 REVIEWER

- ORAL COMMUNICATION
LESSON/WEEK 1
COMMUNICATION - The word communication originated from the two Latin
words, communis that means “to make common” and communicare which is
defined as “to share”.
MARK HAMILTON - Communication is a process of sharing experiences among
people that is clear and understandable. Communication can also be defined as a
systematic process by which people interact through the exchange of verbal and
nonverbal symbols to create and interpret meanings.
NOTES:
- COMMUNICATION CONSTANTLY MOVES AND CHANGES

9 basic elements of communication

- SENDER
- MESSAGE
- ENCODING
- CHANNEL
- RECEIVER
- DECODING
- FEEDBACK
- BARRIER
- CONTEXT

MODEL - A model is a framework that provides visual representation of a

concept/s. It is a guide to have a better understanding of a process or an idea.

CATEGORIES OF COMMUNICATION MODELS

 - LINEAR –
Speaker > Speech > Audience > Effect
ARISTOTLE’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
=First model of communication which is conceptualized before 300 BC by the
Greek philosopher Aristotle. The model shows five (5) primary elements.
LASWELL’S COMMUNICATION MODEL
Communicator>Message>Medium>Receiver>Effect
=developed by Harold Laswell in 1948, described the communication process as a
one-way process in which communication is transmitted from a sender to receiver.
SHANNON-WEAVER MODEL

=the Shannon-Weaver model (1949) depicts communication as a linear or one-way

process consisting of five elements: a source (producer of message); a transmitter
(encoder of message into signals); a channel (signals adapted for transmission); a
receiver (decoder of message from the signal); and a destination.
=Mother of communication
BERLO’S SMCR MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

=In 1960, David Berlo, an American communication scientist, introduced his

model of communication . The four elements (source, message, channel and
receiver) are influenced by different factors. Notice that both the source and
receiver would have the same factors influencing them.

- INTERACTIVE
NORBERT WIEINER

=Norbert Weiner added a 7th concept (‘feedback’) in the communication model

which changed the it from a linear to cyclical model.
WILBUR SCHRAMM

=Wilbur Schramm developed his second communication mode focusing on the

dual roles of communicators where they can be both senders or encoders and
receivers or decoders.
TRANSACTIONAL
Transaction Model is a two-way process with the inclusion of feedback as one
element.
DR. JULIA WOOD MODEL

=Dr. Julia Wood presented a transactional model that depicts communication as a

continually changing process.
NOTESSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
- The linear model holds that a message travels in a straight line from its
source, through a channel, and to its receiver.
- The interactive model holds that communication travels in a cycle as a
sender transmits a message and then the receiver responds with feedback;
thus both parties become sender/receivers.
- The transactional model holds that sending and receiving occur
simultaneously
 LESSON/WEEK 2

COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN
- A breakdown in communication occurs when the message or feedback
isnot sent or received properly – at least in a way that the sender
intendsor is not received by the concerned party altogether.
- V
- Communication breakdown is a failure in communication due to various
barriers. These barriers are related to the sender, message, channel, and the
receiver.

1. PHYSICAL NOISE
This noise comes from the environment.
• Extraneous noises
• White noise
• Unbearable weather
• A distracting visual aid, etc.
2. PSYCHOLOGICAL NOISE
This occurs when the receiver of the message is thinking of something and not
concentrating on the message itself. This originates from the emotional, mental,
and psychological makeup of a person. (mental state)
• Depression
• Anger
• Suspicions
• Paranoia
• Biases
 PHYSIOLOGICAL NOISE
These are “bodily conditions” that compromise the ability of a person to send or
receive messages. (state of body)
• Hunger
• Stomachache
• Headaches, etc.
SEMANTIC NOISE
This refers to anything related to the meaning of words that distort or mask a
message and confuse the listeners.
• Speaker’s use of a foreign language
• Listener’s limited vocabulary
• Differing interpretations of the meaning of a word
• Speaker’s use of jargons
FACTUAL NOISE
This refers a noise made by attempts to recall or verify information.
• Mental block
STRATEGIES ON HOW TO AVOID THE COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN
1. BE A POSITIVE THINKER
2. USE APPROPRIATE LANGUAGE
3. GIVE AND ACCEPT FEEDBACK
7 C’S OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
COMPLETENESS
CONCISE
CONSIDERATION
CONCRETENESS
COURTESY
CORRECTNESS
CLEARNESS

LESSON/WEEK 3
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
• Regulation / Control
• Social Interaction
• Motivation
• Information
• Emotional Expression

- REGULATION/CONTROL
We use this due to:
Meeting own desires
Controlling others to do certain actions in meeting personal or communal desires.
- SOCIAL INTERACTION.
We use this due to:
Communicative acts such as greetings and leave-takings
Introducing people
Keeping or building relationships
- MOTIVATION
We use this due to:
Stimulate people to act upon the goals desired
Build positive relationships
- INFORMATION
We use this due to:
Acquire information needed
Build positive relationships
- EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION
We use this due to:
Acquire information needed
Build positive relationships
LESSON/WEEK 4
DIMENSIONS OF COMMUNICATION
- INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
• Intercultural communication happens when individuals interact, negotiate, and
create meanings while bringing in their varied cultural backgrounds (Ting-
Toomey, 1999).
• For some scholars, intercultural communication pertains to communication
among people from different nationalities (Gudykunst, 2003).
A. VERBAL/ NON-VERBAL
DIMENSIONS
B. ORAL/ WRITTEN DIMENSIONS
C. FORMAL/ INFORMAL DIMENSIONS
D. INTENTIONAL/ UNINTENTIONAL
DIMENSIONS

A. VERBAL/NON-VERBAL DIMENSIONS
• These dimensions encompass the use of language, the
words chosen (verbal) and the facial expressions, and
the gestures and bodily movement used (non-verbal). A
misunderstanding happens when words contradict
actions. For example, a friend answered “yes” to an
invitation, but the facial expression says “no”.
B. ORAL/WRITTEN DIMENSIONS
• These dimensions pertain to a spoken
communication (oral) and the transcription of
thoughts and ideas (written). How does
miscommunication occur? Sometimes when
we have a different understanding of what was
stressed out or what was written. For example,
if the word has a “double meaning”.

