical, technical, and environmental problems in architecture, which
may be subject to research procedures. The author introduced a division
into substantive and procedural theory in both positive and normative theory.
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Table 1.7 The problem scope of the positive and normative theory
Positive theory: scope of problems Normative theory: scope of problems
The spectrum Facts Ideas

of interests Phenomena Manifestoes
Description of existing reality Doctrines
Scientific research Patterns of practical solutions
Interpretation of facts and phenomena
Substantial issues Structure of built environment Market requirements of demand and supply
Scientific theories New technological products
Hypotheses Qualitative requirements
Research questions
Procedural issues Design methodology Supporting design processes
Technologies assisting in design process Regulations of building code
New design tools Norms
Normatives
Customary patterns of technica l and
functional solutions
Source: Adapted from Lang (1987)
The substantive approach pertains to the structure of the built environment

(architecture, urban planning), while the procedural one pertains to the processes
of designing, which may be defined as design methodology.
The problem scope of both theories is presented in Tables 1.7 and 1.8.
Lang's positive theory is a scientific theory, which means it is grounded
and verifiable knowledge concerning phenomena occurring in a given discipline.
It describes and explains these phenomena in an objective manner, which
enables one to predict the results of design actions with a high level of
probability. The empirical positive theory leads to the discovery of predictable
variables in the scope of durability, comfort, and taking pleasure in using the
built environment.
The normative theory-based on qualities (i.e. based on what should be
done)-may be expressed in design manifestos and through the identification
with a concrete design trend. Lang also formulates the notion of substantial
theory, which creates-useful facts-a compilation of useful information on the
topic of variables of the environment, such as color, privacy, territoriality,
furnishing, and design features that are to ensure comfort, durability, and
pleasure.
Both theories may refer to procedures connected with designing and to
main issues of architecture, such as the built environment, its quality, and its
connection with the user. The substantive theory pertains to the description of
phenomena that are the subject matter of a given discipline, while the procedural
theory pertains to the modus operandi. Hence, the normative theory focuses
on norms, orders, and rules that should be observed in the processes of
designing and the realization of architectonic objects, while the normative
procedural theory includes procedures of operation that pertain to the processes
of designing and realization.
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In Creating Architectural Theory (1987), Lang stresses the role of behavioral

sciences in the development of thought on architecture and the development
of architecture as a science. The book was a response to the rapid develop-
ment of the environmental approach in social sciences that connected the
problems of the quality of people's life with the quality of the built environment
that satisfies the physiological, social, and cultural needs.
Lang writes about the changes in the paradigm of architecture that were
made over the span of the twentieth century. Modernism is focused on meeting
the needs of the mass user. This changed the perception of architecture, espe-
cially the role of design. Lang noticed that in modernism and postmodernism,
there was a tendency to make light of all cultural differences between people
according to the principles that all people possess the same organism and they
function in the same way, and all people have identical needs, so they need
standardized products.
However, social sciences showed that people do differ from one another
in terms of their needs, both physical and mental, and also social and cultura l.
The new way of perceiving people in the built environment is the moment of
yet another change in the architecture paradigm, which depicts the conceptual
model of normative theory. Lang describes the scheme of the design process
according to the traditional formula, in which the subject of the design process
is the invention of the designer, while the sources of knowledge are the
principles of esthetic composition.
The design conception process is at all times accompanied by eva luation
in terms of accordance with the knowledge com ing from the achievements of
the substantive and procedural positive theory and by the adjustment of
solutions to the system of values represented by the users. All these elements
influence the manner in which design problems are perceived and the
construction of the building program, including the environmental psychology
I
£ Table 1.8 Differences in the approach to design-related problems in the normative and positive theory
.
:
Normative theory Positive theory
Focalizing the attention Esthetic or composition rules Perception and the experience of the built
environment
Sequences of steps • Designer and his artistic vision • Ana lysis of the influence of the
taken in designing • Design composition investment on the user
• Design project in form of an • Analysis of the object and its influence
esthetic information medium on the environment (physical, natural,
social and behavioral, spatial order)
• Design proJect as a medium and the
transfer of environmental information
Influences • Influence of esthetic concept • Consideration of results of
on observers and users environmental analyses in design
• Use of knowledge collected in
predes1gn studies in subsequent designs
Source: Adapted from Lang (1987)
42 D
requirements (behavioral program). and they are the subject of analyses in the
decision-making process and during the realization. Moreover, Lang considers
finishing the design of creating the building via the POE type evaluation, the
starting point of the research process that creates positive theory.
Hence, the subject matter of the theory is the inclusion of environmental
problems in the process of designing, that is, mutual interaction of the environ-
ment and people, and vice versa, according to the principles worked out through
behavioral sciences.
Kevin Lynch's Theory of the Urban Space Structure

Kevin Lynch's theory pertains to the proper structure of the city, and came into
being on the basis of the mapping method (drawing cognitive maps of the city),
and was presented in a famous book titled The Image of the City (1960). Its
objective was to evaluate how normal people understand physical features of
the city. The research included the following cities: Boston, Jersey City, and
Los Angeles. People who were invited to take part in the research were asked
to draw a plan of a city. Lynch showed in a set of drawings how people verbally
described and drew cities. These maps, formed on the basis of sketches and
interviews, exhibited a significant convergence-a correlation. They also came
in useful in the formulation of the notion of "imageability"-the ability to copy
and imagine.
Before conducting research, Lynch formulated a few research questions:
What does form of the city mean for the people living there today? What can
a planner do to create a more live, picturesque, and unforgettable image of the
city for its citizens?
To answer these research questions, Lynch (1960, pp. 140-159) used the
following methods:
1. Interview with a small group of citizens in order to understand their opinion

of the city environment.
2. Systematic research on the environmental image recalled by trained
observers in this scope.
3. Comparative research in three cities.
The basic interview consisted, in its most rudimentary elements, of questions

referring to sketch a map of the city, a detailed description of the number of
tours of the city, problem lists, and a short description of its parts that are seen
as clearer and more graphic in a subjective estimation. The interview was
conducted in that order in order to:
... •
•
test the "imageability" hypothesis-the capacity to be mapped;
get a rough approximation of the public image of the three researched
cities, which could be examined in order to elaborate on certain suggestions
about urban designing; and
• develop a brief method that discloses the public image of a given city.
43 □
The research objectives were reached, but some doubts appeared concerning
the universality of the created public image of the researched city.
The 1.5-hour long interview was composed of seven basic questions/
problems. This means that all questions were extended by means of auxiliary,
complementary, and explanatory questions. For example, question no. 2:
We would like you to make a quick map of central Boston, inward or downtown
from Massachusetts Avenue. Make it just as if you were making a rapid -•
description of the city to a stranger, covering all the main features. We don't
expect an accurate drawing-just a rough sketch.
(Lynch, 1960, p. 141)
The person who conducted the interview was to note down the sequence in
which certain elements of. the map appeared while the procedure was being
recorded on audiotape and copied onto a piece of paper.
In the next session, respondents received a set of pictures of all of Boston,
along with pictures of other cities. First, they were asked to match the photo-
graphs to thematic groups and then to identify as many pictures as possible,
and to explain, simultaneously, which keys were used to identify them. The
pictures that were recognized were matched to specific locations on the map
that was unfolded on a table. Then, the volunteers were taken on a trip along
the designated track. The person who was conducting the interview recorded
the comments connected with finding the way, the reason why a certain way
had been chosen, an explanation of what the participant sees, and if he or she
feels certain about the choice and whether he or she is lost.
Later on, to double-check, an additional study was conducted in which
respondents answered questions as to what made them choose the way
through the city. At certain characteristic points, the person conducting the
study and the interview would ask randomly chosen pedestrians the way to all
destination points. Three questions were raised:
1. How do I get to ... ?

2. How will I recognize it when I get there?
3. How long will it take me to walk there?
(Lynch, 1960, p. 143)
A comparison of subjective images of the city showing actual data, such as

aerial photographs, maps, schemes and diagrams of densely built areas, useful
functions, as well as the shape or the condition of a building, made it possible
to create a description of the physical form of the city. From this research and
the mapping sets, Lynch was able to work out five general and new categories
of urban indicators: path, edge, district, node, and landmark.
This theory may be applied in the process of designing cities and in their
formal revalorization. Further development of this method led to the creation of
44 □
the "wayfinding" theory by Romedi Passini (finding one's way within a built
environment) (Passini, 1984). which refers not only to the structure of the city,
but also to architectonic objects in which one may find certain constructs,
cognitive maps of the urban environment, and buildings of specific function in
which, apart from environmental information, an architect should include visual
information that facilitates moving in complicated environments such as airports,
shopping malls, etc.
The Theory of the Sign of Robert Venturi: Architecture as

a Means of Communication
The theory of the sign came into being through ruminations and analyses on
historical architecture and the observation of the urban planning context, and
also as a reaction to the formal simplification that modernism offered. The book
Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture (Venturi, 1966) constitutes a
manifesto and depicts the features of architecture. On the one hand, architecture
is a kind of a cultural transmitter understandable for people who make the
community. The role of the cultural transmitter is played by elements that are
non-functional (ornamentation and repeatable style forms), the form of which
constitutes a clear sign for a given commun ity and allows the observer to
identify with the building and individuals who make a similar interpretation.
Hence, the polemics put forth by Venturi against the famous phrase "less
means more. " 9 Venturi thinks that simplicity itself cannot mean boorishness,
but gross simplicity, on the other hand, stands for bad arch itecture. According
to Venturi, the complexity does not contradict the rightness of using forms of
simplification, which are part of the architectonic analysis and also a method
of reaching complex architecture. Venturi is of the opinion that simplification is
a process resulting from analysis, and not a target in itself.
The subject matter problems of complexity and contradictions that occur
in architecture are elaborated by another book written along with Denise Scott
Brown and Steven lzenour, titled Learning from Las Vegas (1972). It constitutes
an analysis and a conclusion of the development of Las Vegas in the context
of analyses of historical architecture, and it explains the so-called theory of
"decorated shed, " according to which the observer decides upon the destination
of a specific building on the basis of its look, and not on the basis of its real
function. Hence, one may come up with the conclusion that it is not the function
that decides upon what the building is for the observer, but the decoration .
The authors of Learning from Las Vegas analyze architecture in the form
of a space and as a symbol that, according to them, are more important than
the form because they form a communicative and informative system. They
,... also formulate a phrase, "architecture of persuasion " (A&P) , having analyzed
this historical phenomenon on the basis of the example of Las Vegas, proving
that these mechanisms have always worked . The problem of bringing order
through inclusion and the notion of difficult order was also touched upon. They
formulate the notion of the theory of ugly and ordinary by making comparisons
45 D
with other congruent and contradictory theories. The book constitutes a mani-
festo against the formal arbitrariness imposed by modernism by showing its
inconsistency with tradition and the needs of these individuals for whom the
built environment is built.
Consequently, Venturi's views accord with the assumptions of the rising
environmental approach in architecture, in which it is assumed that it is the
context and the information included in the ornamentation, decoration, and the
look that is important to people in a built environment. This observation gains
affirmation in further stages of the development of this concept in theories put
forth by Lynch and Newman, and also Passini, in which the information
concluded in the space is one of the key elements of the built environment
structure, especially when it comes to quality and the safety of the users.
The Privacy Gradient and Oscar Newman's "Defensible Space"'

Theory
Newman, an American architect and planner, known for his works that pertain
to social housing, crime, and racial integration, came up with the theory of
defensible space for tall public residential buildings and published it in 1972 in
his book entitled Defensible Space: Crime Prevention Through Urban Design.
He also put forth a thesis that crime is connected with tall buildings and low
level of quality when it comes to the design, due to the fact that the residents
are not in control of the housing area, which is inhabited by too many people.
Newman focuses on the explanation of the new idea of social control , crime
prevention, and public health in relation to the community project. The afore-
mentioned book is a result of the research conducted in the 1970s.
Newman introduced his theory on the basis of the research conducted
on 133 social building complexes in New York that exh ibited a high rate of
criminogenicity. The research included various buildings, ranging from two-
r story terrace buildings to 36-story buildings. He conducted the crime analysis
.
E
!
on these housing complexes using data taken from the City Housing Authority
Police Department (see Groat and Wang, 2002, p. 237). The data pertained
to age, income, years of residence, past, and history of family's pathologies.
Also, the data coming from police were very accurate because they contained
descriptions of crimes committed or charges, as well as a precise location of
the crimes on the plan of the building. These demographic data were confronted
with the data concerning the physical features of the apartment projects. In the
research on the physical quality of the residential bu ildings, the range of
interaction of variables was taken into consideration, and included: the number
of residents, the size of the plot, population density, the number of stories, and
the plan type. On this basis, it was possible to specify the places that were
most dangerous and compare the crime indicators with the types of buildings
and the plans. Having analyzed the data, Newman stated that the occurrence
of crime increases together with the height of the building.
46
He performed a detailed study at two social housing developments in

Brooklyn-Van Dyke and Bronsville-where vandalism and crime were
especially visible. Both developments exhibited certain similarities in terms of
their size and general profile. These places reflected the level of physical and
social negligence,
Newman proved that approximately two-thirds of violations took place
inside complexes that were examined and only one-third outside. Most incidents
took place in elevators, then in lobbies and on staircases. His research had a
great impact on the design of multifamily housing policy in most parts of the
world, despite being criticized for the lack of methodology connected with
social and demographic problems. In response to these charges, a new book
by Newman, Community of Interest, came into being in 1981, in which the
author proved that age and lifestyle segregation should be introduced to main-
tain natural surveillance, postulated in Defensible Space (1972). This part of the
views expressed by the author, however, had no scientific support, and resulted
only from his inner belief.
On the basis of the aforementioned research, Newman formulated a theory
called defensible space. He claimed that through the reinforcement of natural
surveillance and by stimulating residents to bear the responsibility for public
places surrounding their place of residence, it is possible to reduce crime thanks
to increased observation of the area. He identified four basic elements of the
defensible space: territoriality, natural surveillance, image, and milieu.
Territoriality means that "all houses are holy," and their distinction and
borders are manifested through architectonic barriers and other material markers
(doors, gates, fences, etc.). Natural surveillance means connection between
the physical features of the surroundings and the possibility of observation of
what is going on there, so one can only oversee things that are visible looking
out of the window.
Image (or appearance) means communication through the physical image
of architecture of the safety level. In practice, the level of care devoted to the
surroundings proves that the manifest of vandalism or other criminal activity
will be noticed immediately or not. Lack of signs of negligence and vandalism
shows that a building is well taken care of, overseen, and observed.
Milieu means markers that make defense easier, such as distance from
the police station or other areas where more people are present.
In his comparative studies conducted in social housing developments,
Newman examined a dozen or so variables that include the issues of access,
the possibility of observation, dimensions of the area, and the structure of the
building. He concluded that it is possible to increase safety in the area only if
.r the windows and doors are situated in such a way that they are under constant
control of the residents. Newman also thinks that the area should be well lit
and should make it possible to distinguish strangers from the residents and
to observe individuals who are misbehaving. Moreover, residents should be
able to intervene (at a police station), and also be able to flee from the scene
47 C
in case of perils. In accordance with the above, he distinguished four spaces in

estate spaces to which people have different approaches. These spaces include:
private, semi-private, semi-public, and public spaces in which there is a control
gradation (privacy gradient) in relation to strangers being able to access the
area. Public space is a place that is accessible for strangers, while private space
is protected and access to it is granted only to close friends and relatives.10
Newman stated that physical negligence of the area leads to the attraction
of crime elements, and such areas are the hotbed of pathologies. He was .-•
opposed to the engineering of tall buildings, and claimed that projects should
ensure as much privacy as possible.
Research on burglaries in housing areas conducted in various cities and in
Boston confirmed the results of Newman's research. A few physically char-
acteristic places were identified where one may be able to confirm a higher
probability of crime. Research done in similar areas of London did not show
the same results, which was put down to the fact that there is a higher quality
of social housing in the UK. Newman's research came in for a lot of criticism
due to the fact that it omits the problem of the social surrounding and that
"defensible space" turns out to be useful in areas with homogeneity in terms
of the local community. Nevertheless, his planning work in the 1990s, also in
St. Louis and Dayton, made it possible to redesign housing areas and to sig-
nificantly decrease the level of crime, vandalism, and transport accidents.
The theory of defensible space, especially the principle of privacy gradient,
is applicable in all types of design space. Common space, which can be treated
by the residents as an extension to their houses and a zone for which they are
responsible, is a key element when it comes to housing policy.
The study of the five basic principles of defensible space design presented
in Design Guidelines for Creating Defensible Space (Newman, 1976) includes:
1. Designation of specific areas for specific groups of residents so that they

could use this space and control it according to their needs (i.e. age,
lifestyle, social activity, background, income, structure of the family).
2. The territories should be defined in such a way that they could reflect the
sphere of influence of specific residents. Housing environments should be
divided into spheres so that residents can feel responsible for them.
3. The interior setup along with the location of windows in buildings should
be designed in a way that will enable natural control of the exterior and
public space of the housing environment and areas fixed to it, designed for
common use.
4. The location of the housing buildings (the entrances into the building and
other services) in relation to the streets should make it possible to include
these streets into the sphere of the housing environment.
5. The application of the form of the buildings and their external decor should
neither stigmatize nor isolate weaker groups of residents.
48 D
Newman's theory has been developed in Alice Coleman's research 11 and

implemented in the works of Christopher Alexander (1964) and Ian Colquhoun
(2004), and it is also the foundation of the idea of CPTED.12
Newman's theory has got a local character, which means that it is used
to design specific urban areas. Despite being criticized by environmental
sociologists, who link crime to social exclusion above all, the principles devised
by Newman turn out to be useful in average residence environments. It is
assumed, just like in the theory put forth by Barker, that the currently discus-
sed principles will not prove to be 100 percent useful in highly pathological
environments.
Figure 1.10 briefly presents the manner in which the space gradient is
understood by Newman and the marking of conventional borders between the
private and public spaces, both inside the building and in the development
space.
According to Groat and Wang (2002, p. 213), the "defensible space" theory
defines not only the relation between environmental variables and behavioral
consequences (decrease in crime), but it also offers the ability to predict which
may be articulated as a design guide, especially for housing policies for people
with low income, and which contains "real and symbolic barriers, defined areas
of influence and a opportunities for surveillance," and thanks to this it is probably
possible to acquire a lower crime indicator.
In Poland, these problems were further elaborated on by Czyr'lski (2006)
and Czarnecki (2011 ).
In his monograph, Bartosz Czarnecki devised a method of identification of
spatial factors of crime perils and presented its usefulness on the basis of the
Figure 1.10
The privacy gradient analysis of the aforementioned General J . Bern housing settlement in Bialystok
devised by Oscar (Poland) . Figure 1.11 depicts the analysis of safety in the said settlement in
Newman Bialystok with the use of crime peril factors distinguished by Czarnecki .
Source: Adapted Factors conducive to crime devised by Czarnecki are: conflict and fear
from Newman (1996,
p. 43, Figure 11-9, generators, incoherent structure elements, open spaces characterized by
p. 17, Figure 1-11 ) features that facilitate crime, degraded areas, unattended parking lots and
~ SEMIPUBLIC SPACE ~ SEMIPRIVATE SPACE c:::> PRIVATE SPACE - PUBLIC SPACE
49 D
....,_, traffic nodes
111111 of d fflcult onentabon conditions
Bema Estate In ••••~•t•ko Poland

I--'..,...,...-+------------; ldanlJllcallon of• · I 11\real factors of avne
statement of [1 .3], (1.4], [2.1]
Figure 1.11
The comparison of peril factors present in the housing settlement by the name of General J. Bern in Biaiystok (Poland)
Source: Czarnecki (2011, p. 222, Fig. 5.9)
50 D
garages, places that determine translocation routes, pedestrian transit ways,

open spaces outside the area, entrance roads, external influences, bus stops,
liquor stores, transport nodes, and regions where orientation is hindered.
Christopher Alexander's Pattern Language: The Theory of Form

Synthesis
Alexander, an American architect, implements a holistic approach to the issues
of creating the space of the built environment. His comprehensive and mature
approach to the holistic solution to the composition of the built environment
was presented in the book A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction
(Alexander et al., 1977).
In his earlier book The Notes on the Synthesis of Form (1964), Alexander
sheds light on a very important design problem, which is the analysis phase
of the design problem that consists of decomposing the problem; that is on
breaking it up into elements and setting them up according to importance
hierarchy, in a specific order. The starting point of this phase is the requirement
analysis connected with bureaucracy, usefulness, and connected with the needs
of the users. These analyses result in a program that is then realized in the next
phase. This programming resulted in a diagram of all requirements presented
at length, ranging from psychosocial to technical, functional, organizational,
cultural, property-related and management factors, etc. Alexander suggests
that the form of the object be taken out of the program and that the design be
treated as a process of getting to the bottom of knowledge, also in accordance
with environmental psychology. The study of preparation problems in terms of
the functional and spatial program is later continued by Preiser, Duerk, Per'\a,
Parshall, et al.
The decomposition design model from The Notes on the Synthesis of
Form was complemented by the so-called behavior patterns, later referred
to as the pattern language in A Pattern Language. This is how his new theory
came to be-the conception of mutual needs and physical form adjustment,
ranging from whole urban structure to architectonic detail. This concept may
be perceived practically in all publications, as well as in his design activity.
However, the most characteristic book, which shows his full philosophy, is
A Pattern Language, published in 1977.
The language of patterns is both a theory and a practical method
of architectonic design, devised by Alexander et al. (1977). In the theoretical
aspect, it constitutes a complex structure, a compilation of various models.
Problems connected with designing are exhaustively and idealistically included
in the book as well. Alexander proposes a comeback to the historical method
of building the city structure that adjusts and stratifies itself in a natural way.
His views may be briefly summarized in the following way:
1. The form adjusts itself to its context-things that have adjusted themselves
do not draw attention.
51 l
2. Architecture comes into being through addition-cultural stratification.

3. The centers and the entireties are made of different centers.
4. The life process is based on the transformation of existing elements.
5. Participation in the form of a practical method of design.
6. The idea of cohesion, exhaustiveness, and order.
On the basis of a logical argumentation, he created 253 patterns and concluded

that the adjustment to the context does not draw extra attention, and that it
may be acquired by participation; it is a conclusion-a result of an analysis of
the creation of harmonious urban structures in the past-which came into
being through addition of elements in a sequence, in already existing structures,
and they were introduced by users, and not by architects, whose works break
the natural flow of addition, breaking down the harmony.
His theory has got a local character, and proves to be useful in a small-
scale development complex. It is hard to envisage the realization of its con-
ception in the scale of a large city or an urban agglomeration. Nevertheless,
Alexander's assumption is that the problems connected with the shaping of the
built environment should be addressed comprehensively.
The approach is based on observation (observation of the environment
and the design process during the contact with the user), introduced from the
design experience, which includes participation and logical argumentation
analysis, problem decomposition, establishment of the hierarchization, synthesis
at the program level along the user's participation-these are the main elements
of the pattern language.
The Theory of the Phenomenological Approach of Christian

Norberg-Schulz
Christian Norberg-Schulz is a Norwegian architecture historian who has
numerous scientific accomplishments. His views on architecture are soaked
with Martin Heidegger's philosophy, and they result more from philosophical
and humanistic reflection than from actual scientific research. Nevertheless,
the influence of his views on the fate of science development in architecture
is so profound that it is impossible to forget about his input in this study.
Norberg-Schulz has published some very important literature positions
that touch upon theoretical problems, and these are: Intentions in Architecture
(1965), Genius Loci: Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture (1980), Exist-
ence, Space and Architecture (1971 ), and Meaning in Western Architecture
(1974).
In Existence, Space and Architecture, he focuses on the sign ificance of
the place of residence for people, and he interprets it as being in a place that
is defended. He highlights the weight of architectural elements such as the
wall, the floor, or even the ceiling, which is perceived as the horizon, the border,
and the framework of nature. He also states that a human being who wants to
find his or her place in the natural and architectonic space must grasp some basic
52 D
relations that bring order within the space, primary organization schemes that
consist of establishing centers (places/proximity). directions (roads/continuity),
terrains (zones/limits). Nesbitt (1996, p. 412) states that, to his mind, architecture
clarifies the location of human existence, while the act of marking or place
differentiation inside the space becomes the archetypal act of building and
a real genesis of architecture. Norberg-Schulz took note of the significance of
the "genius loci" concept, which is a special spirit of the place. He identified the
phenomenology as a "method" of accelerating, a "return to things." What is
more, "He identifies phenomenology's potential in architecture as the ability to
make the environment meaningful through the creation of specific places"
(Nesbitt, 1996, p. 412).
The approval of the individual (phenomenological) point of view constitutes
the basis for breaking ties with the modern principle that states that all people
have the same needs and the same approach. This directed the way of thinking
toward the user and his or her individual perception of the space. It also
constituted an introduction to issues connected with the participation of users
in the processes of shaping the life space. The participation trend, based on the
phenomenological approach, is currently being developed both in a practical
and philosophical-humanistic way. The phenomenological framework of the
user-oriented practice was presented by Beata Sirowy in her dissertation, titled
Phenomenological Concepts in Architecture (2010).
Stewart Brand's Theory of Transitions and a Stratified

Construction of Architectural Objects
Stewart Brand published How Buildings Learn: What Happens After They're
Bui/tin 1995. This book stirred a lot of controversy among architects because the
author indirectly stated in the book that buildings should not be treated as works
of art that are to last as a sign of the designer's glory. Buildings are put up for
people who will use them, and from the moment they are ready they are subject
to constant transformations and changing needs of the users, which result from
the influence of technological changes, lifestyle, ontogenetic changes in life,
and the influence of fashion. He presented numerous examples of such changes.
He presented theories of building transformations and six indicators of
these changes, which are its layers: 13 site, structure, skin, services, space plan,
stuff. As regards the layered structure of the building, Brand indicated that
there is a diverse life span of specific layers (see Table 1.9). Brand presented
the conception in a very consistent manner, along with the presentation of the
interaction with the users of the buildings in the branch system and the division
into branch specialties connected with the creation of buildings:
• spatial planners: the site (interactions with local community-municipality,

neighborhood);
• architects: the skin, the space plan (interactions with groups- families or
organizations-and audience) ;
53 □
• constructors: the structure (interactions with local community-municipality,

neighborhood);
• service engineers: the services (interactions with owners); and
• interior designers: the stuff (interactions with individuals).
The consequence of the layered structure of the bu ilding, and especially of

the various life cycles of specific layers, is the necessity of an elastic design
of particular layers to make it possible to change them during the occupancy of
the building, without the necessity of closing it down. Moreover, he concluded
.,,.
that it is not worth being economical when it comes to the construction of the
building because it is the most durable structure with the second longest
longevity, and it should be designed to be elastic and adjustable in such a way
that it will enable future changes, which are always very difficult to predict.
Brand also put focus on the fact that occupants and their needs in relation
to the buildings are neglected by designers/architects and a line of building
suppliers on the market, which is depicted in Table 1.10.
Brand presents the weight of the problems coming from the variety in the
life cycles of particular layers. While this was not only his idea, it came into
being as a result of an issue connected with the life cycle of a building and the
consequences for the financial calculation in the 1970s that was addressed by
specialists in real estate. In 1977, the American Institute of Architects (AIA)
published a book under the editorship of David Haviland titled Life Cycle Cost
Table 1.9 The layered structure of the building along with the specification of the life cycle of these layers,
the so-called "6S"
Layers Description Duration

Site The geographical setting, the urban "Site is eternal."
location, and the legally defined lot,
whose boundaries and context outlast
generations of ephemeral buildings .
Structure The foundation and load-bearing elements Structural life ranges from 30 to 300 years.
are perilous and expensive to change. Some buildings last 50 to 60 years.
Skin Exterior surfaces. At an average change every 20 years or so, to
keep up with fashion or technology, or for
wholesale repair.
Services "Working guts of building" as They wear out or obsolesce every 7 to 15 years.
communications wiring, electrical wiring, Many buildings are demolished early if their
plumbing, sprinkler system, HVAC (heating, outdated systems are too deeply embedded
ventilation, and air conditioning), elevators, to replace easily.
and escalators.
Space plan The interior layout: walls, ceilings, floors, Turbulent commercial space can change every
and doors. three years or so; exceptionally quiet homes
might wait 30 years.
Stuff Chairs, desks, phones, pictures, kitchen They modify around daily to monthly.
appliances, furniture, lamps, etc.
Source: Adapted from Brand (1995)
54 □
Table 1.10 Cultural differences: the comparison between the approach and beliefs of the suppliers and
occupants in relation to buildings
FEATURE SUPPLIER OCCUPANTS

QUALITY: Criteria Formal and technical qualities and Relations between the building and the
determining positive features of the building in form of an activity (e.g. how does the building "work"
evaluation of the artifact (e.g. what does it "look like and in relation to its designated purpose and
building how does it realize the IDEA"). needs).
FINANCES: Who Suppliers receive money (directly They pay money (directly or indirectly) for
pays and for what or indirectly from occupants) for occupying the building.
technical or professional counseling
and services of supplying and
maintaining the building.
MARKET FORCES: They generate the supply. They They generate demand. Critical view of the
Roles, values compete with other suppliers and "purchasing" market is growing, but there
expect demand on own services. is still a tendency to take what is offered.
The need for making oneself known on
the market.
WHAT IS DONE Work connected with the construction Work and life in/or with the building: the
FOR THE of the building; work and carrier building exists because it creates specific
BUILDING develops thanks to these buildings. conditions that enable work and other
types of activity.
REALITY: View on The present view on the reality that The view on reality based on direct
the real world is being maintained by professional experiences in contacts with buildings.
practice, mental associations, and Little or even nothing is formally known
tradition resulting from a specific and about buildings, perceiving buildings to
individual way of thinking and acting. be "the background" for everyday
activities.
LANGUAGE USED Technical, often jargon, narrow, Non-technical, free, diverse, sensitive.
precise lexicon.
BASE OF Received, formal, documented Based on experience, informal,
KNOWLEDGE combination of education and the undocumented.
ABOUT THE formal vocational training.
BUILDING
PERCEPTION OF Own knowledge and experience is of Low value is attached to one's own
ONE'S OWN high value: "we know best." Low knowledge and experience. Value attached
VALUE AND OF value is attached to the knowledge to the knowledge of suppliers is estimated
OTHERS of the occupants. to be moderate or high: "they must know
better."
OWN IMAGE .~ Certainty of value and correctness in Uncertainty of value and correctness in
terms of one's own beliefs and terms of beliefs. Low level of knowledge
knowledge; one's own image as an compared to the knowledge of experts.
"expert."
DECISIVE FORCE: A strong belief resulting from direct Minimal, close to zero contribution in the
What is to be action: attached or presumed power design decisions during the phases of
provided and of based on expertise. delivering the building while the force is
what quality limited to action: "take it or leave it" (or
similar decisions).
Source: Adapted from Brand (1995)
55
Analysis: A Guide for Architects, which played a significant role in the

development of the whole scientific branch, based on the building life cycle,
including facility management. Brand elaborated on the problem of individual
life cycles of specific layers of the building and discussed the consequences of
this phenomenon for the processes of designing, occupancy, modernization,
and the influence of this fact on the durability of the primary architectonic
conception in the processes of modernization, adjustment, and reconstructions
connected with the changes of the primary design and the controversy con-
nected with the so-called copyrights of architects in relation to their conception,
their work of art, and the need for adjusting objects to current occupancy. This
-·
view is convergent with the stance taken by Alexander, who also sees the need
for a harmonious adjustment of the built environment to the needs of occupants,
and adds that this harmony results from the participation of occupants in this
process.
Select Theoretical Conceptions Pertaining to the Research on

