Communication – is a process that involves the exchange and the development of ideas to

achieve a particular goal or purpose.

May take place between two people, among three or more individuals or even hundreds and
thousand of participants.
The delivery, processing, and reciprocation of messages – distinguishes humans as the most
intelligent beings on Earth.
Origin of the Term :
 Scholars trace the English term “communication” to the Latin communicare which means
“to share” or “to be in relation with”.
This suggests that communication is an act that brings people together or an experience
shared by individuals who subsequently establish relationships and communities.
 Other experts highlight the Latin noun communicatio, which means “sharing” or
“imparting.”
From this perspective, communication involves an exchange or transaction of goods.
 Therefore, from an etymological standpoint, communication may be understood as both a
common experience and a product transaction.

Different Ways of Understanding Communication

1. Communication, broadly may be seen as synonymous to behavior. -Some experts consider all
behavior (speech, bodily gestures and all other observable acts) as communication. Conversely,
communication also affects the way that human behave.

2. Communication may be seen as a flow of information. - The sender of the communication

expresses his/her thoughts and feelings which the receiver interprets and comprehends.
Humans exchange ideas with the goal of understanding one another’s messages.

3. Communication may be seen as synonymous to interaction. - This perspective emphasizes

social contact among humans. Communication is hence regarded as an instrument of connectivity
with other persons.
Communication can be:
 Face-to-face interaction
 A phone conversation
 A group discussion
 A meeting or interview
 A letter correspondence
 A class recitation
Nature of Communication
 Communication is a process ►Communication is systematic
 Communication involves meaning
The Communication Process
1. Sender - This is the person that initiates the process. The sender delivers or transmits ideas to
the receiver.
2. Receiver - This is the person that decodes the message transmitted by the sender.
3. Message - This is the idea encoded by the sender. The message entails both (a) content (or
the idea) that the speaker wishes to transmit and (b) the formulation or structure of the ideas.
4. Medium - This is the channel through which the message is delivered. The medium may be
oral, written or nonverbal. Specific guidelines are followed when using a particular medium from
the communication process.
5. Feedback - This is the response to the message. The feedback confirms that the message
has been correctly interpreted. By extension, feedback validates that the communicative process
has been effective.
►Thus, completing the communication process.
Communication Models
We have 5 communicative models:
Linear Model
Interactive Model
Transactional Model
Gatekeeper Model
Ecological Model
MODELS of COMMUNICATION:
• Laswell’s Model
• Shannon and Weaver’s Model
• Schramm's Interactive Model
There are two types of linear models, one introduced by Laswell (1948), and another one
modeled by Shannon and Weaver (1949)

LASWELL’S MODEL (1948)

Harold Laswell – proponent of Laswell’s Model
- The model was developed by American political scientist and communication theorist in 1948
while he was a professor at Yale Law School.
- Communication is a one-way process in which ONLY THE COMMUNICATOR IS THE ACTIVE
PARTICIPANT.
- The recipient, meanwhile, PROCESSES THE INFORMATION but does not reciprocape the
message.
- The sender communicates to the receiver through One way channel
- CULMINATES WITH THE OUTCOME OR EFFECT of communication
- No means for immediate response/feedback from the receiver
WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF THE MESSAGE TO ITS RECEIVER?
EXAMPLE: TELEVISION BROADCASTING
 - The listeners receive the information and process what they heard, but there is no
means for immediate response

Who-This is the communicator, also called the sender, who formulates and spreads a message.
What-This is the content of the message or the message that the sender spreads.
Which channel - The channel describes the medium or media that is/are used to convey
and spread the message. The medium can consist of several communication tools, mass media
and social media.
To whom - This describes the receiver(s), such as a target group or an individual. With mass
communication, there’s an audience.
With what effect - The effect is the result the message leads to. The so-called triangle of
success ‘knowledge, attitude, behaviour’ is often used to describe the desired effect

SHANNON AND WEAVER’S MODEL (1949) - resembled the transmission of a telephone

message.
CLAUDE SHANNON and WARREN WEAVER - Employees of the Bell Telephone Laboratory.
They both came up with a model that resembled the transmission of a telephone message
(this became their basis for their communication model)
The information source and destination represents humans
The transmitter and receiver stand for devices or instruments
Signals ranging from electronic signals to RADIO WAVES to gestures
Noise secondary signal that hinder the transmission of the message
Their model is similar with Laswell’s model, but they have added the factors that hinder the
transmission of messages.
Factors that hinders the understanding of messages:
- Noise
- NOISE DURING CALLS
- VEHICLES
- PEOPLE AROUND YOU
- HEAT AND SOUND SYSTEM MALFUNCTION AND OTHERS