C. FORMAL/INFORMAL DIMENSIONS
• These speak of the factors that may or may not
highlight traditional or conventional
communication. In the formal dimension, you
may observe appropriate dress, language, etc.
while the informal uses the opposite. For
example, you were invited to attend on a formal
celebration on a three-star hotel, how will you
dress up? How will you speak? Otherwise, you
will be misunderstood when you do the opposite.

D. INTENTIONAL/ UNINTENTIONAL DIMENSIONS

• These dimensions rely on the fact that
messages always have a purpose. There is
an intention when people communicate
with others. Otherwise,
miscommunication arises, for example: a
speaker in a seminar was serious in tone
but the audience laughed at what was
said by the speaker.

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

LESSON 1 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH

WAYS OF KNOWING THINGS
1. SENSORY EXPERIENCE
2. AGREEMENT WITH OTHERS
3. EXPERT OPINIONS
4. LOGIC
5. SCIENTIFIC METHOD
WHAT IS RESEARCH?
- The systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in
order to establish facts and reach new conclusions.
WHAT RESEARCH IS NOT
➢ It is NOT mere information gathering.

➢ It is NOT merely rummaging for information.

➢ It is NOT a catchword used to get attention.

WHAT RESEARCH IS
➢ It is finding out something and making it public.

➢ It is about advancing knowledge and understanding.

 ➢ It is a careful, diligent, and exhaustive investigation of a specific matter,
having as its aim the advancement of mankind’s knowledge (Manheim,
1977).
TOOLS IN RESEARCH
- LIBRARY
- COMPUTER
- MEASURMENT TECHNIQUES
- STATISTICS
- LANGUAGE
WHY DO WE DO RESEARCH?
➢ To get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

➢ To face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems;

➢ To get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;

➢ To be of service to society; and

➢ To get respectability
ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH
- TOPIC
- PURPOSE
- PARTICIPANTS
- SETTING

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
- EMPRICAL = It should be based on direct experience or observation by
the researcher.
- LOGICAL = It should be based on valid procedures and principles. It
should is done in an orderly manner so that it would yield credible results
and conclusions.
- CYCLICAL = It starts with a problem and ends with another problem.
 - ANALYTICAL = It identifies the problem by breaking them into parts or
units.
- CRITICAL = It exhibits careful and precise judgment.
- METHODICAL = It is conducted in an organized manner using
systematic methods and procedures.
- REPLICABLE = The research designs and procedures must be repeated
to enable the researchers to arrive at valid and conclusive results.

QUALITATIVE VS QUANTITATIVE
QUALITATIVE
- It explores attitudes, behavior and experiences through such methods as
interviews or focus group discussions.
- It attempts to get an in-depth opinion from participants.
- It requires fewer people to take part in the research, but the contact with
these people tends to last a lot longer.
QUANTITATIVE
- It generates statistics through the use of large-scale survey research,
using methods such as questionnaires or structured interviews.
- This type of research reaches many more people, but the contact with
those people tends to be short and quick

LESSON 2 THE RESEARCH PROCESS AND ETHICS

AIMS OF RESEARCH
1. Verification of existing knowledge
2. Acquisition of new knowledge
3. Application of new knowledge
Acquisition of New Knowledge
- Research also brings forth new ideas regarding a theory or even create a
totally new theory.

Application of New Knowledge

- Once new ideas or innovations are proven true, they are then utilized and
translated to something useful to humankind.
Verification of Existing Knowledge
- Research is aimed at proving the accuracy of existing theories or
knowledge. This leads to the development of new ideas, strengthening a
current knowledge, or debunking a theory.

FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH
EXPLORATION
- This kind of research seeks to find more information about a topic and a
broader perspective or an additional knowledge to what is currently
known.

DESCRIPTION
- This kind of research fills in the details and gaps regarding a particular
idea, with the intent to expand understanding. Here , more information is
needed to be supplied in order to answer that ‘what’ and ’how’ questions
instead of formulating unsure explanation.
EXPLANATION
- This type of research aims to clarify relationships existing between
variables, quantitatively or qualitatively.

RESEARCH PROCESS
1.) Identifying the Problem
2.) Designing the Study
3.) Collecting and Organizing Data
4.) Analyzing Data
5.) Interpreting Data
6.) Reporting the Results

ETHICS IN RESEARCH
- Ethics can be defined as the process of applying moral standards and
principles in any undertaking. In the context of research, ethics may
be defined as a methodology in making sound and right decisions
pertaining to actions to be taken, and the analysis of intricate
problems and issues.