Space Structure
In the last decades of the twentieth century, there was some interest in
research on space structure characterized by diverse nature, which may be
referred to as the morphology of space. Due to the fact that they constitute a
distinct group of issues of a wide range, only the main development trends will
be indicated. The most important are:
• space syntax;
• space grammar;
• ISOVIST; and
• morphotectonics/architectonics .
Space syntax encompasses a set of theories and techniques that are used in
spatial configuration analyses. The f irst version of this tool, devised by Bill Hillier
and Julienne Hanson ( The Social Logic of Space, 1984). and their colleagues
from the Bartlett University College in London, helped architects check probable
effects of social designs in simulative research. The assumption of this theory
is the state of being convinced that spatial unity and community exists, which
means that the built environment, on the one hand, tells us about the way of
life of both its residents and occupants and, on the other hand, it shapes human
behaviors and social relations. The issues mentioned above have always
been more connected with urban rather than architectonic design because
they pertain, to a large extent, to the analyses of the flow of the occupants in
the public space; however, these issues are more and more implemented
in complex designs, multifunctional architectonic and urban complexes (e.g. in
Norman Foster's design studios).
Due to the fact that space syntax analysis (SSA) describes relations between
communities and the space occupied by these communities, it makes it possible
56 D
to predict and to include, to a large extent, the character of the relations between
the proposed shaping of the space and the social processes. Theories based on
space syntax usually result in a map that depicts the relations between the
elements of the space and the influence of this phenomenon on people
occupying this space. The algorithms that describe these relations allow one to
predict what pedestrian traffic will be like in a given area, which is of significance
when it comes to designing urban spaces with a temporal, sequentially intensi-
fied traffic (e.g. at train stations, stadiums, shopping malls, etc.), especially in
the context of safety and in case of perils (e.g. a fire or a terrorist attack). Simu-
lations of pedestrian traffic distribution allow experts to draw conclusions for
future redevelopment designs and improvements of functionality in researched
areas of the city, or even in large building complexes, which is indirectly con-
nected with the wayfinding theory. Space syntax does not constitute an answer
to all questions that arise during the process of spatial planning, but it is a useful
tool when it comes to decisions made by the city in terms of location of
pedestrian networks or location of new business-oriented objects.
ISOVIST is a very important research technique implemented in space
syntax. This technique makes it possible to examine the field of vision of a
person who migrates within the space of a building or the urban space. This
technique was devised by M .L. Bendikt (1979), and it is being developed at
the Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis (CASA), located at University College
London.
Another technique devised in the scope of space syntax is space grammar.
This technique, developed under the influence of information science tech-
niques, entered processes of designing in technical sciences in the first phase
of the development, especially in relation to drawing programs (tools) . Creating
drawing programs required the construction of a set of basic elements and
principles of mutual relationships, a specific system, which made it possible to
shape the structure. The system of shapes in computerization stands for specific
classes of systems used to create geometric shapes. Shapes are usually two-
or three-dimensional, so the grammars of shape are a new method for studies
and analyses in two- and three-dimensional language. The foundations of the
grammar of shape were defined in an article written by George Stiny and
James Gips (1972).
Grammars of shape include a set of rules of shape creation (generative
design), i.e. the choice and shape procession. The rule of shape/shaping defines
how the existing shape or its part may be transformed . Hence, the grammars
of shape are most useful when they are limited to an insignificant, well-defined
generation of the problem (e.g. housing complexes or construction perfection).
Due to the fact that the principles of shaping are defined on the basis of small
objects (shapes), grammar of the shape may quickly encompass many principles.
Shape grammar of the Palladio Villa, for example, was presented by William
Mitchell, and it includes 69 rules that were applied in eight stages.
57 □
Table 1.11 Scientific theories generally accepted in the world and verified in architecture
Data Author's name, Theory name Research leading Patterns, Continuations

title of the work to the study of inspirations
the theory
1960s Kevin Lynch The town planning/space Cognitive maps Research works at the Romed1 Passini (1984) Wayfinding in
1960 The Image of the City structure theory (path, edge, Photo sorting Center for Urban and Architecture
district landmark, node) Interviews Regional Studies at Kaz1m1erz Wejchert (1974) Elementy
The architectural space structure Massachusetts kompozycji architektonicznej
theory, which focuses on human Institute of Technology (Elements of Architectural Composition)
experience in the perception of under the leadership of
the space-the mental picture Georgy Kepes
1960s Christopher Alexander The theory of the synthesis of Decomposition of the Environmental User's participation; project as an effect of
1964 The Notes on the the form problem psychology and discussion between an architect and users
Synthesis of Form H1erarchization of sociology about the model of the functional solution
1977 A Pattern Language: Form follows content the problem Criticism of modernism Wolfgang Preiser et al. (1988)
Towns, Buildings, Pattern language, adjustment Analysis of constituting the Post-Occupancy Evaluation
Construction pattern bureaucratic, useful schematism of useful Wiliam Pena et al. (1987) Problem Seeking:
and the users' needs An Architectural Programming Primer
requirements Users' needs Donna Duerk (1993) Architectural
Programming: Information Management for
Design
Wolfgang Preiser and Korydin Smith (2001)
Universal Design Handbook
Universal design idea
1960s Christian Norberg- A theory connected with the Historical research Heidegger's The phenomenology framework for the
Schulz understanding of architecture Logical phenomenology "the practice oriented on the user
1965 Intentions in Architecture in existential categories- argumentation science of phenomena," Beata Sirowy (2010) Phenomenological
1971 Existence, Space and phenomenological approach in analysis that is, knowledge Concepts in Architecture
Architecture architecture based on the Studies over the based on phenomena
1974 Meaning m Western philosophy of Heidegger phenomenology E. Husserl's life world
Architecture based on the O.F. Bolnow's space
1980 Genius Loci: Towards a philosophy of concept
Phenomenology of Genius loci Heidegger K. Lynch
Architecture
1960s Robert Venturi Theory of signs-architecture Historical objects Historical objects analysis "Place attachment" idea
1966 Complexity and as an information transfer analysis Maria Lewicka (2012) Psychologia ~iejsca
Contradiction Contemporary (Space Psycholog'yi
1977 Learning from Las Vegas architecture
observation
1970s Oscar Newman Defensible space theory, space Analyses of the The problem of very Design out Crime, Design for Safe,
Defensible Space: Crime gradient, and their basic criminality and the high criminality in New CPTED ideas
Prevention Through elements, which include spatial structure of York welfare buildings Alice Coleman (1985) Utopia on Trial: Vision
Urban Design territoriality, natural surveillance, 133 social building and Reality in Planned Housing
1976 Design Guidelines for image, and milieu complexes in New Ian Colquhon (2004) Design out Crime:
Space
,
Creating DefensiQle York (population,
size of plot, population
Creating Safe and Sustainable Communities
Marek Czynski (2006) Architektura
1981 Community of Interest density, number of w przestrzeni ludzkich zachowan.
1996 Creating Defensible stories, plan type) Wybrane zagadnienia bezpieczenstwa w
Space srodowisku zbudowanym (Architecture in the
Space of Human Behaviours: Select Issues
Concerning Safety in the Built Environment)
Bartosz Czarnecki (2011) Przestrzenne aspekty
przest~pczosci. Metody identyfikacji czynnik6w
zagroien w przestrzeni miejskiej (Spatial
Aspects of Crime: Methods of Identification of
Factors of Threats in Urban Space)
1980s Jon Lang Environmental design theory Logical Environmental Pentti Rautio (1995) Arteology: The Science of
1987 Creating Architectural Positive and normative theory, argumentation psychology and Artifacts-Guide to Research and Development
Theory: The Role of the substantial and procedural analysis sociology Henry Sanotf (1992) Integrating Programming
Behavioral Sciences in Research trend in architecture Environmental The criticism of Evaluation and Participation in Design:
Environmental Design psychology research modernism because of A Theory Z Approach
its schematism of Linda Groat and David Wang (2002)
useful needs Architectural Research Methods
Users' needs M . de Jong and D.J.M. van der Voordt (2005)
John Zeisel (1981) Ways to Study and Research: Urban,
Inquiry by Design. Architectural and Technical Design
Tools for Environment- Theo van der Voordt and H. van Wagen (2005)
Behaviour Research Architecture in Use: An Introduction to the
Programming, Design and Evaluation of
Buildings
Richard Foque (2010) Building Knowledge in
Architecture
1990s Stewart Brand The theory of transformations Analyses of historical Francis Duffy (1974) Klaus Daniels (1998) Low, Light, High
1995 How Buildings Learn: and stratified structure of an development of Office Interiors and Tech: Building in the Information Age.
What Happens After architectural object buildings and urban Organizations. Doctorate, The four-layers conception
They're Built Separate life cycles of six spaces 4 building layers (shell, (construction, services, skin, building
building layers services, scenery, intelligence adjusted to users' needs)
setting) Building life cycle research
David Haviland (1977) Facility management
Life Cycle Cost Analysis:
A Guide for Architects
Initially, shape grammar came into being for the purposes of painting and
sculpture (generative art), but it became applicable in computer-based
architectonic design because it constitutes the basis for creating new designs.
Shape grammar may also be applicable in decorative arts, industrial design, and
engineering.
The aforementioned approaches may be defined in an exhaustive manner,
as ones that pertain to the morphology of space. One should keep in mind that
these approaches are strictly connected with computer techniques and the
processes of perfecting designing.
In Poland, issues connected with spatial morphology have been addressed
by Andrzej Niezabitowski (1979, 2009; see also Figure 3.1 in Chapter 3) by
means of what the author calls morphotectonics or architectonics, which is
focused on a broad analysis and classification of the basic spatial forms applied
in architectonic shaping.
Conclusion
The theories that were discussed above have all been verified and approved by
the scientific world and have proven to be useful in the scale of ruminations on
the built environment. Table 1.11 serves as a conclusion of popular and approved
accomplishments of the architectonic theory worldwide. This table will have to
be complemented in the future with worldwide accomplishments.
Nowadays, the most promising and most rapidly growing areas of further
scientific research in architecture are the three dynamically changing research
areas: universal design (UD), built for all; design out crime or design for safe;
and sustainable development. Unfortunately, all three issues are being
developed by related sciences, almost without architects' participation, to the
prejudice of architecture and of the quality of the built environment. It may be
stated that this is partially because of the architectonic environment, which is
simply uninterested in engaging in research works, but often demonstrates
artistic stances, which significantly hinders cooperation in interdisciplinary
research complexes.
NOTES
Thomas Samuel Kuhn-an American scholar, the creator of the notion of paradigm
in science (1962) .
2 The abbreviation SECI stands for socialization, externalization, combination, and
internalization.
3 Socialization means that minor inventions and facilitation im plemented in practical
operations are transferred face-to-face between co-workers, This practically means
that tacit knowledge is shared through communication or experience in a professional
and social environment.
4 Externalization means that any facilitation or a minor invention created by a specific
group of practitioners comes out and is subject to evaluation, analyses, and external
research.
60 D
5 lnterdisciplinarity is associated with research activities directed at related domains

(e.g. architecture, urban planning, spatial planning, pattern designing, plastic, visual
arts, civil engineering, installation engineering, etc.).
6 The notion of multidisciplinarity research is understood as the process of linking
various, practically distant domains of science, such as architecture, sociology,
psychology, medicine, economy, etc.
7 Transdisciplinarity, on the other hand, is understood as a connection of science with
practice, in which architectonic and urban planning-related problems are solved at the
scientific and practical level, and in connection with the industry and different levels
of state administration.
8 Johnson (1994, p. 13) claims that theory refers to what is called credible arguments
and ideas that convey certain beliefs and values. Each sensible architectonic theory
is nothing more than "local and regional," which encompasses inevitable discrep-
ancies found in various situations, to which they could refer.
9 Venturi polemizes with the doctrines of modernism imposed by Rohe's phrase "less
is more," claiming that "less is a bore." He also questions the phrase uttered by
Sullivan, "form ever follows function," by proving that it is not so.
10 Elaboration of these problems can be found in the proxemics of Hall (1959), who
precisely specifies the range of tolerated accessibility in the nearest area.
11 Coleman examined 4,099 block housing developments and houses in London, and
she distinguished 16 aspects of architectonic design that cause problems for the
residents and the supervisors, and she created design principles that protect against
crime.
12 Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) was introduced by C. Ray
Jeffrey in a book written in 1971, under the same title, in which the author bases his
conclusions on the research done by Newman and the views of Jane Jacobs, and
puts focus on the fact that one may prevent unorganized crime in an architectonic
design.
13 The conception of the layered construction of an architectonic object is not new. It
was Gottfried Semper who first introduced this notion by providing four layers: a
hearth, a roof, fencing, and a barrow mound. Later, it was Laugier who differentiated
columns, girders, frontage, building history, windows, and doors. Five principles of
shaping the building were introduced by Le Corbusier, four layers were defined by
Francis Duffy (1998), and another four by Klaus Daniels (1998).
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6 Research Methods Applied in
Architecture
A research method is a repeatable and effective way of solving a general

problem. It ought to be an effective, authorized procedure of conduct in a given
research.
(Sotoma, 2002, p. 72)
If this definition of method is accepted, then one may state that a research
method is a strategy for solving research problems that uses a set of stan-
dardized techniques and tools that allow one to reach desirable criteria of
scientificity such as credibility, reliability, verifiability, and recurrence of the
results that were reached.
A research technique is thought to be a practical activity that is regu lated
(accepted by the world and seen as standard), and which allows one to obtain
-· optimally verifiable information, while a research tool may take the form of any
object that is to utilize a given technique of research . Questionna ires, voice
recorders. or computer programs. or even cameras. etc., are examples of such
tools. This group also includes tools that can record the resu lts of research or
that standardize the questionnaires for quality research (see Chapter 8, sections
8.2 and 8.3).
When dealing with more complex scientific problems. one can use more
than one technique for each research due to triangulation. which makes it
possible to make results objective due to the complexity of the resea rch
problem. Some sets of techniques are peculiar to the process of solving certain
scientific tasks, and they are referred to as research methods.
Having analyzed the references presented in Chapter 3, section 3.6, it
seems that the most popular methods used in research on architecture are the
following (see Figure 6.1 ): the method of logical argumentation-an analytical
and logical construction, historical. interpretative, experimental. quantitative
(including statistical surveys), simulative and model method, qualitative, the
case study method, method of "action research ," heuristic and mixed methods.
The same sequence shall be used for the elaboration on each of the
methods presented above. Research methods 1-7 and 1 0 constitute methods
used for scientific purposes. Heuristic research along with prognostic and
marketing research, on the other hand. are of practical importance and are
138 D
Research Methods Applied in Architecture ■
( RESEARCH METHODS IN ARCHITECTURE )

LOGICAL ARGUMENTATION ◄ ► HISTORICAL - INTERPRETATIVE
EXPERIMENTAL ◄ ► QUANTITATIVE AND STATISTICAL
QUALITITATIVE ◄ ► SIMULATION
CASE STUDIES ◄ ► ACTION RESEARCH
HEURISTIC ◄ ► COMBINED STRATEGIES {MIXED)
Figure 6.1 focused on supporting the process of making developmental decisions, both
Research methods strategic and designing decisions.
used in architecture
A research method is always chosen depending on the aim of the resea rch.
Research questions formulated during a given project indicate the method that
w ill be the most beneficial in the research done and the technique that may
lead to finding the answer to the questions and hypotheses.
Interpretative and historical methodologies are adopted in historical works
above all, and in these methodologies certain historica l objects are subject to
research, while the aim of the research is either interpretation of the style
featu res peculiar to a specific epoch or a comparison of works done by different
authors or a more in-depth compa ri son and int erpretation that would clarify the
styl istic differences in sequential or cross-sectiona l research.
If the main aim of the research is to specify the functional and spatial
program for objects or a specific object where occupants or preferences of the
target group in terms of needs and quality expectation are already fam iliar
(investment plans of the cooperative apartment corporation). then the most
suitable method is qualitative research, often combined w ith quantitative
research .
If one w ishes to learn about the interrelations between equipping t he
housing development with different types of services and the level of happiness
of residents w ith the offer prepared for them, t hen quantitative or qualitative
research is supported with correlational techniques, wh ich make it possible to
establish the dependency between demand for certain services and age,
education, and other features of prospective users, etc. Results of th is type are
used to build knowledge about the needs of users, the preparation of norms,
standards, patterns and models, and also to perfect the procedures of functional
and spatial programming in the process of architectonic and urban programming
•' of objects with specific functions (housing policies, shopping malls, office parks,
etc.).
Experimental research is quite limited in terms of designing in architecture.
It usually refers to material experiments (using a specific material such as wood
on the elevation or deliberate changes in the arrangement of public places
just to examine how behaviors of the occupants change) . Some scientists think
that correlational research may be experi mental if independent variables are
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■ Research Methods Applied in Architecture
manipulated consciously in order to identify the course of correlation in complex

variables (cf. Groat and Wang, 2002).
Simulative research, on the other hand, is used in architecture due to the
possibilities and options offered by simulative designing in computer-based
systems . Research that enables building models of objects or processes, as
well as functional and programming typologies of architectonic objects, is
important due to the possibility of perfecting the designing workshop (de Jong .-•
and van der Voordt, 2005, pp. 179-253).
The method of logical argumentation is used properly in all promotion
works (doctorates, habilitations) and in reports from the research done.
Case studies and multiple case studies are used more and more frequently
in comparative research (see Foque, 201 0; see also Chapter 1, section 1.5). This
is practically a mixed method in which various tools and research techniques are
used.
The so-called generative and parametric designs seem to be a new pro-
mising area of research in architecture (Styk, 2012), and thanks to special
computer programs they can be used in practical activities and in simulative
research processes.
Aforementioned methodologies, in which procedures and specific ways
of conduct are known, can rarely be seen in their pure form. In cross-sectional
and interdisciplinary research, one often uses mixed methods by combining, for
example, methods of historical research with case studies or qualitative studies.
BOX 6.1 DEFINITION OF METHOD
A method is a consciously and consistently applied course of action for

the sake of acquiring a concrete target through the application of a specific
set of planned actions and means.
6.1 THE METHOD OF LOGICAL ARGUMENTATION: AN

ANALYSIS AND LOGICAL CONSTRUCTION
The method of research based on logical argumentation is based, above all, on

analysis and synthesis. An analysis, that is, dissection of a scientific problem
and an examination of all parts separately, is a reductionist depiction. A synthesis
is quite the opposite; in other words, it consists of compounding all problems
into one new entirety based on a comprehensive and holistic depiction. "It
allows one to formulate general theorems on the basis of approved fragmentary
theorems" (Apanowicz, 2003, p. 89). In analyses and syntheses, one should
use basic principles of logics, that is, comparison, abstraction, and generalization.
According to Apanowicz:
140 □
Research Methods Applied 1n Architecture ■
the method of analysis and logical construction is a method based on

"intellectual experiment." Being in possession of output data and limiting
conditions, and knowing the framework of the research, one can proceed to
analyze the dependencies and connections between output data w ithin the
scope of boundary conditions and build a logical sequence in order to solve a
given problem. The method of analysis and logical construction is a specific
sequence of iterative process in which iterations constitute a correction of the
logical process, its feedback. Its effectiveness depends on the knowledge
about the research problem and the control over the logical apparatus and
research procedures peculiar to a given research problem.
(Apanowicz, 2003, pp. 89-90)
This method is always used when studies and scientific reports are being
prepared, and in design processes in which a critical analysis is made on the
basis of existing solutions in order to eliminate incorrect solutions in t he latest
designing processes.
In the analysis of logical argumentation, apart from analysis and synthesis,
one also uses induction, analogy, collections of arguments, and finally deduction
and reduction.
Inductive reasoning makes for reductive conclusions, "from the part to the
whole, " and thus on the basis of incomplete analyses of data and facts, and
with the use of intuitive thinking one can draw a conclusion on the basis of
some regularity in occurrence of recurrent phenomena, observed earl ier.
Inductive reasoning is often implemented in research based on the history of
art, in which one can draw conclusions about the time a given piece of art was
created or one can credit it to a given author. Similar reasoning may occur in
research based on case studies and on typologies.
The opposite of induction is the thinking characteristic of architectonic
description, that is, deduction in which one moves from "the whole to the
part," and on this basis conclusions are drawn about the principle governing
the construction of a given type of objects (typologies), or principles that are
binding when it comes to the construction of objects in a given epoch . Th is is
just plain drawing of conclusions, and these conclusions are indisputably rea l
and irrefutable unless they possess false premises. Inductive reasoning, on the
other hand, is based to a large extent on intuition and experience .
•~ When analyzing objects or reference books, one should use ana logy, than ks
to which one can understand the sought-after confirmation that certain char-
acteristics of a given object of research exist. This understanding is based on
the principle of similarity to other objects, the characteristics of which have
been specified and on the parallelism of occurrence of other characteristics
present between them. In the analyses of the project, and when it comes to
the choice of design solutions, one also takes into consideration the afore-
mentioned analogies. An analogy searches for sim ilarities and common features
141 D
between design solutions. Hence, patterns of solutions for future use are being
sought after, or similar solutions, used in the past, that is, analogical, are
being found. This is a simple way of creating typologies in architecture.
The collection of arguments, on the other hand, is a set of arguments that
confirm the credibility of our understanding. Ordinary doctoral dissertations and
other promotion works or reports from research constitute such a collection of
arguments that either prove or refute the theses put forth.
_.,
The process of building a research project is similar to building a logical
argumentation of the whole research process. Similarly, drawing conclusions
based on research may be similar to reasoning based on logical argumentation.
All reports, dissertations, and descriptions used in scientific research are based
on the principles of logical argumentation.
Design processes in architecture have a similar course of action that
consists of making a critical analysis of subsequent steps in designing based
on iteration of the problem being solved, which leads to the next phases of
analysis and synthesis, and ultimately to the comprehensive depiction.
BOX 6.2 THE METHOD OF LOGICAL ARGUMENTATION
Definition Knowledge in the method of logical argumentation is created through

the process of logical description or abstract theories that pertain to
some other reality (e.g. virtual or mathematical reality).
Research problems Theoretical, analytical research, development of theory, humanistic
and philosophical interpretation of architectural issues, the theory of
architecture.
Actions taken The use of logics, analysis, deduction, synthesis, analogies, drawing
conclusions, logical abstraction, optimalization, abstract and logical
analysis.
The stance of The search for a theoretical interpretation of objective interpretations or
the researcher abstract facts.
A researcher does not take part in social interactions.
Techniques applied Description, explanation, logical interpretation, comparative studies.
Tools used Reference books, architectonic and urban documentation, a computer
and computer programs, comparisons, tables.
Anticipated effects A presentation of a logical conclusion (academic approach) .
Project optimization approaches' mathematical theories, algorithms.
Description of the problem and its interpretation, the study of the algo-
rithm of conduct, publishing, dissertation.
142 D
6.2 THE METHOD BASED ON HISTORICAL-INTERPRETATIVE OR

INTERPRETATIVE RESEARCH
Historical research consists of a collection of documents and facts related to

the history of objects or popular characters in the world of architecture, their
description, and scientific interpretation. Due to the gaps in the documentation
or contradictory information that can be found in them, and also owing to the
historical, social, and cultural context of said problems, they need to be subjected
to frequent interpretation, the preparation of which is an equally important
research task.
As was stated earlier, historical research in architecture has a long tradition,
a complex methodology of research and a scientific database devoted to the
development of architecture that dates back from the earliest of times up until
today. This research is characterized by a specific system of knowledge col-
lection. It consists of collecting and recording data and source materials, in
evaluating their value, and finally in interpreting the material that was collected.
Interpretation should possess a holistic nature, and accord w ith the internal
truth and external knowledge, which means that references to the existing
historical knowledge must be made. Thus, the main actions that take place
in historical research are:
• searching for data;

• evaluating values and evidence; and
• explanation and interpretation of the evidence, based on reports about
research and book analyses.
The aim of historical research, as stated in the introduction, is to describe,

explain, and interpret architectural works coming from a given period of time,
and also to describe works and the creativity of specific architects. A description
constitutes the basis of further actions that lead to the explanation of circum-
stances connected with the creation of objects, to their redevelopment, external
influences, which shaped them, and it also leads to the explanation of their in-
fluence on further architectural development. Explanations that pertain to the
creativity of specific architects have a similar significance. Further and more
elaborate ruminations characterized by interpretative nature allow one to under-
stand the entirety of the problems and developmental trends over the centuries
or in specific periods of time. The description should also include archival
materials: drafts, figures, construction documentation, photographs, descriptions,
oral accounts, other information from the press and reference books.
The quality of historic research depends on a series of factors:
1. accuracy and access to the subject matter of research/data and its records;
2. conscientiousness in identifying all manner of materials connected with
the subject matter of research;
143 D
3. organization of the same process of data collection; and

4. conscientiousness in evaluating and analyzing the materials that were
collected.
Final interpretation, its credibility, and genuineness depends heavily on the

quality of the aforementioned steps.
David Wang has enlisted the scope of actions that should be included in
historical research (Groat and Wang, 2002, p. 152). This scope includes data
records, identification of materials, organization of data collected, evaluation
and analysis of collected materials, description, and the final effect/interpretation.
The most essential elements of historical research include the basic data
about the subject matter or the subject of research , that is, address data, the
date of creation of the work or autobiographical data about the author/authors,
basic pictorial documentation, and photographs, as well as a description of the
building that contains the basic architectural and constructional information (the
size of the building, its construction, number of stories, building materials, detail
description, etc.).
The next research step is to collect all stationery materials that pertain to
a given object or the creativity of the author. These materials include either
primary materials, that is, a description of the object made by the same author,
investor, or their contemporaries, or secondary materials, that is, descriptions
of secondary accounts such as memoirs, stories, etc. Information published in
books and periodicals also constitute research material, just like materials that
were not published in the form of handmade notes, figures, and photographs
collected in the archives or private collections. Also, official and colloquial data
are crucial. Knowledge about a given object or the time when it came into being
are supplemented with facts that come from various materials such as catalogs,
encyclopedias, literature references, atlases, textbooks, chronological materials,
schedules, calendars, etc.
Having collected and analyzed all the materials available, the research
proceeds to the description. Explanations included in the description are to
justify why some materials are thought to be authentic or real while others
are eliminated. Simplifications and distortions in the description and interpreta-
tion should be avoided. If some materials or facts stir doubts when it comes
to their authenticity and there is no possibility of their verification, one should
interpret them, that is, clarify, explain, and comment on them, and refer to the
sources.
Historical research usually assumes the following form (see Groat and
Wang, 2002, p. 152):
1. data collection and its recording;

2. material identification in specific groups (primary and secondary materials,
both published and non-published, books and periodicals, public and private
materials, catalogs, encyclopedias, etc.);
144 □
Research Methods Applied in Arch itecture ■
3. organization and method of data collection (thematically, from a given

period, with internal logic of ordering); materials from a given field, within
a given set of issues, require ordering, testing, and verification;
4. assessment and analysis of collected materials (specification of external
and internal authenticity, acknowledgment of origin with documents,
elimination of prejudice and falsification); and
5. report, that is, a description of research completed together with explan-
ations, as well as a historical interpretation of events being described.
The materials are collected from a given discipline and then grouped together
according to the topic, according to the period of time, and they are based on
an internal logical order. Before the data are used in the process of description,
explanation, and interpretation, they must be checked in terms of internal and
external authenticity, that is, the origin (archival data along with identification
numbers, reference to the literature position, etc.) should be documented. If
there is a presumption about the possibility that forgery might have occurred
(this pertains mostly to crediting a wrong person with authorship of a given
work, usually a work of art that accompanies architectural works), then such
information should be included in the description as well.
Figure 6.2 If during the process of collecting materials and conducting research one
An example of
failed to acquire a unanimous confirmation of the hypotheses that were put
typological sets in
historical research forth, then one should perform an alternative interpretation of the materials in
by J.N.L. Durand possession. Usually, alternative interpretations constitute the beginning of new
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145 □
research, which could lead to the final falsification and the selection of the most
adequate alternative or the most probable one.
An important element of historical data, which is significant in practical
terms in design processes, is typological research, which allows one to prepare -·
a typical approach to designing specific objects in specific historical epochs (see
Figure 6.2).
Conducting historical research is divided into specific phases that include:
(1) data search; (2) identification and organization of sources; (3) evaluation of
evidence material; and (4) report.
The process of searching for new documents and evidence must undergo
all of the aforementioned phases. The evaluation processes accompany
scientists in the entire research process, from the first steps that lead to the
data collection. A description does not appear until the final phase of
identification of source materials.
In historical and interpretative research, there are various types of evidence
recording. These types may include decisive evidence-basic, contextual, based
on conclusions, and mnemonics. Basic evidence will include building plans of
different historical periods, as well as the computer image of subsequent
developmental phases depicted by one figure. Contextual documents will
include commentaries that pertain to influences and borrowings of various
solutions and details. Evidence based on conclusions will include contiguous
dates and data that allow intellectual interpretations or logical deductions in
situations in the absence of firm evidence. The last type of evidence, which is
rather rarely used, includes mnemonic documentations, which mean interviews
with people who are familiar with interesting events, facts, and people (e.g.
interviews with the son of Robie about the famous Robie House designed
by Frank Lloyd Wright, 50 years after Wright's death) (Groat and Wang, 2002,
p. 159).
Scientific level and scientific weight of historical research is different. One
can differentiate the following types of research:
1. contributory;
2. generalizing; and
3. cross-sectional, epistemological.
The basis of knowledge on the history of architecture includes contributory

research devoted to individual objects of a certain function, analyses of arch itec-
tonic details of a given period or a geographical area, or to individual creators.
On that basis, one can create generalizations that allow more elaborate
descriptions, characteristic of the architecture of a given geographical area or a
given style or period in a broader connection with a historical and economical
context, etc. Cross-sectional studies include serious works in which principles
and laws that govern the development of architecture have been readjusted.
Great and significant scientific works in the scope of history and architecture
146 D
BOX 6.3 HISTORICAL AND INTERPRETATIVE METHOD
Definition Historical research consists of a collection of documents and facts that

pertain to the history of objects or famous characters in the world of
architecture, their description, and scientific interpretation.
Knowledge is created through developing alternative interpretations of
reality aimed at comprehending human actions and their circumstances.
Research problems The history of architectonic styles, trends in the conception on the topic
of architecture, or the humanistic reflection, traditional theory of
architectonical history, the history of the creators of architecture, the
history of the objects, and the urban planning development, etc.
Actions taken The view on the objects being examined, research on archival
documentation and all documents that pertain to said objects, artifacts
or the creators of the objects, research on the literature of the problem,
treatise of the theory of architecture, etc.
The stance of Searching for theoretical interpretation.
the researcher Participants provide the record of events firsthand.
Expert-the researcher does not interact socially.
Techniques applied Archival search query in search of documentation, literature and archival
research, documentation and artifact collection, logical argumentation
analysis, deduction, induction, reduction, comparative analyses of
historical objects or of specific works or works of specific creators, view
on said objects or areas, photographing, sketching, measurements and
stocktaking, virtual modeling (presentation of redevelopments and
changes). correlations between historical and social facts, etc. and the
trends of architectural development, interviews with people involved in
the history of objects, descriptive analysis, explanations, interpretations,
possible extension of the analysis by means of the quantitative approach.
Tools used Reference books, written and printed documents, figures, photographs,
descriptions and reminiscences.
A camera, camcorder, handmade figures, voice recorder, a computer,
simulation computer programs, devices that measure artifacts, etc.
Anticipated effects A description and interpretation of historical development of objects,
styles, the theory of architecture, creativity of prominent architects,
restoration conclusions .
A presentation of the interpretation (usually pertains to the academic
approach).
come into being relatively rarely, and they build the theory on the development
of arch itecture per se. These works, which are characterized by epistemological
nature, include Sigfried Giedion's Space, Time and Architecture (1949) or
147 D
Nikolaus Pevsner's work, A History of Building Types (1976) and An Outline of Figure 6.3
European Architecture (2009). Select elements of
the documentation
Contributory works usually include monument card studies conducted
of the historical
by the Department of Restoration and Preservation of Monuments (see development of
Figure 6.3), or partial works that make up the whole research project, which Kr61ewska Huta
(Royal Steel Mill) in
are to summarize the activity of a prominent architectural creator.
Chorz6w, Poland,
In practice, historical and interpretative research constitute one strategy from the end of the
that depicts an explanation of past events. They depict connections between eighteenth century
examined objects and a context or events from the past. This means that it is and the beginning
of the nineteenth
necessary to use archival materials, interviews, archeological research, and century
other sources of information. Source: Based on the
The most significant limitation in historical and interpretative research is record card of the
the frequent lack of any direct observation of the object (e.g. walled up parts monuments of the
Kosciuszko Steel Mill,
or parts that were brought down). Technological progress gives rise to the
devised by
possibility of building subplaster and walled up objects, and when it comes to Niezabitowska and
nonexistent historical objects, only a discovery of new archival materials could Szady I 1987).
commissioned by the
extend the knowledge.
Voivodsh1p Office in
There is a trap in the preparation of the research report, and this is the Katowice
application of the literary form of the report, which may mean that narration
becomes more important than the historical truth.
6.3 EXPERIMENT AL RESEARCH
An experiment has always accompanied the development of technical sciences,

and it is effectively applied in design and practical works. It can also be used in
a limited scope in correlational social research if the social context is subject to
observation and manipulation.
Such research consists of an observation of how the dependent and
independent variables change. This might mean, for example, testing the
endurance of materials and the construction in which the independent variable
is the load while the dependent variable is the endurance of the samples of
the materials. Also, functional solutions as well as behavioral reactions in spe-
cific environments are tested by changing their parameters (e.g. changes of
the organization of the interior of the building or the urban area).
There are many technical experiments that pertain to the application of
modern material solutions (e.g. examination of how a given material behaves
in various weather conditions) or to the testing of design conceptions that lead
to a decrease in energy consumption in buildings (e.g. by manipulating the light
148 □
access to the building by changing the size of the windows, using interior or
exterior sun blinds controlled automatically, etc.). New suggestions concerning
technological solutions may evoke changes in the whole functional conception
(e.g. instead of closed spaces, one applies open spaces such as in the office
block of Commerzbank in Frankfurt). Buildings such as the aforementioned
Commerzbank are experimental, and require, on principle, that testing be done
during use. This may include:
• technical assumptions (e .g. whether a building of a given spatial and

material-based structure can reach a reduced energy consumption in relation
to buildings being realized to date, and whether these changes influence
the parameters and the quality of the internal microclimate); and
• functional assumptions (e.g. how new functional solutions influence the
behaviors of users and the effectiveness of work in innovative office
objects).
BOX 6.4 EXPERIMENT AL METHOD
Definition It consists in manipulating both dependent and independent variables.