SCHRAMM’S INTERACTIIVE MODEL (1954)

Wilbur Schramm - a well-known communication theorist, developed straightforward
communications model in his book “THE PROCESS AND EFFECTS OF MASS COMMUNICATIONS“
- The communicator and the recipient TAKE TURNS to speak and to listen to each other
- THE KEY ELEMENT IN THIS MODEL IS FEEDBACK; THE REACTION TO A MESSAGE.
- Through feedback the communicator and the recipient can clarify and develop the ideas in their
conversation.
While linear models regarded communication as a one-way process, the interactive model explains
communication as a DYNAMIC EXCHANGE.
In the model, Schramm shown as Aristotle did, that communication always requires three
elements – the source, the message and the destination.
The encoder is the person who turns the message to be sent into codes. We need to think of
the right words to say and in what order we should send our messages to communicate our
ideas to the message receiver.
The decoder is the person who gets the encoded message which has been sent by the encoder
and converts it into the language understandable by the person. When receiving a message, we
need to use our reading skills, listening skills, etc. to decode the message so it makes sense to us.
In this model, the message is sent to the receiver who, in turn, gives a feedback to the sender.
The process is repeated, making the sender a receiver and the receiver a sender. This is called
the INTERACTIVE PROCESS.
VERBAL AND NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Verbal Communication Skills
When we use verbal communication, we employ sounds and language to deliver our message. This
kind of communication is conducted orally – that is, through spoken discourse. We can conduct
effective verbal communication if we use oral skills appropriately in conveying our ideas.
The following skills are required for effective verbal communication:
1. Volume - This refers to the loudness of your voice. You can modify your voice to make it
loud or soft. Adjust your volume to make sure that all your listeners will hear you. At times, you
can make your voice very loud or very soft if that volume is appropriate to the message you are
delivering.
2. Enunciation and pronunciation- Enunciation refers to the proper pronunciation of
the sounds on a word or the blending of sounds to produce a word. Enunciate and pronounce
every word that you say so that your listeners can perceive all your ideas.
3. Pitch - This refers to the frequency of your voice. You can modify your voice to make it
high or low. When conveying a statement, you should lower the pitch of your voice towards the
end of the sentence. When asking a question, you should raise the pitch of your voice towards
the end of the sentence.
4. Stress - This refers to emphasis on a certain word. You can stress an important word by
varying the volume or the pitch of your voice.
5. Phrasing - This refers to how you group the words in a sentence. You can set apart
words by pausing at certain points. The grouping of words should be determined according to the
meaning you want to put across.
6. Speed - This refers to how quickly you speak. You can modify your voice to make your
speech go fast or slow. At times, you can make your voice very fast or very slow if that volume
is appropriate to the message you are delivering.
Nonverbal Communication Strategies
When we use nonverbal communication, we employ communication strategies other than the
spoken word. Our nonverbal cues are just as crucial in conveying our message as our
communication skills.
Nonverbal communication strategies include the following:
Eye contact - By looking at the listeners, as we speak, we can engage them in the
communicative process which is taking place. In contrast, lack of eye contact gives the
impression that we are uninterested in the discourse or the audience.
Facial expressions - Adjusting the eyebrows, lips, and other facial features can help convey
the emotions in our message.
Head movements and body movements - We can turn our head and move our arms,
hands, legs and feet to emphasize certain points.
Posture - In general, we should stand up right to attain a level of dignity or formality as we
speak. When appropriate to the message, bending forwards or backwards may be done.
Proximity - In public speaking situations, we can walk from one side to another so that we
can reach out to our audience on both the right side and the left side. We can also try to walk
towards them or away from them (in a backward motion).
Personal appearance - Our clothing will be determined by the formality that the
communicative situation demands. Thus, we should know when to dress in business attires, semi
– formal attire, or casual attire. In all cases, we should look neat and presentable.
A good communicator uses both verbal and nonverbal communication effectively. By
mastering both oral and nonverbal skills, we can deliver our message appropirately.
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Communication is sometimes hindered by certain factors.
Kaul (2000) classifies two types of communication barriers : sender - oriented and receiver
- oriented.
Sender – Oriented Barriers
1. Poor structure of language- this happens when the sender fails to organize properly
the ideas in his or her message.
The receiver then becomes confused as to the sender’s true content or intent.
Example : LOL, BRB, WHAT?