1. ANIMAL RIGHTS IN RESEARCH

- Philippine Republic Act No. 8485 or the Animal Welfare Act of 1998
- Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)
- Bureau of Animal Industry of the Department of Agriculture
- Philippine Association for Laboratory Animal Science (PALAS)

2. HUMAN RIGHTS IN RESEARCH

- Right to Voluntary Participation
- Right to Informed Consent
- Right to be Protected from Harm
- Right to Confidentiality
- Right to Anonymity

-Right to anonymity
A respondent may choose not to disclose his or her identity to anyone,
including the researchers themselves.
-Right to voluntary participation
All human respondents should participate in a research study out of
their own free will. They should not be forced or coerced to participate
in any research undertaking.
-Right to confidentiality
All personal information extracted from the respondents shall be made
secret and should not disclosed to the public at all conditions.
-Right to be protected from harm
The respondents shall not be subjected to anything that may cause them
inconvenience or physical, emotional, or psychological risk. They are
given pre-activity orientation about the purpose of the study to increase
their understanding and remove possible deception.
- Right to informed consent
All respondents should be informed of all the procedures, potential risk,
and even benefits that the research would bring.

- Fabrication and falsification of data

This is also known as “cooking the data.” This involves producing data
without actual experimentation or altering data in recording for the
intention to fit them to what are expected.
- Non-publication of data
This involves choosing not to include data because they do not conform
to the well-established body of knowledge or are unsupportive of the
research hypothesis.
- Faulty data gathering procedures
This is the result of negligence or carelessness that leads to errors in
measurement or faulty research instruments.
 - Plagiarism
This is the act of claiming another person’s ideas, work, or publication.
It is a form of stealing and dishonesty that happens in publication.

LESSON 3 RESEARCH VARIABLES

WHAT IS A VARIABLE
► It is an element, feature, or factor that is likely to vary or change.
► It is a concept that stands for variation within a class (e.g.
gender, eye color, running speed, level of motivation, academic
achievement etc.)

CLASSIFICATIONS OF VARIABLE
A. CATEGORICAL
1. NOMINAL
2. ORDINAL
B. QUANTITIVE
1. CONTINUOUS/INTERVAL
2. DISCRETE/ RATIO

A. Categorical variables
- Describe a quality or characteristics of a data unit like “what type” or
“which category.”
- Do not vary in degree, amount, or quantity but are qualitatively
different (e.g. eye color, gender, religious affiliation, occupation, etc.)
1. NOMINAL VARIABLES
► -They cannot be organized in a logical sequence.
2. ORDINAL VARIABLES
They can take a value which can be logically ordered or ranked.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES
1. Continuous/Interval Variables

A. Quantitative/Numerical Variables
- Describe a measurable numerical quantity
- Answer the questions how many or how much.
- Exist in some degree along a continuum from less to more.
- Numbers can be assigned to different individuals or objects to
indicate how much of the variable they possess (e.g. height, weight,
interest, etc. )
B. DISCRETE VARIABLES
- can only assume any whole values within the limits of the given
variables.
- Discrete data includes discrete variables that are finite, numeric,
countable, and non-negative integers
C. CONTINUOUS/INTERVAL VARIABLES
- They can assume any values between certain sets of real numbers,
depending on the scale used.
- Variables in these data sets often carry decimal points, with the
number to the right stretched out as far as possible.
D. DISCRETE VARIABLES
- can only assume any whole values within the limits of the given
variables.
- Discrete data includes discrete variables that are finite, numeric,
countable, and non-negative integers
TYPES OF VARIABLES
► Independent variables are usually manipulated in an experiment.
 ► Dependent variables are usually affected by the manipulation of the
independent variables.
In Non-experimental Studies
► Predictor variables change the other variable/s in a non-experimental
study
► Criterion variables are usually influenced by the predictor variables.
CPAR REVIEWER
Definition of Contemporary Arts
❖ Contemporary art is the term used for art of the present day. Usually the
artists are alive and still making work. Contemporary art is often about ideas
and concerns, rather than solely the aesthetic (the look of the work). Artists
try different ways of experimenting with ideas and materials.

Historical Background of Philippine Arts

❖ The development of philippine art come in three major traditions these are
➢ Ethnic Traditions
➢ Spanish Colonial Traditions
➢ American and Contemporary Traditions

❖ The Ethnic art forms are primarily influenced by

geographical location and experiences of the Filipinos.

Ex. Dances in the country during the pre- colonial time vary depending on the area
where our ancestors thrive.Dance steps were imitations of the movements of
certain animals like birds, Filipinos near sea were mimics of the movements of the
fishes.
In terms of visual arts, pottery, weaving, wood carving and metal crafting were
dominant during the pre-colonial period. About architecture the early Filipinos
used local materials such as anahaw, bamboo, cogon ,rattan, etal. In music, our
ancestors also have their indigenous flutes and brass gongs.
 ❖ Spaniards came who tend to replace the Philippine
indigenous arts with western art forms. Religion and
secularization greatly influenced the art in the
Philippines under the Spanish regime.
In the area of
theater arts, secular and religious play “Komedya”
became popular.

The Spaniards introduced Christianity (the Roman Catholic faith) and

succeeded in converting the overwhelming majority of Filipinos. At least 83%
of the total population belongs to the Roman Catholic faith. The American
occupation was responsible for teaching the Filipino people the English language.
In music piano and other western instruments like band and orchestra were
introduced. In Architecture stones and bricks were dominant in constructing
buildings like churches and houses. Religious dances were commonly performed to
venerate patrons and saints during the Middle Ages, and are still practiced today.

❖ After 300 years of Spanish colonization , the

American took over which led to the declaration of Independence Day. In the area
of education there are Filipinos who went abroad to study and some learned
through observation and personal experiences.Those who went abroad to study
came back to the country carrying the concept of modern art.