The knowledge is created by means of developing and testing general
theories that constitute the subject matter of the interest.
Research problems The search for the best technical, material-based, and functional
solutions.
Actions taken The measurement and the comparison of results, the construction of
databases, series of expertise.
The stance of The search for objectivity.
the researcher Expert-the researcher does not interact socially.
Techniques applied Observation, measurement, statistics, virtual modeling, construction of
mock-ups in a given scale, parametric technology such as correlations,
t-test,1, ANOVA, 2 regression.
Tools used Measuring devices selected for research tasks.
Anticipated effects Presentation of statistical evidence (academic approach) .
The test of materials, technical and functional solutions.
The preparation of normative indicators, an explanation of a researched
phenomenon.
The evaluation of the risk and perils resulting from the application of
given solutions.
Notes:
1. The technique used in statistical and correlational research .
2. ANOVA-an ar,alysis of variations, a statistical technique.
149 D
A new and a very broad research area in architecture includes the testing of
passive and zero-energy microclimatic conditions in experimental buildings, as
well as the impact on health and the comfort of the users in housing and office
engineering. 1 In this research, new technical solutions are tested along w ith the
extent to which the users tolerate them. The independent variable here stands
for the saving of energy, while dependent variables are the changing conditions ~•
of the microclimate in different seasons of the year, as well as the functioning of
various appliances and technical solutions that allow one to keep the quality
of external conditions at a level that would be tolerated by the users.
Experimental research consists, then, in introducing into the research
process a factor that is an experimental one-an independent variable. Changes
that can be observed in a researched process, which occur under the influence
of an independent variable, constitute a dependent variable because they are
dependent on an experimental independent variable. Experimental research
should meet the following conditions:
• a fixed independent variable and the assumptions concerning the way in

which the dependent variable will change-an experiment allows one to
confirm the rightness of the assumptions made; and
• during the experiment, measurements are made and the changes of the
dependent variable are registered.
In order for an experiment to be successful, the phenomenon that is being

examined (a process or a structure) should be distinguished from the side
influences and uncontrollable factors. This must then be an isolated arrange-
ment, a recurring phenomenon. whi le the results obtained from such an
experiment may be repeated in identical conditions the world over and yield the
same results.
In light of the fact that research on architecture is complex, just like the
whole built environment, doing experiments connected with architectonic
problems is difficult, if even possible.2 As a result, they are usually limited to
technical laboratory research. When it comes to environmental research in
architecture, experiments are used less frequently due to their complexity and
multilateral circumstances in which it is difficult to isolate the dependent variable
being tested.
To date, experiments in architecture are more and more simulative,
especially in the scope of esthetic solutions, and are tested in computer
programs or in 30 caves (more on the topic in Chapter 6, section 6.5, and
Chapter 7, section 7.3).
6.4 THE METHOD OF QUANTITATIVE AND STATISTICAL RESEARCH
Quantitative research includes measurements by means of various tools. This

constitutes the oldest and the most popular research method, used especially
150 0
in engineering science. As a result, quantitative research constitutes a set of

methods and research techniques that describe the reality in quantitative
categories, and it provides answers to the questions of "what," "how much,"
and "when." On the basis of these questions, one may formulate conclusions
that pertain to the frequency of phenomenon occurrence, their intensity, and
the existing dependencies between them.
All technical calculations applied in engineering and in installations are
based on quantitative research. Usually, quantitative research conclusions do
not evoke any doubts and may be verified many times.
The measurements may differ in their nature. In architecture, it stands for
the counting up of the amount of objects or a measurement of an object in the
sense of stocktaking, or a measurement of technical indicators such as quality
of air, temperature, light intensity, etc. (see Figure 6.4). Technical measurements
may be performed in a continual and sequential manner. This research includes
all types of research that lead to the establishment of practica l normative
solutions, that is, establishments that may be contained in constructional
regulations or in the norms (e.g. data that pertains to the ventilation inside the
Figure 6 .4
(dl
The illustration that
depicts singular
quantitative
measurement
research (Fross,
2012): (al and (bl
thermovision
photographs
depicting the level
of insulating power
of the exterior wall
of the building; (c}...
and (d) checking on
the level of light
intensity with the
use of a luxmeter
151 J
buildings), that is, the amount of air exchanges in the rooms and the dependency
on the number of occupants, etc., or the proportion of green areas to built-up
areas in residential developments, etc.
Quantitative research includes:
1. singular measurement or a continual one with the use of proper measure-

ment tools or measuring apparatus; and
2. statistical measurement in which the specification of frequency of the
occurrence of a given phenomenon is depicted.
As a result, statistical research is also included in quantitative research, and it

consists of creating establishments connected with the frequency of occurrence
of a given phenomenon based on percentages, that is, its weight in relation to
the issues being examined. What is more, quantitative dependencies between
certain parameters are sought after, along with the establishment of occurrence
(or lack) of correlations between parameters being examined.
Statistical quantitative research is applied practically in all disciplines of
knowledge, and especially in technical, social, and natural sciences. This research
helps draw conclusions from distinguished features of sets of statistical
elements. It usually pertains to the problem of interdependency, that is, a
correlation between two or more variables. In statistical research, one may
obtain the following conclusions that pertain to:
• the frequency of occurrence of a given feature and the aberration coefficient

(e.g. the percentage of residential buildings in the vicinity of the city built
using prefabricated technology and an aberration from the norm, that is, a
percentage of buildings made of bricks or wood); and
• interdependence of occurrence of two or more features (e.g. what per-
centage of people wish to live in a detached house and how this is
connected with income, age, sex, education, financial abilities, etc.).
Statistical research may be applied both in quantitative and qualitative research,

that is, it may present the opinions of citizens in terms of quality and quantity
(e.g. information about the percentage of people willing to take up residence in
the central or suburban area consists of both quantitative-what percentage-
and qualitative-where and how one wishes to live-information). The results
of statistical research serve as a description and depiction of the pattern that
concerns the interrelation between variables (e.g. the connection between the
number of people in a given environment and their behavior, the size of the area
that is shared, and the feeling of being part of a community among the residents,
etc.). On the basis of analyses of statistical data, acquired as a result of conduct-
ing surveys, one may determine the correlations that occur between more than
two factors (e.g. one can recognize the connection between age, level of
impairment, sex, education, and the requirements in relation to the residential
152 D
environment). In order to find this correlation in the surveys, one uses certain
tools applied by sociologists, such as SPSS. One can also use the chi-square
test, which enables the specification of the authenticity of the correlation, that
is, whether a given correlation (e.g. the connection between age and demand
for specific facilities in a residential environment) is present in the given case or
not. Usually, the results of statistical research are represented graphically, in the
form of a bar chart, a pie chart, or in other forms. More on the topic of statistical
techniques and conducting surveys can be found in Chapter 7, section 7.2. In
such research, it is best to try and form a means of cooperation with sociologists
who may support architects in their preparation of a project of statistical research,
which would be methodically correct (selection of the trial), and also to try and
discuss the interpretation of these results of the research with them .
BOX 6.5 QUANTITATIVE AND STATISTICAL METHOD
Definition Quantitative research consists of a search for quantitative dependencies

between certain parameters, including statistical dependencies.
Knowledge is created through developing and testing general theories
that are applicable to all social/psychological issues.
Research problems Research that leads to normative solutions, that is, establishments
included in constructional regulations or in norms.
Specification of the frequency of occurrence of a given phenomenon
in percentage terms, that is, its weight in the sum of the investigated
problems.
Actions taken Measurements taken by means of special devices, counting and
collecting quantitative and statistical data along with surveys.
The stance of Expert-the search for objectivity (the role of participants of the research
the researcher is limited to filling out surveys), the search for data is a purely quanti-
tative, academic approach.
Techniques applied Measurement, counting up elements, conducting surveys, non-
parametric analysis of data (ranked correlation, chi-square test, MCA1).
quantitative data coding.
Tools used Literature materials, measuring equipment of various types, question-
naires, computer programs of SPSS type for statistical analysis,
databases.
Anticipated effects Statistical data concerning various phenomena in architecture and urban
planning, comparative analysis of dependent and independent variables.
A presentation of a statistical test and its interpretation (academic
approach).
Notes:
1. MCA-multiple correspondence analysis.
153 D
In architecture and urban planning, statistical methods are appl ied in

environmental research that are social, quantitative, or statistical. They are of
significant importance in urban and spatial planning, where the demand for
data about certain solutions for the society, as well as the expectations of
respondents, are examined. Usually, an analysis of the correlation that occurs
between the variables constitutes a synopsis of statistical research.
In typical architectonic research, based on a given object, a survey research
exhibits a probing rather than a practical character. Usually due to a low
number of respondents inside a building, this does not guarantee acquisition of
results that may be generalized, that is, confirm that the correlations acqu ired
on the basis of research refer to the whole country or the city. Such results are
factitious only in the case of the object being examined and are too shallow to
be used for practical reasons; therefore, they usually require more in-depth
interviews.
The final effect of quantitative research is comparisons and correlation in
which one may get more precise information on the topic of dependencies
(strengths and direction) between two or more variables. Usually, the cor-
relations result from statistical conclusions, while comparative studies are a
result of measurements.
c-) 6.5 MODELING AND SIMULATIVE RESEARCH
-. Simulation refers broadly to the experimental modeling or representation of

particular environments and events. Examples of simulations include computer
models of molecular structure, laboratory studies of small-group processes,
role-playing and gaming analogues of social situations, scale models and
sketches of architectural and urban design projects ... These few examples
illustrate the enormous range of purposes, techniques, and levels of analysis
that are encompassed by the term simulation.
(Stokols, 1993, p. 3)
The basic reference title in which environmental research based on simu lation
is analyzed3 is the book published in 1993, prepared under the editorship of
Robert W . Ma rans and Daniel Stokols, titled Environmental Simulation: Research
and Policy Issues. The authors describe the uses of simulation in spatial planning,
landscape designing, and also in the designing of architectonic objects and their
component parts (e.g. the examination room in a hospital). as well as the uses
of simulation in environmental research for the elderly, in hospitals, in partici-
pation in urban planning, in research on comfort, and also in research on the
behavior of people within a given space.
Colin Clipson (1993) presented a very broad introduction to the problems
connected with simulation in research and architectonic practice in "Simulation
for Planning and Design: A Review of Strategy and Techniques ". He also showed
154 □
a spectrum of possible techniques based on simulation in architecture, ranging

from reality to abstraction.
The scope of this spectrum takes place through:
1. observation of a realistic world;

2. full-scale 1:1 model;
3. model reflected in scale;
4. role-playing in the process of observing people in space;
5. simulation games, that is, observation of behaviors in a changeable
surrounding;
6. computer-assisted simulations; and
7. computer simulation in 3D.
Clipson devised specific stages of transition, ranging from the realistic envir-
onment, in which one can encounter physical settings, the static or dynamic
built environment, and social activities and events that take place in this
environment. These settings and environments may be described in the form
of four types of simulative models, which Clipson specifies as: iconic (pictorial),
analog, operative, and mathematical. The first two terms refer directly to the
physical context. The iconic model stands for the testing of materials or products
and the analog model means a dynamic simulation of an existing or proposed
physical system. The operative model refers to human interactions that take
place within a physical context, although more stress is put on the process of
generating data through a simulation of activity and interaction between the
occupants and the environment that is being exam ined. Mathematical models
are systems that are numerically coded and show the relations inside the real
world in abstract values and quantities specified in numbers.
Clipson highlights the fact that the reason for introducing simulative
research is the need for reducing costs and the need to avoid the perils of
losing life and health, but he also stresses the need for the participation of
occupants in simulative research on the built environment. He says that
understanding the needs of the occupants is crucial to proper design. Usually,
the cause of failure in designing is losing insight into the needs of the users.
But as Clipson observed, one can encounter some limitations in the research
done with occupants, who may only partially understand the leading role of
assumptions formulated on the basis of conceptual simulation.
In simulative architectonic research, one can use iconic and operative
models, that is, full-scale models and models in scale, simulative games and
role-playing, and also computer-based visualizations and computer simulations
in 3D technology, which was not so advanced when Clipson was writing about
•"'
the models.
In this setting, simulative games and role-playing are techniques being
used to understand the functioning of some situations that occur between men
and the environment. Research of th is type is usually applied in analyses of
155 □
■ Research Methods Applied In Architecture
extreme situations such as terrorist attacks to better understand how the whole
situation progressed, to test the design solutions, and to learn how to design
objects that might be at risk in the future (embassies, entrance halls into
important offices, etc.). To this end, research is conducted in which survivors .,.,
of terrorist attacks take part along with professional actors, who play the roles
of people who did not survive the attack and the terrorists. An analysis of such
a situation allows one to understand whether there is a relation between a
spatial solution for an object and the number of casualties (e.g. when it is
impossible to hide, or when the weak construction in a given place is at high
risk of being destroyed as a result of an explosion).
When it comes to model research, it has always been used in architecture.
Many great architects used mock-ups in designing, for example: the famous
models of Gaudi (Sagrada Familia in Barcelona) or Wright (the columns in Racine
Johnson Wax Company). or the "chalices" of the Katowice railroad station,
which were tested before being realized. These models were either minimized
or were made in the scale of 1:1, just to see how they looked, or just to test
their strength and technology of raising.
Figure 6.5 depicts model research conducted by Barbara Urbanowicz,
who completed participatory research on office rooms used by the scientists
of the Silesian University of Technology (Gliwice, Poland). All inconveniences
connected with the rooms were determined in the interviews. The employees
of the university, on the other hand, were supposed to propose a new arrange-
ment of the occupied space that corresponded to their needs, along with an
arrangement of the room designed for formal and informal meetings and for
consultations.
Techniques for building models for designing are still used today. But since
the invention of the computer and the analysis of programs for model simu-
lations, the use of computer modeling in designing has significantly increased
in number, while the array of analyses has broadened too. The use of computer
simulations in predesign studies includes the following values:
• control of the appearance and visual evaluation of a work of architecture

(e.g. Frank Gehry et al., Guggenheim's Museum in Bilbao);
• control of the possibilities of the uses of constructional solutions that are
difficult to calculate (e.g. the making of a model in a certain scale and its
transfer to a computer program);
• environment of an interactive (intelligent) building;
• mediatization of space;
• creation of alternative solutions and the search for optimal solutions; and
• verification of detailed solutions.
A computer simulation that is properly organized and conducted is an important

research procedure. It is used in all sciences, especially if:
156 ::J
(bl
Figure 6.6
Simulations based on models made in the scale of
the development of the rooms of the scientists
performed in participatory workshops: (a) the mock-
up of the office room built by the respondents
showing optimal solutions for the office; (bl the plan
of the room occupied by respondents; (c) the mock-
up depicting the consultation room that would serve
as a formal and informal meeting room (photo by
Kubik)
Source: Urbanowicz (2013)
• the examination of a given process would be too costly or dangerous;

• the experiment is too costly and time-consuming while the project requires
alternative solutions (e.g. an architectonic model in the scale of 1:1 );
• waiting for a result or results of the planned achievements is too long; and
• researchers are in the process of designing and are in the middle of
studying the conception, while at the same time the forecast of the solution
is indispensable, but the object of research does not exist in reality.
(Apanowicz, 2003, p. 92)
The efficiency of such research depends on the adequacy of the model for the
process or project currently being examined, correctness of the simulative
program, and the accuracy of the calculation made by the computer (Apanowicz,
2003, p. 93) .
In historical architectonic research, specific phases of the development of
an object are being displayed by means of a computer, or a reconstruction of
..... this object is performed on the basis of figures and descriptions that were left .
In design processes, visual quality and conformity of the proposed solutions
with the urban context are checked, or the functioning of a given device in a
given place is simulated in order to prepare this place better (especially when
it comes to hospitals or laboratories where new devices that have not yet been
released are still being tested) .
157 □
BOX 6.6 THE METHOD OF MODELING AND SIMULATION
Definition Modeling consists of building a reflection (projection) of reality that

exists or that is designed in a certain scale and is based on a static
model. ~•
The simulative method consists of creating a model of a dynamic system
by means of which one may manipulate time and space.
Research problems This knowledge is created by improving our understanding when it
comes to the behavior of complex systems and their simulation and
modeling.
In the research undertaken, the analysis of data changes from the
qualitative and descriptive type to qualitative only.
Actions taken Testing the models of mock-ups and mechanical models in a certain
scale or in a real scale of 1:1, reconstruction of events by role-playing,
conducting simulative games, computer modeling, 3D cave research,
and analyses of costs/benefits.
The stance of Expert research: testing proposed solutions in terms of various quanti-
the researcher tative and qualitative criteria, the conformity with norms, etc.
Participatory: testing the perception of the approval of spatial and color
solutions.
c- J Extrapolation of retaining the simulated system in the rea l world.
-. Techniques applied Manipulating the model, make-up, role-playing and conducting simulative
games, computer simulations, and conceptual experiments.
Sorting solutions, the semantic differential, extrapolation of retaining
the simulated system in the real world, comparative analyses, work-
shops-the modeling of solutions.
Tools used A model in a scale or realistic scale, computer and software, research
caves, helmets, gloves.
Anticipated effects The choice of the best design or model solutions from the perspective
of an expert and occupants, building model solutions and typologies.
A presentation of the logics behind a given model, comparison of simu-
lated results with the reality (academic and pragmatic approach).
As a consequence, simulative research based on computers is both a

research and design tool that has been developing in the last 30 years. It is
incredibly useful, and it facilitates the work of an architect and the whole
functioning on the real estate market. It gives a chance for bold/drastic/significant
improvements in the process of designing, and when it comes to checking it
in terms of quality (energy saving, ergonomics, conformity with the rules, etc.).
158 D
Virtual modeling and simulative research are more and more important not
only when it comes to the development of architecture, but even more so
when it comes to the majority of technical sciences. They allow one to design
complicated and dangerous devices that do not require men to take part in
dangerous and harmful experiments. Computer programs also allow one to
examine the approval and evaluation of the environment by the occupants
in the so-called 3D cave/chamber in which it is possible to perform simulations
of the changing design environment (e.g. the interior of hospitals or detailed
solutions that implement totally new devices).
This trend also includes in its scope research that is aimed at studying self-
designing computer programs, which are developing at a rapid pace. Simulative
research is characterized by the fact that it generates data in a proposed form
that may be repeated in a real context. New methods of generative and
parametric designing are based on computer simulations of the designed and
at the same time virtual reality. Parametric modeling is focused on building
virtual and computer-based spatial models of untypical and innovative work-
places and their testing accompanied by the occupants.
6.6 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Quality is a vague notion because we may identify it only through a comparison-

one product is better than another. This is why qualitative research is, above
all, applied in social sciences in which we acquire conclusions that are not as
categorical as in quantitative research. Due to the fact that architecture and the
whole built environment is built for people, qualitative issues in architecture
that pertain to building and checking the criteria of this quality, as well as
searching for relations between the built environment and well-being, is one
of the basic research problems in this discipline of science and practice. A
comprehensive review of evaluative techniques has been presented in a book
by George Baird et al. (1996). from the University of Wellington in Australia,
titled Building Evaluation Techniques.
Qualitative research, often referred to as evaluative research, is designed
for a qualitative identification of the built environment in terms of the needs of
the occupants.
In architectonic research, the most basic qualitative criteria are based on
Preiser et al. (1988): technical, functional, and behavioral quality. These three
basic criteria of quality in research on office buildings also include organizational
and economical quality, which is in compliance with the needs of facility
management in business real estate. These criteria may be considered as
criteria of quality of the physical environment and the quality of the space, as
shown in Table 6.1 .
Quality criteria are set up each time in response to the targets that the
research is supposed to meet. Due to the fact that a certain quality of structures
(buildings) is already the norm today, specific sets of qualitative requirements,
159 □
Table 6.1 Quality types of an intelligent office building
Type of quality Quality of the physical environment Quality of space (mental comfort)
(physical comfort)
Technical • Physical and chemical parameters of • Quality and standard of the component
the environment (microclimate) parts as well as the structure and
• Devices and equipment equipment of the building_.,
• Technical systems • Safety and physical durability of the
• Reliability of all the technical elements elements of the building
of the building
Functional • Adjustment of the devices to the needs • Proper functioning of the rooms and the
of the owner and the occupants equipment inside
• Adjustment of parameters of the • Efficiency in using the floor space
environment to individual needs of the • Flexibility in the functioning of the building
users • Ergonomics
• Flexibility in using all the devices of the
building
Behavioral • Safety and reliability when it comes to • Safety in terms of life, health, and property
the functioning of technical devices • Privacy
and the structure of the building • Territoriality
(e.g. electronic monitoring of safety, • Esthetics
access control) • Physical comfort in the environment
• Physical and chemical parameters of
the environment that ensure proper
health conditions
Organizational • Devices and the equipment of the • Adjustment of the spatial system to the
building adjusted to the organizational needs of the organization
needs of the institution (e.g. high-speed • Adjustment of work tools and the
elevators, escalators, elevations equipment of the workplace to
controlled photovoltanically) organizational needs
• Intelligent systems of the building • Arrangement of the interior adjusted to
adjusted to the organizational needs of organizational needs
an institution (e.g. safety control in the • Equipment of the workspace with systems
building, installation inspection, and output devices that facilitate the work
computer data protection) processes (e.g. Internet, intranet, etc.)
Economical • Low cost of exploitation of devices, • Low exploitation costs
systems, and structures of the building, • Low costs connected with keeping
and replacement of used elements cleanliness and esthetic quality
• Energy saving of the building • Low costs connected with changes to the
• Media use monitoring arrangement of the interior and with the
replacement of the gear and equipment,
and also the elevation
Source: Niezabitowska (2005, p. 110, Table 19)
characteristic of a given version of qualitative research, were devised. Below is

a comparison of the applied criteria, devised in the 1980s and 1990s, which
includes post-occupancy evaluation (POE), Advanced Building Systems Inte-
gration Consortium (ABSIC), and building-in-use (BiU) (see Table 6.2).
Qualitative research in which occupants take part is developing rapidly
because this is a great source of knowledge on buildings and it makes it
possible to improve design processes, especially the functional and spatial
processes (adjusted to the object and the needs of the occupants, and the
160 D
Table 6.2 Quality criteria applied in various standard methods of evaluation
Qualitative criteria
POE ABSIC BiU

Quality:
• technical • space • air
• functional • thermal comfort • thermal comfort
• behavioral • acoustic • spatial comfort
• organizational • visual quality • privacy
• economical • air • lighting
• office noise control
• building noise control
Source: Niezabitowska and Masty (2007, p. 110, Table 12)
processes and activities that take place in it). Occupants' participation enables
one to identify all fallible solutions, which experts failed to notice, or were just
dismissed. The benefits coming from comprehensive research are short-term,
long-term, or something in between. Knowledge about the building collected in
evaluative research can be applied:
• in routine efficiency control connected with the usefulness ot the building;

• in modernization and adaptation works, as this allows one to solve all, even
invisible and unidentified problems;
• in the construction of databases on the topic of specific types of functional
buildings, which influences:
• the removal of incorrect solutions from the design practice;
• the introduction of new functional and technical solutions that are in
compliance with the needs of contemporary times;
• the introduction of changes in legislative processes (building law,
norms); and
• more adequate planning and programming of new investments.
(Niezabitowska, 2007, p. 110)
From the comparison of benefits, one may state that such research is used for
scientific reasons, that is, to expand knowledge and patterns for building, and
to set up norms and principles of designing. On the other hand, this type of
research may be used directly in designing (modernizations, adaptation works,
creating functional and spatial programs for new objects) as ex ante research,
that is, research performed during the process of design in order to prepare the
•' project and to check the realization of the program and project assumptions.
Gray and Baird, in Building Evaluation Techniques (Baird et al., 1996). pre-
sent a synthetic image of how qualitative research should be used for the
purposes of a given organizational unit (scientific or business units, including
the design firm) and for the purposes of the theoretical knowledge in archi-
tecture . The following types of research have been distinguished:
161 □
1. empirical (knowledge acquired by way of experiments and by trial-and-error

method);
2. indirect, empirical, and theoretical (implementation of elements connected
with theoretical research combined with empirical research); and
3. theoretical (systematized research that led to the acquisition of knowledge
by way of rigorous research processes).
Use of knowledge acquired during research on the basis of Gray and Baird
takes place internally, unit by unit, in a given object, in an instantaneous fashion,
and sometimes on the basis of a "try and see" method. It can also be used
both in a given object and in other similar ones (combined use). An external
effect stemming from conducted research may be reflected by the elaboration
of general and extensive knowledge, which may be acqu ired in various
organizations and buildings.
In qualitative research, expert and participatory information is collected .
Expert information is acquired thanks to the normative requirements (which
result from design knowledge), and they stem from scientific knowledge
that refers to scientific theories. Information that results from participatory
research refers to subjective feelings and preferences of the occupants in
relation to the existing built environment. In the majority of qualitative research,
one applies both approaches simultaneously. Due to the significance attached
to the data collection connected with the given environment, this research is
characterized by the use of various research techniques.
Both in expert and participatory evaluation, one uses quantitative techniques
(measurement, statistics, conducting surveys) and qualitative ones (surveys,
interviews, observations, scaling ratings). The result of the evaluation usually
constitutes a specification of the level of meeting certain requirements, based
both on expert and participatory evaluations, by means of a conclusion: it meets
basic requirements, or extra requirements; it does not meet the requirements.
This research may possess, on the one hand, a scientific side-they deliver
new knowledge about men and the environment-and, on the other hand, they
possess a practical side and they inform about the fact that modernization is
needed, and the object should be renovated or demolished.
Qualitative research in architecture results in a general increase in the know-
ledge that pertains to the needs of an occupant, relations between the shaping
of the environment and the behavior of people in it, and the specification of the
qualitative level of new architectonic objects.
Features of qualitative research based on Groat and Wang (2002, pp. 176,
179) include:
1. stress put on the execution of research in the natural architectonic

surrounding of the social environment;
2. focus on the interpretation and the significance, as well as the sense in the
data acquired;
162 D
3. focus on how respondents perceive the significance of events and the

circumstances in wh ich they function in a given built environment;
4. the use of various tactics and research techniques; and
5. the rest includes:
(a) holistic approach, comprehensive approach for complex phenomena
connected w ith the functioning of people in the context of the bu ilt
environment;
(b) long-term contact with the environment and monitoring ;
(c) open-ended nature of the research, one that uses research techniques
that are characteristic of other types of research (e.g. experimenta l or
correlational resea rch);
(d) a scientist in this research serves as a measuring device, in the sense
that he or she alone may complete the questionna ire, that is, he or she
alone determines the measurement and the criteria;
(e) an analysis by means of words that specify the attitude of the
respondent to the environment being examined; and
(f) informal personal stance, in the report that is part of the description of
the research , it diminishes the distance between the writer and the
reader.
The aforementioned actions are characteristic of qual itative research in

architecture, and can be used in an active contact w ith occupants or without
them, only if a researcher performs an observation of the non-partaking or
research on artifacts and archiva l studies.
The process of collecting data in qualitative research is complicated . M iles
and Huberman (1994) present a cyclic process of interactive reactions in the
process of qualitative research between:
• data collection;
• data reduction ;
• data presentation; and
• the outline of the conclusion and the verification.
BOX 6.7 TECHNIQUES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
The following techniques are used in qualitative research: participant and

nonparticipant observation, examination of traces of human use and
behavior, analysis of reconstructions and modernization works, oriented
interview, semantic differential, historical and interpretative analysis, data
sorting, surveys, games, information coding, sca ling, weighting, archival
studies, review, collection of basic data, and data reduction.
163 D
Qualitative research constitutes a source of a large quantity of data: long

interview entries, numerous notes on observations, and graphical sketches or
photos. Following a reduction, these data are reduced to a content over which
one is able to take control. The content is then divided and coded thematically
through note-taking in the margins of the copies of the documents. It is best if
the coding system of information is planned earlier and if there are notes
pertaining to the topic that are to be coded in the interviews. This facilitates the
acquisition of necessary information without wasting any time searching for it
in the text. A lot of data are presented in the form of charts, figures, and tables,
and thus it is advised that the form and format of these data be adjusted to the
method of their presentation. There is a different way of preparing and choosing
the set of data for an article, book, dissertation, professional report, or multimedia
presentation.
Groat and Wang (2002, p. 192, Figure 7.15) divide qualitative research in
terms of the subject matter of research (users and objects), and they also dis-
tinguish between research techniques that are interactive and non-interactive.
Non-interactive techniques are applied in research wherein buildings are the
subject matter, wherein one can find an interpretation of artifacts as well as
an interpretation of archival materials. In interactive techniques, users are
questioned in interviews, focus group meetings and surveys, and by way of
observation where participants and nonparticipants (bystanders) are also taken
into consideration.
Due to the fact that some data must be coded, reduced, and then verified,
researchers aim to devise patterns for their identification, which will provide
explanation and evaluation of the research . These actions should not be
dismissed as they are an important part of the research. According to Miles
and Huberman, "we keep the word consistent and predictable by organizing
it and interpreting it. The critical question is whether the meanings you find
in qualitative data are valid, repeatable and right" (Groat and Wang, 2002,
p. 195).
Qualitative research is also being developed in Poland. Since the 1990s,
these problems have been part of the program undertaken by the research
team of the Faculty of Architecture of the Silesian University of Technology in
the Department of Design Strategy and New Technologies in Architecture,
under the guidance of the author of this book. A series of qualitative research
was performed in office buildings, in hospitals, in nursing homes, and at uni-
versities and colleges (Bielak, 201 0; Fross, 2012; Masty, 2009; Niezabitowska,
2008; Niezabitowska and Masly, 2007; Tymkiewicz, 2012). The use of the
qualitative method in the workshop of the designer is presented in Figure 6.6.
Figure 6.7, on the other hand, presents Masty's (2006) conception con-
nected with qualitative research carried out at the reconnaissance level,
adequate to qualitative research carried out on intelligent office buildings in
specific Polish conditions. Masty devised a method of performing research that
can disturb the conditions of work to a minimum extent only.
164 0
purpoHs:
• general a111M11ament,
I. PREPARATORY PHASE
• evaluation dlractad at p,oblem8 baaed on quat,tabve
Cltagoriel
• venflcabon of delign-f'elaled decalont
• c:onclvllona for new design
aaipe;
• .tlole object with lite deYelopment
• setectad locations: zones, rooms, elements
• obMrvation or the manner of 1111 and uMll'I' behaviour

• quallaiw. mearch accorthng lo category.
-tachmcel
• funcl,onel
· behllllo\nl
• org1ntiationel
·aainomic:el
• a.g. as-ament of allradlve!WII, ufety ...
• e.g from cliant'1111d employee'• penpectiYe ..
• Wl)'-llnd1ng end \IIIUal lnfom1e1lon
• SWOT en•lysla
• tables ol qualitatiVa cai.goriea and element of the oqect

to be examined
• ptciollel sohemel for note-takinO 3. Preparation of auxiliary materials
• lltuallonal map and dl'8W'lngs
• pholographl wtlh l4>ICe for note-tal<lng
• pattem of the survey, lnterv19W questions
• designel'I group
• expert• group
- focwgroup 4. Specification of research executor
• people oondUdlng SUMJ)'I and Interviews - inteMewere
• raaponclents (10f turveya and fnleNleWI)
• wa rough DI Iha MTOUnding end the bulding

• ~ p h i Ind f11mt
• 1nte,vlews with UMll'I
• talks w,lh random people
• tnltrYlewl with lacalcty ITIINilll" and inYIM« 5. Ways of research realization
•SIMWylhela«I
• gr■phlcel lnlllyea1 of design doculTllrlUlbon
• t.eclhnlcel meaurements (e.g. elements ol microdlm te,
du!llllllty of~•. thelmoYlslon -urwnent etc.)
zonaa of Ille object and aelacted 11tee luch ..;

· ICCHlway
-1111 development 6. Selection of places for research
- Image of building
• entry zone
• entrance hell
-apecillcroome ...
• Mleclad elementa o( the building
• aagregallon of CXJlleding materlels end lnlormaliOn

• analysis and grouping of tha result ol researd1
• cr,tic,t elebonlbon of the condusions fn>rn -arch
· YlriflcatJon of dH gn-Rlalad declsiool
• formulation of quldeUnes for MW designs
Figure 6 .6
The "seven-step" scheme of the qualitative research method
Source: Devised by Fross (2012, p. 145, Figure 35)
165 D
'rlJ
I STAGE Ill, EXECUTE

INTRODUCTORY ACTIONS ANALYSIS OF THE COLLECTED DATA
I • PREPARATION OF RESEARCH TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS DATA ON PERFORMANCE CRITERIA,

PHOTOGRAPHIC DOCUMENTATION
QUESTIONNAIRES
STAGE I
I I STUDY TOUR
INTERVIEW WITH FACILITY MANAGER
• ANALYSIS OF THE DATA
• WORKING OUT CONCLUSIONS
• ANALYSIS OF TlHE QUESTIONNAIRES
• EXTRACTING INFORMATION
INITIATE I • IDENTIFICATION OF MAIN FAILURES, TECHNICAL PROSLEMS,

SUCCESSES AND USERS' COMMENTS
...
'f
COMPARISON OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY RESULTS
WITH THE CONCLUSIONS DRAWN
i I WAU<THROUGH
• COLLECTING DATA ON THE MOST IMPORTANT QUALITY
STAGE II CATEGORIES jvesj
• IDENTIFICATION OF THE FAILURES AND SUCCESSES NOT
PLAN I COVERED DURING THE INTRODUCTORY INTERVIEW
• PHOTOGRAPHICAL DOCUMENTATION
~
i ♦
STAGE Ill
I INITIAL ANALYSIS OF THE COLLECTED DATA
SUPPLEMENTING STUDY TOUR
• COLLECTING ADDITIONAL DATA
• REPEATED QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY
DISCUSSION FORUM OF ANALYSIS OF
►I
• ANALYSIS OF ADDITIONAL DATAAND REPEATED
THE RESEARCH TEAM THE COLLECTED DATA QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY RESULTS
EXECUTE • REMARKS, COMMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS
MADE DURING THE SnJDY TOUR
l jvesj
STAGE IV
I 'f
NARROWING THE PROBLEMS DOWN
USE I TO THE MOST ESSENTIAL ISSUES

~
't DEVELOPING AND TESTING THE HYPOTHESES
EXPLAINING THE PRESENT CIRCUMSTANCES
I PREPARATION OF QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEYS

• THE OBJECTIVE OF THE SURVEYS IS TO CHECK
THE ACCURACY OF THE CONCLUSIONS DRAWN
• CONDUCTING OF DETAILED EVALUATIONS WITIH USER
PARTICIPATION
• REPEATED RESEARCHES IN OTHER COMPARABLE
BUILDINGS
I II STUDY TOUR
~
I •
•
•
ARCHIVAL AND DOCUMENT EVALUATION
QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY
INTERVIEWS WITH USERS
I
• FILLING IN THE MISSING DATAANO PHOTOGRAPHIC
DOCUMENTATION
PREPARATION OF THE RESULTS
TlHE MOST POPULAR FORM OF MAKING THE RESEARCH
I RESULTS AVAILABLE IS A WRITTEN REPORT, BUT fl\lS ALSO I•

POSSIBLE TO PREPARE A MULTIMEDIA PRESENTATfl!>N,
DIAGRAM, DISCUSSION, PROTOTYPE SOLUTION.
t<.,.11----'
Figure 6 .7
The author's conception of performing qualitative research at t he reconnaissance level in Polish conditions
Source: Masly (2009, pp. 120-121, Figure 33)
Subsequent photos depict unfavorable effects of the lack of qualitative

research in office buildings. In one of the buildings examined in 2000-a modern,
intelligent office building in Warsaw-experts reported numerous program
defects. Figure 6.8 depicts the workplace of a facility manager, located under-
ground, without access to light, and a room for the industrial security service,
which had to be located in an adapted attic, the entrance to which is only 150
cm in height. Nobody anticipated such premises in the design phase. Another
shortcoming of this building was the minimal storage space, which hampered
the functioning of the building (e.g. the place for storing spare air conditioning
filters) .
Figures 6.9 and 6.10, on the other hand, depict the effect of qualitative
analyses of housing developments made by students in 1997, as a part of the
POE subject.
Qualitative evaluations in architecture were methodologically finished in
the form of post-occupancy evaluation during their use. Since th is is a universal
tool for examining architecture, it will be elaborated on below, in the next
subsection. This method is characterized by the criteria of evaluation from the
perspective of needs and interests of the occupants of this environment. As a
result, qualitative research in connection with quantitative research is often
used to create useful programs for newly designed objects.
On the basis of the grades of the quality evaluation, detailed tools were
devised for checking the quality of specific elements of the built environment
(objects and urban areas), types of objects, elements of building quality, and
procedures for inspecting the quality of the projects (more on this topic in
Chapter 8, sections 8.3 and 8.4) .
Figure 6.8
A modern office building in Warsaw (Poland): (a) in the picture on the left, one can see an office work station for a
team of building managers, located underground; (bl in the picture on the right is the entrance to the rooms in the
attic, adapted for the industrial security service of the building, which has a dangerously low, irregular, and illegal
height- the functional program of the building did not foresee this type of floor space
167 □
-- □
Figure 8.9
Qualitative analysis
of an apartment
Source: Adapted
from Niezabitowska
--
"""' ::::: [] (2014, Figure 36)
_(__________________________________ [ }
________ ______________________ ]_
1. recreation and work on collision course/listening to music, watching TV etc.
2. bathing and sleep on collision course/poor sound Insulation
3. low Insulation between the entry zone and the dining annex
4. refngerator outside of the kllchen zone
5. dispersal/penelra~on of odors
_ L ______________________________ _
I
l________(_____________________]_
traffic noise the noise from the staircase
= =
combustion gas unpleasant odors
insulation good view
POE: A Special Variation of Qualitative Research in Architecture