2. Noise -This refers to sounds that impedes the transmission of ideas. In the context of
nonverbal communication, noise may also refer to facial expression or bodily gestures.
3. Faulty choice of words - This occurs when the sender uses terms that are suggestive
or ambiguous in meaning.
Example: “You are so attracted, I like your dress.”
This blurs the true content of the sender’s message. Also, the sender may use terms that
understate or exaggerate the idea. Or the terms may be too difficult for the receiver (if his or
her vocabulary is limited.)
Inappropriate quantity of information
Here, the sender reveals too little or too much information.
In the case of the former, the receiver will struggle to fill in the gaps of the message. In this
case of the latter, the receiver will not be able to process the ideas effectively.
Receiver – Oriented Barriers
1. Poor retention of ideas
This happens when the receiver fails to remember points from the sender’s message.
If the receiver does not retain ideas well, he or she will get lost in the flow of the sender’s
ideas.
2. Inattentive listening
This happens when the receiver pays little or no attention to the sender’s message.
This may be because the receiver is not interested in what the sender is saying, or the receiver
is thinking of other things while the sender is speaking. Inattentive listening may be caused by
resistance to change or difference in position (as with leaders refusing to listen to
subordinates).
3. Tendency to evaluate
Here the receiver judges the validity of the sender’s message even before the sender finishes
communicating.
In this case, the receiver did not pay attention to the rest of the sender’s message because the
receiver has already rendered judgment. Hasty evaluation may be caused by the receiver’s
attitudes, prejudices, or knowledge that is in conflict with the sender’s message.
How to Avoid Communication Barriers:
Butterfield (2009) offers the following tips in order to avoid communicative barriers:
1. Use appropriate language
Choose the appropriate terms to convey your ideas.
2. Make the delivery of your message clear.
Avoid using filler words like “maybe”, “a little bit”, or even “um.” Make your message concise.
3. Send consistent signals.
Your nonverbal cues should be synchronized with your verbal delivery.
4. Reduce physical distractions.
Stay away from background noise, interruptions, and uncomfortable temperatures. If we avoid
communication barriers, we can put across our message more efficiently.
TYPES OF SPEECH CONTEXT
ORAL COMMUNICATION
STEM 11 | SEM 1 2022

➔ consists of both verbal and

nonverbal strategies. -
TYPES OF SPEECH CONTEXT
Because in an interaction/
1. INTRAPERSONAL conversation that needs
2. INTERPERSONAL feedback we should be using
3. PUBLIC our verbal and nonverbal skills.

INTRAPERSONAL TWO KINDS OF INTERPERSONAL

➔ This is communication that COMMUNICATION:
takes place within an 1. Dyadic - Exchange between
individual. Through two persons.
intrapersonal communication, 2. Small group communication
we come up with decisions - Takes place among 3 to 12
and establish what we want individuals.
to say to others.
PURPOSES OF INTERPERSONAL
➔ Primarily consists of thinking- COMMUNICATION:
that is processing and ● TO INFORM
interpreting ideas. ● TO ENTERTAIN
● TO PERSUADE
➔ is the process by which an ● TO AFFECT OR INFLUENCE
individual communicates
within themselves, acting as PUBLIC
both sender and receiver of ➔ This is communication that
messages, and encompasses takes place when an individual
the use of unspoken words to addresses a large audience.
consciously engage in ➔ The listeners do not generally
self-talk and inner speech. provide feedbacks.

Examples: Examples:
● Self Talk ● Public Speaking Events
● Act of imagination and ● Conferences
visualization ● Seminars
● Recall and memory - ● Press Conference
(McLean, 2005 ): You read on
your phone that your friends
are going to have dinner at
your favorite restaurant.

INTERPERSONAL
➔ This is communication that
takes place between and
among individuals.