❖ The emergence of new technology affected the way of art making in that
period. Modern Art refers to the practice of art in the western world from the
1860s-1960s. Due to technological innovations the experimental approaches
in developing art rose above traditional art.
7 Major Arts Forms
❖ Painting
❖ Sculpture
❖ Literature
❖ Architecture
❖ Theater
❖ Film
❖ Music

Various Art forms

❖ Painting -Video art
❖ Sculpture - Installation art
❖ Printmaking - Land art
❖ Collage - Intervention Art
❖ Digital art/collage -Performance Art
❖ Photography
National Artist

❖ Fernando Amorsolo
➢ Fernando Amorsolo painted and sketched more than ten thousand
pieces over his lifetime using natural and backlighting techniques. He
developed the backlighting technique, Chiaroscuro, which became his
artistic trademark. His most known works are of the dalagang Filipina,
landscapes of his homeland, portraits and WWII war scenes.
➢ Major Works: The Dalagang Filipina landscapes of his Filipino
homeland, portraits and WWII war scenes,
➢ Planting rice (1949)
➢ Afternoon meal of the rice workers
➢ Director of the University of the Philippine’s College of Fine Arts

❖ José T. Joya
 ➢ José Joya was a Filipino painter best known for his Abstract
Expressionist works which utilized a variety of techniques, including
controlled drips and impasto strokes. "In creating an artwork the artist
is concretizing his need for communication," the artist has said of his
practice.
➢ Barter of Panay (1948)
➢ Christ Stripped of his Clothes (1954)
➢ Granadean Arabesque (1958)
➢ Dimensions of Fear (1965)
➢ Vista Beyond Recognition (1981)
➢ Abstract Expressionist

❖ Carlos “botong” Francisco

➢ Carlos V. Francisco, better known as Botong, was responsible for
revolutionizing the fine arts landscape of the Philippines. Francisco
departed from the prevailing style of the Amorsolo academic and
launched the modernist movement. He was one of the founders of the
Modern Triumvirate, alongside Victorio Edades and Galo Ocampo.
➢ Blood Compact
➢ First Mass at Limasawa
➢ The Martyrdom of Rizal
➢ Bayanihan
➢ Magpupukot Fiesta

3 CATEGORIES OF VARIOUS ARTS

FORMS IN THE PHILIPPINES

❖ Visual Art
➢ Drawing
 ➢ Painting
➢ Sculpture
➢ Calligraphy
➢ Photography

❖ Applied Art
➢ Architecture
➢ Fashion
➢ Pottery
➢ Jewelry
➢ Interior

❖ Performance Art
➢ Dance
- Music

6 URI NG TEKSTO
❖ Impormatibo (Informative)
❖ Prosidyural
❖ Naratibo (Narrative)
❖ Deskriptibo
❖ Argumentatibo (Argumentative)
❖ Persuweysib

❖ Impormatibo
➢ nakakapaghatid ng mga impormasyon na hindi piksyon, naglalahad ng
tunay na pangyayari o mga presentasyon para sa madaling pag-unawa.
➢ Nagbibigay ng impormasyon sa pamamagitan ng hakbang ng proseso,
panuto
 ➢ KATANGIAN
● Pagiisa isa
● Pagsusuri
● Sanhi at bunga
● Paghahambing

❖ Prosidyural
➢ binubuo ng panuto na nagpapaliwanag kung paano ang tamang
proseso ng pagkakasunod-sunod ng direksyon kung paano maayos na
isinasagawa ang isang sitwasyon.
➢ Nagbibigay ng tuwirang impormasyon gamit ang mga datos.
➢ KATANGIAN
● Layunin
● Tulong ng larawan
● Kagamitan
● Hakbang
❖ Narratibo
➢ nagsasalaysay ng mga paliwanag, pangyayari, pangkasaysayan,
nakaraan, talambuhay,pakikipagsapalaran.
➢ HALIMBAWA
● Mito
● Maikling kwento
● Alamat
● Balita
● Rebyu ng pelikula
● Paglalakbay
● Anekdota
➢ TAUHANG KUMIKILOS SA MGA PANGYAYARI SA
KWENTO:
➢ tauhang bilog: nagbabago
➢ tauhang lapad: di nagbabago
➢ Katunggali
➢ Pangunahin
 ➢ Kasama
➢ May akda
➢ TAGPUANG PINANGYARIHAN AT PANAHONG NAGANAP:
➢ lunan: lugar
➢ oras: kailan
➢ petsa: anong araw, buwan, o taon
➢ panahon: maaraw o maulan
➢ BANGHAY DALOY NG PANGYAYARI NG ISANG
NARATIBO:
➢ wakas
➢ pababang aksyon
➢ kasukdulan
➢ papataas na aksyon
➢ Simula
➢ PAKSA SENTRAL NA IDEYA SA TEKSTO:
➢ tema
➢ aral
➢ mensahe
➢ pagpapahalaga
➢ DESKRIPTIBO:
➢ mga salita ang ginagamit ng manunulat upang mabigyan kulay o
mabuo sa isipan ng mga mambabasa ang paglalarawan sa teksto.
➢ Obhetibong Paglalarawan:
➢ nakabatay sa katotohanan ( pangmalawakan /pangkalahatang
pagtingin o pang malas)
❖ Subhetibong Paglalarawan:
➢ nakabatay sa imahinasyon( pang uri , tayutay , idyoma )
❖ PAGLALARAWAN SA TAUHAN:
➢ kinakailangan na makokotahanan ang paglalarawan sa tauhan.
❖ PAGLALARAWAN SA DAMDAMIN O EMOSYON:
➢ binibigyang diin ang emosyon ng tauhang nagsasalita.
❖ PAGLALARAWAN SA TAGPUAN:
➢ kahalagahang mailarawan ang oras, lugar, panahon, at petsa ng
pangyayawi upang sa ikagagayak ng mga mambabasa.
❖ PAGLALARAWAN SA ISANG MAHALAGANG BAGAY:
 ➢ sa maraming pagkakataon, sa isang bagay umiikot ang isang
pangyayari sa akda at ito rin ang nagbibigay ng mas malalim na
kahulugan dito.