In qualitative research that is directed at architectonic objects and urban
complexes, a universal POE method was devised in which important qualitative
elements are evaluated from the perspective of an end user, such as technical,
functional, and behavioral quality. This method is special due to the fact that it
is the only one to include both expert and participatory evaluation, so it also
includes the point of view of the occupants in the processes of evaluating the
168 D
Figure 6.10 NEIGHBORHOOD OF THE BUILDING

Qualitative analysis
U -services
of the location of the P - parking lot
flat building and an A- bus-stop
idea for improving Z - children's playground
the site $-dustbin
Source: Adapted ADVANTAGES
from N1ezabitowska 1. bus and tram stops In close proximity
(2014, Figure 37) 2. close and conveniently situated
service-pavilions
3. well-organized part of the car park
DISADVANTAGES
4. significant distance from dustbins
5. too little hard standing spots, cars must
be parked partially on the street
6. noisy beer-bars, too close to the entry
to the staircase, continuous buzz
coming in through the windows
7. playground Invisible from windows of
the house, too close to the street
THE PROPOSAL OF CHANGES

TO THE BUILDING NEIGHBORHOOD
U-services
P - parking lot
A-bus-stop
Z - children's playground
C - pedestrian sequence
B - children's play park
S - zone for older people
PROPOSED CHANGES
1. the creation of additional fixed parking
spaces-garage parking spaces
underground
2. liquidation of the beer-bar
3. relocation of the playground nearer to
the building, division of the square for
different age groups
4. application of calm traffic
5. shortening of the distance from
dustbins
6. transformation of the street Into a
pedestrian sequence
objects. In the process of this very evaluation, one may familiarize oneself with
the perception of the quality of the object by the occupants and evaluate and
compare the extent to which this evaluation is different from the evaluation
carried out by professionals who are connected with the creation of architectonic
objects and urban complexes.
The creators of these methods, W .F.E. Preiser et al. (1988), proposed
three levels for performing this evaluation :
1. The walkthrough /evef--applied in the orientative evaluation so that it is

possible to_capture the most important shortcomings of the building or
glitches that allow one to set a direction for more detailed research .
169 □
BOX 6.8 OUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD
Definition Qualitative research, often referred to as evaluative research, is designed

for a qualitative identification of the built environment in terms of the
needs of the occupants.
Research problems Knowledge on the built environment is created on the basis of the
opinions of the occupants or the knowledge of experts.
Actions taken Creating quality criteria, comparative studies of select case studies,
surveys, interviews. observations; grounded theory approach-the
choice of techniques and tools during research.
....
The stance of Interactive-often behaves like an observer of occupants or like a
the researcher participant.
An occupant serves as an informer.
Expert and participatory.
Techniques applied Local vision-review of examined environments, documentation exam-
ination, description, explanation and interpretation, conducting surveys,
interviews, qualitative and quantitative data coding, participatory and
nonparticipatory observation, collection and descriptions of artifacts,
databases.
Comparative studies of select case studies in terms of meeting specific
qualitative criteria .
Tools used Literary works, photo camera, camcorder, recording equipment for
interviews, drawing materials, questionnaires.
Anticipated effects Presentation of the holistic portrait of occupants and the settings of the
surrounding (academic or pragmatic approach).
Identification of the man-environment relation.
2. The research level-in which the shortcomings that were detected in the
walkthrough evaluation are diagnosed, and detailed conclusions are drawn
so as to redevelop or modernize the building. This part of research includes
professional expertise of particular qualitative elements (e.g. the evaluation
of the technical condition of the building and its technical devices, the
evaluation of the functioning or organizational efficiency).
3. The diagnostic level-in which a comparison is made of a few, a dozen or
so, or even a few dozen of the same functions in order to perfect future
design solutions and also to search for broader generalizations that pertain
to architectural problems.
The third level is very scientific, unlike the other two, which are practical, and
they perfect the processes of current design and conservation.
170 D
The following tasks were distinguished in POE:
• Specification of the causes of the malfunction of the object. In cases of

clear usable requirements, such an evaluation requires special abilities
when it comes to conducting focused studies on the topic of the highlighted
issues.
• Selection of problems and buildings. An inspection that accompanies the
moment of settlement, regarding the requ irements that were to be met by
the devices and the equipment, also takes place when the object is to be
sold or rented.
• Programming. Database creation that constitutes support in the process of
programming and designing of new or renovated and modernized objects
of a specific function.
• Development of knowledge. It means a collection of information to form
databases for knowledge, on the needs of an organization, the occupants
of the building, and the general knowledge about the buildings.
At the beginning of the 1990s, the most basic tool used in this method was
a survey that had a five-point grading scale. Today, carrying out surveys on
occupants is often accompanied by more in-depth interviews that make it
possible to explain problems arising from the survey in more detail. Apart from
that, in singular studies of the buildings, surveys do not make it possible to
acquire credible correlations due to the low number of people who take part in
them, and ultimately the inability to arrive at generalized results of the research.
The POE results allow one to evaluate the extent to which an object, together
with its component parts and facilities, can meet or not meet the requirements
of the users, as well as the normative and professional requirements . It was
not until multiple case studies came into being that one was able to acquire the
competent knowledge needed to program objects in compliance with the
requirements of the users.
The evaluation process in POE is flexible and may be used in all types and
sizes of the environment or the object. It has been in use for many purposes,
both in scientific research and in designing. It has also been used to manage
existing buildings. The method is very flexible, and it makes it possible to
construe a selective set of criteria that are taken into consideration . As a result,
the basis of the research projected on the basis of POE is to specify qualitative
criteria, both expert and participatory. In Table 6.3, a set of POE criteria are
presented from a book published in 2007 by the American Institute of Architects
.~ (the AIA Design for Aging Knowledge Community), under the editorship of J.W .
Anderzhon, I.L. Fraley, and M. Green, titled Design for Aging Post-Occupancy
Evaluations: Lessons Learned from Senior Living Environments. Th is book was
prepared in the scope of the cyclic research program, initiated by the AIA
Design for Aging Review, while the research was conducted in the form of
a multiple case study based on comparison, on 23 objects in different countries,
171 D
Table 6.3 A set of basic organizational and content-related information that pertains to POE research
Research team for the studies (minimum five people)

• Two members-specialists in designing (at least one architect should be appointed and, if possible, also the
architect responsible for landscape and interior).
• Two experienced representatives of an organization that manages the center being examine-!.
• One representative-a consultant from Design for Aging Knowledge Community who will coordinate and
support the evaluation.
Examination of a group of objects (23 objects in total)
• Independent housing apartments.
• Communities that continue the care over pensioners, including nursing care and without.
• Objects that provide care.
• Objects with special care for people suffering from dementia.
• Objects with specialized care of nurses.
• Day care centers.
• Special Scandinavian objects selected for comparison.
Problems analyzed by research team, described in the book
• Creating a community for residents.
• Creating an atmosphere of a home.
• Regional/cultural influences on designing.
• Environmental therapy.
• External environment.
• Quality of workplaces and the whole object per se.
Problems being assessed
• Level of integration between the built environment, care program, and lifestyle among residents.
• Influence of the spatial plan and design on the functioning of staff and social relations of residents.
• Method in which obstacles are overcome, leading to innovation, including requirements and legal norms.
• Specific indication, drawn from research that may be applied and elaborated in future projects.
• Selection of finishing materials, colors, and patterns with a view to perfecting the built environment.
Group of people selected for interviews
• Highest level of management (members of the board, the director).
• Main staff (nurse, head of the motor activity, therapist, social worker).
• Assisting staff (nutritionist, cleaning lady, building and site manager).
• Residents (usually two).
• Members of families of residents (if possible).
Data being collected
• Architectonic documentation, photographs.
• Data concerning the architect, owners, and type of the center.
• Date of start of the activity at the center.
• Use of locations by residents shown in percent.
• Basic data concerning the area of the object, its specific zones, parking lots.
• Number and type of rooms.
• Cost of the building.
• Other.
Source: Described in Anderzhon et al. (2007)
172 D
in compliance with the criteria established earlier. Such research is conducted

cyclically, and it results in a report on the research, as exemplified by the afore-
mentioned book, which was published 16 years after the first edition .
When it comes to problems connected with POE, there are numerous
books that discuss them in detail. As regards foreign literature, one should, first
and foremost, take a closer look at Preiser (1989, 1993), Preiser and Vischer
(2005), Nasar et al. (2007), and Mallory-Hill et al. (2012).
POE evaluations were included in the research that belongs to the ecological
and energetic trend, and also to research on "building intelligence," which can
be analyzed in books such as Cohen et al. (1999) and Cole and Brown (2009).
In the twentieth century, POE was extended by Praiser by means of issues
connected with the process of performing and realizing buildings, called building
performance evaluation (BPE).
6.7 CASE STUDIES
Case studies constitute a methodology characteristic of medical sciences, and

they are applied quite often in social research . In architecture, this method is
applied more and more often, both in historical research and in research that
pertains to function, form, typology, and other significant issues connected
with architecture.4 These methods correspond to two basic questions: what
and why (What is the course of something? What is something like? What is
the cause of a given phenomenon? Why do processes run in a given way?).
Research may be performed as an individual case study, referred to as the
monographic method in the literature, or as comparative multiple case studies.
If research is to lead to broader generalizations, it is necessary to apply multiple
case studies (see Chapter 1, Figure 1.8). Multiple case studies use a somewhat
different methodology than an individual study. In multiple case studies, objects
that are to be examined are chosen following a thorough selection in which:
• similar results are anticipated-in other words, a literal replication is

expected; or
• contrasting results are predicted in predictable conditions (theoretical
replication).
The main reason for research replication in multiple case studies is as a result,
,.~ construction of theories, and their confirmation. As a result, one can expect that
the data coming from a sample that is currently being examined reflect the
whole " whole picture." On the basis of a statistical inference, one may identify
certain sections of that picture in relation to which the examined representation
is sufficiently precise.
A case study consists of performing a detailed research on a particular
object along with its social context. It serves to fathom the features that were
distinguished and the qualitative elements pertaining to a specific object of
173
■ Research Methods Applied In Architecture
architecture, its element, or an urban object. One can get to know the structure,
the systems, and the processes, and one can specify the character, the basic
quantities, and the characteristics of its functioning and development. This
research takes up more than one problem at the same time. The techniques
applied in it include documentation examination, (participatory) observation,
surveys, interviews, and experiments. The results are recorded in the form of
tables and charts. Oftentimes, qualitative research is performed simultaneously,
in the form of multiple case studies, and mostly then this research assumes
the form of comparative research. In architectonic research, both types of case
studies, singular and multiple types, are performed frequently, especially in
mixed methods that are standard.
-·
Case studies may be explanatory, descriptive, or exploratory. Depending
on the character, a structure for the research is selected. Yin (1994, p. 138)
distinguishes six characteristic types of case studies, which include linear-
analytic, comparative and chronological studies, theory-building, "suspense"
(explanation of outcomes). and unsequenced studies (descriptive case studies) .
The linear and analytical structure pertains to the report preparation based
on all the research done, in which the component topic of the research, literature
overview, the description of research methods used, report based on the data
search, and its analysis, as well as conclusion and implications, connected with
the findings. What is more, comparative analyses are also performed in
explanatory, descriptive, and exploratory research, and usually these analyses
possess chronological structure. Explanations, interpretations, and searching
for answers to hypotheses put forth before may lead to the theoretical
conclusions. It just so happens that initial explanatory research in case studies
does not result in findings, and they constitute a beginning of new research
according to the philosophy connected with the grounded theory (see Chapter 3,
section 3.3). If the sequentiality and the chronology do not have any significance
for the data in research, then this is reflected in a descriptive form (Yin, 1994,
pp. 136-141).
In architectural case studies, various objects that have the same function
are examined in order to compare them in terms of select quality features,
which enables the specification of the solutions that are the best and the elim-
ination of the negative features in future projects. Usually, multiple studies are
preceded by singular case studies for the sake of specifying features that are
characteristic of a given type of an object. This allows one to select criteria that
constitute a basis for the creation of multiple case studies.
Comparative studies in architecture may be performed either on similar
objects of the same function or objects selected under different terms, or on
objects of the same function but that are different in terms of different features .
The examination of the residence conditions of seniors in the PolSenior exam-
inations is a good illustration of such a choice. In this procedure, three different
environments of multifamily residential settlements were accepted to research,
174
Table 6.4 A comparison of data that come from comparative research in case studies pertaining to multifamily
houses that were examined in the PolSenior project
Information characterizing the

residence environments Poniszowice Gliwce Katowice
Number of buildings in a 3 3 residential quarters

given housing development
Number of stories inside a 3 plus a cellar 3 plus an attic and a 15 residential stories,
building cellar 2 service and technical
stories (ground floor and
the I floor), underground
car park
Construction system Prefabricated slab Traditional made from Prefabricated slab
bnck
General number of apartments 50 300 762
Size of the apartments 30-50 m2 36-42 m2 34-57 m 2
Number of rooms tn the 1-4 2 2-3
apartment
In compliance with the Inconsistent-bedrooms, Inconsistent-no Inconsistent-bedrooms,
European standard bathrooms, and kitchens bathrooms bathrooms, and kitchens
are too small are too small
Installations Electricity, water, Electricity, water, Electricity, warm and
central heating single-story or furnace cold water, central
heating heating
Nearest surrounding of the Rural, w ith a Outskirts of the district Center of the city, lack of
development recreational plot town and the academic semi-private and semi-
city, run-down utility public spaces in the
yards, lack of v1c1nity
recreational greenery
Condition Poor Very poor Good/mediocre
Percentage of apartments 54% 56% 35%
occupied by seniors
Source: Niezabitowska et al. (2013, p. 169, Table 16)
located in the center of the city, in a university city in a monumental patrona l

housing settlement on the outskirts of the city, and a housing settlement that
used to be a part of a PGR State Agricultural Enterprise. The aim of this research
was to identify the method of acceptance of various environments by res idents
in the social and cultural context, and also in terms of the architectural quality
based on the perception of an expert. Table 6.4 depicts a comparison of
characteristic features of the examined residential envi ronments.
Generally, case studies are participatory methods, that is, they include
participation of the occupants, so they are applicable in places where occupants
and their needs are involved, or where the direct influence of the built
environment on the behaviors of people is taken into consideration. Individual
case studies play a decisive role in research based on evaluation . One may
distinguish several various uses, of which the most important are:
175
• explanation of certain phenomena, which are too complicated to be

examined;
• description of the consequences of some phenomena in the context of real
life in which they appear;
• illustration of certain problems that happen again inside the evaluation; and
• examination of the situations in which some phenomena are seen as clear
and obvious.
(based on Yin, 1994) _.,
A case study is not a methodological choice, but it is a choice of the object for
the study. The object of the studies must possess a "functional specificity "
about which one would like to know more. To make this knowledge scientifically
significant, the planned case study must meet basic qualitative criteria, which
include trustworthiness, credibility, confirmability, and data dependability.
Individual case studies are performed often to serve as pretests 5 for multiple
case studies (MCSs) . Individual case study (CS) has a lot of shortcomings, the
most important of which is the difficulty in generalizations, that is, generalizing
conclusions drawn from singular CS, extensive documentation, and overly long
duration; however, in alternative methods of description, one may avoid the
traditional ones (e.g. electronic recording) .
) The CS method is, according to Yin (1994), the most difficult type of
c-
research . In order to perform this research correctly, one must take the following
-. steps:
-
C
b
("j
• The researchers partaking in the CS must be well trained, and to this end
more intensive training sessions should be planned.
• The report based on the CS must be updated regularly, and it must be
analyzed thoroughly.
• Piloting research must be conducted.
Intellectual and emotional requirements in relation to researchers performing

this type of research are much higher than in other methodologies because the
procedure of collecting data is not routine. The requirements that a CS
researcher must meet are:
• The person must be able to state proper questions and be able to interpret
the answers.
• He or she must be a good listener and not succumb to his or her own
ideology or prejudice.
• He or she must be flexible to be better able to react to beneficial situations
and perils.
• He or she must be able to run and manage research in a very strict way
(he or she must be consistent).
176 D
Research Methods Applied rn Architecture ■
• The person must be impartial and without any prejudices; he or she must
be sensitive and be able to react to contradictory evidence.
• The person must have an inquiring mind.
(Yin, 1994, p. 56)
An inquiring mind is the basic condition when it comes to the selection of

employees for data collection. Data collection has got its specific course of
action; nevertheless, at some points of the whole process, some questions
need to be raised, such as: "What happened?" or "Why is this happening?"
Formulating these questions is always mentally and emotionally exhaustive.
Research consists in forming questions, and not in providing answers-
according to Yin. And so the subject matter is not the answers, but the
questions. A proper person, then, is an individual for whom the answer is a
source of a series of new queries, and these questions link together to form a
significant entirety.
Finally, the training of the research team (which is to collect data) takes
place during the piloting study. Information coming from the piloting CS may
be approximate, should be accessible for the research team, and should include
a limited number of documents and data. A piloting CS allows one to identify
the level of complexity of a real, factitious situation, and the checking of
correctness of the method of collecting data in real situations, and moreover it
makes it possible to give more thought to the plan of collecting data and to
correct it.
Another important link of the CS research is the collection of documents.
Documents come in various forms and should be specified in the plan of data
collection. In architectonic and urban planning research, the documents should
include:
• plans, drafts, constructional, and branch documents;

• plans of changes, modernization, and reconstruction; and
• costs, calculations, etc.
In the process of collecting data, one should follow three rules:
.~ • use various sources of information;

• create a database of the CS; and
• maintain order in the chain of records.
These rules allow one to objectivize collected information.

The advantage of case studies/multiple case studies is that one is able to
set a case that is being examined against a broader context and to base it on
multiple sources of data, which makes it possible to explain cause-and-effect
relations of the phenomena. As a consequence, the results of this research are
suitable for a theoretical generalization, and hence they are irrefutably convincing,
177 D
if done correctly, which is not easy due to, above al l, extreme complexity.
Integrating multiple data sources into one coherent system is a huge challenge
for researchers because the overall picture of causality is not always clear and
legible due to the fact that it is so complex. As mentioned above, CSs are
difficult to do because in such research one has to deal with less stabilized
principles and procedures than in other type of resea rch .
Nevertheless, case studies constitute a method that has been very useful
for a long time in architectonic research. They were applied at most prominent
design studios, such as Francis Duffy's DEGW (1998), which, in 1985 and 1988,
performed comparative case studies into the main office building in London as
part of the ORBIT research project (Organization, Build ings, and Information
Technology; see Duffy and Hutton, 1998). Eleven office buildings in London
were examined in terms of select quality criteria, such as location, accessibility
(in the sense of an easy way to the building), efficiency when it comes to using
the space, functional flexibility, services (installations), and extra facilit ies.
The following grades were used: perfect, good, proper, bad, or no data. On
the basis of a study prepared in this way, one could specify which solutions
would acquire the best grades from occupants and experts. The solutions that
are thought to be good or very good shall seNe as an indicator for developers,
investors, and owners that these very solutions should be used in buildings that
are currently under construction.
("I In case studies, one can learn how buildings or architectural complexes
-·
.....
function, how they react with users, and how users behave in specific built
environments and why. The conclusions that are drawn tell us how in design
processes one can reach specific behaviors of occupants in the environment
being designed. In case studies, research on current phenomena is preferred.
Experts examine characteristic behaviors of occupants inside bu ildings or in
architectonic areas that have not been tampered with or changed .
Generally speaking, a case study consists of using the same techniques as
in historical research, but two important sources of information are added:
direct and participatory observation. In CSs, the sources of information are:
• all types of documents;

• various objects (artifacts);
• inteNiews; and
• additional observations (direct observation and participatory observation,
that is, consistent and systematic interviews that constitute an important
source of information).
In some situations, it is possible to perform observation of the user/participant

and informal manipulation. In the direct, precise, and systematic manipulation
of behaviors, one has to deal with experiments. In research, it is important
when, how, and why a given question is formulated in relation to current events
over which a researcher can exercise little or no control.
178 □
A case study is chosen as a research method only if one w ishes to dis-

cover the circumstances of a given context, being convinced that these ci rcum-
stances may not have any significance for the phenomenon being examined.
In such cases, an empirica l research is conducted to examine a phenomenon
or phenomena inside a socially realistic context if the borders between the
phenomenon and the context are not evident (e.g. increased level of crime and
vandalism in some part of the city may result from the spatial context) .
The comparative method of the cases is characteristic of multiple case
studies. Several identically performed case studies make it possible to compare
them in terms of quality and quantity. Nevertheless, case studies should not be
mistaken for qualitative research .
In the final study of the results of the research , one should use four
analytical techniques (Yin, 1994, p. 102):
1. pattern matching refers to the rule of choosing objects for research based
on case studies;
2. explanation building;
3. time series analys is, that is, cycles and t ime sequences; and
4. program logic models-building the chain of events.
A research report, apart from developing a case description of the results,

should also rely on theoretical proposition.
BOX 6.9 THE METHOD OF THE CASE STUDY OR MULTIPLE CASE STUDIES
Definition A case study is research of an object or properly chosen objects in

terms of select criteria that may be supplemented during research ,
according to grounded theory.
Research problems The choice of the direction of research and research techniques during
the research-grounded theory.
Actions taken Comparative research of objects or procedures seen from the perspec-
tive of select qualitative criteria.
The stance of Interactive-oftentimes a researcher acts as an observer of users,
the researcher participators of research .
User serves as an informer.
Expert choice of criteria. Expert and participatory approach.
Techniques applied An inspection of the object of the research, archival studies, ana lysis of
documents, description, explanation, interpretation, comparative studies,
measurements, counting up, observation, surveys, interviews.
Tools used Written materials, camera, equipment for recording interviews, com-
puters equipped with Microsoft Word, Excel, and programs for drawing.
Anticipated effects Typologies, benchmarking of objects on local market, patterns of
conduct, procedures, etc.
179 D
6.8 ACTION RESEARCH METHOD: INTERVENTIONAL RESEARCH
Action research is a method in which environmental competences of members

of a given community are used in processes that lead to the understanding of
the function rules of this community.
Researchers try to understand people who belong to a given organization or

environment, and not to impose their views on them. This type of action is
focused on helping communities dealing with problems defined by the
community (instead of deciding what the problem is and coming up with
solutions). In scientific examination, theoretical research models are no longer
in use, and one is opting for higher competencies of the community when it
comes to defining what is important to its members.
"Action research," that is, research in action or intervention research, is
used in social and environmental sciences. This research is focused on solving
current problems. They are still used as a fairly common research technique in
research on adjusting the object to, for example, older people and to current
needs. Such research has been described by Scheidt and Windley (2006). based
on residential homes in Brewster Village and Meadowlark Hills. Only people
who were interested in increasing their quality of life took part in the research,
as well as the staff working there, along with the designers who prepared the
C")
changes documentation and the management of the house and a unit of the
-·
-. office that makes the decisions, and which finances the investment that adjusts
BOX 6.10 THE INTERVENTION METHOD OF THE ACTION RESEARCH TYPE
Definition Knowledge is created by and commissioned for the purpose of a given

case; generalization of knowledge is less important.
Research problems Solving practical problems in the built environment, before the modern-
ization and for the purposes of programming new objects.
Actions taken Cooperation with clients, users; cooperation with industry/businesses
and local authorities.
The stance of Participatory and expert.
the researcher Cooperation with the client, user.
Techniques applied Inspection of the object of research, photographing, documentation
analyses.
Focus meeting, modeling by simulation, workshops, observation,
behavior mapping.
Tools used Interviews, focus meetings.
Models, mock-ups, computer simulations, 3D cave.
Anticipated effects Descriptions of contexts and research results (pragmatic trend).
Demonstrative projects, support planning.
180 □
the object to the needs. As a result, the following groups of actors took part in
the research: occupants of the used houses (residents, staff, and management),
designers, and the investor (the office/owner of the object). This examination
is then typical transdisciplinary research, in which, apart from the researchers,
public authorities and also occupants are involved, along with the industry that
produces this type of specialist equipment for such places. The aim of this
research is to work out a conception for modernization, which would eliminate
existing drawbacks and barriers, with the assistance of the owner/office, which
decides how much can be spent on necessary changes and which mode
(instantaneous or strategic/prospective) should be used.
This research usually results in decisions that are practical in their nature;
however, one may also find an element of research works that are scientific, if
there is a possibility of generalizing the conclusions of the results that arise
from this type of research.
6.9 HEURISTIC AND FORECASTING METHODS
Heuristics is a skill used in seeking new facts and relations between facts,
especially when it comes to formulating hypotheses that would lead to the
cognition of new scientific truths.
Heuristic methods and techniques are ways and rules of conduct that serve to
make optimal decisions in complicated situations, that require analyses of
accessible information, and also to predict future phenomena. Such actions are
based on creative thinking and logical combinations.
Heuristic methods constitute a group of research methods in which
knowledge is used along with the experience and opinions of experts when it
comes to solving practical problems, searching for new facts and relations
between them, formulating new hypotheses, and discovering new truths. They
are used mostly in management to make strategic and prospective decisions,
in creating new developmental trends-so they are also characterized by
forecast nature. This is the most common method in the expert stance, which
rarely or never refers to the user of future solutions. The basis here is the
acquired practical knowledge and the experience of the experts.
As one can gather from this short presentation, heuristic methods in
architecture serve to support design decisions, and not to create basic
•" knowledge. They are focused on searching for problems and ways of solving
them, and also on searching for new ideas in the existing reality. It is assumed
that they focus on predicting new solutions, including development forecasting
and changes based on key driving forces that arise from the research.
Consequently, in architecture, heuristic methods are used as a support for
design processes that are naturally forecast actions, that is, through the design,
one can change the future reality with the assumption that new values will
be added to it (e.g. a new quality of life in a specific newly designed built
181 D
environment). The foresight method, along with brainstorming, expert analysis

such as SWOT analysis, and development scenarios devised for specific regions
of the country or areas, are a real help and support for architects, and even
more so for urban planners. Usually, this research is of the interdisciplinary
nature, and it serves to expand the architectonic and urban problems by means
of other issues that are social and economic.
Brainstorming is a technique often used in design studios in the process
of devising design ideas. It consists, of course, of thinking up ideas for solving
specific problems (e.g. energy-saving sports hall). In brainstorming, it is important
for the team to come up with as many ideas as possible, realistic or not, when
solving specific problems. Everything is done in an atmosphere of freedom of
action and competition. Brainstorming is also a method of deferred valuing or
evaluation because all ideas are evaluated by the team without initial rejection
(Apanowicz, 2003, p. 94). Thanks to this method one can avoid overly hasty
decisions to reject certain ideas that seem unrealistic and go outside the con-
ceptual schemes, and their rejection in the first phase may disrupt the course
of creative search.
Many prominent architectonic agencies operate in this way (e.g. Sir Norman
Foster-Foster & Partners), where the creation of the design idea is preceded
by a discussion with a design team, accompanied by professional specialists
who are able to generate interesting solid ideas thanks to their technological
ideas. In architecture, such meetings are called workshops.
The Delphi technique is a bit different, and it focused on solving strategic
problems; in other words, it is to create new trends in which one should include
people's opinions. Usually, a group of experts is invited to present their opinions
in the form of a written answer to questions included in the questionnaire,
which is usually anonymous. On the basis of the questions, the problem and a
solution to it is being worked out. The process of filling out the questionnaire
is repeated several times just to arrive at a solution to the problem in the last
one. During the research, the participants are informed about controversial
opinions and about the attitude of the majority of experts. Research on
predictable trends in the economic and spatial development of the Silesian
voivodship (province) was done in this very way, as well as the research on the
topic of the development of the nation as part of the Narodowy Program
Foresight "Polska 2020" (Foresight Poland National Program), which encom-
passes issues such as safety, information and telecommunications technologies,
and sustainable development.
Research based on the Delphi method is usually difficult, time-consuming,
and expensive, so it is applied only to very important problems that are
connected with the development of the country or areas of the economy.
Apart from brainstorming and the Delphi/foresight method, in heuristic
research one can also use surveys, expert analyses, SWOT analyses, scenarios,
and workshops, which are described in Chapter 7, section 7.3.
182
BOX 6.11 HEURISTIC METHOD
Definition Heuristic methods and techniques constitute a generality of ways and

rules of conduct that help to make the best decisions in complicated
situations that require an analysis of accessible information and also to
predict future phenomena. They are based on creative thinking and on
logical combinations.
Research problems A diagnosis of the current condition and a prediction of developmental
trends, search for key development factors, making scenarios.
Actions taken Research on opinions of experts.
The stance of Sharing one's knowledge and opinions.
the researcher
Techniques applied Workshops, SWOT analyses, scenarios, brainstorming sessions, Delphi
method, foresight.
Tools used Questionnaires, CD writers, Internet.
Anticipated effects Outlining possible development trends (empirical approach).
Specification of the realization of strategic targets (normative approach).
6.10 MIXED METHODS
Big and sign ificant team research projects that are interdisciplinary, transdis-
ciplinary, and hybrid (cf. Chapter 1, section 1.4) are characterized by various
components, devised by various teams based on one discipline only, which use
in the research various methods and techniques, as well as tools that are typical
of a given discipline (e.g. the PolSenior project, the Polish-German Project
no. 2010-21).
In the PolSenior project (Niezabitowska et al., 2009, 2013), there were 40
research teams of medical doctors, economists, sociologists, psychologists,
physiotherapists, and architects. The basic research methods applied by doctors
and sociologists in the project on more than 5,000 respondents were the
environmental interview along with the survey. This research was supplemented
by professional groups of researchers who used methods and techniques
characteristic of each discipline. In architectonic research focused on recognizing
residential conditions of elderly people in multifamily houses and nursing homes
and done by sociolog ists , mixed methods were applied that included surveys,
interviews, and expert research of the POE type focused on research on
.~ concrete architectonic complexes, buildings , and apartments.
The Polish-German Project no. 2010-21, 6 t itled Yesterday, Today and
Tomorrow of Polish and German Big Housing Estates: A Comparative Study of
Models of Town-Planning-Departments and Their Acceptance Based on the
183
Example of Leipzig and Katowice (Niezabitowska et al., 2011-2012), realized by

architects, sociologists, and demographers, due to the interdisciplinarity of the
team, was characterized by the use of numerous methods and techniques,
which included survey research, structured and informal interviews, qualitative
research on select developments of Leipzig and Katowice, comparative case
studies, SWOT analyses, and empirical development scenarios.
As a general rule, all research done uses the method of logical argumen-
tation to prepare a description and a report based on the research and a series
of other methods necessary to conduct research, as well as its verification
(research triangulation).
NOTES "'"
1. Cf. Alexander Keul (2012) depicted an Austrian project of comparative research on
nine experimental passive housing developments (344 apartments) in which the
reaction of occupants to the changing conditions of the internal microclimate was
examined, along with the changing conditions throughout the year. It was finally
confirmed that the success of this experiment (based on the level of satisfaction of
the occupants) depended mainly on the technical quality of the solutions, and on
intelligent solutions too.
2. Klaus Daniels (1998) provides an example of an experiment conducted in the building
of a bank in Lugano, where the piloting "Demo Rooms" were realized during the
whole enterprise in which the designed solutions for energy-saving changes were
tested before being used in the whole building. The building of the Architecture
Faculty in Pekin, on the other hand, is designed in such a way that each floor uses a
different energy-saving solution in order to test these solutions in the long run.
3. In environmental research, the relation between a user and the built environment is
examined, that is, the mutual interactions of the environment with the people and
their reactions to these interactions.
4. Foque (2010) proves that a case study, just like multiple case studies, is a more
proper technique used in architecture. They are especially useful when it comes to
perfecting designing skills, and also in the creation of knowledge in architecture.
5. A pretest in such a case would be the process of practicing the method of performing
research in order to eliminate organizational shortcomings.
6. The project was financed by the Polish-German Foundation for the Sake of Science,
and it was realized between 2011 and 2012 by researchers of the Faculty of
Architecture of the Silesian University of Technology and the Silesian University, in
cooperation with the Helmhotz Institute in Leipzig.
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187 C
7 Research Techniques
Research techniques represent detailed patterns of activities and performing

various partial works connected with the need to achieve the research goal.
Typically, these are practical activities allowing for systematized and deliberate
gathering, ordering and editing the necessary data.
Research techniques are premeditated ways of acquiring, gathering, and

analyzing data, information, and materials.
Every research method is characterized by the usage of specific research

techniques (often more than one) that enable one to gain expected information,
knowledge, or research results, confirming hypotheses or triangulating the
existing ones. In the phase of research design, upon estimating the research
goal, research questions, and choosing a particular method, one has to ponder
upon selecting the appropriate research techniques used in a given method-
ology. Every research method is used for acquiring crucial data and their attentive
organization in order to reach the desired and variable scientific and research
goals. Most methods are characterized as those that use more than one
technique simultaneously. The features of all techniques are those that require
parameters that influence the quality and reliability of the research done. There
is not one strict ascription of given techniques to given methods; however,
some methods typically utilize specific techniques, as represented in the boxes
in Chapter 6 (e.g. qualitative method research/interviews, personal documents,
unstructured and focused inteNiews, sources and content analysis, historical
research/archival techniques, etc.). Typically, a set of techniques is chosen for
the research purpose individually, especially in mixed methodology. If one
would like to check whether a given building or urban space environment
reflects the needs of the users, one can use the qualitative research method
and utilize the structured interviews as a research technique allowing for
receiving answers to the questions stated (e.g. whether the solutions used
contribute to the sense of safety or not). If one should like to examine who is
the designer of a given architectural object and what its history is, one should
perform a series of activities, mostly archival in nature.
188 □
Research Techniques ■
7 .1 RESEARCH TECHNIQUES AND RESEARCH METHODS
The substantial difference we can find between the notions of a research

method and technique is that the method, as a conscious and persistently
used mode of operation directed at achieving a premeditated goal, is strategic
and holistic in nature, and typically one incorporates many various research
techniques.
Research techniques play a tactical role and constitute a set of deliberate

activities and means that lead to achieving a detailed fraction of the research
goal.
Given research techniques, generally speaking, allow for finding the answers
to simple, not particularly complex questions (e.g. what the common features
are of the few examined objects, whether the users are pleased with a given
technical or formal solution, etc.), for solving a simple research task, often
practical in kind, typically devoid of any significant scientific meaning. Research
techniques are also incorporated to extract empirical data, using the instruments
designed by the researcher, therefore called primary data. If a researcher
analyzes the research and existing data, he or she would use the techniques of
secondary data analysis.
The set of basic research methods implemented in architectural research,
presented in Chapter 6, shall now be completed with research techniques
employed here. The techniques enumerated in Table 7.1 are those that are
most commonly used in various holistic methods, and the usage of all of them
in a given research is neither compulsory nor required. Every time a researcher
chooses them, it is dependent on the research task ahead of them. The sets
of some techniques are characteristic of a given method (see boxes in Chapter
6); however, the researcher may incorporate other techniques, as required from
the point of view of the purposes of a given research process. It is then that
we deal with the mixed methods (see Chapter 6, section 6.10).
7 .2 RESEARCH TECHNIQUES APPLIED IN ARCHITECTURAL