➔ The participants constantly

respond to one another’s ideas
through FEEDBACKS.
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION/
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
ORAL COMMUNICATION
STEM 11 | SEM 1 2022
Intercultural communication refers to
situated communication among
persons of different cultural and
linguistic backgrounds.
In the 21st century, this form of
communication has become prevalent
across the globe.
THREE MAIN ISSUES OF
INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
What hinders the exchange of ideas
between two people from different
cultures?
1. Knowledge
★ If you are unaware of the
customs and values of a
certain culture, we may fail to
communicate properly with
individuals who practice that
culture.
Example:
Kissing in France
➔ French people are expected to
greet each person at a party or
gathering upon arrival at the
party by kissing their cheeks.
Slurping in Japan
➔ Making slurping sounds when
eating noodles in Japan is a
way of indicating that you’re
really enjoying them.
Avoid using red ink for writing the
names of your friends in South Korea
➔ For South Koreans, you can
use other ink colors except red
because for them red ink
symbolizes death.
2. Skills
★ We can express, our ideas in a
respectful manner, using
grammatical competence in
the foreign language, as well
as use the nonverbal cues and
other communicative
strategies unique to the foreign
cultures.
Examples of Nonverbal cues in
some countries:
OK Sign - positive meaning (US)
- offensive (middle east)
- zero (France), money (Japan)
Thumbs Up gesture - ok or good job
(Korea)
- well done/things are great (US)
- things aren’t great (Latin
America, Greece, and
southern Italy)
- a very obscene gesture (Iran
and Iraq)
V gesture - victory or peace and love
(US)
- used for posing(Japan and
Korea)
- if the V is the other way round,
it is regarded as insult (United
Kingdom, Australia, and
Ireland)
Cultural Differences in Nonverbal
Communication:
● Posture
Bowing - not done in the US; shows
rank in Japan
Slouching - rude in most northern
European areas
Hands in pocket - disrespectful in
Turkey
Sitting with legs crossed - offensive
in Ghana, Turkey
Showing soles of feet - offensive in
Thailand, Saudi Arabia
3. Attitudes
★ From an affective standpoint,
we also need to show a
tolerant disposition towards
people of different cultures.
★ If we harbor biases or
prejudices, we shall not be
able to communicate properly.
However, if we adopt a
respectable attitude towards
any culture, we shall be able to
interact with any individual
without any difficulty.
HOW TO CONDUCT
INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION PROPERLY
1. Be conscious of your own
culture.
★ Appreciate our own customs,
values, and practices. Feel the
pride of showing others our
good traditions and culture.
2. Be open-minded towards other
cultures.
★ If we are appreciative of our
own culture, we can
understand that other people
behave the way they do
because they are also
influenced by their own
customs and norms.
3. Immense yourself in the practice
of other cultures.
★ Having developed an
open-minded approach to
other cultures, we can start to
learn their customs and
traditions. Get the feel of it.
★ Learn their customs and
traditions.
LESSON 6: FUNCTIONS OF
COMMUNICATION
COMMUNICATION FUNCTIONS
answers the following questions:
➔ “Why is the speaker
communicating?”
➔ “What is the purpose of the
interaction?”
➔ “Is the communication
successful?”
BUHLER’S THREE FUNCTIONS OF
COMMUNICATION
★ Buhler (1933, 1934) cites the
three functions of
communication.
1. Expression - The focus of the
communication process is the
expression of the speaker’s attitude
towards the topic.
★ How does the speaker
express the topic?
★ Is the speaker biased? Is the
speaker telling the truth?
2. Appeal - The focus of the
communication process is the intended
effect on the listener.
★ What is the stand of the
listeners?
★ Do they agree or disagree
with the speaker’s points?
3. Representation - The focus of the
communication process is the content
or topic.
★ What is the topic all about?
REMEMBER!
Buhler’s communication model
consists of three elements: the
speaker, the receiver, and the topic.
 JAKOBSON’S SIX FUNCTIONS OF
COMMUNICATION:
According to Jakobson, there are six
functions of communication.