❖ PERSWEYSIV:
➢ naglalayong mapaniwala at mapukaw ang damdamin upang
mahikayat na umayon sa ideya at makuha ang simpatya ng
mambabasa.
❖ KARAKTER/ KREDIBILIDAD:
➢ imahe/ reputasyon ng manunulat ay mabubuo ng tagapakinig.
➢ marapat na kapani-paniwala/ pinagkakatiwalaan.
❖ EMOSYON NG MAMBABASA:
➢ pinakamabisang motibasyon upang mapasunod ang isang tao.
➢ Aristotle: karamihan sa mambabasa ay madaling madala sa kanilang
emosyon; ang paggamit ng kanilang paniniwala at pagpapahalaga ay
isang mabisang paraan sa pag kumbinsi.
❖ LOHIKA NG MANUNULAT:
➢ kailangan mapatunayan na ang impormasyon at datos na ginamit ng
manunulat na inilatag, ang kanyang pananaw o punto de vista ang
dapat paniwalaan.

❖ Pathos
➢ Ang paggamit ng kanilang paniniwala at pagpapahalaga ay
isang epektibong paraan sa pangungumbinsi. (Mapakilos ang
isang tao)

❖ Logos

kailangan mapatunayan na ang impormasyon at datos na kanyang inilatag

ang kanyang pananaw o punto de vista ang dapat paniwalaan.

❖ Ibat-ibang uri ng mga Propaganda Device:

 ➢ Name calling- nagbibigay ng hindi magandang taguri. ° Glittering
➢ Generalities - magaganda at nakakasilaw na pahayag ukol sa isang
produkto
➢ Transfer- paggamit ng isang sikat na personalidad upang mailipat sa
produkto ang o tao ang kasikatan.
➢ Testimonial- kapag ang isang sikat na tao ang nag endorso ng
produkto.
➢ Plain Folks- ordinaryong tao na naghihikayat sa produkto.
➢ Bandwagon- hinihikayat ang lahat upang sumali sa kanilang pangkat.
➢ Card Stacking- mga magagandang epekto lamang ang sinasabi.

❖ Argumentatibo
➢ lihis na pangangatwiran: estratehiya upang malinang ang katunggali
■ Argumento
■ Manghikayat
■ Pangangatwiran
■ Katotohanan at lohikal
■ Fallacy

❖ ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM: argumentatibo laban sa karakter/

pagiging personal
❖ ARGUMENTUM AD BACULUM: paggamit ng puwersa o pananakot
❖ ARGUMENTUM AD MISERICORDIAM:
paghingi ng awa o simpatya
❖ NON SEQUITUR: walang kaugnayan sa argumento
❖ CIRCULAR REASONING: paikot-ikot na pangangatwiran
❖ HASTY GENERALIZATION: padalos-dalos na paglalahat
❖ HALIMBAWA NG TEKSTONG ARGUMENTATIBO
➢ Tesis
➢ Posisyong papel
➢ Papel ng pananaliksik
 ➢ Editoryal
➢ Petisyon

PHILOSOPHY REVIEWER
Philosophy mean “love of wisdom“
Holistic perspective is a point of view looks at all aspects of a situation
Holistic perspective requires an individual to have an open mindset and an ability
to get the general sense or impression regarding a situation
Holism comes from the Greek word “holos”
Partial point of view, on the other hand, focuses on specific aspects of a situation.
As an individual focuses on certain areas or aspects of a problem in order to
understand it.
Partial point of view is when conclusions are made based on considering some,
but not all, sides of the problem or situation.
Partition point of view is when all aspects are tied in together to form a general
overview of the problem or situation.
Facts is a statement which is observable to be real or truthful
Claims is statement that not evidently or immediately known to be true, it needs
further investigation or examination to see to it that this statement is true or false.
Opinion is a belief, impression or judgment about something by not necessarily
based on fact and personal pov
Truth is something that has been proven by facts or sincerity.
Conclusion is a statement based on a certain facts
Belief are statemets that express conviction.
Explanations are statements claiming to be true and provides reasons to make the
statements true
Arguments are varies of statements that provide explanation to convince the
listener
Types of Arguments
1. Fallacy or Fake argument (maling pangangatuwiran) – are group of
statements that appear to be arguments to support the conclusion.

Types of Fallacy
Hominem- (Argument against the Person) Attacking the person presenting the
argument instead of the argument itself.
Baculum- (Appeal to force) Using the threat of force or an undesirable event to
advance an argument
Misericordiam-(Appeal to Emotion) It is by using emotions such as pity or
sympathy, one might be able to convince the person.
Populum- (Appeal to Popular or Bandwagon) The idea is presented as acceptable
because a lot of people accept it.
2. Bias – refers tendencies or influences which affect the views of the people.
When looking at an opinion you must be aware of bias so that you can
objectively and critically examined points of view.