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
In this chapter, we shall discuss the following research techniques indepen-

dently, in the following thematic sets:
1. description, explanation, interpretation;

2. literature research, analysis, and critique of scientific writing;
3. monitoring and inspection of buildings, the area tested or so-called
"walkthrough," "field trip";
4. gathering documentation artifacts, photographs, sketches, etc.;
5. measurement;
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■ Research Techniques
6. questionnaires and statistics techniques;

7. correlations;
8. comparisons;
9. semantic differential scale;
10. observations;
11. mapping;
12. sorting;
13. interviews;
14. workshops;
15. mock-up, graphic models, and virtual modeling (3D modeling);
16. checklists and note scaling;
17. SWOT analyses;
18. scenarios;
19. Delphi techniques, foresight;
20. brainstorming;
21. marketing research;
22. piloting; and
23. pretest.
The last two items on the list of research techniques are usually used in field
and social research (questionnaires and interviews).
As mentioned in previous chapters (e.g. Chapter 1, section 1.5). research
in architecture (both substantial and procedural) is performed for the following
purposes:
1. Strictly scientific, performed on-site with the aim of gaining knowledge on

rules and regulations of the functioning of the built environment, as well
as the processes of its creation . This means they are aimed at diagnosing
the existing condition and at building theory, and therefore constitute ex
post research (see Chapter 1, section 1.5, Chapter 4, section 4.4, and
Chapter 6, sections 6.1-6.7).
2. Research aimed at perfecting the design processes (see Chapter 1, section
1.5, and Chapter 7, section 7.3), typically referred to as ex ante (de Jong
and van der Voordt, 2005). performed in the following circumstances:
(a) during the design and for the design, design analysis, and comparing
with similar ones;
(b) predesign research/program-based, in order to build a spatial and
functional program (brief) of the designed object/programming (briefing)
research;
(c) design testing research, directed at the optimization of the design
solutions (optimizing research); and
(d) supported strategic decision-making, future-oriented, in the built envir-
onment design-these are prognosis-heuristic techniques.
190 D
predesign studies
of qualitative and observation type
design quldelines
ex post research
observation methods
Leisure Park for occupancy
"Troplkalna Wyspa" 2008,2009,2010
Marklowlce designing guidelines
2006
quality evaluation of documentation

Recreational area
around Pillca Lake ;~~;ssment of design s/olutions
Pilica
2006 design guidelines
quality evaluation of documentation

Recreational Park assessment of design guidelines
Plllca-Llple 2009
2006 design guidelines
quality and observation research

for occupancy
future users' participatio 2010
group of children aged 12-14 design guidelines
selection of solutions and elements
of the planned skate-park
future users' participation

of skate-park
selection of solutions and elements
of planned skate-park
Knowledge map-collection of designer's experience
in objects of similar function
Figure 7.1
Predesign research scheme
Source: Fross (2012, p. 184, Figure 54)
191
Figure 7.1 shows an example of a predesign study in the form of multiple

case studies for instances of similar function. Thus, the designer gathers
individual knowledge that enriches his or her own design skills.
For the most part, ex post and ex ante research employ similar or identical
techniques, but ex ante studies can differ in the depth of the analyses, in that
they do not comply with the scientific criterion, insofar as the information
gathered in such research cannot be generalized without further research. They
fulfill the truth value only in reference to the purpose they were made for, that
is, they are true with regard to the design they were made for.
A relatively high differentiation in the research techniques chosen can be
viewed in strictly scientific research (ex posfl and practical research for the
purposes of the design (ex ante), or when solving a specific practical problem,
although many techniques are used in both research trends (see Table 7.1).
Table 7. 1 A comparison of research techniques and their most frequent usage in

ex post and ex ante research
Research techniques Usually used Used in

in ex post ex ante
research research
Description, explanation, and interpretation xx XO

Literary research, analysis, and cnttque of scientific writing xx XO
Inspection and monitoring of "walkthrough," "field trip" X xx
Gathering documentations and artifacts xx ox
Photographs, sketches xx ox
Measurement and statistics xx X
Surveys, questionnaires xx XO
Correlations xx XO
Comparisons, benchmarking xx X
Semantic differential X
Scaling valuation xx XO
Observations X xx
Mapping X XO
Sorting X X
Interviews xx X
Workshops XO xx
Virtual modeling xx X
Checklists X X
SWOT analyses X X
Scenarios XO xx
Delphi techniques-foresight XO xx
Brainstorming research XO X
Market research ox X
Notes: X-techniques applicable in research; XX-techniques used very frequently;
XO-techniques used rarely; OX-used as a source of information.
192 D
In ex ante research, one can distinguish techniques associated with the

prognosis-heuristic method, set to establish development strategies, in a long
time frame (e.g. development scenarios in space planning and developing
commercial or business estates) .
Description, Explanation, and Interpretation

The basic technique used in every research task and method is the description
of the research task (the conceptualization of the problem), that is, explaining
what the task pertains to and an explicit description of the research.
Detailed description of the research object (including documentation,
artifacts, history, etc.) allows one to define what we know and do not know of
the research object, raise research questions, establish the strategy (or method),
and choose tactics (techniques) of looking for answers for the research questions
raised. Typically, the research object description is accompanied by the explan-
ation of the gathered data, disclosing their source and interpreting contradicting
information, if such arise. Historical or archival research is the most frequent
type of research met with the necessity of explanation and interpretation of
such contradictory data gathered through media, or living participants of the
design or implementation processes.
Description, explanation, and interpretation constitute research techniques
that bear particular meaning in historical research. In such research, description
should include basic information, such as the project's author, commencement
date, construction date with its conclusion, further reconstructions, extensions,
and random events during which the object has been damaged or destroyed
(fire, destruction, floods, earthquakes, etc.). In each case, such research should
be supplemented with basic documents, that is, a collection of original design
dossiers with further documents on construction alterations that corroborate
the information in the description.
Another key element of the description is contextual data. For example, in
historical research, it would be the commentary on the influence and usage of
specific solutions and details. In qualitative research, on the other hand, that
would include descriptions of groups of inhabitants, as well as changes in how
the structure (building, object) is to be used. A description is often supplemented
with deductions on the basis of neighboring dates and data, reasoning or logical
deductions in situations lacking hard evidence on historical facts. In such
situations, one has to employ information extracted from memories of the
witnesses of past events (e.g. interviewing people that knew the author of the
design, or having witnessed a reconstruction, a constructional disaster, or a
terrorist attack involving the building). All the collected documents should be
catalogued, referencing their source.
The document research consists, at its core, of gathering, selecting,
describing, and scientific interpretation of interesting facts, from the point of
view of the research conducted. This type of research includes:
193 1....
• gathering documents from different sources (archives, literature, magazines,

notes on a given research object);
• selection of materials in terms of their usefulness and relevance to the
research (in archive research, one can encounter numerous documents
that are of little or no relevance to the research being conducted);
• determining the authenticity of the collected materials;
• checking the credibility (e.g. checking whether these materials come from
people who are biased or uncritical in relation to the architect, whose
works are investigated); and
• analyzing these documents and drawing conclusions.
The next step, characteristic of most architectura l research, is the record of up-
tC>-<Jate information in the form of inventory documentation, handmade drawings,
notes taken on maps or copies of design documents, researcher's own remarks,
photographs, images, audio records of conversations held with people familiar
with the structure, films prepared by the research team, and other artifacts
(details, wall fragments, etc.). All the documents gathered should be carefully
selected, numbered, catalogued, dated, and provided w ith the name of an
author. The means of gathering materials should be meticulous, so that they
can be accessed by all the participants without wasting time.
Another element of research based on description, explanation, and
interpretation is archive research. In historical research, a particularly important
role was played by archival research, aiming at looking back on changes made
during the existence of the building. It was also important to take advantage of
all the information on the structure (e.g. notes, bills, design documents con-
nected with changes, and other sources of information). Every archive material
used should be carefully catalogued with source information.
A researcher performing an archive query should do so extremely carefully
and systematically, focusing on reliable sources. They shou ld exclude materials
left by the people biased toward those mentioned in the documents, as
mentioned above, or whose veracity or reliability it is reasonable to question.
A particu lar role is played by video, photography, and drawing documents
in the case of far-reaching revitalization changes in the built environment, after
which it is difficult to recreate the history of the places known and historically
important. For example, Baildon Foundry in Katowice, the first iron foundry in
Poland, established in 1823 by John Baildon, the father of contemporary foundry,
has almost disappeared from the landscape of Katowice. The preserved
documentation of the foundry, as well as a foundry in Gliwice and the Royal
Foundry of Chorz6w, allowed for the reconstruction of the development of the
foundry, as well as the urban development of Upper Silesia, and therefore an
understanding and interpretation of industrial processes of the nin eteenth
century (see Figure 7.2).
The most important instrument of presenting the results is in every case
the description of research and results, which are parts of a report. The research
194 '7
,...,. 7.2
AfChive research .
The chosen
,1ements of the
documentation of
apatiel and
technological
development of the
Royel Foundry in
Chorz6w (Poland).
The meps are from
the turn of the
nineteenth and
twentieth century,
ea well as the
drawing of the blast
furnace from the
beginning of the
twentieth century.
Source:
N1ezab1towska and
Szady (1987)
'•
195 D
description ordinarily constitutes a part of a report from the research conducted,

usually including references to subject literature and existing scientific theories,
design research description, research methodology, subject choice criteria,
means of research conduct, descriptions of research results, and final conclu-
sions of various character, depending on who the receiver of the research is
and its purpose. The conclusions can stay purely scientific (basic research), as
well as those suggesting further development of the research and practical
implementations (e.g. in spatial and functional programming). The research may
also provide detailed functiona l, technical, formal , economic, and other sugges-
tions, as well as new design procedures.
Conclusions of a scientific type are general in nature, and the research
results can lead to forming new theories, laws, etc.
Literature Research, Analysis, and Critique

Literature research, analysis, and critique find their use in every type of research
and are crucial in every research work, especially promotional ones (doctorate
and habilitation studies). The basis for such research is gathering the literature
in two fundamental groups:
• All the books, monographs, articles, press releases, notes of important

persons, earlier research reports; all the information that may enhance our
knowledge of the subject matter or object.
• Literature-books, monographs, articles with substantial meaning for a
given area of knowledge and problems connected with design research .
This is mainly true about the connection of design research with existing
theories and research of similar character.
Literature research in the research report or scientific dissertation is one of the

most basic tasks, carrying the name of "the state of research ," whereby the
author(s) define the place of their research in the context of research results in
the given area and critically analyze given literary items. Such dissertations
should define, on the basis of the available literature, what we know and do not
know of the given area of study, so we define an area of research.
In light of the information included in the state of research, one should
present their research problem and show the level of originality, differences,
connections, and dependencies, as well as significant features of known
scientific theories on the subject. Literature analysis can also show discrepancies
in the current hypotheses, research assumptions, ideas, beliefs, and judgments.
In this part of the research, one should also analyze what scientific values a
given solution can introduce and what use new proposals can present in the
context of knowledge and practice.
Sometimes the results of literature research and critique can lead to
important findings and the development of the paradigm of a given area. They
can open doors for a scientific revolution . The research literature can also be
196 C
the basis to verify the knowledge and present a new, original approach of a
given area of knowledge in a given subject matter.
Every area of study possesses the so-called literary canon, which must be
referenced in the literature bibliography. Such a canon can usually be presented
on the basis of literature lists study in a given area of research. Typically, the
basic positions-the canon-repeat themselves in all literature lists, and are the
ones most quoted. One can also use the citation index, which contains
information on the most quoted positions.1
More and more often, we start using information taken from the Internet,
which evokes controversies in the world of scientific persons. It does not mean
we should not use them, but caution is highly recommended. One should first
and foremost quote university sources. Referencing such materials, one should
quote the website address as well as the date of usage. It is important,
inasmuch that such websites undergo frequent reconstructions; therefore, the
reviewer or the reader may find it difficult to verify information presented under
a given address years after having found them.
The greatest problem for young scientists is the usage of references and
citations, which is naturally connected with literature lists. In this matter, various
templates designed by the universities can be used, or those presented by
book publishers, or publishing scientific magazines, when it comes to the
technical aspect of the issue. 2 Thus, we need to clearly indicate the beginning
and the end of a citation when quoting an author. There are many ways of
quoting the author of the text. Referencing a given literary item in a classic way
required in promotional works (e.g. doctorate dissertation). the footnote should
include the initials and the last name of the author, a title, publishing company,
place of publishing, the year of release, and a page number, from which a given
citation, table, or graph is quoted. More often than not, however, in scientific
releases, we copy the reference style presented in the source, with the name
of the author, date, and page provided in brackets, under the assumption that
the rest of the information is included in the literature list. Similarly, the name
of the author as well as the date is given when we want to emphasize that a
given issue is raised by an author. This is called a reference for a literary item.
If the citation is taken from a magazine, we also need to give the page
numbers where the cited article has been published. This information shows
that when running their own literature, records require, from the start, a careful
selection of information that will simplify later referencing.
The literature list should include all the literary items used in a given work
or pertaining to the problems similar to our subject matter. One should not
include works that bear no connection to the research at hand. If there are
several works by the same author and the same year, the subsequent works
are marked with a, b, etc. (e.g. 2013a, 2013b).
Field Trip, Walkthrough

The objects "walkthrough" and "field trip" are widely used in architecture
research. It allows for initially acquainting oneself with the object and establishing
197 D
the basic problems for research. This is the first step of every evaluation
research that precedes the research proper and the diagnostic stage.
Sightseeing the researched object (building, urban areal-field trip, walk-
through-is characteristic for historical evaluation and predesign research.
A field trip is based on the general walkthrough of the building or an estate
by the researcher, a group of researchers, most often in the company of an
administrator, and people engaged in the management and maintenance of the
estate. During the walkthrough, all the interesting facts from the point of view
of the research purpose are registered. In the qualitative research, these would
be functional incorrectness (mistakes), noticed or reported by the administrators
SKATE-PARK
SKATE-PARK - RECREATIONAL PARK "KRAKOWSKI SQUARE", Gliwice, realization 2000
singular steel devices

were used l'.L\ - high ramp
~ - colored ramps
0 - noise ?uring driving

- corrosion
- paint peeling away
Quality and observational research

SKATE-PARK - RECREATIONAL PARK ' TROPICAL ISLAND", Marklowice, realization 2007
singular concrete devices

were used l'.L\ - high durability
Increase In usabllity ~ - quieter than a steel one
and technical quality
higher level of comfort, 0 - surface hardness
attractivenes
and durability "'4
Quality and observational research
SKATE-PARK - RECREATIONAL PARK "GIRAFFE", Rydultowy, realization 2010
singular devices made from

waterproof plywood were used l'.L\ - high quality of ride
~ - cushioning of the fall
increase in usability
"' ~--~ higher level of comfort
0 -
-; .=~
• r'
'-
! . ~ ·,~
....,,_
~··
~
:
...
.,
and attractiveness
decrease In technical
less durability
; C .,.,-.;..
;·.. ,.
quality/durability
Quality and observational research Figure 7.3

SKATE-PARK - RECREATIONAL PARK "BAGRY", Przezchleble, design 2010 The technique for
recoding
monolitic theme park information during
was used l'.L\ - high quality of ride field inspection used
increase in usability ~ - high attractiveness
by Fross in
higher level of comfort
and attractiveness
high costs '-,,.
0 - high cost of construction
predesign
qualitative research
of realization ~ Source: Fross (2012,
p . 202, Figure 70)
198 D
and users, in terms of the building's technical, functional, behavioral, organi-

zational, or economic categories, as well as researchers' personal remarks (as
illustrated in Figure 7.3). On the basis of the viewing, a report is made in which
suggestions for conducting expertise or further research are included, as well
as the reasons for irregularities and proposals for removing them or com-
pensating in the event of not being able to change them. In historical research,
a report includes remarks on noticed changes that stray from the original project,
stylistic changes, or maintenance condition.
Reports of the viewing are used for planning further research, especially in
research conducted on the basis of grounded theory, where the research
design progresses along with their development. The object inspection pro-
vides many clues on further research to be performed. For example, the object
inspection report is used in qualitative research for planning further research
techniques such as focused meetings, as well as interviews with chosen
building representatives or owners, whose aim will be finding answers for
questions raised by the report.
Collecting Documents, Artifacts, Photographs, Drawings, etc.

Collecting documents, artifacts, photographs, and drawings are techniques
accompanying most architecture research, especially historical. Archive research
is the basis for those, where one can find the original design documentation, as
well as information on the design and realization process and further information
on the investigated object. In the archives, one can find additional information on
historical objects at the times of their erection, as well as data on functional
change, renovations, or extensions.
The gathering of artifacts pertains mostly to archaeological and anthropo-
logical research, where the artifact's analysis can lead to important discoveries
in the history of development of human civilization .
The natural techniques that accompany architects in their research are
photography, filming, and drawing. Photography and filming allow for registering
the existing state of the object or urban complex, which makes it easier to
produce a description of the investigated object in the workplace, thus avoiding
the necessity for on-site visits. They allow one to state, following traces of
destruction or dereliction, in what way the object was or is used. A similar role
is played by thumbnail sketches of architectural details or ways of usage.
Photography and filming, as well as sketches of the behavior of the users at a
given place, help with understanding the needs of the users; they make it
possible to evaluate whether the space is properly shaped in the context of the
needs.
The technique of gathering and archiving documents, photographs, and
drawings must be carefully thought through in order to access them easily,
whenever needed for reference. Currently, computer archiving of all documents
seems to be the easiest and relatively cheap in comparison with storing them
on paper. However, owing to the volatility of virtual technology, especially
199 C
precious materials should be stored in their original form, in properly prepared

archives. Figure 7.4
Photography:
(a) heat leakage in
Measurements installations of an
intelligent building
Measurement is another basic research technique characteristic of many using the
sciences, above all technical. Measurement means a series of activities from thermovisual
common enumerating objects, through using many various measurement photographic
measurements;
instruments, from the simplest (e.g. measuring tape) to the most advanced and
(b) measurement of
complicated electronic devices that calculate the number of physical or chemical light intensity using
reactions in a given time unit. an illuminometer
In architecture, we count objects and their assembly parts, equipment, Source: Photo
prepared by K. Fross
users, frequency of certain processes, etc. The height of rooms and other
during the field trip in
parameters are measured, which are then used in qualitative research. For the office building 1n
measuring certain normative indicators, such as lighting, air quality, noise levels, Warsaw in 2000
heat loss in the buildings before thermo-modernizing, etc., standardized
measuring devices are used (see Figure 7.4).
Practically all scientific research includes elements of measurement
techniques, and it is often the most important element in research and its
objectivization. A typical example of a measurement in architecture is an
inventory of buildings and rooms. Owing to the fact that it is the basic type of
measurement in architecture and has a rich literature, there is no reason for
further analysis in this work.
Statistical techniques can also be included in measurements used in on-
site analyses, which are based on measuring specific figures that pertain to the
percentage calculation of environmental indicators (e.g. the percentage of people
living in detached houses, people using bicycle tracks, etc.).
Statistical Techniques and Surveys

Statistical analyses as research techniques accompanying other research
methods (e.g. qualitative, case study type, etc.) are commonly used in science,
albeit developed recently, only in the nineteenth century. This technique consists
of gathering and ordering scientific facts (data and information) referring to
200 D
a tested system, phenomenon, or process in the form of a percentage, which

undergoes statistical and comparative tests.
The quantitative data collected during research are used for drawing
conclusions from selected features of statistical elements. It usually pertains
to the interdependence problem that is the correlation of two or more variables.
Among the tactics of gathering data, the most often used one is research,
review, or control questionnaires, if the research is repeated in monitoring.
Therefore, representative and partial opinion surveys are used interchangeably
with correlation research.
A particularly popular technique in social studies is a survey and question-
naire interview. "Survey is a research technique, whereby written answers to
questions are given. Those answers create a conscious, logical, sequential and
coherent set of questions aimed at solving a particular thesis or a particular
research problem" (Apanowicz, 2003, p. 104). Survey and questionnaire
interviews use an enquiry form as a tool, with both open and closed questions.
The difference between those two methods lies in the technique of filling out
a questionnaire. The former requires the respondent to fill out the questionnaire
themselves. In a questionnaire interview, it is the researcher who fills out the
form in a direct conversation with the respondent. In survey and questionnaire
interviews, we can elicit the following information:
• the frequency of a given feature to appear, and deviation cofactors (e.g.

the percentage of housing buildings in the city made in prefabricated
technology inhabited by the elderly and deviations from this norm, that is,
made of brick or wood, inhabited by the same age group); and
• the correlation of two or more different features (e.g. what percentage of
people want to live in detached houses, and in what way this is correlated
with income, age, sex, education, etc.).
Zeise I (1981, Chapter 10) lists problems to consider when formulating a

standardized questionnaire or interview:
1. quality research (data control, questionnaire testing, rigorous relevant

question stating);
2. research organization (report, adjusting the instrument to the needs,
workload) ;
3. coding of open and closed questions (mutual exclusion, 3 depth of cognition,
and a singular layer of abstraction pertaining to the precision in formulating
answers to the questionnaire);
4. precoding responses (nominal, closed option responses, directed responses
in the form of three-, five-, and seven-point scales or limiting the scope,
etc.); and
5. the way of visual presentation of the problem and data from the research
(maps, drawings, photographies, games).
201 D
Statistical research can be used both in qualitative and quantitative research . In

qualitative research, we obtain information on functional and behavioral needs
of a specified group of users with simultaneous quantitative information on
statistical figures in terms of the declared needs (e.g. what percentage of
inhabitants in the country or city expect the district to have a physical exercise
place for the youth, what percentage expect senior houses, and any qualitative
parameters). Therefore, they are used to describe and capture the relations
between commonly shared variables (e.g. the connection between the number
of people in a given environment, their behaviors, area size) and a feeling of
community among the inhabitants. On the basis of statistical data obtained in
questionnaire research, one can define correlations existing between more
than two factors (e.g. one can reveal the connection between the age, handi-
cap, sex, education, and expectations of the place of inhabitation) . To find the
correlations, there are instruments used by sociologists, such as the computer
program SPSS.
When conducting research that requires the use of a statistical algorithm,
one should define the following aspects:
• Define the investigated community (e.g. citizens of a city or district,

recreational area users, etc.), including all the variables and their factors
(e.g. social structure of a given community) .
• Choose the trial commun ity on which the pilot research shall be made (see
section 7.4).
• Prepare the techniques of data collection (e.g. some data can be acquired
from the city hall or other institutions).
• Prepare the way of editing and presenting the data.
At the end of the research, one should prepare results (e.g. through computer
statistics programs) and prepare the conclusions and their interpretations.
Such investigations allow for defining the importance of the problem,
connected with the frequency of occurrence of a given phenomenon ; it speaks
to the state of the built environment, its quality, and maladjustments. An
example of such research are the data of the Statistical Yearbook of the Central
Statistical Office, which provides, for example, the factors of statistical satisfac-
tion of housing needs, flat equipment quality, etc. The data from statistical
research are most often used in urban research, planning revitalization and
urban development, owing to a significant scale in such research, since large-
scale survey research (a few hundred questionnaires) allows one to f ind
correlations and generalizations.
Considering the high usefulness and relatively reliable source of information,
questionnaire techniques are used in environmental research, where we want
to learn about the needs of users of a given urban area or a group of objects
with the same functions and similar parameters (size, installations used, etc.),
which allow comparison of the perception of given solutions by the users.
202 D
We use this technique if there is no other way to obtain reliable information and
we are certain that the users group chosen for the questionna ire is capable of
answering the questions responsibly and to the point. Therefore, the formulation
of questions in terms of content and form is of crucial importance. Inappropriate
questions, in form or content. will result in unreliable data. The questions must
be designed to be understandable (they should not be difficu lt and include
jargon-like terms, e.g. one should not implement architectural vocabulary, since
it is incomprehensible for people outside the community) and be adjusted to
the intellectual capacity of the group. The questions should not suggest an
answer (e.g. Do you th ink the building you live in is unsuitable for little children?).
Owing to the ever-present doubts as to the honesty and objectivity of the
answers acquired, one should take precautions and verify the data by using
control questions (e.g. when we ask if the respondent thinks there should be
a bicycle way leading to a shopping center, a control question in this case would
be whether this person has a bicycle and would like to ride it to the shop).
The questions in the questionnaire should be ordered in a logical sequence,
that is, from the general to the specific, from the easier questions to the harder
ones.
Another important cond it ion of the success of this type of research is the
way of preparing the question form-print ed, legible, with a preamble and
instruction explaining how the form should be f illed out (see Appendix 1). The
way of presenting the questionnaires to the respondents should be well planned
and potentially preceded by information on the time and place of their collection.
The advantage of using questionnaires is the fast pace of research and
high workability of the research process, as well as the high level of reliability.
The downside of it, especially in arch itecture in terms of a bu ilding, is its
inadequacy. A low number of respondents makes it difficult to find correlations.
Moreover, a low response rate (of 25-30 percent) is the biggest drawback of
surveying (enquiring) . Nevertheless, distribution of those questionna ires by
investigators, as well as the system of questionnaire-based interviews, can fix
that problem as there is an almost 100 percent response rate.
In a questionnaire, one receives answers to the research questions t hat
can be divided into:
• Closed, limited questions, w ith answers YES, NO, or I DON 'T KNOW.
Alternatively, FOR, AGAINST, ABSTAIN, or other unambiguous answers.
• Half-open: in this category, the answer OTHER is also included. A respond-
ent can provide any answer of their own, if the prepared set does not
reflect their opinion .
• Conjunctive: allows for choosing and providing a few answers (often w it h
the ordering choice) , including own answers.
• Disjunctive: allows for choosing only one answer from the pool.
(Apanowicz, 2003, p. 106)
203 D
Preparing a questionnaire and the process itself is not an easy task, and requires
vast experience and skill. The way of communicating via a questionnaire can
assume various forms: (1) via providing a questionnaire to the respondents
directly, by the poll-takers; (2) via post; and (3) via telephone interviews. The
last form resembles a poll rather than a questionnaire. More and more often,
questionnaires reach their respondents through the Internet.
Prior to the preparation of the questionnaire, one should take into con-
sideration some key issues (Groat and Wang, 2002, p. 221, Figure 8.15), such
as:
• Goals that we wish to meet, and which include specification of main

questions and research terms, as well as the intention of each question.
• Answer formats, a type of closed format research cafeteria, which suggests
answers, semi-open questions, semi-closed questions, and semi-closed
questions with the option of an independent answer given by the
respondent.
• Clarity of expressions applied in questions makes for the use of short
sentences, avoidance of two issues in one question, negative questions
(no, never), ambiguous words, and use of a language in which there is no
hint of threat.
• Bringing order to the questions, that is, a use of logical thematic sequences,
starting the survey with some interesting questions that do not pose an
intellectual challenge; the most important questions should not be put at
the end of the survey.
• Instructions for people taking the survey with an explanation of the whole
surveying process and the context, delivery of a user's manual to the
respondent, as well as information as to where he or she should turn over
the survey.
• Ethics, which means ensuring confidentiality among respondents.
Owing to the technical problems arising while building a questionnaire and the
interpretation of the results, it is useful for architects to use the knowledge of
experienced sociologists in the process.
In making quantitative, statistical research, the following survey techniques
are used (Apanowicz, 2003, p. 86) :
• One-time surveys on an unweighted sample. They consist of choosing every

nth unit from a given sample group (e.g. every nth flat in a building, every nth
building in a district, etc.) .
• One-time surveys on a weighted sample.4 The choice of sample in this case
is randomized, its representativeness is raised, which bears significance
from the point of view of the needs of researchers (e.g. all flats occupied by
the disabled, singles, etc.).
204
• Contrastive sample surveys. In this case, we consider the extreme cases

to compare them (e.g. flats in secured districts, flats in social buildings,
etc.).
• Repetitive surveys, that is, monitoring, where we periodically check the
researched parameters as to their variability over time (e.g. the opinion of
a flat right after moving in, after a year, after a few years, and regularly
every couple of years).
The greatest advantage of survey research is the fact that it allows for
discovering a large amount of information-from demographic characteristics,
through behavioral customs, up to the opinions and attitudes toward certain
subjects. Moreover, the information is collected from a larger group of people
in a limited time period (up to a few thousand in large survey research). Such
an influx of information is connected, however, with flattening the possibilities
of understanding the problems researched. The depth of understanding is
greater (e.g. when using qualitative research strategies and supplementing
them with focus group or individual interviews). Nonetheless, the long-standing
popularity of survey tactics still constitutes the proof of usefulness of this
technique in many circumstances.
Upon completing the field research and returning the questionnaires, one
has to analyze the results and conclusions, their interpretation, and usefulness.
Depending on the usage of a given computer program, the effect of survey
research can be the following: nominal data, ordinal data, interval data, ratio
data.
In survey research multidimensional scaling, weighting is also used when
we want to find out what the hierarchy of choice value is. In such cases, we
provide a few answers for a given question with aims to mark the order of
choices (see questions 13 and 37 in Table 7.2).
In the presented fragment of the survey, 5 in closed question 13, one had
to assess their satisfaction in a seven-point scale, while question 36 is a multiple-
choice question. Of the 12 chosen categories, one had to point to the three
most important ones for the respondent in the order of 1 to 3. Question 37 is
also a multiple-choice question, without the necessity to define the value of the
answers provided, and there is one open question, where the respondent can
enter their expectations, where the researcher is not able to predict, and can
assume the respondents will have additional expectations.
The analyses' results are typically represented graphically in the form of
various charts (e.g. pie chart, bar chart, etc., and other variations, which reflect
the needs of the architecture researchers) or in tables.
The bar chart presented in Figure 7.5 and Table 7.3 are the result of survey
research performed in a PolSenior research project, 6 and presents the problem
of architectural and technical barriers in buildings inhabited by investigating
persons in the aforementioned project (Niezabitowska et al., 2013).
205 C-
0. 37 What kind of apartment would better meet your expectations? Indicate your 3 or 4 most important expectations.
D 1 bigger-please specify the area ........ .
D 2 more rooms-how many? .. ...... .
D 3 with separate toilet. with two bathrooms
D 4 with bigger kitchen
D 5 with living room
D 6 with living room joined with kitchenette
D 7 with balcony, terrace, loggia
D 8 with individual room to work
D 9 with room accessible from the outside, to run own business
D 10 on what floor? .... ... . .
D 11 with which cardinal direction relative to the sun? . . .... . . .
D 12 adapted for the disabled
D 13 other, what kind of .... .. .. .
;ource: Niezabitowska et al. (2011-2012)
Table 7.2 Example questions from the questionnaire concerning the evaluation of housing conditions in settlements in Katowice, Poland
0 .13 How much is Mr./Ms. (d1s-)satisfied with the following conditions of life on this estate?
Please indicate your assessment using the scale, from 1 (very high satisfaction) to 7 (very big disappointment).
1 Settlement's equipment with shops 01 02 03 04 05 06 07
2 Settlement's equipment with nurseries and kindergartens 01 02 03 04 05 06 07
3 Settlement's equipment with playgrounds 01 02 03 04 05 06 07
4 Settlement's equipment with recreational facilities for youth 01 02 03 04 05 06 07
5 Access to a medical clinic and health services 01 02 03 04 05 06 07
6 Settlement's equipment with recreational and educational facilities for adults 01 02 03 04 05 06 07
7 Street lighting 01 02 03 04 05 06 07
8 Safety and security of habitants 01 02 03 04 05 06 07
9 Operation of public transport 01 02 03 04 05 06 07
10 Connections to the city center 01 02 03 04 05 06 07
11 Settlement's cleanliness and garbage disposal 01 02 03 04 05 06 07
0 .36 Imagine a perfect apartment (i.e. fully meets Mr./Ms. needs). What would be the most important?
Please mark at every opportunity if you include it as one of the three priorities (1st the most important, 2nd quite important, and 3rd the least
important). The numbers assigned to specific features (1, 2, 3) should be inserted in the selected fields (on the basis of your priorities).
Priority No
A Nice and accommodating neighbors
B Size of rooms
C Number of rooms
D Comfortable living conditions
E The layout of the apartment
F Enough space for storage, warehousing things
G Proper location with convenient municipal transportation
H Low levels of pollution and noise
I Affordably priced rent
J Low heating costs
K Building and flat friendly for seniors and the disabled (barrier-free)
L Shortage of onerous companies and manufacturing plants in the area
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 Figure 7.B
The respondents'
Architectural barriers at home age and opinions
hampering leaving outside of the PolSenior
project regarding
Feeling the lack of the safety on
the architectural
account of the technical condition ... and technical
o 55-59 years barriers making
The building has a lift the habitation of
■ 65-69
given buildings
There is an access through drives, the difficult (in percent)
070-74
wide door or the lift for a wheelchair
Source:
The building has a possibility of the 075-79 N1ezabitowska et al.
automatic door opening (2013, p. 98,
■ 80-84
Figure 10)
The building has none of such
085-89
conveniences
■ 90 and more
A dinette is missing in the flat
A bathroom in the flat or the house is

missing
C') Table 7.3 Differentiation of the type of buildings inhabited by the elderly, related to the age of inhabitants
Age cohorts Type of building inhabited by the respondent
Single Single Multifamily Multistory Social Non- Other

family, family, house block of welfare residential
one-story two-story (municipal/ flats (five home building
house house (or private floors or (establish- (substitute
multistory) multifamily more) ment of premises,
tenement permanent e.g. cell,
house, residence, basement)
communal, long-term
cooperatives) care)
55-59 years 23.0 23.5 35.3 15.5 0.0 0.1 2.6