1. Emotive - This function focuses on
the receiver or addressee.
★ It is also known as “expressive
function”
★ similar to Buhler’s function of
expression
For example: the interjections, which
are words or phrases used to express
sudden surprise, pleasure, or
annoyance such as: “Bah!”, “Oh!”,
“Yuck!” “Ouch!”, etc.
2. Conative - This function focuses on
the sender or receiver.
★ The conative function is an
orientation toward the
‘addressee’.
For example: “Drink!” or “Go Away”.
3. Referential - This function focuses
on the context.
★ It is denotative, cognitive
function which is oriented
toward the ‘context’.
denotative - literal meaning
connotative - emotional suggestions of
a word, not literal.
Example: “The earth is round.”
“Water boils at 100 degrees.”
4. Metalingual - This function focuses
on the code (or language) being used.
For example: “What do you mean by
‘krill’?”, “ What is plucked?”.
5. Phatic - This function focuses on
the contact between the speaker and
the listener.
For example: “Hello!” “Are you
listening?” “Do you hear me?”.
6. Poetic - This function focuses on
the “message for its own sake.”
★ The poetic function which is
orientation toward “message”
and “the focus on the message
for its own sake”.
Example: When we say “John and
Margery” instead of “Margery and
John” or when we say “horrible Harry”
instead of “ terrible Harry , dreadful
Harry” which have same meaning, we
use the poetic function of language.
HALLIDAY’S SIX FUNCTIONS OF
LANGUAGE
Halliday (1975) identifies seven
functions of language.
1. Instrumental - Language is used to
express needs.
Example: “I want to buy a car to make
it easy for everything.”
2. Regulatory - Language is used to
tell others what to do.
Example: “Would you like to give me
some money?”
3. Interactional - Language is used to
established relations with others.
Example: “I love you and I want to live
with you forever.”
4. Personal - Language is used to
express insights and feelings.
Example: “Sampaloc Lake is a good
place to be refresh.”
5. Heuristic - Language is used to
seek knowledge.
Example: “What’s the tractor doing?”
6. Imaginative - Language is used to
tell stories.
Example : “Once upon a time, there
lived an old woman...”
7. Representational - Language is
used to deliver information.
Example: “A school is a place that lets
us find out more about our dream.”
TYPES OF SPEECH STYLES
ORAL COMMUNICATION
STEM 11 | SEM 1 2022
TYPES OF SPEECH STYLES
1. INTIMATE
2. CASUAL
3. CONSULTATIVE
4. FORMAL
5. FROZEN
INTIMATE
➔ This style is used by persons
with a close relationship.
➔ shared knowledge and
shared background.
➔ occurs between best friends,
husbands and wives, and
even parents and children.
Examples:
● Telling your partner that you
love them
● Telling your best friend about
your deepest and darkest
problems
● Asking your family for advice
about serious matters
CASUAL
➔ This style takes place among
friends, who generally have
no need to maintain an air of
formality among themselves.
Examples:
● “I’m doin’ it my way” (doing)
● “Lemme go!” (let me go)
● “Whatcha gonna do?” (What
are you going to do?)
● “Whassup?” (What’s up?)
CONSULTATIVE
➔ This style is used by
strangers who have little to
no shared background, to
consultative communication,
informal markers are still
used.
➔ This speech style uses
listener participation and
feedback.
Examples:
● Student is talking to his or her
teacher
● Doctor giving prescription to a
patient
● Consultation for research title
● Consultation for house and lot
FORMAL
➔ This style is used in strict or
ceremonial settings. These
include school-based
situations and formal events.
➔ This speech style is expected
to be presented in complete
sentences with specific
word usage.
Examples:
● Job Interview
● Business Trip
● Dinner Party
● Prestigious Ceremony
● Meeting
● Academic Papers
FROZEN
➔ This style is used when
participants wish to
discourage friendly relations
among others.
➔ It is the most formal
communicative style that is
usually used during respectful
events and ceremonies.
Wherein the audience is not
allowed to ask questions.
➔ It also used when one shows
hesitation, disinterest, or
prejudice....
Examples:
● Wedding Ceremony, Anthems,
● Court Hearing/Judicial
Sentencing, speech, wills;
● National Pledges, preamble
TYPES OF SPEECH CONTEXT
ORAL COMMUNICATION
STEM 11 | SEM 1 2022