Types of Bias
Correspondence bias or attribute effect - You judge a person’s personality based
on the actions, and never mind the extrinsic (panlabas na dahilan) factor.
Confirmation bias - Tendency to look for a readily accept information which fits
one’s own beliefs or views that go against it
Framing - Do not only settled in one issue of the problem and then you do not
mind the other aspects. Judging an incidence without looking at the other side
Hindsight - The phenomena which occur has a pattern and can be predicted, such
is usually based in historical evidence.
The basis of our human dignity is Man’s uniqueness
Homo sapiens refers to a man as a species and distinguishes man from other
animals
The general term commonly used to refer the whole entire human race is a man
Self-awareness refers to the person having a clear perception of one self, including
his thoughts, emotions, identity and actions
Spirit refers to the intangible element enables us to exercise thought, possess
awareness, interiority, and the capacity to reach out to the outside world and other
person.
The Transcendence is ability of a human person to surpass limits and weaknesses
Embodiment is enables us to do and experience all the things that make us human
persons.
Dignity is that what we stand with our own belief and perceptions for we believe
that we have our own value and worth.

Externality is refers to the person capability to reach out and interact with others.
A human person is defined as a human being with granted recognition of certain
rights, protection, responsibilities, and Dignity above all
According to Steph (2018), The soul causes the body to live; indeed, it is the soul
that animates the body. In addition, the soul is the animator of the body, and the
body acts as the matter to the soul.
the major ideas of sustainability is that we must make wise decisions regarding the
use of natural resources to ensure that there is still enough left for future use.
Sustainability relies on 3 important principles:
1. Environmental integrity – refers to maintaining the state of the
environment.

2. Economic efficiency – refers to prudence in decision-making regarding the

use of resources to ensure that there is minimum to zero waste.

3. Equity – demands that we use our natural resources in such a manner that
these are conserved so that the next generation will be able to use them.

Prudence- the ability to regulate one’s action and behavior.

Frugality- being thrifty with the use of one’s resources
Freedom is an intrinsic and essential property of person
 - ability to make choices and perform actions

- the power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants without hindrance

- freewill (concept of liberty)

- it is the power to be what you want to be and the ability to decide and create
yourself

- is rooted in the human’s person self-determination and the exercise of

intellect and free will

2 ELEMENTS OF FREEDOM:
1. VOLUNTARINESS – the ability of a person to act out of his or her own free
will and self determination

2. RESPONSIBILITY – refers to the person being accountable for his or her

actions and their consequencies.

KINDS OF FREEDOM:
1. PHYSICAL FREEDOM

- Refers to the absence of any physical restraints

- The person has the freedom of mobility to go where he or she wants to go

- He or she is not impeded in his/her actions by any physical force

2. PSYCHOLOGICAL FREEDOM

- Freedom of choice

- Person is free to perform actions that he/she considers right and wise

- It is innate and cannot be denied a person

- No outside force can compel a person to make action against his/her will.
 3. MORAL FREEDOM

- Manners that uphold human dignity and goodness

Consequences – result or effect of our actions It is important to practice prudence

before performing any actions
Prudence – is an act of making good judgment that allows a person to avoid risks.
It is important to be prudent at all times to prevent any harm that a decision may
cause

BUSINESS FINANCE REVIEWER

Introduction to Financial Management
FINANCE Derived from the Latin word “finer” meaning “to end” or “to pay”
In simplest of terms, Finance is managing your money wisely.
3 General Types of Business Operations are:
1. Service business. It is a business in which it renders or provide a service to a
client or customer for a fee. Examples for these are: school, airline, travel agency,
beauty salon.
2. Merchandising business is one which maintains a stock of goods or
merchandise to besold at a price higher than its cost. It is also called trading.
3. Manufacturing business. It is one which buys raw materials, processes it into a
finished product, then sells this at a price higher than its cost.
primary goal of every business
 To earn profit
 To increase its own value as an economic entity
- Growth and stability
 To improve the quality of life in the community (social responsibility)
- Multiplier effect of business
Who manages the finances of a business?
In a sole proprietorship, it is normally the owner/sole proprietor that acts as the
financial manager.
The financial manager makes the important decisions on how to effectively and
efficiently manage the funds of the company. The finance manager is responsible
for the financial management of the business.

Financial Management
Is the efficient and effective allocation, acquisition and utilization of funds. It is
concerned with the maintenance and creation of economic value or wealth (Known
et al 1998)
Primary Activities of a Finance Manager
1. Financial planning and analysis – the forecasting of income, budgeting of
expenses and analyzing of the financial condition and position of the business. It
includes knowing where the funds of the company will be coming from, where it
will be spent or used.
2. Managing the assets of the company – making sure that the assets of the
company are being used and maximized
3. Managing the company’s liabilities and owner’s equity – making sure that
there are sufficient funds to pay maturing debts and obligations and capital are
efficiently used.
The goal of a finance manager
The important goal of a finance manager is to make significant decisions that will
maximize the wealth of the business or the company.
In big companies the chief financial officer (CFO) is the finance manager and
reporting to him/her are two finance officers: the treasurer and the controller
that are managers who specialized in finance.
 Controller, is the one who prepares the financial statements, manages the firm’s
internal accounting, and looks after its tax affairs.
 Treasurer is the person most directly responsible for looking after the firm’s
cash, raising new capital and maintaining relationships with banks and other
investors who hold the firm’s securities. For small firms, treasurer is likely to be
the only financial executive.