65-69 years 28.8 19.9 33.9 15.3 0.4 0.0 1.7
70-74 years 30.0 20.9 31.9 15.0 0.4 0.1 1.7
75-79 years 32.1 22.0 28.1 15.2 0.0 0.4 2.3
80-84 years 33.9 22 .2 28.9 12.3 0.2 0.0 2.4
85-89 years 35.9 23 .1 24.4 13.5 0.6 0.0 2.6
90+ years 30.7 20.5 30.7 14.8 1.1 0.0 2.3
Total data without 31 .5 22.8 30.5 12.4 0.1 0.4 2.2
weighting
Total data 28.4 21 .8 32.3 15.0 0.2 0.1 2.2
weighted

Note: The table summarizes a PolSenior nationwide survey; data in percent.
208 D
ii]
-
6. How would you rate posalblltty of adjustment or change of the
l(AlEDRA ARCHITEKTURY OBIEKTOW BIUROWYCH lighting conditions In your workplace?
1s1RAlEGII PROJEKTOWANIA : :: 1
tfl"(OZJAL ,AJtOHITa,tTUIIO" ,-OUTI.CHHll'<I .U\,SKIIIJ W CIUWICACH
@ @@@
CONDITIONS AROUND WORKPLACE 7. How would you rate posslblllty of protection from sunlight glare In
your worl<place?
rm
Please marl< the smile adequate to your evaluation ~ @@@@· ~
•
, . How would you rate air quality (temperature, humidity) In your
worl<plece In winter?
·-
@@@@
6. How would you rate noise In your workplace?
2 How would you rate air quality (temperature, humidity) in your 9. What produces the most intensive noise In your worl<place?
·-
worl<place In surmier?
@@ ®@ -e Please specify
-
J How would you rete possibility of adjustment or change of the air
- +/
conditions In your workplace1
Please mark within the boxes
@ @
- @ @ , •• 10. Indicate which advantage of windows you consider to be the most Important
In a worl<place? (Check two)
4 How would you rate the amount of natural light In your worl<place?
D none
O lets you see what's going on
D enables fresh air to enter
D makes the room appear more spacious
O provides a change of view or a break In the monotony
·-
5. How would you rats the artlflclal lighting In your workplace?
@@@@
Figura 7.8 Graphic representations of the survey can vary and the choice of answer
The survey was
can be easier and more legible when the emotional attitude toward the problem
used in the research
of the Department
can be represented graphically, as presented by Figure 7.6. The pictograms
of Architecture of made it easier for the respondents to understand the problem at hand. The
Office Space and questionnaire was used for the research of the wrc
building in Warsaw (Poland)
Design Strategy of
Silesian University
in 2000, where a lot of foreigners worked.
ofTechnology Typically, the graphic form and questions are fitted for the age and
(Gliwice, Poland) in intellectual level of the respondents. Special types of respondents are, for
the research of WFC
example, children . In such cases, both the questionnaire and the way of its
in Warsaw in 2000
presentation are of crucial importance here. The questions and their graphic
Source: Masty (2009,
pp. 124-125) representations must be adjusted to the intellectual level of a given group (e.g.
illiterate children, primary school children). In Figure 7.7, the fragment of results
of such a survey is presented, as performed by a student (Kurzydto, 2002),
under the supervision of the author of this book, within the MA research study
entitled The Programming Conception of a Model of an Integrative Primary
School. The table presents questions in the form used for work with children.
It should be noted that the way the questions were constructed reflects the
intellectual level of the children of the primary schools.
The advantages of survey research are the simplicity of defining the rela-
tionship between two or more naturally occurring variables, and establishing
foreseeable relationships between variables, which means the possibility of
forecasting changes in the future. Some weaknesses of such questionnaires
are the impossibility of controlling the levels or ranges of variables, which
209 D
I have enough space In my class In my class It la easy for me to pay There Is such a place at school wher Figure 7.7
attention during the lesson I can go when I want to be alone A fragment of the
results from the
survey carried out
,;; ~:.. . by Kurzydto (2002)
;~..,,..
'Coli., .
...
I have a place for my things Furniture In our class la placed In My class la just the right size-It'•
(cloakroom, locker, table) such a way that It is easy to work neither too small nor too large
to ther
Tak -yes; Nie -no
makes it difficult to recognize the discovered phenomenon, and we cannot

establish the causality.
In architectural research, some important questions are: What was the
solution and how does it work? Why was it solved in such a way and why
does it work the way it does? Therefore, the survey does not always fulfill the
expectations and usually requires a deeper search by checking the results w ith
other research techniques. In field research in architecture, surveying allows for
a general orientation in the existing problems in the environment. Therefore,
very often, some issues require in-depth interviews directed at a specific group
of respondents.
Correlations
Correlation research consists of comparing a few variables that stand in the
central research interest. Contrary to experimental research-where the
variables are deliberately manipulated by the researchers-in correlational
research one searches for the naturally occurring relations between the vari-
ables. It is particularly important in circumstances where the variables cannot
be changed because of practical reasons, or should not be manipulated because
of ethics.
Correlational research is typically the effect of statistical analysis resulting
from the survey research, where one can compare many variables simulta-
neously and find connections between them. In correlational studies, one looks
for the descriptions of relationships/dependencies between key variables.
Therefore, one has to define the correlation factor, which in numbers informs
us of the level that the variables are dependent (or interdependent) on each
other.
In the basic correlation research of two variables, where at least one
variable (independent) is measurable (expressed in the quotient or range scale),
the r-Pearson correlation factor is implemented. It is used to measure the
strength and direction of relationships between an independent variable and
210 □
one or more dependent variables. The factor can assume the value from -1.00
to + 1.00. Therefore, we can differentiate the following correlations:
1. positive, where both variables show a strong positive correlation (the

mutual influence of both variables can increase or decrease in value in a
given time frame);
2. negative, where as value of one variable increases, the value of the other
decreases, and vice versa; and
3. no correlations, where there is no connection between the variables and
the value factor equals 0.
In such a distribution of dependent or independent variables, it is the researcher

who makes the final decision on the basis of theoretical and subject matter
hypotheses.
In research on correlations between variables expressed in nominal and
ordinal scales, tests for interdependence (conformity) of qualitative variables
should be applied. One of the most popular measures of codependence is
the chi-square test. The gist of this test is to verify the zero hypothesis of no
correlations between two variables (for more about the chi-square test, see
Babbie, 2009).
Correlation research is usually the result of survey analyses or experiments
(the researcher manipulates the variables) or observations where the researcher
observes the occupants' behaviors changing as a result of an arrangement
change of a given space.
Within correlation research, the connections between human activities in
a given object and the need for space with given parameters and equipment
play a significant role in spatio-functional programming. When knowing the
connection between the specific needs of a given group of occupants, it is
easier to choose the right design solution. For example, in the universal design
idea, the correlations between health state, physical condition, and age have
been compared with specific difficulties in self-sufficient functioning in the
environment. On the basis of such research, one can analyze information
necessary "here and now" for the project, or, with wider research, norms
simplifying the programming for a given type of object are prepared.
In correlation research, a wide range of data collection and analytic
techniques are implemented. Groat, as an example of correlation research,
quotes J . Kim's research on the differences of sense of community in a new
district and a conventional one (Kentlan and Orchard Village) in the US, and an
attempt at grasping which of the design factors influences that. Kim stated that
the sense of community is created by four basic factors : (1) sense of attachment;
(2) social interaction; (3) pedestrianism; and (4) sense of identity. On the basis
of those factors, Kim concluded multiple physical indicators for both districts as
"independent variables" and the perception of the sense of community by the
occupants as a "dependent variable." His research has a lot in common with
211 □
the experimental strategy, where the causative power of the variables, or a set
of variables, is sought after to establish measurement results (Groat and Wang,
2002, p. 212). In the questionnaire for the occupants, 17 design indicators that
influence those components were established.
According to Groat, Kim raised a few demographic questions. Thanks to
this, he estimated that the investigated districts are similar in almost all
demographic aspects. This has helped him to distinguish areas where key
subgroups (the occupants of various types of buildings) declared their sense of
community in different ways. The occupants of single-family houses and city
houses have shown a higher level of sense of community than the occupants
of apartments or condominiums.
Groat and Wang (2002, p. 212) distinguished two types of correlational
research:
1. relationship studies; and

2. causal-comparative studies.
Relationship studies are more focused specifically on the nature of and

foreseeing such dependencies. One such example can be the correlational
research by Oscar Newman (1972, 1976, 1981, 1996) on physical features of
the area, and the existence of criminal activity, which pertained to the structure
of buildings and criminal behavior. Newman (see Chapter 1, section 1.6) not
only defines the relationships between the environmental variables and
behavioral consequences (the increase of criminal activity), but also offers
possibilities to create design patterns, such as housing for low-income workers,
which implement "real and symbolic barriers, strongly defined areas of influence,
and improved opportunities for surveillance," which provides chances for
lowering the criminal activity factors (following Groat and Wang, 2002, p. 213).
In correlation research, we have therefore to deal with typical statistical
analyses of a descriptive and conclusive type. Although correlation studies
search for relationships between key variables, the correlation study in archi-
tecture is focused more on the nature and the power of prediction of these
relationships, which is particularly necessary in designing, specifically in func-
tional programming.
Comparative Studies
Comparative studies is a field of science that deals with comparative research,
establishing dependencies, relationships, and analogies.
It developed in the nineteenth century in France as an instrument used to

compare literary texts. Currently, comparative studies are characteristic for all
the sciences. Its task is to seek broader connections and generalizations of
existing phenomena in a given field of knowledge, or a chosen aspect of such.
Such actions are undertaken both in historical and qualitative studies, POE,
212 D
and multiple case studies; therefore, they can be treated as a research technique
or a method, if the aim of the research is only comparison .
In architecture, they consist of an analysis of the phenomena and features
to be researched that are present in built environments similar to each other in
terms of functionality and other aspects, in order to establish all the similarities
and differences. Comparative research, therefore, has to do with comparing
phenomena, facts, and objects that are similar or contrasting to each other.
Comparison's aim is to isolate characteristic features for a given type of object
or event. We try to compare them both qualitatively and quantitatively, which
means, for example, in the context of the researched architectural objects,
we can compare them quantitatively (the surface size, cubature, number of
occupants, number of inbuilt devices and instruments, etc.) or qualitatively on
terms of sun absorption, localization, esthetics, etc.
A condition for the veracity of the comparative research performed is the
right choice of the objects compared in terms of their existence, type, category,
Settlement Stolarskia street In Mikol6w, Poland Settlement Magnolia In Ruda laska Poland
Settlement Werbeny street in Jozefow
Figure 7.8
The example of
graph analysis in
comparative studies
Source: Pallado ettlement Magnolia and Sasledzka street in Krakow ettlement 'Glszowlec Kasztany" in Katowice
(2007, pp. 100-101,
Figure 4.2) 0- land develo ment built-u area· - trans ort' ■ - reene and recreation· ■· ardens
213 □
or form. One cannot compare architectural or urban objects that significantly

differ from each other in size (e.g. the center of a little town with the center of
a metropolis such as New York). A typical example of comparative studies is
"benchmarking," used in research on estates, which allows for establishing a
template for a building of a given type (e.g. office buildings, single-family house,
etc.) as expected on a local estate market. The expectations in this respect are
completely different (e.g. in a small town and in a capital city).
Comparative research in architecture results in the creation of solution
typology-creation of patterns. Typologies allow for defining, for example, what
features an object should have to perform a certain function or what type of
esthetic solutions would dominate in a given historical period. Comparative
studies of objects of a given function allow one to isolate useful or useless
features, which often are the accompanying element of programming research .
In this case, being a part of qualitative research allows one to eliminate incorrect
solutions or those that do not fulfill the needs of the users.
In Figure 7 .8 and Table 7.4, one can see demonstrated a comparative study
of flat districts designed and implemented by Pallado (2007) . These include
comparative graphic analyses connected with methods of site planning within
settlements and tables showing quantitative and statistical data concerning
basic information on the surface area and number of flats. The presented
studies possess a comparative nature, and are based on the opinions of experts.
They compare quantitative data concerning the area, flats, number of flats per
ha, and relations between numerical data and the space configuration.
Extending such investigations for users' opinions and analyzing the way of
functioning these settlements in the context of the surroundings, one can build
new patterns and concepts of design solutions, eliminating solutions that are
not accepted, and developing those that work well in practice.
Table 7 .4 The example of comparative quantitative data analyses in the form of tabular data
Settlements and housing Surface areas No. of No. of

complexes flats flats
Built-up area Transport Greenery Together per 7 ha
(ha) % (ha) % (ha) % (ha)
Stolarskia Street in Mikotow 0.64 21 1.53 49 0.92 30 3.09 168 54

"Magnolia " in Ruda Slaska 0.29 19 0.42 27 0.84 54 1.55 81 52
Cynkowa and Wysoka Street 0.43 14 1.41 44 1.32 42 3.16 160 51
in Ruda Slaska
Werbeny Street in J6zefow 0.31 21 0.58 39 0.61 41 1.50 1 .52 101
Magnolia and Sasiedzka Street 0.45 15 1.08 36 1.46 49 2.99 290 97
In Krakow
"Giszowiec Kasztany" in 0.49 29 0.62 37 0.58 34 1.69 200 118
Katowice
Source: Pallado (2007, pp. 102-103, Table 4.3)
214 C
Traditional comparative research was and still is performed in historical

research. One can compare objects through time (for a given period or epoch)
in terms of the usage of a given type of solutions and functional patterns, the
usage of certain details, the work of one artist, or compare the works of creators
of the same period. As a result, we can see a broader perspective of the
processes that govern the development of arch itecture. We can also learn of
the rules of repeatability of some phenomena. Moreover, we can also analyze
the influence of great architects, the direction in which various patterns are
spreading, etc. This means that we can formulate theories of architectural
development over the centuries, which can be found in books about the history
of architecture (e.g. S. Giedion and others).
In qualitative research, comparative studies enriched by the correlations
allow us to realize, for example, what the shaping of preferences is in terms of
the needs of the users with the relation to culture circle, education, sex, etc.
Such information has practical implications (e.g. for the developers and investors
of different parts of the world, or those directing their offer to people of different
material or educational status).
Generally, comparative analysis establishes dependencies, such as simi-
larity, contrast, and common features between the researched objects or issues
(e.g. the creations of given architects, stylistic features from the same time
period of different countries, constructions used and functional solutions, etc.) .
Such research allows one to search, measure, and compare the common ele-
ments in the researched objects or problems. The effects of such research
provide significant support for design and spatio-functional programming.
The basic task in planning comparative research is to define the area and
the scope of research, that is, the type of objects for research (e.g. the same
functions, constructions, sizes, detailed solutions, etc.), urban areas (e.g.
recreational areas, shopping centers, etc.), and features we would like to
compare (e.g. room sizes, installation equipment, circulation areas, etc.). Typical
comparative studies are made in the form of multiple case studies.
As mentioned earlier, the trap of such research is the comparing of objects
that do not correspond in scale (e.g. metropolis city centers and little town
centers, high buildings with one-story buildings, multifunctional buildings with
single-function buildings, buildings of the same function in different climate
conditions, etc.), since the conclusions of these types of comparisons are a
priori stained with a deep methodological error. 7 On the basis of false research
assumptions, one draws falsified conclusions and builds models that have no
reflection in practice. It pertains mainly to urban programming assumptions
(e.g. the center planned does not function in the right way, since the number
of occupants is inadequate for the business, or a new office building gets
demolished since the locational conditions do not reflect the needs of office
buildings, such as difficult access and area navigation, no parking spaces,
dangerous district, etc.).
21s n
Table 7.5 Exterior staircase as structural barriers in the urban space of Tysi~clecie estate in Katowice by
Komar (2014) (part of the comparative studies on the Polish-German Project no. 2010-21 )
Structural barriers
Barrier Picture Possibilities for modernization
Staircase in the • Build access rails or a ramp, a lift for

entrance area into wheelchairs, or allow the use of
a residential building mobile rails or ramps
without ramps or • Enable movement for all
access rails • Inability to modernize according to
the applicable regulations
2 Exterior staircase • The use of permanent access rails

without ramps or • Build a ramp
access rails • Level the land
3 Exterior staircase • Renovation of existing space using

with neglected or new rails or ramps
fragmentary
ramps or access
rails
)n comparative studies, typically research selects dedicated types of people

or physical environment and collects data of various important variables. The
aim of such comparable cases is to isolate a factor or factors, which can reveal
the reason for the existence of significant differences on the level of measurable
variables . Comparative studies require the usage of many various additional
research techniques, including collecting data on the environments compared
(urban or architectural, along with their occupants), surveys, observation,
mapping (of behaviors and the ways of usage). data sorting, archive research,
as well as multivariate analyses and multilayer, multidimensional scaling.
Table 7.5 presents a fragment of multivariate comparative analyses of the
spaces chosen for the research of flat districts in Katowice and Leipzig 8 in
216
terms of fulfilling the needs of accessibility for everybody. In this research, all
of the existing structural and non-structural barriers are noted in the three
districts of Katowice and the Grunau district in Leipzig, and the solutions used
are compared. They were also analyzed in terms of multivariate possibilities of
modernization or the lack of such possibilities. The results of this research can
be used both to estimate the detailed terms for the design and modernization
of the existing solutions, and they can be directly used in the modernization of
the area by the housing cooperative of a given district.
In Table 7.6, the cited comparative studies of social nature that pertain to
the social order strongly correlated with the character of space made by the
architects. Table 7.6 presents one significant conclusion as to the urban space
design along with the equipment (the so-called urban furniture that facilitates
building relationships between neighbors and has a direct influence on safety).
As one can see, comparative research allows for the assessment and
diagnostics of the quality of the existing environment; it is a great tool for
perfecting design practice and creating a new quality framework in the rules.
Scaling Techniques
Scaling techniques are characteristic of qualitative methods, case studies,
correlation, and comparative studies, and their use in surveying and sorting.
The following scaling types are used:
• ranking;
• sums of points;
• couple comparisons;
• point scales (e.g. three-, five-, seven-, and more point scales);
Table 7 .6 Comparative study of the three housing environments investigated within the PolSenior sub-project.
on the features of social order
No. Housing environment Features of the social order
Settlement "super unit" · 1. Many older residents but not too tightly integrated
2. Rather good neighborhood-in the evaluation of the respondents
in Katowice
3. Deficits and gaps in neighboring networks complemented with the
activities of the Retired Association working at the estate
4. The presence of courting agencies-social stress
1. The relative homogeneity of residents' community
2 Rural settlement in
Poniszowice 2. Relatively isolated community
3 . Traces of the former self-sufficiency
4. Good proximity-in the evaluation of the respondents
5. Benches in front of the blocks-integrating the community
Postindustrial historical 1. A sense of hooliganism dangerfelt by older residents

3
settlement in Gliwice 2. In general, good neighborhood
3. Awareness of the proximity of numerous drunks and loud
misbehaving youth

'
~
217 D
Table 7 .7 The summary of the expert evaluation of the residence quality of the settlements investigated
within the PolSenior project
Poniszowice Gliwice Katowice

Criteria Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Location-the closest surrounding of the settlement
Access to services and public transport within a radius
of up to 300 m
Access to services and public transport within a radius
of up to 500 m
The size of the plot
Current development of the plot
Land availability for people with disabilities
The technical condition of the building
State of the building maintenance
The level of building management (current repairs,
the search for ways to reduce maintenance costs,
the use of renewable energy)
The possibility of making changes in the structure
of the building
The availability of the building for people with
disabilities (lifts, ramps, wide passage)
The building equipment in additional features
s. The building equipment in the rooms or other spaces
favorable for social bonds
The entrance to the building-functional quality of the
solutions
Control of security (doorman, video cameras,
evacuation routes marking, fire protection solutions)
Territoriality (privacy of space gradation in the building)
The entrance to the apartment-functional quality
of the solutions
Hallway-assessment of spatial solutions
Bathroom-assessment of spatial solutions
Kitchen-assessment of spatial solutions
Rooms-assessment of spatial solutions
Balcony-assessment of spatial solutions
The view from the windows
The technical cond1t1on of residential premises
Premises' equipment with installations
The availability of housing for people with disabilities
The possibility of making changes in the layout of
residential premises
Note: Evaluation scale from 1 to 5: 1-unsatisfactory (none). 3-satisfactory, 5-very good
218
• semantic differential; and

• continuous scales.
In ranking, it is established which solution fulfills the agreed criteria in the best
way. In a survey, we typically ask the respondents which of the solutions fits
them best, including the rank from 1 to 3, 1 to 5, etc. (see Table 7.7) . The
indications to which of those are chosen by the largest group of respondents
are taken into consideration in further research. Ranking plays a reductional role
in the case of too many factors that appear in the research.
In point summary solutions, we have to establish if there are few options
to choose from, and opt for the best one or the one that is most suitable for
the respondents, that is, the one that was shown the most. This manner of
data reduction is also used in qualitative/quantitative research.
Couple comparisons, that is, sorting, consists in comparing two examples
with each other (e.g. in architectural research, the respondents compare two
photos of objects and choose one of them). In the next round of the comparison,
one takes into account the chosen ones and again compares them in twos.
During the comparison, the solutions assessed to be the worst are rejected,
and the rest are compared again until a winner is called.
In the process of ranking and summing up the opinions as well as pairwise
comparisons, every respondent must compare the structure or the criteria in
a direct way, and then order them in a particular way. In this way, even small
differences between the investigated objects and their features can be captured
and described. Ranking, however, is used as a supplementary technique of data
analysis, since it is not possible to precisely establish how the object is classified
as better than others.
Techniques with point scales, semantic differential, and continuous scales
are used frequently, owing to the fact that they allow one to compare the
results of various research if similar measurement scales have been used. We
typically use three-, five-, and seven-point scales. The most popular is the five-
point scale, also known as the Likert scale. Such a scale is symmetrical and has
a neutral point, as in Table 7.7.
The analyses using the scaling techniques simplify the establishment of
the best and most preferred solutions by the occupants.
Semantic Differential
Semantic differential, which is the scale of semantic differentiation, as a
quantitative technique, is used in research where we want to learn the opinions
of ordinary people, optionally the occupants of the same object or a group of
objects. It is used for quantitative assessment of the impression that the objects
make on the respondent.
In order to do that, one has to build sets of contrasting features for the
object, and the respondents should define to what degree the object can be
defined as (e.g. pretty or ugly, happy or depressing, open to the occupant or
219 C
Figure 7.9
1 5 l The semantic
differential of
MONOTONOUS j EXCITED defining the features
of buildings that
QUIET RESTLESS appeal to various
groups of usocial
BORING INTERESTING experts" in the
-I Ruda Sl{lska city
SAFE DANGEROUS center research
Source:
FRIENDLY OPPRESSIVE Niezabitowska and
Fross (2006, p. 57,
LIVELY SLUGGISH Figure 2)
CLEAN DIRTY
NICE UNPLEASANT
GLOOMY JOYFUL
COLORFUL COLORLESS
INVITING DISCOURAGING
MISCELLANEOUS "t•• SIMILAR
c--' RICHLY FORMED

/-.:
-. _ 1_ =---4---- POORLY FORMED
UNUSUAL 1 : COMMONPLACE
J -='-----1----+---
RICH DETAIL STRIPPED DETAIL
ELEGANT UNTASTEFUL
REGULARIZED UNREGULARIZED
SERIOUS AMUSING
MAJESTIC l MODEST
I WOULD LIKE TO
TAKE THE PLACE
I WOULD LIKE TO
LIVE THERE
--~ _j
I DO NOT LIKE SUCH
PLACES
I WOULD NOT LIKE

TO LIVE THERE
-t
2 3 4 5
Estimations by:
B - the staff of budgetary sphere
0 - In other spheres employee
S - Students of sociology
A - Students of archttecture
220 J
off-putting), what developmental tendencies are valid, and what direction they
take, etc. An example of this type of scale is the assessment of some expected
features in the Wirek center design (see Figure 7.9).
In this case, the differential was designed on the basis of survey answers
of the chosen groups of inhabitants in Ruda Slctska (Poland). The conclusions
refer to designing a specific urban area, on the basis of the inhabitants' opinion
as experts.
Semantic differential is also called a semantic scale, or Osgood's scale,
after the name of its creator, American psychologist Charles E. Osgood.
Semantic differential is a question format (used mainly in sociology) used for
researching the assessment of a phenomenon. It is built on a scale that usually
has five to seven points. The respondents must assess a given phenomenon
by choosing the intensity of two contrasting issues (e.g. very posit ive and very
negative). Semantic differential is used in architectural studies in order to learn
the preferences of a researched group of people. Typically, it has to do w ith the
assessment of the esthetic quality of a given object. On the basis of semantic
differential, one can conclude what the expectations of the occupants of a
given area or object are when making design decisions (e.g. the changing of
elevation, or in the case of the Wirek studies, as to the architectural character
of the planned center) .
Observations
Observation research consists of a directed observation of people's behaviors
in a built environment, as well as the environment itself and changes occurring
there.
An observation of an investigated object is one of the most important research

techniques used in field research, including the qualitative ones. 9 Observationa l
research can be treated as a holistic research method when its aim is to identify
a given environment in a holistic and revealing manner using various techniques.
It can also be a research technique included in the qualitative research in order
to supplement data, etc. Owing to the fact that observations are frequently
used in architectural research as its component part, they should treated as a
technique, not a method.
Observation research is largely presented by the earlier cited John Zeise!
in his book Inquiry by Design, in the first edition of 1981 and an extended
edition in 2006, and treated as an independent research method. In the book,
types of observation have been presented, along w ith their notation, t riangu-
lation techniques, which are the ones to check and verify this type of research
by participation of the occupants in the survey, focused meetings, and
interviews. Zeise! distinguishes, as separate techniques, the observations of
traces and people's behaviors in a given environment.
Generally, the observation method is aimed at collecting data of the physical
nature of the architectural or urban environment, as well as observing the
behaviors of users in the investigated environments.
221 l
Zeise! (2006, Chapter 8) states that observation of physical traces of usage

should be discrete and may relate to permanent usage (occurring permanently
7
or repeatedly, easy to observe). The changes are recorded by means of photo-
graphing, sketching-sketch of a layout with remarks-through calculation and
note-taking based on a diagram of the components of the observed environment
(e.g. by means of marking the furniture on the layout). Observation research
connected with the observation of physical traces should be prepared discretely;
it should be easy to make and ensure conditions for permanent observation. To
record observations, one can use the following tools: diagrams with notes,
figures, photographs, and enumerations. According to Zeise! (2006), one should
find traces that the object or the environment was used. Then ways of adapting
it to the new form of usage should be noted down. Finally, ways of presenting
and conveying the information about the owner or the occupant of the object,
as well as the external context of the occupant, should also be identified.
What do we look for in the environment as marks of its usage? These
are the level of physical depreciation of an investigated object, things that are
unexpectedly used in a given place, and adaptations of objects or interiors for
other usage. This can be achieved by a different presentation of the occupant
or occupants by means of marking one's own territory or by leaving information
about a user's status (e.g. different, richly decorated front door, etc.).
We can obtain useful information on the ways of using an object by
observing the marks of the building usage. Stairs with worn out treads can bear
witness to a high intensity of their usage or their low material quality. Paths
marked on lawns testify to an improper attitude of the architect to the footpaths
project in the surroundings. Damp patches on the building fronts speak of the
unprofessional detail finishing or mistakes of the designer. This type of
information allows for the inclusion of corrections in modernization projects or,
more broadly, for conclusions in the designing process in itself (e.g. experiences
with steamed up plastic windows have caused the need to introduce their
separation).
Here are some examples of marks depicted by Zeise! (2006, Chapter 8):
• Byproduct of use: evidence of damage, such as remnants of food, mis-

leading marks (e.g. lack of use; it may be that the room is unnecessary,
lack of information on the information board may mean that the company
is malfunctioning, or that it is not there) (Zeise!. 2006, p. 171 ).
• Adaptations for use such as stage props, internal divisions, separation, and
the connections between the rooms (Zeise!, 2006, p. 173).
• Displays of self (expressing yourself): personalization of space through an
individual development or identification (e.g. by putting a sticker, piece of
decoration or other distinctive features on the front door), marking the
space used by a specific group with a sports club flag, or by placing a
banner in front of the building of a company (Zeise!, 2006, p. 175).
222 D
• Public messages: official information or a warning about excavation works

or other dangers, an unofficial piece of public information (e.g. ads on
fences, illegal information such as graffiti painted on the walls of a
company's seat, etc.) (Zeisel, 2006, p. 177).
Similarly, with reference to observations of the environmental behavior of

people in the researched environment, Zeisel (2006, Chapter 9) defines
qualitative requirements for such research.
The observation of environmental behavior should be done with empathy,
focus on a given goal, and with dynamics that stand for the observation of the
course of events. There should be some changeability in the researcher's
approach to the object of research. This means that the researcher may do the
observations without somebody's knowledge, or may reveal him or herself
when necessary. This means that the researcher/observer may participate as
either a hidden or overt foreign person or an accidental user of the observed
environment, or a fully fledged user.
Similar to the trace research, other notation techniques include notes,
initially coded checklists, maps, photos, videotapes, and films . In the research,
one has to clearly define the observed group, and such a person is named as
an actor in such a circumstance. One notates what an actor does, with whom
he does what he does (the significant other). All the environmental relations are
also of great importance, that is, weather, visual, tactile, olfactory, and symbolic,
as well as sociocultural context (situation, culture) and circumstances (place,
props, spatial relations).
The observational research discussed here can assume various forms:
• individual or collective (a single person/a group is observed);

• passive/active (the researcher observes/plays the role of a user);
• direct/indirect (direct contact with the observed people or observation done
from hiding); and
• constant (ceaselessly observing for a period of time, e.g. a week) and
periodical (observing on given days, hours, seasons, weather, etc.).
In preparatory activities for research, one has to define (see Apanowicz,

2003, pp. 102-103):
• object of observation (phenomenon, process)-in architecture, for example,

we observe user behavior in certain spatial situations, aging fac;:ade
materials, evidence of damage to the building as a result of use, etc;
• objectives and detailed tasks of observations (e.g. observation of signs of
the destruction of a utility building, a record of destroyed on the plan of the
building, photos, interviews with the manager, cleaning crews, etc.);
• time, means, technicalities, and observation conditions; and
• ways of registering and gathering the results.
223 J
Preparing an observation sheet (see Figure 7.10) is also very useful, where one Figure 7.10
should include such information as: Observation sheet
as the technique of
• the name and characteristics of a given research object; storing information
in predesign studies
• the date and time of the observation and its conditions;
• attached sketches, drawings, and photos; and Source: Fross (2012,
p. 180, Figure 49,
• the registration of the interviews. p. 188, Figure 57)
Observational studies can be, depending on the depth and the research aim,
extended to the research of surveys, focus groups, or individual interviews,
where additional information is obtained to clarify the situations studied.10 They
can also, if necessary, be supplemented by archival data on, for example, the
history of the building, its reconstruction, modernization, etc. In addition,
observational studies may be part of the case studies, and can be performed as
a predesign study for the purposes of the preparation of the functional-spatial
program for newly designed objects. Observation technique-as the name
suggests-is to observe the test subject (the built environment and the people
living in it) in a direct and/or hidden fashion (unobtrusive) on participating and
nonparticipating observation. Participating observation means that the researcher
224 D
is also the user of the object, and then very directly is able to assess the
advantages and disadvantages of the test environment from the point of view
of the user. Nonparticipating observation can rely on the fact that the researcher
stays in the environment and observes, and users are not able to guess that
they are being watched (which can change their daily behavior). or can observe
discreetly, so user behavior is not disturbed in the process of self-control.
The aforementioned participating observation is used when we want to
know the operation of the object from the position of the user (e.g. as a user
of elevators in a high office building during peak hours and check ourselves to
see if their number and speed is adequate for the number of users). The same
task can be done by observing a nonparticipant. that is, by standing in the ele-
vator lobby on the ground floor and the other floors, noting the waiting time by
a group of users, their number, and how many of them were able to board the
elevator without having to wait in line.
We use participating observation whenever we suspect that people may
behave differently than usual, if they see that they are being watched.
Observing the behavior of people in buildings and the built environment as
a whole allows one to draw the conclusion that by designing the environment,
the architects impose some behavioral patterns on people. Some behaviors are
known to us and we know how to model them in a certain area (e .g. at airports
and railway stations, relationships should be more difficult to build as people
should not stay there longer than necessary; in classrooms, discussions should
be facilitated by a better arrangement of the room; in public spaces, it should be
difficult or impossible to commit crime, etc.). There are, however, cases of
certain phenomena that we do not fully understand or wish to investigate
further. In such cases, we perform the observations in a discreet way, so that
users are not aware that they are being watched.
The conclusions drawn from the observations have a twofold use:
• As conclusions for modernization designing, or collecting information for

functional-spatial programming of a new object on the basis of the analyses
of an existing object or objects of the same function in the case study.
• For analyzing and establishing the so-called behavioral settings (Barker,
1968). characteristic for a given activity or space. The second case allows
for a generalization of research conclusions and creating universal patterns,
which was also done by Christopher Alexander in his book A Pattern
Language (Alexander et al., 1977).11
The observational technique is used in many research methods, depending on

the need and aims of the research done. Preparing such studies requires careful
thinking and designing a set of questions to which the observation is supposed
to provide answers. Table 7.8, with steps of systematic observation, shows the
entirety of the problems connected with preparing such research . Observational
studies are especially useful for the preparation of the functional-spatial programs
225 l
at facilities where design has a strong impact on the quality of institutions and
people staying in them, such as schools, children's hospitals, houses of
permanent residence for the elderly, and others. Table 7.8 shows the results
of observations of children's behavior in school integration in Katowice made
by Kurzydto (2002) within the thesis by drawing on the recommendations of
Henry Sanoff (2001) gathered in the book School Building Assessment Methods.
The student has run an observation of the behavior of ch ildren in the main
functional areas in different periods of usage: during the school year, in the
lessons, during the break, and after classes, as well as the vacation period.
The analyses of the behavior of children, as well as other analyses,
inteNiews with children (see Figure 7.7 and Table 7.8), were used to prepare
the functional-spatial programming of school integration design, wh ich is
adequate to meeting the specific needs of the school.
Table 7.8 Observation sheet for behaviors of children before lessons in an integrated school in Katowice
(Poland)
Spreadsheet for the location of behaviors