➔ consists of both verbal and

nonverbal strategies. -
TYPES OF SPEECH CONTEXT
Because in an interaction/
1. INTRAPERSONAL conversation that needs
2. INTERPERSONAL feedback we should be using
3. PUBLIC our verbal and nonverbal skills.

INTRAPERSONAL TWO KINDS OF INTERPERSONAL

➔ This is communication that COMMUNICATION:
takes place within an 1. Dyadic - Exchange between
individual. Through two persons.
intrapersonal communication, 2. Small group communication
we come up with decisions - Takes place among 3 to 12
and establish what we want individuals.
to say to others.
PURPOSES OF INTERPERSONAL
➔ Primarily consists of thinking- COMMUNICATION:
that is processing and ● TO INFORM
interpreting ideas. ● TO ENTERTAIN
● TO PERSUADE
➔ is the process by which an ● TO AFFECT OR INFLUENCE
individual communicates
within themselves, acting as PUBLIC
both sender and receiver of ➔ This is communication that
messages, and encompasses takes place when an individual
the use of unspoken words to addresses a large audience.
consciously engage in ➔ The listeners do not generally
self-talk and inner speech. provide feedbacks.

Examples: Examples:
● Self Talk ● Public Speaking Events
● Act of imagination and ● Conferences
visualization ● Seminars
● Recall and memory - ● Press Conference
(McLean, 2005 ): You read on
your phone that your friends
are going to have dinner at
your favorite restaurant.

INTERPERSONAL
➔ This is communication that
takes place between and
among individuals.