3 Forms of Business Organizations

Sole Proprietorship is the easiest to operate and less complicated since decision
making rests only on the proprietor.
Partnership is association of two or more persons to carry on as co-owners of a
business for profit.
Corporation is raises its capital by issuing shares of stock to individuals and other
business organizations. These individuals and other businesses who acquire shares
of stocks are called stockholders of the corporation.
 Private corporations – are companies owned by private individuals but are not
traded in the stock exchange.
 Public corporations – are companies owned by investors through buying of
shares of stock in the stock market or stock exchange.
 Government owned and controlled corporations – are those formed or
organized for the government which have for their purpose the general good and
welfare of the people.
How to compute for the increase or gain in value of stocks
Given:
Initial price per share = P194.00
Number of shares bought = 100 shares
Current price per share = P245.80
Compute first for the initial total value
Initial total value = initial price per share multiply by the number of shares bought
Initial total value = P194.00 x 100 shares
Initial total value = P19,400.00
Compute for the final total value
Final total value = current price per share multiply by the number of shares bought
Final total value = P245.80 x 100 shares
Final total value = P24,580.00
Compute for gain in value of stocks:
Gain = Final total value less or minus the initial total value
Gain = P24,580.00 - P19,400.00
Gain = P5,180.00
To compute for the percentage change:
Percentage change = Gain / Initial total value
Percentage change = P5,180.00 / P19,400.00
Percentage change = 0.267 x 100 = 26.7%
To compute for the interest in regular savings account:
Given
Principal = P19,400.00
Rate = 0.0625% or 0.000625
Time = 5 years (2022 – 2017)
I=PxRxT
I = P19,400.00 x 0.000625 x 5
I = P60.63
Factors that affect stock prices
Internal Factors – can be controlled or managed by the company
Profitability - Profit is a measure of the financial performance of a company for a
period of time. Although it is a major driver for increasing the value of stock, an
investor should not rely on profits alone.
Good liquidity and acceptable leverage position
Liquidity and leverage refers to the company’s management of the type and
amount of assets and liabilities that it will hold in the course of its operations.
Competent management which affects the company’s operating efficiency
Competent managers may have any of the following attributes:
1) visionary
2) decisive
3) people-oriented,
4) inspiring,
5) innovative,
6) respected and
7) experienced/seasoned manager.
Good strategic and tactical planning that improves the business prospects of the
company.Corporate plans that improve the business prospects.
Dividends
Holders of shares receive dividends from a corporation as returns on their
investments in form of cash or other properties. Note that there may be times that
companies do not pay out dividends because of future expansions. Same with the
other factors affecting share price, dividend policies should go hand in hand with
other factors in determining market price.
External factors – beyond the control of management and affected by outside
forces in the environment
FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS Are firms that bridge the gap between investors,
lenders (surplus units or SUS) and the borrowers (deficit units of DUS) which
issue their own financial instruments called the secondary instruments.
Financial Markets Institutions and systems that facilitates transactions in all types
of financial claims.
Classification of Financial Markets:
1. As to term or maturity
a. Money market
 Cover markets for short term debt instruments; samples are certificate of time
deposits
 Consist of a network of institutions and facilities for trading debt securities with
a
maturity of 1 year or less.
b. Capital market
 For long term securities; more than 1 year
 Debt and equity securities are traded in the capital market.
 Greater default and risk but carry higher yield
 Traded in the Philippine Stock Exchange (PSE)
2.. As to type of issue
a. Primary Market
 The primary market transactions involves either equity (stocks) or debt
securities (bonds). The primary market is also known as new issues market.
Consists ofissuers, underwriters, and instruments
b. Secondary market
 The secondary market are markets for currently outstanding securities. Shares
held by the public are termed outstanding shares or securities.
Financial Planning Tools and Concepts Budget Preparation
Sales budget
A sales budget is a financial plan that estimates a company’s total revenue in a
specific time period. It focuses on two things—the number of products sold and the
price at which they are sold—to predict how the company will perform.
The sales budget used a planning tool that allows companies to manage resources
and profits based on expected sales.
importance
Sales budgets are crucial for managing expenses—no department wants to exceed
their allotted budget—as
well as setting sales goals. Clear, specific goals drive teams forward as they work
together to achieve growth, even if it’s a simple 1-percent increase in sales
productivity.
Production Budget
A production budget provides information regarding the number of units that
should be produced over a given accounting period based on expected sales and
targeted level of ending inventories.
It is computed as follows:
Required production in units=Expected sales + target ending inventories –
Beginning Inventories
Operations budget
refers to the variable and fixed costs needed to run the operations of the company
but are not directly attributable to the generation of sales.
Fixed Cost
Fixed costs are not related to activity within the relevant range. Items of cost which
remain constant in total, irrespective of the volume of production.
Variable Cost
Cost per unit remains constant as volume changes within a relevant range. Items
of cost which vary directly, in total, in relation to volume of production.
Financial Planning Tools and Concepts Cash Budget Preparation
Cash Budget or Cash Forecast
Cash is the lifeblood of every business. It is used to pay suppliers for the
inventories, pay loan from creditors, rent, wages and salaries, utilities and other
expenses.

The following are the steps in formulating a cash budget:

A. Form the sales forecast, identify how much would be collected in the cash
budget period. Sales may be made in cash or for credit. Cash sales are
translated to cash at the point of sale while credit sales are collected
depending on the credit period.
B. Identify other receipts or sources of cash Add these receipts to the
collections from sales to get to total receipts.
C. From the Production Budget, identify how much of the purchases made will
be paid by the company on the cash budget period. Like sales, purchases
may be made in cash or on credit depending on the supplier’s credit terms.
D. From the operations budget, identify which expenses will be paid in cash
during the cash budget period. These are the normal expenses used in the
normal course of business.
E. Identify all other cash payments to be made. Other financing investing of the
business such as acquisition of fixed assets.
F. Match the receipts and disbursements on the periods they become collectible
and payable, respectively.
G. Set a minimum required cash balance. This balance is maintained in case
contingencies arise. Recall from the steps in planning that we should also
plan for contingencies.
H. If the net cash flow is above the minimum cash balance, the company is in
excess cash and may consider putting it in short term investments. If it is
below, the company should make a short term borrowing during that period.
Sources and Uses of Short-Term Funds or Short-Term Financing and Long-
Term Funds or Financing
Short Term Funds or Financing
-Funds used for working capital
-financing used to meet seasonal and temporary fluctuations in fund position
-term is less than a year
Types of Short-Term Funds or Financing
Secured – financing that are secured by a collateral
Unsecured or clean - financing or loans without collateral
Collateral in the financial world is a valuable asset that a borrower pledges as
security for a loan the collateral document is Real Estate mortgage or REM
Other collateral For vehicles, trucks, equipment the collateral document is
referred to as Chattel Mortgage (CHM).
Sources of Short-Term Funds
Spontaneous sources of short-term funds deferred payment of salaries, taxes and
other obligations arising from current operations or accruals
Deliberate sources – refers to sources that can be made use of by the deliberate
act, on the borrower, of negotiating for the availment of the funding/financing.
Factors to be Considered in Choosing Short-Term Financing
Cost => interest
restrictions (terms and agreements) e.g.payment
flexibility
reliability (availability of funds when needed)
Trade Credits
-sales to customers on account
-acquisition of merchandise or raw materials or service on account without any
formal note signed to evidence the liability.
-granted by suppliers
Credit terms – number of days granted to the borrower when the obligation is to be
settled.
Commercial Papers
-unsecured promissory notes maturing within a year issued by big firms of
unquestionable credit standing and reputation.
-interest rate to be assigned to the issue will depend on the credit rating
Credit Rating – evaluation of the capacity to pay
obligations
Asset Backed Security
-An asset-backed security (ABS) is a financial security collateralized by a pool of
assets such as loans, leases, credit card debt, royalties or receivables.
Mortgage Backed Security
long term loans secured by real estate
amortizations are required either monthly or quarterly.
Bank Loans
-loan products granted by Banks for:
--consumer use such as housing loan,
car loan or salary loan
--working capital requirements
--capital expenditures
Interest
Interest is the cost of money borrowed. Banks charge interest for the funds
borrowed from them since they also need to pay interest to depositors for the
money deposited in banks.
Interest Rates charged by banks to borrowers vary. The rate will depend on the
quality of the loan and the credit worthiness of the borrower.
Interest Rates
Prime Rate of Interest – lowest rate charged by banks to their most valued
client/borrower. Rates also vary or fluctuates depending on the rate currently
offered in the market. Subject to supply and demand.
Fixed Interest Rate – interest rate is fixed for a given period. Typically charged to
long-term loans
Floating Interest Rate – this rate is subject to adjustments on the changes in the
prime interest rates
Effective Interest Rate – rate of interest that is actually charged to the borrower
it is computed by dividing the amount of interest by the amount received by the
borrower
when interest is payable at maturity date,the effective interest rate is the same as
the nominal rate.

Banker’s Acceptance
is a draft, drawn by the seller (or exporter) and accepted by the buyers bank,
ordering payment to the seller’s bank at a later date.
it is a debt instrument used in financing purchases of merchandise
Commercial Finance Companies
lending institutions granting secured loans which may be short term or long
term in nature. unlike banks, interest rates charged are higher compared to the
rates charge by banks
Loans by Commercial Finance Companies
Receivables Financing-receivables from customers are sold or discounted by the
company (borrower) to the financing company
Pledging of accounts receivable - used as a support for bank loans obtained.
factoring of accounts receivable – sale of receivables without recourse
assignment of accounts receivable – refers to conditional sale of receivables.
discounting of notes receivable – refers to endorsing a promissory note in favor
of another party, usually a financial institution.
Common Terms in Receivable Financing
With Recourse in case the financing company can not collect from the customers
of the debtor/borrower, the former will collect from the borrower/debtor the funds
borrowedor advanced to the same
Without Recourse – the financing company cannot collect anymore from the
borrower/debtor

Notification Basis – customers are notified of the transfer of receivables so they

will have to pay the financing company.
Non-notification – if customers are not notified of the transfer of receivables so
they continue paying the borrower/debtor company and the latter will remit the
payment to the financing company
Contingent Liability – if a company sells its receivables with recourse, then a
contingent liability may arise if the customers with receivables will not pay.
Inventory Financing
inventories are used as collateral or support for a loan if accounts receivable
financing are already used up
Sources of Long-Term Funds
-long term mortgage on land, plant and other real estate properties
-long term chattel mortgage on equipment
-issuance of long term commercial papers
-issuance of corporate bonds
-issuances of shares of capital stocks, common and preferred.
THE 5C’s OF CREDIT
CHARACTER
Willingness to pay
Track record of borrower
Standing in the community
For corporations, the track record of the company, its top management. Ranking
in the industry, brand recognition, etc

CAPACITY
Capacity to pay
Results of operation and financial condition
Cashflow is the first way out
Financial ratios
CAPITAL
Capital structure
Debt-to-equity ratio
Guarantee from owners
COLLATERAL
Second way out
Nature of collateral: real estate or chattel
Quality of collateral
Market value and loan value of collateral
Encumbrances or liens
CONDITIONS
Purpose of the loan
Macro and micro factors that affect the business/industry
Does the nature of business belong to emerging/rising industry (sunrise) or
declining industry (sunset)
Other Factor to Consider
Credit risk is the risk that some (or all) of the repayments may not be made, and
that the creditor may lose some (or all) of its principal.