Time of day: before lessons; Day: Mon-Fri; Date: Sep-Jun
PLACE NUMBER OF PEOPLE SOCIAL BEHAVIORS OTHER ACTIVITIES
GROUNDS IN FRONT Plenty-al/ going in Greetings, conversations,
OF THE SCHOOL one direction games, jostles
ENTRANCE HALL Plenty-al/ going in Greetings, conversations,
one direction games, jostles
HALL Plenty-walking Greetings, conversations,
and running games, jostles
CORRIDOR Plenty Greetings, conversations,
games, j ostles
LOCKER ROOMS Plenty Greetings, conversations,
games, jostles Changing clothes
CLASSROOMS Plenty-sitting at Conversations Preparations for lessons,
tables
wiping the board
LABS AND Plenty-sitting at Conversations, greetings Preparation for lessons
WORKSHOPS tables
GYMNASIUM Empty
LOCKER ROOM Plenty Conversations, greetings Changing clothes
DINING ROOM Empty
LIBRARY Empty
AUDITORIUM Empty
COMMON ROOM Average-sitting Conversations, greetings Homework, games
at tables
TEACHERS' ROOM Plenty Conversations, greetings Preparation for lessons,
changing clothes
SECRETARV'S OFFICE Many people coming Conversations, greetings Signing attendance lists
and going
PLAYING FIELD Empty
Source: Kurzydlo (2002)
226 D
Mapping
Mapping is a research technique involving the preparation of maps, sketches
of the existing built environment used primarily in two cases :
• in research on the perception of the environment (drawing a cognitive map

of the built environment by respondents) ; and
• observational studies, as a supporting technique, which consists of the
noting by the investigator of any changes in the location of equipment
and conducting spatial behavior observation of the users in the tested
environment.
The first case of the use of cognitive mapping studies illustrates the research
conducted by Kevin Lynch (1960), described in the book The Image of the City
(see Chapter 1, section 1.6). The respondents were asked to draw a map of a
known environment. On the basis of the drawings so prepa red, one could read
wh ich the elements of the investigated environment were significant for the
group, and whether and what were considered landmarks of the environment
allowing for orientation in space. On the basis of this type of research, some
ways in which people build a cognitive map of the environment have been
identified, and this knowledge has been used in so-cal led wayfinding (looking
for a way), which is the technique to check whether the environment is easy
to read by people who are t here for the first t ime. This is of great importance
Figure 7.11
Mapping results for in large multi-trade and communication objects w here the ability to find the way
users' behaviors in a out may depend on saving a life in the event of a fire or a terrorist attack.
recreational park in
In the second case, mapping is a technique used to notate changes in
Marklowice
the way of using the object or area depending on the equipment and the
Source: Fross (2012,
p, 172, Figure 47, type of user or per unit of t ime (at certain times of the day or year). This veri-
p. 179, Figure 48) f ies, on the one hand, if the object is used at all, whether it is properly used
1. skate-park, 2. scene, 3. Play

grounds, 4. Scene grounds, LEGEND
5. fountains with amphitheater seats, A l'UCll MOSTWI.UHOI.Y Ulf.D
• MOil 00PUI.AII -,sa,tEHl ATTMCTIONI

6. pond with an island and view
0 --TIAI.ACaNTS
terrace, 7. Stair place with sculptures
moved by wind, 8. gastronomic
pavilion, 9. wooden pergola, 10.
Climbing wall, 11 . WC, gatehouse
'•
227 D
(e.g. whether people use designed pedestrian paths or mark their own trails) or Figure 7.12
designed equipment is adequate for the needs (frequency of use, regularity of Some examples of
inappropriate
use, destruction), whether there are periods of increased usage and how the equipment usage
users behave then. Source: Fross (2012,
Figure 7.11 presents the study by Fross (2012) mapping users' behavior of p. 191, Figure 62,
a recreational park, showing the places used most often, the most popular p. 192, Figure 63)
attractions, the main communication routes, and important spatial accents. The
same author has also observed inappropriate usage of equipment, which was
also marked on the photos (see Figure 7.12). Noting the inappropriate usage of
the equipment is also important information, allowing for coming up with a way
to protect this equipment in a way that disallows its misuse.
Mapping can be used in experimental studies (e.g. as a technique of
recording how people behave in the environment under the influence of changes
introduced to it). The comparison of the records before and after changes can
have a marketing importance (e.g. such research at water parks allows one to
obtain information of what attractions are used most often and whether the
change of arrangement can either raise or lower the attractiveness).
Such research is also used in predesign studies for perfecting the landscape
or providing better equipment of the recreational areas, their modernization, or
adaptation.
Sorting
Sorting is an extensive research strategy that is most often used in practical
activities, especially in business. More often, it is applied in determining the
client's preferences than strictly scientific research. It is highly effective at
identifying the needs of persons not connected with the architecture that have
trouble articulating their expectations, of which they are often not fully aware.
Therefore, this technique is used more practically to talk with a customer than
actual scientific research, especially its variant quick-sort, that is, using a quick-
sort algorithm. In scientific research, it is used as a supporting technique.
Statistical measurement is often used with sorting. You can also look for
a correlation between the grade of certain categories and sorting.
228 D
Sorting involves preparing a set of images carefully selected for research

issues. Persons participating in the study sort out the photos in a specific way
(e.g. they choose the objects that they like and reject the ones that they do not
like). They can also select the images from a set in which the arrangement,
composition, and equipment were, in their opinion, the best.
In typical situations, respondents are asked to sort the sets of cards (on
average, 20 to 30) according to the words/slogans or pictures presented by
them. In direct, targeted sorting, the researcher defines a set of categories in
which cards are to be sorted. The random sorting respondent may determine
by themselves whether the categories, and which of them, are relevant to
Figure 7.13 them. For example, you may choose from a prepared set of buildings with
Results of research specific functions: residential homes, commercial, churches, etc., or sort them
over the Silesian
by styles such as traditional or modern. In multiple random sorting, the
Technical University
workers' acceptance respondent is asked to sort as many times as possible, in many aspects.
of the concept of the Sorting technique may be helpful in consultation with the client, when on
office rooms the basis of sorting images the preferences are determined by customers.
solution proposed
by A. Harrison and
These are not always in line with the preferences of the architect. This is about
A. Cairns for the building style, the materials used (samples), details, colors, etc. With broader
scientific/didactic research, with more respondents, the results are presented in the so-called
workers: (a) a sheet
scalogram.
(taken from Harrison
and Cairns, 2008) Sorting is used in specific architectural conditions, when we want to find
along with remarks out the opinions of respondents on the types of objects, the photos of which
and suggestions
they sort.
coming from
workshop The sorting technique was also used by Lynch as a supplementary tech-
participants; (b) a nique for urban perception research. The participants were given a set of photos
sketch of the final from the research area in Boston juxtaposed in random order. This set was
solution created by
the participants supplemented with photos from other cities. The participants were supposed
Source: Urbanowicz
to sort out the appropriate photos and arrange them in a proper order, according
(2013) to their presence on the city map (Lynch, 1960, p. 171 ).
(b)
socio.I mutings
setting coffee
cornu o.t this place
r---E~-1 causes constant mess
)t
++
consultations
teamwork
'•
229 D
Sorting technique was applied in their own workshop study by Urbanowicz

(2013) in the study of preferences of Silesian University of Technology aca-
demics in terms of the spatial structure of the premises for this group of
workers using model solutions proposed by Harrison and Cairns (2008) .
Respondents rejected the proposed solutions of the "open space," chose the
cell system, and stressed the need for additional space-a consultation room
that could serve as a meeting room (formal and informal), which appeared in
the sketch (see Figure 7 .13).
Interviews
An interview means any form of asking questions face-to-face. In the case of
interviews in environment-behavior (EB) studies, the interviewer asks questions
to find out what or how a person feels, perceives, or responds to a specific
environment or situation.
An interview, therefore, is a conversation including at least two people: the
researcher and the respondent. The conversation is carried out on a specif ic
topic, in which the researcher wants to find answers to very specific questions.
It is one of the most flexible and in-depth research techniques used in the
social sciences. In an interview, you can find out what the interviewee thinks,
feels, does, knows, believes, and expects. Therefore, this type of testing is
very useful in architectural research and in most cases is more efficient than
a questionnaire. In a questionnaire, one obtains information of a very general
type, what percentage of people speak in one way or another, but on that basis
we are not able to know the motives that guide the people who declare their
position on an issue. A detailed discussion of the respondents allows identifica-
tion of very different viewpoints on the same issue. Such statements allow one
to better understand the perspective of users and to respond to it in the design
process.
Interviews in literature are most often divided into:
• Structured, which is carried out on the basis of a questionnaire, which is

dominated by closed questions.
• Semi-structured, which is carried out on the basis of open-ended questions,
which offer greater freedom of express ion to the respondent.
• In-depth, focused on the problem, it is run in connection with the problem
that the researcher is interested in. Therefore, further questions are formu-
lated during the interview with regard to the previous statements of the
respondent and are deepening the topic. Questions can be closed but also
open.
The term open-ended questions literally means an open, free interview. This
name is also used to determine the type of focus research .
The difference between a questionnaire interview and surveys is such that
they are assumed to be two separate research techniques. The interview is
always realized through direct interaction; surveys are indirect contact.
230 lJ
Zeisel (1981, Chapter 11) describes in detail the methods of preparing

interview questions and conducting interviews. He provides the following basics:
1. current and abstract (future) environments (physical, adm inistrative,

behavioral); and
2. human feel ings (what they see, feel, know, what they do in the environ-
ment, what they believe, and what they th ink) .
The success lies in the simplicity and clarity of the questions, their precision
and neutrality. For questions about the physical environment, we should con-
sider objects, places, relationships between specific locations in space, and the
quality of these spaces. In the administrative aspect, we are dealing w ith
the functioning of the area in a formal fashion (property manager, government
housing association, etc.) and an informal fashion (informa l groups dictating
behaviors, e.g. a group of inhabitants, gangs, etc.). In terms of the behavioral
aspects, one should be aware of the characteristics of individual people or
groups in the tested environment, their activity, and relationship.
The perception of the environment by respondents includes a number of
complex problems in the field of environmental psychology:
• what people see in the environment (perception and meaning);

• what they feel in relation to the environment (opinions and values);
• what they do to the environment and for the environment (places, paths,
relationships, environmental adaptations, self-presentation, and the trans-
mission of information); and
• what they know about the environment (knowledge and data).
(Zeisel. 1981, p. 181)
Interviews are conducted with individuals or as a group (with a suitably chosen

group), free, or partially categorized.
Categorized interviews, namely a questionnaire, are based on the fact that
t he respondent answers the questions contained in the questionnaire and
in the order specifi ed in the questionnaire . Partly categorized interviews allow
for greater freedom of the researcher in asking questions; however, the list of
questions is prepared in advance and the interviewer is obliged to exhaust the
issues conta ined therein . Free interviews al low for freedom of speech of
the respondent. The interviewer has the opportunity to show more initiative
in the conduct of conversation and asking questions, in which the objective is
to be specif ied by the research project.
Interviews allow obtaining qualitative data, which deepen the knowledge
of particular phenomena, motivations, attitudes, opinions, and behavior.
The needs of users of the built environment are very individual, differen-
tiated by age, gender, cultural circle, social status, life experience, etc. In turn,
the investigated subjects are also varied and off er different quality, even
231 C
if they are the same or similar. The same functional apartment located on
the north and south offers a completely different quality of living, like the
same apartment overlooking the green, forest, sea, and trash, as well as
the same apartment located close to the highway, in the city center, periphery,
near the forest, and in front of the disco. Quantitative replies, rates obtained
from a survey on some solutions, as in the case of the aforementioned flat, are
not sufficient to provide a full understanding of the responses. Interviews,
however, permit acquisition of such sensitive information, and therefore play
an important role in qualitative research in architecture and urban planning.
Interviewing is not easy, and requires the researcher to prepare appro-
priately and have relevant experience. The person conducting the interview
must be prepared for the interview; he or she cannot begin the interview with
dangerous questions. Additionally, they must have a plan of questions (interview
guide) or a detailed list of questions (questionnaire). Usually, the interview is
recorded upon consent of the respondent.
Before and during the interview, one must ensure that respondents feel
comfortable and have a positive motivation to give honest answers. Since
during the interviews respondents tend to develop their own thoughts that
contribute little to the test and take the time away from researchers, the role
of the researcher lies in skilled moderating of the discussion and guidance to
stay on topic. Therefore, one should return to the topic by converting the main
questions of the meeting (for more on the conduct of interviews, see Zeise!,
1981; see also Appendix 3).
Table 7.9 Some opinions expressed by younger children during interviews made by
Kurzydlo (2002)
I'd like my school ...

• to be bigger, prettier and more friendly .
• to bear number 45 and to have computers in all classrooms.
• to give us presents.
• to help all kids in school.
• to have a swimming pool and jacuzzi.
• to fly and swim.
• to be big.
• to be smaller and I'd like our classroom to be blue.
• to burn down and be built anew for one year.
• to be happier and more comfortable for us.
• to be next to a lake and to be red.
• to have an even larger gymnasium.
• to have a TV in each classroom.
• to be more fun-more discos.
• to be as it is and never change.
• to be able to understand our problems.
• to be colorful.
• to be in the countryside.
• to have a more advanced radio broadcasting.
• to have a big TV in the middle of the corridor.
232 0
Individual and group interviews are mainly used in qualitative research

and POE, but also in historical and marketing research. They are used as an
auxiliary tool for the formulation of research problems and to build tools
in quantitative research (questionnaires) . They are also used after the end of
quantitative research to deepen the interpretation of the results. They are also
used in studies in which the statistical representativeness is not important, and
their aim is to establish social meanings, perceptions, and patterns of thinking
and behavior. An interview technique is chosen depending on who the person
is who conducted the interview. Interviews with young ch ildren are particularly
difficult. In such interviews, one often employs the technique of unfinished
sentences (e.g. "I wish ... " "I'd like ... ") . Table 7.9 represents a set of
answers given by children during the research on the integration school made
by Kurzydto (2002).
The effects of repeated interviews (conducted with multiple people on the
same subject) are usually coded, which means categorizing issues raised in
the interviews was possible thanks to special computer programs used to code
interviews, such as Atlas.ti and others. Coding simplifies the interpretation and
generalization of the research results obtained via interviews. More information
on interview coding to be found in Konecki (2000) and Charmaz (2006).
Konecki (2000, p. 49) designed a coding paradigm, including:
• causal conditions, that is, the main events and the various facts that cause
the emergence and growth of a particular phenomenon (e.g. the creation
of a housing estate or the existence of a housing estate);
• phenomenon (central category), which is the main idea, an event, a problem
that is directed at actions and interactions of the subjects (e.g. living
conditions);
• context-the place, space, and time of the phenomenon that we want to
examine (e.g. specific development and testing of the present and past
conditions of residence);
• intervening conditions, that is, structural factors affecting the interaction
strategies and activities of the phenomenon and partly changing its nature
or intensity (e.g. housing modernization, expansion, aging of the population,
etc.);
• action/interaction strategies and techniques relate to the strategy (goals
and plans for their implementation) and interactive techniques, identifying
specific behaviors (e.g. estate management and development strategies,
strategies for adapting residents to the existing conditions, actions aimed
at changing the inconvenience, etc.); and
• consequences, that is, the results and outcome of actions and interactions.
Coding begins with open coding (encoding the first subtype of factual coding),
wh ich involves coding the data collected in all possible ways (see Table 7.1 0).
On the basis of open coding, select ive coding is done (factual coding second
\
233 □
-
kind) by means of reducing coding to these variables that relate to the main
purpose of the research. In the above-mentioned case, a central category was
the quality of life in a neighborhood perceived by an elderly person. On this
basis, one prepares the so-called coding card, the construction of which can
look like the one presented in Table 7.11 .
Table 7.10 Sample coding of open interviews done for the project PolSenior
A. Fragment of an interview in the housing estate in G/iwice B. Generated categories that cover the
given by a retired resident attached contents as wholly as possible
ST: Would you like to move out? • Attachment to the place
P: No, not now. Five, 10 years ago, maybe I could. Fifth year
since he died.
2 ST: Have you changed your attitude to this apartment? • Change in the attitude to the place
Did you like it? of residence in the life cycle
P: As I have then got used, it is rather good I feel. I am at
home and feel well.
3 ST: What structural changes have you made? • Adaptation of the flat to the changing
P: My husband remade it all, didn't he? The balcony yet he needs in the life cycle
made. There you entered the toilet and there came out. • Types of adaptations
Only such an iron frame there was. Also, there it snowed,
not all. So there he did a pantry. He added a balcony. Here he
did a bathroom. Thus, this apartment he has completely changed.
4 ST: So the reconstruction allowed you to adapt it to your needs? • Efficiency of the adaptations
P: Yes. He bought the second cell from the guy behind the wall
and made a garage. This brown crane, the garage is there. But
as the grandson will dwell ... the burgundy, the second one,
a tree there now is, yes this one.
5 ST: A repository? • Looking after the family and
P: A store. When my grandson will dwell his car will be there willingness to hand it down to
to hold. grandchildren
6 ST: Out of the windows is it safe? • Evaluation of the social environment
P: Well, Just hooliganism sometimes, these kids are bad, now
they have become, so terribly.
7 ST: When you sat at the table, did you have a determined place, • Territorial behaviors of the residents
whether the husband had such one?
P: Mostly we ate in the room . I sat on the other side. He sat
here, it was his place. Here, from this side, it was his place
for good.
Note: ST-student carrying out interview; P-interviewee
Table 7.11 Coding card project of interviews made in Zator district (Katowice, Poland)
Number of card and category Card t,tte-development in Zator in Gliwice (Poland)
Category 1 Safety-citations
Category 2 Access to services-citations
Category 3 Accessibility for disabled-citations
Category 4 Attachment to the place-citations
Category N ...............-citations
234 D
In conducting the interviews, various techniques of conversation are used.

As a rule, one asks the person providing the interview targeted questions.
Depending on one's goals, however, there are three basic techniques of asking
questions such as assumed, which include:
• attentive listening;
• question-to-question; and
• echo questions.
The "attentive listening" technique involves the respondent being aware of

what the purpose of the interview will be and what the basic questions are that
we would like to receive the answers to in this interview, in a free, uncontrolled
fashion . Normally, such interviews refer to the respondent's emotional relation
to this issue, and that is why we give them the opportunity to freely express
themselves. Typically, such a technique is used in psychological or sociological
research .
In turn, the "question-to-question" technique asks the questions according
to a pre-established questionnaire, and we expect as simple and powerful
responses as possible to the issues of what the respondent knows or th inks
about the topic. However, they cannot be too simplistic, that is, one for which
the respondent can practically answer YES or NO, such as "Do you think this
place is a good place to raise children?" This question should rather be asked
like this: "Do you think this place is better than most places to raise children,
is it worse, or is it the same as anywhere else?" (Zeise!, 1981, p. 194).
The "echo" technique is based on the interviewer's repetitions of the form
of the question that the respondents uttered last (e.g. the respondent says "I
like this location," then the interviewer would say "You mean this location?").
That way, the interviewer is able to express his or her interest and encourages
the respondent to answer the questions in more detail.
Very often, respondents tend not to answer directly, and extend remarks
on issues that have nothing to do with the questions asked. When the
interviewee starts to veer off topic, we repeat the question several times until
we get the answer.
The questions asked must be simple in order to avoid the risk of mis-
understanding or having to explain. There is a necessity of precision of
formulating questions, as well as their neutrality. Therefore, one should use
unambiguous terminology, the same in all the interviews, as respondents must
understand the questions in the same way. In addition, one should never
suggest answers (e.g. "Do you not like your apartment?" "You probably dislike
the noisy children outside, do you not?").
The interview should not be too long, that is, it should take no longer than
one hour, because the respondent may feel tired or bored and reluctant to
respond or to withdraw from the interview.
235 l
Table 7.12 A collection of environmental problems that are often the subject of
architectural and urban research
1. Questions about existing environment

• physical value (physical condition, level of maintenance, quality)
• object, building organization
• behavioral problems (health, privacy, complaints)
.• functionality, exploitation, comfort
2. Questions about environment
• present
• past
• future
• abstract
3. People's responses to environment
• seeing
• feeling
• doing in
• doing to
• knowing
4. Questions that enable one to resolve substantial problems
e.g. whether the partitions in the loggias between the flats should be made from
glass, or whether they should be full, making it impossible to have a look around, or
whether the multifamily buildings need an intercom, etc.
Source: On the basis of Zeisel (1981)
Table 7.12 presents the rules of asking questions with regard to both
inteNiews and suNeys, which are usually the subject of architecture and urban
studies, and are reflected in the questions for the inteNiew or suNey (for more
on the proper placing of questions in an inteNiew, see Appendix 3) .
Focus Group Interviews

Meetings of researchers with a selected group of users interested in solving
the problems associated with a building or problems the researcher is inter-
ested in are called meetings of focus groups, which means that participants
are focused on a specific topic. Focused inteNiewing concentrates on finding
opinions of a given group on a specific topic, usually a deepening of problems
presented by individual interviews or suNeys. Such meetings are also called
group discussions or panel meetings. The participants answer the questions
and discuss the issues freely.
The goals of focus interviews include:
• defining user groups and activities occurring in the tested environment;

• determining events that are of interest for the researchers;
• defining objects in the tested space;
• determining what people think, do, believe, and what to expect for the
tested space; and
• obtaining users' opinions.
236 D
In these meetings, the researcher plays a special role-a leader, a moderator,

that by asking questions also conducts an interview with several people invited
earlier at the same time, chosen according to criteria derived from the objectives
of the project. The discussion group typically comprises of 6-8 people, or more,
8-12. One session usually lasts about two hours.
The persons invited to the meeting, depending on the purpose of the
research, are either specific groups of users (e.g. office employees), repre-
sentatives of all user groups of the office building, including the building
manager, conservator, cleaners, heads of department, etc., or experts of various
types, etc. Such discussions allow one to discover how individual people and
certain groups of users define specific situations associated with the building,
urban area, investment, etc. What is important to them in these situations,
what effects they expect from the actions, and what their attitude is to it.
A distinction is made between different types of focus groups depending
on their members and problems to solve. These are:
1. Extended groups, whose meetings last longer than two hours (sometimes
even an entire day).
2. Mini groups, usually four to six people, thus having more time for expres-
sion, and they are involved in the discussion more strongly.
3. Expert-led with experts, specialists in a given area of knowledge.
4. Clash groups where the group is divided into two parts, with antagonistic
views only to be confronted with each other (e.g. designers and investors
willing to realize an investment to which the local citizens are opposed).
Sometimes such groups are run by two moderators.
5. Creative groups, whose goal is to perform creative tasks and come up with
new solutions in consultation with specialists. There are many projection
techniques used in these groups, as well as the idea of brainstorming.
The interviewer, the moderator of the focused meetings, prepares a set of

questions (interview guide) with a set of main topics . During the discussion, the
researcher exploring the views of the respondents on a given topic questions
and modifies the plan, and adapts it to the situation.
Given groups of users or people, interests all too often have a completely
different vision of the same problem.
One of the major problems is to capture the priorities indicated by the
respondents. Zeisel writes that in design priorities, it is important to know what
is more important for users (e.g. in housing, direct access to a car with a flat or
keeping a parked car away from the front door; in the hospital for oncological
patients, the possibility of waiting for treatment in the company of family or
alone). If one knows the answers to such questions as what is more important
for the group, it is easier to make design decisions on behalf of those users.
Usually, focus discussions are recorded, sometimes filmed, unless the
respondents themselves absolutely do not want it. Then the researcher makes
a note of such a meeting.
237
Focus group interviews pertain to:
1. People who are related in a particular concrete situation (e.g. work in the
same office building, live in the same neighborhood, or take part in some
uncontrolled but observed social situations, such as meeting people, street
demonstrations, or inspection sessions of a district or important object
design in the vicinity).
2. Researchers who conduct a situational analysis to identify the makeshift
but hypothetically important elements, patterns, and situational processes.
They have a whole set of hypotheses about what situational aspects are
important for the people involved in them, what they mean, and what
impact they have on the participants.
POE studies that lead to functional program planning for a new building use
focus meetings held with the same group of people, several times, with a view
to verifying the programming assumptions.
7.3 RESEARCH TECHNIQUES THAT SUPPORT DECISION-

MAKING PROCESSES IN DESIGN AND STRATEGIC
DEVELOPMENT
Making decisions during architectural design and urban planning, and important
decisions in the field of spatial planning, are strategic. Changes in the
environment caused by the investments are permanent, and also have a strong
- negative impact on the environment, as well as radically changing the conditions

of people's lives in a positive or negative way. Thus, making such an important
decision must be supported rationally. Design and planning decisions are to
create a future world in the long-term perspective, often difficult to imagine,
especially in times of very fast, dynamic, even revolutionary changes (information
revolution). Therefore, the second half of the twentieth century developed a
number of forecasting techniques to facilitate the process of making such
strategic decisions. This is what we call predesign research.
On the one hand, there are techniques to support design decisions such
as:
• ex ante study used in the standards of scientific research for the purposes
of a given project (de Jong and van der Voordt, 2005, Chapter 1); and
• predesign works, design workshops, requirements checklists, and their
scaling and virtual modeling and simulation studies.
On the other hand, we have a range of forecasting techniques to facilitate

decisions of a strategic nature. These are the type of expert analyses such as
SWOT, thanks to which we can build scenarios and studies of "foresight"
using expert techniques and brainstorming.
238
Workshops
One of the commonly known and used techniques for supporting design
processes are workshops consisting of the parallel development of a concept
for a project problem solution by workshop participants. This is a research
technique in applied evaluation studies known as "ex-ante" as well as predesign
study, aimed at the search for concepts, the possible ways to solve the design
problem (see Figure 7.14).
The workshop answers the question about the possibilities to develop
solutions specific to variant design problems, and the advantages and dis-
advantages of the various concepts presented. Generally, workshops are based
on the fact that a group of designers interested in the subject meets in one
place (often in a location that is the subject of the design), takes notes of the
requirements of the project, discusses them, and prepares individual concepts
of design. After the conceptual phase, the projects are exhibited, and again the
pros and cons of each solution are discussed. The outcome of the workshop is
to deepen the knowledge about designed subject matters and determine the
designers' group concept, which is later continued in the design phase.
Adjacency Analysis
In practice, that is, in actions that are connected with the design of the function
of objects, one of the main elements is the analysis of distances between
rooms and functional zones within designed buildings. In general, one should
specify the mandatory, desirable neutral adjacency and spatial separation
(negative relations) (White, 1986). It is of special importance w ithin the object
of a specific function, objects reflecting the technology of actions. These are,
above all, manufacturing plants, hospitals, important offices, or places with a
high flow of people. Oftentimes, the necessity to perform such analyses is
connected with the problem of "wayfinding "(Passini, 1984) in such places as
shopping centers, airports, and train stations. That problem is analyzed either
in the form of bubble charts (see Chapter 8, Figure 8.7), cross-tabulations of
matrix type (see Chapter 8, Tables 8.3 and 8.4), or associated models (see
Chapter 8, Figure 8.8), as well as Sankey charts, used for analyses of
technological quantity line flows. In Figure 7.15, one can see a Sankey diagram
depicting the course of a medical operation carried out by the hospital staff.
Such a diagram delivers a lot of information to the designer in the scope of
functional relations between rooms that accompany operational theaters.
Modeling: Physical, Graphic, Virtual

A model represents the arrangement of the elements constituting the projec-
t ion of the original, but in a simplified form and easily accessible to research.
Modeling, as an approximate reduplication of the most important properties of
the original, has a special role in technical sciences, allowing investigation of
the relationsh ips and processes in the model and in the laboratory conditions.
239 D
LEADERS
FROM SOCIAL Figure 7.14
LEADERS INSTITIJTIONAL
UNIVERSITY LEADERS Block diagram
concerning the
completion of the
revitalization of
PREPARATION the Biskupice
OF DESIGN
PRINCIPLES settlement in Zabrze
in the form of two
stage workshops
(2013) as part of
DESIGNERS classes called
ACADEMIC IMPLEMENTATION SELF GOVERNMENT
TEACHERS (I STAGE) +-- EXPERTS: Design in the
STUDENTS CONCEPTUAL RESEARCH DESIGNS SOCIAL AND INSTITUTIONAL Cultural Context,
run at the Faculty
of Architecture,
Silesian University
of Technology;
the concept of the
INTERACTIVE project and
EXHIBITION
OF MODELS elaboration was
AND SPATIAL made by Magdalena
VISIONS
Zmudzinska-Nowak
MEDIA INHABITANTS
OF BISKUPICE
CONCLUSIONS
FROM
THE DISCUSSIONS
COMPLEMENT OF THE II STAGE

OF SPECIFIC REALIZATIONS
ON THE BASES OF CONCLUSION
DESIGNERS
ACADEMIC SELF GOVERNMENT LEADERS
TEACHERS EXPERTS:
STIJDENTS SOCIAL AND INSTITUTIONAL
EXHIBITION
OF DESIGNS
MEDIA FINAL OPINIONS
DISCUSSION INHABITANTS
LOCAL
AUTHORITIES
240 D
STERILE USED-UP
MATERIAL MATERIAL
(OPERATING SETS - MEDICAL WASTES
- INSTRUMENTS - INSTRUMENTS
-LINEN) EQUIPMENT - LINEN
INTENSIVE CARE
REHABILITATION
STAFF
Figure 7.16 The primary purpose of modeling in science is to simplify the complex reality,
Sankey diagram
allowing it to be subjected to a research process. Following Clipson (1993,
of the course of
operational p. 30), modeling can be:
treatment-surgical
Source: Tomanek • iconic (graphic and physical in the form of a model);
(2015, p. 99,
Figure 25) • analog (mechanical models, used mainly in engineering);
• operational (re-enacting the events and situations as well as simulation
games); and
• mathematical (computational).
Architects have always been most interested in iconic simulations relating to

graphic modeling and physical mock-ups, to some extent operational models,
and because of the enormous usefulness of research and practical applications,
computer simulation. Operational models are used extensively in participatory
research, in which one can use re-enacting events in the architectural space
and check the user's approach to the proposed solutions through simulation
games. These techniques are not very popular and are rarely used.
Modeling future reality was and still is of particular importance both in
research on the architecture as well as in architectural practice because they
facilitate the understanding of modeling techniques and safely inspect the
proposed spatial solutions. Therefore, architecture typically involves:
• Physical models, that is, mock-ups, reflecting in scale or kind specified

forms or fragments, and allowing them to transform and perform other
experiments.
241 I
• Graphical models facilitate understanding of the functioning of complex

spatial systems. Typically, such models are the result of research on a
specific system (see Figures 7.16 and 7.17).
• Virtual models-computer simulation described below.
Physical models such as mock-ups were once widely used in the past, as
predesign studies, to help with decisions on the realization or implementation
of technical experiments. Research on the models is carried out in a scale or in
real size on the realized objects. One can also test some new technological and
spatial solutions, such as the ones used in the office building of Commerzbank
in Frankfurt (an energy-saving system and green spaces located on specific
floors). Also, a number of objects implemented in Beijing in connection with the
Olympic Games in 2008 are examples of testing new and previously unknown
technical solutions.
Graphical models are typically used in scientific studies to show, in a
concise way, a method of operating an element of reality, or the progression
of some processes, such as in Figure 7.16, where the model shows the course
of the life cycle of land development and use of space, while the models in
Figure 7 .17 illustrate the process of spatial planning in the complexity of the
political context.
Simulation games on mock-ups or computer simulations are very useful in
basic research involving human perceptions and preferences. Below, we can
view a model of the employee room at Silesian University of Technology, built
by workers within the simulation game on the model mock-up. As part of the
course called Users' Participation in the Design Process, Urbanowicz (2013)
asked a group of doctoral students to prepare a model of a room that would be
Figure 7.16
A model of an area
distribution life
cycle
Source: Following
Gas1dto (2010, p. 41,
Figure 2.2)
242 0
Figure 7.17 FORUM PRESS EXTERNAL ADVISORS

• STAKEHOLDERS
Model of spatial • EXPERTS
• POLITICIANS ADVISORY COUNCIL
planning as a
political process
Source: Kamir\ski
12002, p. 108,
Figure 15)
CONCEPT
D
IMPROVED
PROPOSALX
------► (8)
Figure 7.18
IMPROVED AGREED
Simulations of PROPOSAL XX CONCEPT
faculty rooms to
scale model made
for participatory ffi--------- ► (8)
workshops: (al in
the picture on the
left, one can see a appropriate for their working conditions . The model was supposed to be
mock-up built by the equipped with elements of an office room (see Figure 7.18).
respondents,
The study was of great importance in both theoretical and practical aspects.
representing
optimal solution On the one hand, t his game could be a source of practical information on the
offices; (bl on the problem of how employees want to have a f urnished room work to create
right, a room comfortable working conditions. On the other hand, as an exploratory study, it
occupied by the
respondents
confirmed the finding of environmental psychology that people asked to simulate
Source: Urbanowicz
the layout of the rooms have encoded the specific cognitive patterns they
12013) know. Therefore, in image simulation models, they recreate what they know.
(bl 320 640