➔ The participants constantly

respond to one another’s ideas
through FEEDBACKS.
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION/
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
ORAL COMMUNICATION
STEM 11 | SEM 1 2022
Intercultural communication refers to
situated communication among
persons of different cultural and
linguistic backgrounds.
In the 21st century, this form of
communication has become prevalent
across the globe.
THREE MAIN ISSUES OF
INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
What hinders the exchange of ideas
between two people from different
cultures?
1. Knowledge
★ If you are unaware of the
customs and values of a
certain culture, we may fail to
communicate properly with
individuals who practice that
culture.
Example:
Kissing in France
➔ French people are expected to
greet each person at a party or
gathering upon arrival at the
party by kissing their cheeks.
Slurping in Japan
➔ Making slurping sounds when
eating noodles in Japan is a
way of indicating that you’re
really enjoying them.
Avoid using red ink for writing the
names of your friends in South Korea
➔ For South Koreans, you can
use other ink colors except red
because for them red ink
symbolizes death.
2. Skills
★ We can express, our ideas in a
respectful manner, using
grammatical competence in
the foreign language, as well
as use the nonverbal cues and
other communicative
strategies unique to the foreign
cultures.
Examples of Nonverbal cues in
some countries:
OK Sign - positive meaning (US)
- offensive (middle east)
- zero (France), money (Japan)
Thumbs Up gesture - ok or good job
(Korea)
- well done/things are great (US)
- things aren’t great (Latin
America, Greece, and
southern Italy)
- a very obscene gesture (Iran
and Iraq)
V gesture - victory or peace and love
(US)
- used for posing(Japan and
Korea)
- if the V is the other way round,
it is regarded as insult (United
Kingdom, Australia, and
Ireland)
Cultural Differences in Nonverbal
Communication:
● Posture
Bowing - not done in the US; shows
rank in Japan
Slouching - rude in most northern
European areas
Hands in pocket - disrespectful in
Turkey
Sitting with legs crossed - offensive
in Ghana, Turkey
Showing soles of feet - offensive in
Thailand, Saudi Arabia
3. Attitudes
★ From an affective standpoint,
we also need to show a
tolerant disposition towards
people of different cultures.
★ If we harbor biases or
prejudices, we shall not be
able to communicate properly.
However, if we adopt a
respectable attitude towards
any culture, we shall be able to
interact with any individual
without any difficulty.
HOW TO CONDUCT
INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION PROPERLY
1. Be conscious of your own
culture.
★ Appreciate our own customs,
values, and practices. Feel the
pride of showing others our
good traditions and culture.
2. Be open-minded towards other
cultures.
★ If we are appreciative of our
own culture, we can
understand that other people
behave the way they do
because they are also
influenced by their own
customs and norms.
3. Immense yourself in the practice
of other cultures.
★ Having developed an
open-minded approach to
other cultures, we can start to
learn their customs and
traditions. Get the feel of it.
★ Learn their customs and
traditions.
LESSON 6: FUNCTIONS OF
COMMUNICATION
COMMUNICATION FUNCTIONS
answers the following questions:
➔ “Why is the speaker
communicating?”
➔ “What is the purpose of the
interaction?”
➔ “Is the communication
successful?”
BUHLER’S THREE FUNCTIONS OF
COMMUNICATION
★ Buhler (1933, 1934) cites the
three functions of
communication.
1. Expression - The focus of the
communication process is the
expression of the speaker’s attitude
towards the topic.
★ How does the speaker
express the topic?
★ Is the speaker biased? Is the
speaker telling the truth?
2. Appeal - The focus of the
communication process is the intended
effect on the listener.
★ What is the stand of the
listeners?
★ Do they agree or disagree
with the speaker’s points?
3. Representation - The focus of the
communication process is the content
or topic.
★ What is the topic all about?
REMEMBER!
Buhler’s communication model
consists of three elements: the
speaker, the receiver, and the topic.
 JAKOBSON’S SIX FUNCTIONS OF
COMMUNICATION:
According to Jakobson, there are six
functions of communication.
1. Emotive - This function focuses on
the receiver or addressee.
★ It is also known as “expressive
function”
★ similar to Buhler’s function of
expression
For example: the interjections, which
are words or phrases used to express
sudden surprise, pleasure, or
annoyance such as: “Bah!”, “Oh!”,
“Yuck!” “Ouch!”, etc.
2. Conative - This function focuses on
the sender or receiver.
★ The conative function is an
orientation toward the
‘addressee’.
For example: “Drink!” or “Go Away”.
3. Referential - This function focuses
on the context.
★ It is denotative, cognitive
function which is oriented
toward the ‘context’.
denotative - literal meaning
connotative - emotional suggestions of
a word, not literal.
Example: “The earth is round.”
“Water boils at 100 degrees.”
4. Metalingual - This function focuses
on the code (or language) being used.
For example: “What do you mean by
‘krill’?”, “ What is plucked?”.
5. Phatic - This function focuses on
the contact between the speaker and
the listener.
For example: “Hello!” “Are you
listening?” “Do you hear me?”.
6. Poetic - This function focuses on
the “message for its own sake.”
★ The poetic function which is
orientation toward “message”
and “the focus on the message
for its own sake”.
Example: When we say “John and
Margery” instead of “Margery and
John” or when we say “horrible Harry”
instead of “ terrible Harry , dreadful
Harry” which have same meaning, we
use the poetic function of language.
HALLIDAY’S SIX FUNCTIONS OF
LANGUAGE
Halliday (1975) identifies seven
functions of language.
1. Instrumental - Language is used to
express needs.
Example: “I want to buy a car to make
it easy for everything.”
2. Regulatory - Language is used to
tell others what to do.
Example: “Would you like to give me
some money?”
3. Interactional - Language is used to
established relations with others.
Example: “I love you and I want to live
with you forever.”
4. Personal - Language is used to
express insights and feelings.
Example: “Sampaloc Lake is a good
place to be refresh.”
5. Heuristic - Language is used to
seek knowledge.
Example: “What’s the tractor doing?”
6. Imaginative - Language is used to
tell stories.
Example : “Once upon a time, there
lived an old woman...”
7. Representational - Language is
used to deliver information.
Example: “A school is a place that lets
us find out more about our dream.”
TYPES OF SPEECH STYLES
ORAL COMMUNICATION
STEM 11 | SEM 1 2022
TYPES OF SPEECH STYLES
1. INTIMATE
2. CASUAL
3. CONSULTATIVE
4. FORMAL
5. FROZEN
INTIMATE
➔ This style is used by persons
with a close relationship.
➔ shared knowledge and
shared background.
➔ occurs between best friends,
husbands and wives, and
even parents and children.
Examples:
● Telling your partner that you
love them
● Telling your best friend about
your deepest and darkest
problems
● Asking your family for advice
about serious matters
CASUAL
➔ This style takes place among
friends, who generally have
no need to maintain an air of
formality among themselves.
Examples:
● “I’m doin’ it my way” (doing)
● “Lemme go!” (let me go)
● “Whatcha gonna do?” (What
are you going to do?)
● “Whassup?” (What’s up?)
CONSULTATIVE
➔ This style is used by
strangers who have little to
no shared background, to
consultative communication,
informal markers are still
used.
➔ This speech style uses
listener participation and
feedback.
Examples:
● Student is talking to his or her
teacher
● Doctor giving prescription to a
patient
● Consultation for research title
● Consultation for house and lot
FORMAL
➔ This style is used in strict or
ceremonial settings. These
include school-based
situations and formal events.
➔ This speech style is expected
to be presented in complete
sentences with specific
word usage.
Examples:
● Job Interview
● Business Trip
● Dinner Party
● Prestigious Ceremony
● Meeting
● Academic Papers
FROZEN
➔ This style is used when
participants wish to
discourage friendly relations
among others.
➔ It is the most formal
communicative style that is
usually used during respectful
events and ceremonies.
Wherein the audience is not
allowed to ask questions.
➔ It also used when one shows
hesitation, disinterest, or
prejudice....
Examples:
● Wedding Ceremony, Anthems,
● Court Hearing/Judicial
Sentencing, speech, wills;
● National Pledges, preamble