.," 160 " .,"
""
"
..-
en
IO :BoB~
243 J
A room where they work in a scale clearly indicates that the participants in the
game mapped a simplified room that they occupied, although in earlier inter-
views they clearly pointed out the shortcomings of the occupied space.
Nowadays, with the development of computer technology, more and more
often computer modeling is used to run simulations both in scientific research
and for practical purposes, that is, a discussion with the client, or advertising of
a product (e.g. objects on sale) . Computer modeling involves building models
of virtual reality included in the architectural projects that you can manipulate
and change in real time. 12 Virtual models, that is, 3D visualizations (generative
and parametric design), are used for various practical purposes, such as:
• quick check of the appearance of the proposed object in variant solutions

during the design process, which facilitates esthetics decision-making;
• quick construction of alternative concepts and making comparative analyses
(e.g. addition and recognition of the number of stories, lengthening and
shortening of the object, changing its dimensions on the plot, etc., neces-
sary for the analysis of design discussions with the investor);
• seeking design solutions for structurally indeterminate forms (e.g. the
Museum Bilbao);
• for commercial purposes to make it easier to explain to the customer how
the designed (purchased by him) object will look in the future (e.g. virtual
tour of the interior and watching the views from the windows); and
• building of experimental facilities, including virtual reality as in Kas
Oosterhuis13 et al.
This technique is also widely used in research on various types of analyses,

such as:
• human behavior within a given space (e.g. in case of panic, fire, emergency,
etc.)-special computer programs allow us to analyze complex structures,
such as sports halls, airports, terminals, and multi-purpose train stations in
terms of escape procedures, etc. (using the space syntax method);
• functional and ergonomic solutions, with especially difficult and expensive
equipment inside, such as an operating table, and the process of testing
how modern medical equipment should be handled; and
• perception of space and specific solutions by potential users in 3D virtual
caves (see Figure 7.19).
Virtual models have, to a large extent, replaced the once commonly used
physical models. The use of computer simulation in the creation of the building
and other complex objects is obvious and brings certain benefits. We examine
how the building will behave during an earthquake or during strong winds, how
people will behave during a fire or terrorist attack, and make certain amend-
ments to the future of the project or develop a set of standard solutions or
244 □
....,.,.,e
,_.ibilities of using
dll 3D cave system
for IJ)atial analyses
ofthe designed
anvfronment
Source: The figures
were provided by the
l)epartment of
111omechatronics at
the Faculty of
8101T1edical
Engineering of the
S1lesian University of
Technology (Poland)
and show
applications that
were implemented in
the research on the
3D cave: (a) available
et: www.polsl.pl/
Wydz1aly/R 18/RI83/
Strony/virtual-lab.
aspx; (b) and (c)
prepared by Wodarski
within the framework
of the Department of
B1omechatronics recommendations for the project. On the other hand, in urban planning, one can
predict urban growth, the development of transport, and other urban phenomena
on a large scale.
Wang points out (Groat and Wang, 2002, p. 278) that "In general sense,
simulation research is useful both in developing theory and in testing theory
... provide data for affirming or disproving theoretical preconceptions; they can
also provide material for new theory-making."
Currently, the computer is an essential tool in simulation studies. In the
computer model on the two-dimensional image, one has the possibility to
dynamically modify the number of layers and the spatial information, as well as
human activity, which in turn selectively raises new data mixed together. A key
attribute of such modeling is the ability of the computer to dynamically transport
spatial and/or temporal information through a two-dimensional computer screen,
and now also in 3D caves (see Figure 7.19), in which one can explore the direct
reactions of the people even at the neurobiological level to a changing virtual
space.
Simulation tests isolate and manipulate context variables, and therefore in
some experimental studies the simulation is used as the first research tactic.
Simulation studies provide a simple way to apply certain interactions in order
to better support the study and data collection.
The representation of the real world is difficult, especially if the goal is to
obtain useful information from the modeled or simulated world to lead, on this
basis, actions in real terms. This requires the consideration of:
245 D
1. completeness of the input data;

2. mapping (imagery) precision;
3. "programmed spontaneity," which means that the number of possible
changes are limited by a computer program; 14 and
4. the cost/physical reality of the implementation.
The built-in computer replica must reproduce the context of the real world as
accurately and precisely as possible. Nonetheless, the design of the real-world
replication fragment is necessarily limited by the fact that it is not definable in
a manner ensuring complete, that is, precise, projection (mapping). Simulating
a context is simply not the same as the real world. Reality is so complex that
it is not quite possible to render even the most advanced technologies, which
are used by Oosterhuis in his approach to the use of the experimental space
(protospace), as a common environment for real-time design.
One of the purposes of simulation is to master the complexity of the
behavior of the real world (both natural and socio-behavioral) in a way that does
not require reduction to a limited number of abstract variables, as in the case
of experimental research .
The importance of simulation is that it provides different ways of under-
standing the future behavior of the context (in terms of patterns of behavior, or
behavior projections) with changes in the spatial shape of the test environment
without the cost of failed experiments, which previously was and is the normal
path of development of architecture, that is, "the trial-and-error approach".
They answer to the question of how the amended built environment will look,
- as well as its social and spatial context when swapping the parameters of the
proposed facility.
Checklists and Scale Ratings

Checklists are lists of problems that should be solved in a given project type.
Preparing such a list may be a separate research task and is closely associated
with the preparation of the program for the new investment. An example of
such checklists is Real Estate Norm (REN), a Dutch checklist to be established
in contact between the investor and the designer. This list is also equipped with
a grading scale (A, B, C). which allows one to determine how much a data
quality issue is important for the client of the project, and what standard should
be included in the project. Table 7.13 presents a fragment of an evaluation
sheet from the REN assessment made for a chosen task, that is, the main
building entrance. Such a list is used after the completion of the project to verify
that all requests of the investor in the project have been taken into account or
to determine the requirements of the investor.
The appendices contain similar checklists for senior homes (Appendix 4).
the factors and attributes of the property usage (Appendix 5). and AEDET for
checking hospitals (Appendix 6), recommended by the Commission for Archi-
tecture and the Built Environment (CABE) and the National Health Service (NHS)
from the UK.
246
Table 7 .13 The evaluation results applied to a properly prepared evaluation sheet
accentuate the differences between user requirements and existing quality
of the environment-the Real Estate Norm (REN) method
BUILDING
1. General
1.2. Main entrance of the building
1.2.1 recoanition
1.2.2 ease of operation
1.2.3 drauoht prevention
1.2.4 access for the disabled
1.2.5 spaciousness
1.2.6 visitor reception
1.2. 7 reception facilities
IMPORTANCE DEMAND SUPPLY MATCH

AIBIC 0+1234
1.2.1 A 5
1.2.2 C 3
1.2.3 C 3
1.2.4 A 5
1.2.5 A 5
1.2.6 B 4
1.2.7 B 3 4
Source: Masty (2009, p. 96)
The list of categories for the quality of the care facility for the elderly (see
Appendix 4) developed by Bielak (2011) can be used both to evaluate the
existing facility as well as in the preparation of the program assumptions for the
new object.
Checklists are commonly used as action-ordering techniques in all research
projects. Their role is to determine the individual steps and tasks that must be
performed in a research project.
Sometimes, as in the case of REN, the checklist is provided with a scale
that determines the scale of the problem. Scaling consists of determining the
gravity of the task to achieve the objective of the research . This is important
in developing the investigation in conventional grounded theory, in which
successively performed research steps allow us to design the next. Prioritization
or task scaling, in this case, means the designation of tasks that must be
performed and the activities of which may be waived if , based on the partial
research results, such a decision will be taken by the researchers.
SWOT Analyses
SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportuntt1es, threats) is used as a
technique for assessing the existing environ ent and its potential. Such
247
EXTERNAL CONDITIONS
OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
• Relatively good technical quality of the buildings and a good civilization standard of • Congestion of the development--<::ongestion of road
dwellings-fully equipped with technical infrastructure. transportation at the expense of green areas, shading, blocking
• Prices of flats lower than prices offered by property developers. the view from the window.
• Unified, relatively low rates of rent--<::hance for those poorer. • Mining damage.
• Size of flats and maintenance costs interesting for middle class, students, the retired, • Drop in the number of residents.
single people. • Damaging legislature-leading to the liquidation of
• New buildings for living and with services increase architectural quality of the cooperatives and further fragmentation of property.
settlement, they introduce new quality of services and they give people a chance to • Lack of social acceptance for this type of building
replace the technically used-up material. engineering--<::reating a bad image in the media, the stamp of
• Spontaneous minor trade that appears (marketplace, trade stalls, stands) in the form of PRL (communist system).
service animation in the settlement-it should be put in order and the space should be
organized.
• Proximity to the city,
• Colleges and universities in the city.
• Metropolis.
• Aging of the public-increase in demand for small and medium flats, economically
accessible (but the flats and surrounding should be adapted).
Source: Niezabitowska et al. (2011-2012)

Table 7 .14 SWOT table for one of the developments in Katowice (Poland) based on Polish-German research project 2010-21
INTERNAL CONDITIONS
STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
• Unabated demand for flats. • Lack of suitable number of parking spots or garages-difficult
• Location-proximity to the recreational complex (culture and leisure park, a zoo, Silesian internal communication.
Stadium, amusement park). • Lack of urban interiors that enable the feeling of space privacy
• Very good transportation from the center of the city to the rest of the metropolis (trams gradation.
and buses, easy access to fast roads). • Lack of cafes and snack bars along walking alleys and
• Very good level of services in the development (trade, education, healthcare, churches) playgrounds.
and auxiliary functions (playgrounds for children, recreational grounds for adults, playing • Noise coming from Chorzowska Street and foul smell from
fields, water reservoir). sewage treatment plant.
• Good social infrastructure (clubs, courses, supplementary education and sport activities • Presence of architectonic barriers in apartments, buildings, and
organized by the settlement administration). in the area of the settlement (lifts inaccessible from the level
• Very well-organized administrative activity-efficient work of housing cooperative as an of the terrain-apart from the "corn-cob" type buildings
administrator. (resembling com on the cob). stairs in the passageways, lack
• Good spatial organization of the cooperative-the clear demarcation of the functions of handles, steep ramps, no roofing, not enough benches, tight
(spatial order). kitchens, etc.).
• Good system of administrative/spatial identification-well-marked designation of • Lack of variation in terms of the quality of the flats and whole
buildings and streets (spatial order). residential buildings (egalitarianism leading to the loss of the
feel of place identity).
• Increased technical quality of the buildings, renovations, and thermo-renovation works
(spatial order). • Privatization and fragmentation of property-administrative
difficulties.
• Good esthetics of the buildings-unified artwork and subdued coloring (esthetic order).
• Creation of communities.
• Good esthetics of greenery-good condition of land development and very good state of
maintenance of greenery in settlement (spatial order). • Division of real estate-problems with financing of renovations
for select tall buildings (the "kukurydza" buildings).
• View from the windows in the higher stories.
---------~~--------------------------
~ ~~----~
analyses support the decision-making processes of strategic design, mainly in

urban planning or in relation to the real estate business. The technique involves
gathering information and segregation of it in four categories of strategic factors:
the strengths and weaknesses of the area (internal factors). and opportunities
and threats for the development of the project (external factors). Usually, such
studies are commissioned by the local authorities prior to the implementation
of the local plan so as to be able to plan a long-term strategy for the development
of the area or provide far-reaching effects of certain strategic investments, such
as carrying out a highway through rural areas.
Such research can also be performed for the needs of larger estates, such
as residential or industrial, as well as business and commercial property.
The SWOT analysis presented in Table 7.14 enables building a development
strategy aimed at eliminating weaknesses and countering threats . Not all
weaknesses can be eliminated because they are embedded in the spatial struc-
ture of land or the object itself (e.g. elevators standing up every half story, lack
of space for parking, etc.). You can, however, seek solutions that compensate
deficiencies. However, this requires more in-depth research and constant
monitoring of changes and their acceptance by the people.
The main purpose of SWOT analysis is to determine the so-called key
factors/forces of development (key driving forces), that is, the important factors
that stimulate development in a particular direction. Finding such factors has
a crucial importance in the long-term decision-making process. Th is could be a
phenomenon for which there is no possibility of any impact, such as demo-
graphic changes or aging. There are, however, factors that can be influenced by
consciously shaped policies, such as stimulation of the economy, housing
development, etc. After determining the developmental factors that have a
decisive influence on the development of the property, one determines the
importance of these factors for the further development and the degree of
certainty of their impact. Table 7.15 shows a set of developmental factors
affecting the further development of settlements in Katowice (Poland) from the
communist period. Most of them have a high validity, but certa inty in direction
of development is varied . The most reliable, and one that has an extremely high
degree of certainty, is the demographic factor. Katowice for years has been one
of the shrinking cities, and the impact of that factor may cause the reduction of
the number of residents on the estate, despite the current attractiveness of
these dwellings, and lead to the occurrence of the vacancies that are now
pertinent to German districts. However, whether the estate w ill become
unattractive or not will be revalued by the economic development and prosperity
of the inhabitants. If the economy continues to thrive, residents may move to
better, new settlements, and the community w ill begin to grapple w ith the
problem of empty homes. Swedish research shows that 3 percent of empty
dwellings will cause unprofitable operations. On the other hand, if a crisis awaits
us, these settlements will continue to be attractive for the indigent and largely
unemployed population, and the trouble w ill be waiting anew, already stand ing
250 D
Table 7.15 Key developmental factors in Katowice in the perspective to the year 2050, based on
Polish-German research project 2010-21
Key development factor Significant Average Insignificant Significant Average Insignificant

importance importance importance certainty certainty certainty
Demography X X
Economy X X
Politics X X
Real estate market X X
New patterns X X
New technologies X X
Sustainable development X X
Source: Niezabitowska et al. (2011-2012)
empty premises in the new mini-estates, which, due to poor infrastructure and
high prices, do not enjoy excessive popularity, especially in the situation of
balancing demand and supply in the real estate market in Katowice.
Scenarios
A further result of the implementation of the type of SWOT studies and
determining the factors of development is to prepare scenarios for development
of the area or object.
"A scenario is a 'story' illustrating visions of possible future or aspects of
possible future. It is perhaps the most emblematic foresight or future studies
method. " 15 Scenarios are not predictions of the future, but rather twin parallel
simulations are possible for the future. Therefore, they are used as a method
or an exploratory tool for decision-making. The time horizon taken into account
in the scenarios is 10, 20, 30, and 50 years .
The most important literature positions on building scenarios are in
"Scenario Types and Techniques: Toward a User's Guide" (Borjeson et al.,
2006) and "The Current State of Scenario Development: An Overview of
Techniques" (Bishop et al., 2007).
In building a vision of the future, there are predictive (short-term forecasts),
exploratory, and normative approaches. The starting point of the exploratory
approach is the present, and the scenarios show where some trends may lead
us e.g . weak economic growth may in the future lead to lower standards of
living and reduce the population of the city, 16 and hence in the districts the
vacancy rate may rise, actually attracting crime and social pathology.
The normative approach thinking begins by defining what the expected
future should be, and the script has to answer the question of what trends and
events lead us to that aim. If we are planning economic development of the
region, factors that facilitate such a growth should be developed (e.g. org-
anization of technology parks, incubators of industry, creating favorable
conditions for highly qualified staff, etc.). The nQrmative scenario is also used
251 l
to monitor the activities to achieve the purpose, and helps develop a road map
and indicators to monitor progress toward the expected future.
Borjeson et al. (2006, p. 731, Table 1) distinguish three types of research
techniques used in building scenarios: (1) generating scenario-based solutions
(surveys, polls, workshops, the Delphi method); (2) integrative (an analysis of
time series, explanatory and optimizing modeling); and (3) consistency (morpho-
logical field analysis, cross impact). According to some authors, predictive and
futurological studies answering the question of "What will happen?" are of
mainly quantitative type, and sometimes of qualitative type too, but usually they
are concise and focused, above all, on external facts. Exploratory studies, both
external and strategic, answering the question of "What can happen?" are first
and foremost of qualitative type. On rare occasions, they are qualitative,
oftentimes long-lasting and focused on external facts, as well as their impact
on internal problems. Normative research, on the other hand, answering the
question of "How can a certain target be reached?" is generally of qualitative
type, especially if characterized by prevention. It is generally qualitative, com-
bined with quantitative elements in the case of transformative studies.
Preventive research is characterized by a focus put both on external and internal
conditions.
The expected qualities of a good scenario are credibility, consistency, and

usefulness in decision-making. Credibility means that it must fit between the
limits that can possibly happen. Internal consistency ensures that combinations
of logical links in the scenario do not show the contradictions that could threaten
its credibility.
Scenarios help the board of the public sector to think in a disciplined

manner about the future when they make important public decisions within a
credible future. They also help to stimulate creativity and the discontinuation of
conventional thinking about the problems of the present, as well as short-term
problems.
The study scenario is distinguished by six basic steps of research:
1. identification of the fundamental problems of a scenario;

2. identification and analysis of the driving forces or drivers;
3. ranking the validity and certainty/uncertainty of realization development
drivers;
4. devising the logic (consequences) of a scenario;
5. perfecting the scenarios in terms of the content; and
6. elaborating the commentary for a scenario.
As mentioned earlier, a normative scenario is practical and introductory, while

an exploratory scenario is diagnostic, because it allows the generalization and
the extraction of certain trends related to development in certain similar
conditions. Figure 7.20 shows exploratory regression scenarios development
and expansion of the industrial area Lab~dy in Gliwice (Poland) developed in
1994 under the direction of T. Gawtowski. 17
252 D
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Figure 7.20
Exploratory scenarios of regression and expansion of the industrial area LabQdy in Gllwice (Poland)
Source: Gawtowskl et al. (1994, p. 84, Figures 9 and 10)
253 □
Heuristic and Prognosis Research Techniques

Heuristic research pertains to new facts in relation to the existing reality and
the relationship occurring between them. These are unconventional ways of
solving problems. One can use them to seek new solutions and new scientific
truths (Apanowicz, 2003).
In the context of predictive research, the testing is performed on the
general practice research bearing the name "foresight." In foresight research,
which is focused on developmental strategies and problem-solving concepts,
the most commonly used and popular methods are the Delphi technique and
the brainstorming method.
Foresight consists of discussing the future of a group of representatives/
deciders (public authorities). academia, industry, the media, nongovernmental
organizations (NGOs), and public organizations, without regard for the accuracy
of the forecast, but a realization of prospects and preparations for change. The
essence of foresight is not only to predict the future, but also to enable its
formation through the preparation of appropriate preemptive action. Due to the
ever-faster changes in civilization, there seems to be a growing need for strategic
thinking. Foresight is divided into technological, regional, branch, and corporate.
In this type of research, specialists play an important role-architects/planners
and regional planners-as all strategic and economic decisions take place in
space and shape the built environment, and thus the living conditions of people
in the future.
Delphi Techniques
The Delphi technique is an expert technique, directed at foreseeing the
developmental tendencies with a range of perspective. It typically pertains to
issues that include human opinion (e.g. the developmental trends of science,
industrial branches, regions, etc. in the time span of 10, 20, and more years).
It consists of multiple surveying of a chosen group of experts that work
independently. Experts represent their personal point of view in the form of
written anonymous responses to questions (usually the number of questions
is limited and does not exceed 25) contained in the questionnaire. On the basis
of the answers, the problem and its solution materialize. The procedure is
repeated several times (usually two to five times) until the moment in which
the analysis of questionnaires conta ins the solution to the problem. In sub-
sequent stages, the participants are informed about the position of the majority
of experts and very controversial opinions.
Should a specialist wish to be an expert, he or she must have extensive
knowledge of the subject matter. He or she should be experienced in the scope
of a given problem, should think outside the box, and showcase a high level of
independence. What is more, he or she should be concise and be able to talk
about specific problems. Before distributing the questionnaire prepared for the
experts, one carries out the correctness and verification of its contents to a
254 D
small group of competent people, and potentially makes necessary corrections.

The questionnaire is typically accompanied by a letter explaining the nature of
the problem and the purpose of the study. A survey may be in the traditional
paper form or a digital one. It can also be carried out in the form of computer-
assisted interviews.
The test is carried out in at least two rounds. After the first round of testing
and analysis of the results of the project, the organizer prepares the next
version of the survey, with a restrictive object of study, and sends it to the
same experts. When filling out the questionnaire once again, the participants
of the research are presented with collective opinions expressed in the first
round of testing. Participants then confront their view with the opinions of the
majority, either supporting them or not. The described cycle is repeated several
times until a certain level of agreement between the experts is reached. A
forecast, therefore, constitutes an agreed opinion of the majority of research
participants.
The major advantages of the Delphi method may include the independence
of opinion, no influence of the leaders (as opposed to the collective expertise
of forecasting), the anonymity of judgment, the experts' ability to work in
various places, the higher accuracy of judgments of groups than individual
experts, and usually high relevance of the formulated forecasts (greater than
for other prediction methods).
This method is used primarily in architectural studies to predict the trends
of development in spatial planning and behavior regarding business in the urban
space.
Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a working meeting of experts aimed at find ing unconventional
ideas to solve the problem of practica l nature. The meeting's objective is to
search for ideas.
Typically, the working team should consist of about 10 people of various
specializations and creative temperaments. This group should include the group
manager facilitator (team manager, moderator). the secretary, approximately
five permanent members, and five guests. Prior to the meeting, all participants
should be informed about the purpose of the study and obtain the relevant
materials on the basis of which they could prepare for the task awaiting them .
Permanent members (architects) need not be experts in a given field, but
should be characterized by their ingenuity and ability to fantasize. Invited guests
are professionals with rea l practical and theoretical knowledge in a particular
field (installers, designers, facility managers, real estate specialists, etc.). The
appropriate selection of the team and working conditions, as well as the
organizational smoothness of the process, are the basis for good results.
In order to run a " brainstorm" type research, two task teams must be
established:
'..
255
• creative, whose task is to create and look for ideas; and

• assessment, which analyzes and assesses the collected ideas in order to
design variants of conceptual solutions.
A working meeting takes place in isolation from the outside world, but in
conditions of complete relaxation. The meeting is divided into several working
sessions, the first of which is devoted to the presentation of the problem to be
solved clearly and concisely by the group manager facilitator (team manager,
moderator). During a session, every participant introduces only one idea for a
solution.
Rules of brainstorming include:
1. One should present their ideas in a clear and concise way.

2. The participants give up the authorship of the ideas-the final version of
the idea is a result of work by the entire group.
3. One should not criticize or judge any ideas during the discussion-the
exclusion of criticism is conducive to creating new ideas, and the exchange
of ideas between the participants spurs new ones in the following sessions.
4. One should create a maximum number of ideas-every idea is a source for
new ones.
5. All the ideas are good ideas, even the most fantastical and unreal ones.
6. At the end, all the collected ideas are linked together and then perfected.
The ideas collected by the secretary are then assessed by a team, which rejects
unrelated subjects or those that cannot be realized owing to technical, financial,
or time reasons. The remaining ones undergo revaluation.
The most serious problem of the conduct of such research is to eliminate
the common habits of immediate assessment. Therefore, people who participate
in the sessions are usually trained in special courses designed to teach the
participants not to get into such habits (the habit of making an assessment on
the spot).
There are a few types of brainstorming. Architecture has to do with the
generation of ideas, and is often used to search for the overall concept of the
initial look of the building and its functional structure and service. Participation
in the discussion of industry specialists and facility managers, as the repre-
sentatives of users, allows for the inclusion of the technical needs at the stage
of the initial concept, which usually gives significant advantages in the cost of
maintaining the building and its friendliness for future users.
This technique has recently been strongly criticized as giving poor results .
Susan Cain (2012) writes that group work, collective thinking, and brainstorming
are the mantra of modern business. Increasingly, however, it turns out that the
best ideas come to people 's minds in solitude. People in the group are prone
to sitting back and letting others work; they instinctively duplicate other people's
opinions and lose sight of their own , often due to peer pressure.
256 D
Hence, this technique is best used on the Internet, where the people in
front of the computer tend to be more creative. Similar is the case with a sci-
entific cooperation group, which, according to research, runs most efficiently
between scientists collaborating at a distance.
Marketing Techniques
Marketing research is the systematic process of collecting objective informa-
tion and the processing then undertaken to reduce the risk of market decisions.
Thanks to research of this type, we can reduce the risk of making wrong market
decisions and also acquire additional information that gives the chance for
success. It also allows one to obtain information about the needs and expecta-
tions of the potential buyer of services or estate, so that the company can meet
these needs and wishes. The tools for conducting marketing research include
surveying and interviews, as well as interviews conducted by telephone .
There are two basic prediction techniques used in this type of research,
which are based on sampling (the percentage of a population tested), probable
and improbable. The purpose of " probable" sampling is to achieve a sample
that is truly representative of the wider population. In this case, one has to
implement statistical inference. Researchers believe that a sample of 5 percent
is the minimum to obtain the standard generalization of the wider population.
The improbable sampling is used when the researcher does not depend
on generalizations about the wider population, but they care more about the
discovery of useful design information about a particular group or fragment, a
subset of the population. For example, the architect working on the renovation
of an office building may find it more expedient to carry out interviews with
some complaining employees. In this way, he can learn more about the causes
of dissatisfaction.
For architecture, such study has practical significance in the investment
market (e.g. in the housing market). Developers and design offices are able to
obtain from this type of research information concerning specific preferences
expressed by the users and, more importantly, information concerning the
feasibility of such expectations.
Summary of Forecasting Techniques

Forecasting techniques are useful in determining the long-term development
strategies to support political and planning decisions. Opponents of th is type of
research raise their small verifiability in the future, but it seems that strategic
decision-making is so difficult that this type of consultation is essential and
necessary. Below, we can find a summary of research techniques and heuristic
forecasting, along with an indication of their types and role in decision-making.
It seems that their scientific importance is primarily in the diagnostic and
exploratory research; other activities are only ancillary to decision-making.
When it comes to the planning process, it is possible to use all four
techniques mentioned above. SWOT analysis constitutes the most valuable
257 D
Table 7.16 Characteristics of heuristic and forecasting techniques
TYPE OF APPROACH
Methods and tools C:
.g ~ c
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0 .g. .l!l
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·.;::;
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·.;::;
u
C:
0)
C:
g, 1/)
C:
<ti
:.::::
<ti § .£2 fs C:
(I)
-S! ~ :::, :::, ~ ~
a 0:: n: a a ~ l.L,j n: 8-
SWOT xx X X X X
Scenarios xx X X X X
Delphi X X X X X X xx X
Brainstorming X xx X X X X X
Source: Based on JRC (2017)
diagnostic tool. All of those, however, can be used as exploratory techniques

that allow one to determine in which direction the current development is
headed, under the influence of some developmental factors (Table 7.16).
7 .4 PILOT AND PRETEST
In earlier chapters, devoted to quality assessment, case studies, and especially

surveying and interviews, we have discussed the issue of pilots and pretests.
Since this is an important element of research techniques, the issue is once
again mentioned.
Following Gruszczynski (2002, p. 88). the primary purpose of the pilot study
is to test the suitability of a research tool to obtain the information sought. The
first task of piloting is a final verification of the research problem ; the second
one, very importantly, is the verification of the prepared research tool. In the
pilot, we can assess the degree of understanding of primarily the question naire
survey questions by respondents.
The third task of the pilot is to test organizationa l and technical problems
such as the time needed to reach the respondent, the method of contact with
respondents, the time necessary to conduct interviews to determine the cost
of the study, training of the interviewers, etc. As a fourth objective, Gruszczynski
(2002, p. 90) provides test method development of the collected material and
decisions on the makeup of the result tables of statistical tests. The pilot and
pretest should always be conducted prior to the study, in whichever field a
particular procedure is to be made. The difference between the pilot and the
pretest is that the pilot is a procedure that checks prepared and research tools.
For example, when surveying, we check from a few examples that t he proposed
survey is well constructed, understandable to respondents, or gives an answer
to the questions we asked before the task, that it is not too long and does not
cause fatigue of the respondent. The case is similar with structured interviews.
The implementation of a case study in its entirety before moving on to
perform multiple studies can be regarded as a pilot. This avoids wasting t ime
258 D
when closed studies come to the conclusion that some important elements are
omitted in this study, which for large field studies can be burdensome or,
because of the costs, impossible.
A final rehearsal before the fieldwork, which is an organizational and training-
oriented procedure, can be called a pretest. Before one begins surveys or
interviews, prior to the focus meetings and other related activities, one has to
conduct training where we check that the participants have understood the task
and whether or not they can perform it in a correct fashion .
NOTES
1. The citation index is one of the forms of bibliography, based on collecting information
both on quoted articles as well as other related texts. It is one of the ways of evalu-
ating the worth of a given scientific work. The best-known quote databases are
created by the Institute for Scientific Information (SI): Science Citation Index, Social
Sciences Citation Index, and Arts and Humanities Citation Index.
2. Information concerning the style of citations provided can be found here: APA citation
style, or Harvard or Cambridge.
3. In this case, Zeise! draws particular attention to the categorization (e.g. age groups
11-20 and 21-30, and not 10-20 and 20-30).
4. Weighting means a choice of respondents that reflects the representativeness of a
population researched . The more "weighed" a sample, the greater its representa-
tiveness for a given population.
5. The questionnaire was prepared within the research project entitled Yesterday, Today
and Tomorrow of Polish and German Large Housing Estate (LHE), a comparative
study of urban development and its acceptance in Katowice and Lepzig-UE7/Rar-
3/2011, financed by the Polish-German Science Foundation (no. 2011-2012) between
2011 and 2012. The author of this book was the project chief. The authors of the
questionnaire were partners from Leipzig, Prof. Sigrun Kabisch and Katrin Grossman,
PhD . This questionnaire was used in monitoring for researching the Grunau district
in Leipzig since 1979. The Polish side, Prof. Niezabitowska, Prof. Bartoszek,
Kucharczyk-Brus, PhD, and N1ezabitowski, PhD, has supplemented this survey with
significant questions from the point of view of the Polish team in research of the
living conditions of chosen Katowice districts.
6. In such research, the sociological problem was polished personally by A. Bartoszek,
a professor of sociology at the Silesian University in Katowice, who performed the
function of the director of the sub-project on living conditions of seniors in Poland.
7. Unless the aim of the research is to find differences of buildings in various climate
conditions.
8. The research was conducted within the aforementioned Polish-German research
project on large districts of the social realism era (project 2010-21). directed by the
author of this book.
9. An observation method does not consist of viewing the object and photographing It,
which is mistakenly included as the observation method by young scientists. These
actions are included in the basic information section. Object viewing cannot be
mistaken w ith the techniques used In qualitative research, such as "walkthrough " as
the first stage of object evaluation or the so-called "field trips" used in the initial
investigation of the urban environment.
10. In PolSenior studies (Bartoszek et al., 2007- 2010). persons conducting surveys
and medical observational studies also led. In medical research, they evaluated the
'•
259 0
-
conditions of seniors; in architectural studies, they noted the level of housing and the
manner of setting the apartment, and in the case of consent of the respondents they
also photographed them.
11. Alexander's entire book is dedicated to 253 patterns of characteristic behavioral
settings observed in a given space, both urban and architectural.
12. Wang (Groat and Wang, 2002) points out not to confuse the presentation, which is
a still, unmovable image, with a virtual image, where you can make changes on an
ongoing basis and manipulate variables.
13. Kas Oosterhuis-an architect and scientist from Delft, head of Oosterhuis Associates
and now Hyperbody Laboratory, and previously producer of experimental Salt Water
Pavilion objects and others in the Netherlands with the use of intelligent real-time
response to changing external conditions, such as the Water Pavilion, or internal
conditions such as the Fresh Water Pavilion or transPORTS2001.
14. The current experiments in this field go toward the construction of computer self-
designing programs, as well as self-designing themselves or seeking new possible
combinations of solutions. For this purpose, generative and parametric design
methods are developed. The grounds for such thinking were created by J.H. Frazer
(1995) in An Evolutionary Architecture. He argues that architecture undergoes
processes similar to life, which Is subject to morphogenesis, genetics, reproduction,
and selection. Hence, generative design uses a code similar to DNA to automatically
generate the architecture in accordance with the symbiotic behavior. This modeling
takes place in the imagination of the computer according to the internal logic of the
embedded code.
15. Based on JRC (2017).
16. People in such situations searching for new jobs may migrate to regions that lack
hands to work, including foreign countries.
17. An article in the Scientific Journal of the Technical University in Gliwice shows the
results of the KBN grant entitled "Research on the Possibility of Redeveloping the
Restructured Industry Based on the Example of the Labady Disctrict in Gliwice." A
team consisting of K. Gasidto, E. Niezabitowska, E. Szady, A. Sliwa, M . Wenklar, and
S. Zemta, run by Prof. T. Gawtowski, has designed for scenarios: strategy development
without growth (I); expansion strategy (II); the strategy of regression (Ill); and
liquidation strategy (IV).
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Research Methods

Elzbieta Danuta Niezabitowska

ISBN: 978-1-138-05597-1 (hbk)

1 The Relation Between Science, Theory of Architecture,

Stewart Brand's Theory of Transitions and a Stratif ied

2 The General Image of Science 66

3 Basic Notions Applied in Science 94

4 Scientific Research in Architecture 113

4.3 The Subject Matter and the Subject of Research in

5 Research Process Designing 130

6 Research Methods Applied in Architecture 138

7 Research Techniques 188

Description, Explanation, and Interpretation 193

8 Practical Activities Connected with the Realization

8.4 Techniques for Checking Credibility of the Results of

Appendix 1: Preamble, Title Page, Surveys, Authorization for the

Without theory practice is blind, while theory w ithout practice is dead.

and doctrines. If a specific scientific branch is to be developed, however,

AREA OF NORMATIVE THEORY WORKING PRODUCED KNOWLEDGE

ASSIMILATION PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE NORMATIVE KNOWLEDGE STANDARDS,

THE EXISTING WORLD Figure 1.2

1.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENT

perfect their building technique by trial-and-error methods, implementing the

MODIFICATION OF FAMILIAR SOLUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION O F NEW SOLUTIONS

( ENVIRONMENT ) ( PROGRAMME )➔( PROJECT )➔( REALIZATION ) ➔( EXPLOITATION / USE )

1.2 CAUSES OF DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURE

Architects may mistake, life never.

Having observed the development of architecture as a practical discipline, one

• The choice of a building plot provoked questions concerning climatic, soil,

today it provides people with far greater possibilities of a constraint-free

1.3 DRAWBACKS OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURE

Architecture still seems to be stuck in the pre-paradigmatic phase, which leads

discipline, also as a scientific one, due to a one-sided focus on the development

• basing on "honored" authorities, whose theorems resemble dogmatic

The history of architecture connected with the history of art is considered to be

The capital of knowledge accumulated to date and the application of research

Table 1. 1 Thematic domains: concepts of the discipline of architecture

(1) General architectonic domain (7) Temporal

He also states that:

The need for creating an interdisciplinary science paradigm in architecture is

1.4 INTER-, MULTI-, AND TRANSDISCIPLINARITY OF

The disciplines of science create a specific system of knowledge in which, on

Nowadays, the natural process of integration, systematization, and unifica-

• technical science (statics, materials science, building installations, systems

Moreover, it links knowledge on the process of shaping the built environ-

SPATIAL BUILT ARCHITECTURE

terms of psychology and environmental sociology, and it is focused on meeting

The problem concerning transdisciplinarity and the multifacetedness of

1.5 ARCHITECTURE AS A SCIENCE: LITERATURE OVERVIEW

When referring to the analysis of architecture as a science, it must be stated

• Putting contemporary knowledge in order and an attempt at specifying

The Philosophical Reflection Trend: Literature Analysis

• A coherent system of notions, definitions, axioms, and theorems that

1. the one characterized by regulations or orders (prescriptive) ;

Design. Having compared stances presented by Johnson and Lang, whose

• Descriptive studies, which are to create a report, a description of the

• Normative studies in which an attempt is made to indicate which elements

According to Rautio, in situations where the results of normative studies can

A Research Trend in Architecture Aimed at Perfecting Design

The following publication was really focused on the theory of designing,

• its final product (a plan or building-versus research-based scientific

• its focus (searching for new possibilities-versus searching for desirabilities

The Faculty of Architecture in Delft also undertook research that is to develop