(ey eA CA SE TCs ined Syllabus Chapter 8/29 4. Asexual reproduction in invertebrates: Advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction, 2. Sexual reproduction in invertebrates: Advantages and disadvantages ot | sexual reproduction, Sexual reproduction in vertebrates: Reproductive strategies, Examples of reproduction among various vertebrate classes 4. The human male reproductive system: Sperm transport and hormonal control, Reproductive functions, | ive system: Folliculogenesis, transport and | 5. The human female: reproducti hormonal control, reproductive function, hormonal regulation in gestation, Prenatal development and birth events of prenatal development, the placenta, birth, milk production and lactation. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN INVERTEBRATES The production of offspring that may or may not be exact copies of the parents is called reproduction. Reproduction is part of a life cycle. The animals grow, develop, and reproduce according to instruction encoded in the DNA. They inherit this DNA from their parents. The production of offspring without formation and fusion of gametes is called asexual reproduction. The first organisms were reproduced by pinching in two. It is a form of asexual reproduction. In the first two billion years of evolution, the organisms increase their number by asexual reproduction only. Asexual reproduction effectively increases the numbers of a species. But all offspring of any one individual af@ 3. Seamed with CamScamneralike. Thus it provid. 7 les less geneti in : ‘ slowly in these organisms. genetic diversity. Therefore, evolution took place very Asexual reproduc! like sponses ial ae common among the protozoa and lower invertebrates reproduction ee ishes, flatworms, and many segmented worms. Asexual asexually correlates with mn the higher invertebrates. The ability to reproduce with the capacity for regenerati The most ci Y generation. fission bude forms cf asexual reproduction in the lower invertebrates, are 9 (both inter ermal), and fragmentation. Parthenogenesis is comparatively uni mo rs ina f lebraies. tively uncommon. It occurs i Y rtebrat r ‘ew invertebrat FISSION The division of one cell, body, or body part into two is called fission. Protists and some multicellular animals reproduce by fission. In this process, an inward furrow is formed in the plasma membrane of the cell. It pinches the cell in two. Fission may be (a) Binary fission: The equal division of cells by fission is called binary fission. Each offspring contains equal amounts of protoplasm and other structures. Binary fission is common in protozoa. It is the only means of reproduction in some organisms. The plane of division may be asymmetrical in fission, It may be transverse or longitudinal in different species. For example, flatworms like planarian reproduce by longitudinal fission. (b) Multiple fission: The division of cells into numerous smailer daughter cells is | called multiple fission. Some flat worm and annelids reproduce by multiple fissions. They form numerous constrictions along the length of the body. It produces a chain of daughter individual cells. BUDDING (Bud, a small protuberance) The development of new individual by formation of an outyrowth is called budding. It is found in many lower invertebrates like cnidarians. There are two types of budding: (a) External bud: Hydra and many species of sponges develop an external bud on the body surface. The bud cells proliferate and form a cylindrical structure. It breaks away from the parent and develops into.a new animal. If the buds remain attached to the parent, they form a colony. A colony is a group of closely associated individuals of one species. (b) Internal bud: Internal bud produces gemmules in the freshwater sponges. Gemmules are collections of many cells surrounded by a body wall. The body of the parent dies and degenerates and each gemmule gives rise to a new individual. FRAGMENTATION The type of asexual reproduction in which a body part is lost and then regenerates into a new organism is called fragmentation. Fragmentation occurs in some cnidarians, platyhelminths, Rhynchocoel, and echinoderms, For Seamed with CamScamnersea anemones during its sla, a small pieces break off from the adult se moventent. It develops into new individuals. irgin + genesis, production) PARTHENOGENESIS (parthenos, vi The reproduction without sperm and normal fertilization Is caliod parthenogenesis, It takes place in certain flatworms, rotifers, roundworms, insects, lobsters, some lizards, and some fishes. However, most parthenogenetic animals can also reproduce sexually at some point in their life history. Parthenogenesis is a spontaneous activation ‘of a mature egg. It is followed by normal egg divisions. It undergoes embryonic development, Some species do not undergo parthenogenesis. Their mature eggs can be activated by pricking d by exposing them to high them with a needle. They can also be activate, concentrations of calcium, or by altering their temperature. These eggs develop into adult without fertilizatio Number of chromosomes I parthenogenetic animals 2 male chromosomes. The offspring have Parthenogenetic eggs do not receive only a haploid set ‘of chromosomes. However, meiotic division 1s suppressed in some animals. So they develop diploid number. In other animals, meiosis occurs. But an unusual mitosis changes the haploid embryonic cells to the diploid condition, Evolutionary significance of parthenogenesis enogenetically have less genetic variability. This Animals that reproduce parth animals that are well adapted to a stable condition has advantage for environment. But parthenogenetic animals have less flexibility in the changing environment. Therefore, this form of reproduction is relatively uncommon Parthenogenesis also plays an important role in se: al organization. This social organization can be seen in the colonies of in bees, wasps, and ants. Bees produce a large numbers of males (drones) parihenogenetically. The sterile female workers and reproductive females (queens) are produced sexually. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION Advantages . The asexual reproduction occurs in protists and some invertebrates. There are following advantages of asexual reproduction: 1. Their marine environment is very stable. They have combination of genes for unchanging environment. It has an advantage over a greater number of gene combinations. Many of these genes do not match the environment. Thus stable environments favor asexual reproduction. ; Asexual reproduction is seasonal in other habitats. Asexual reproduction occurs in suitable season. It has advantages under such conditions. The anima! produces a large number of progeny asexually. The offspri ‘hi identical characteristics. Thus a large number of animals can he peduced 2. Seamed with CamScamnerPapns velopment m only ong parent in a we a + pisadvantages ia well adapted environment i : eae "produced asexually lack genetic variability. This variability is So ©Y Meiosis and sexual proce:ses. Asexually procuced organisms are genatic: § lon - 0 nally. 'denticai . ~ mals, A single disease or environmental stress like 9 GrougHt can gestroy ails... 2pulation, . Asexuall produc: n | , Some frites Ng animals cai, “mdergo rare spontaneous mutations. ‘ations may be beneficial most mutations are detrimental or ntage of asexual reproduction. All such mutations Passed On to every offspring. The one allele on homologous chromosome is mutate d. It is now nonfunctional or «potentially lethal. Therefcre, the asexual animal has only one allele left. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN INVERTEBRATES —————____ ee ee eee The reproduction take place by formation and fusions of gametes is called sexual reproduction, The offspring have unique combinations of genes in sexually reproduced genes. These genes are inherited from the parents. The offspring of the sexually reproduced organisms are different from their parents. They have genetic diversity, The syngamy, or fertilization, unites one gamete from each parent. The traits of each new individual are derived form both parents. Different invertebrates have different reproductive strategies and structures. EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION which takes place out side the body is called external invert es simply release their gametes into the water. ferilization occurs. The gonads are usually simple in They have different structures for releasing the gametes from the bocy. They se gamete through coelomic ducts, metanephridia, sperm ducis, or ovid INTERNAL FERTILIZATION The fertilization which takes place within the body is called internal fertilization. Many invertebrates from flatworms to insects use internal fertilization to transfer sperm from male to female. Both male and female have structures for transfer of these gametes. Male reproductive organs . There are follawing reproductive organs in males: 4. Testes: Sperm are produced in the testes in the male. They are transported to seminal vesicle through sperm duct. 2. Seminal vesicles: Seminal vesicles are storage area. 3. Spermatophores: The packets of sperm called spermatophores. These are formed in some invertebrates like arrow worms, leeches and some insects. lethal. It is anothar greatest disadvar al Seamed with CamScamnerfaster Success series Zoology C Spermatophores provide & protective casing to sperm. It helps in the transfer of large numbers of sperm with minimal loss. Some spermatophores arg motile. They act as independent sperm carriers rmatophores are then passed into 4, Copulatory organ: Sperm or the spel s copulatory organ through an ejaculatory duct. The copulatory organ is penis, cirrus or gonopore. The copulatory organ Is used as an intromittent structure, It transfers sperm into the female reproductive system Accessory glands: Different types of accessory glands may be present in males. These glands produce seminal fluid or spermatophores. Male a Femate Oviduct Ovary Tests Sperm duct Accessory gland J Seminal " receptacto 4 Ejaculatory ae dost Vagina me mip yf Gonopore Fig: Male and female reproductive organs in Invertebrates Female reproductive organs Ova (eggs) are produced in the ovaries. They are transported to the oviduct. Sperm move up in the oviduct. They encounter the ova and fertilize them. Accessory glands are also present in females. These glands produce egg capsules or shells. Variations in the reproductive organs 41. Hermaphroditism The animals which have both functional male and female reproductive systems are called hermaphrodites. It is also called monoecious, condition. Some hermaphrodites may fertilize themselves. But most of them mate with another member of the same species (2.9. earthworms and sea slugs). Each animal acts as both male and female. They donate and receive sperm. Sessile animals rare encounter the opposite sex. Therefore, Hermaphroditism is beneficial for them. 2 - Sequential Hermaphroditism In this case, an animal is one sex during one phase of its life cycle and opposite Seamed with CamScamner237 Reproduction & Davetopment sex during another phase, Hermaphrodites have two forms. (a) Protoandours: |, pr olandry, an animal is male during Its early life history and a female later in the fife history (b) Protogynous: It is reverse to protandry. In this case, the animal is female Curing early life but male in the most part of life history. The sex ratio ina popul ation control the sequential Hermaphroditism ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION Advantages 1, New combinations of traits arise more rapidly in sexually reproducing animals. It causes genetic recombination. It produces ganetic diversity. This genetic GNeralty increases the chances of survival of a species during environmental changes. 2. Sexual reproduction produces variations. Variations are the foundation of the evolution. 3. Sexually reproducing animals eliminate deleterious and lethal mutations. Disadvantages 4, Sexually reproducing animals cannot transfer exact copy of their genes to their progeny. 2, Reassortment of maternal and paternal chromosomes takes place during sexual reproduction. It again’ separates the parental genes in the offspring. , Thus combinations of many good characters are lost 3.Parents release many gametes. All these gametes are not fertilized. Thus it wastes a lot of energy spend on their formation. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN VERTEBRATES ‘ The male and female gametes have same uses in all the animals. Vertebrate evolution has developed a close link between reproductive biology and sexual behavior. Reproduction dominates the lives of many vertebrates. Its examples are salmon. |t migrates and dies during reproduction. Females of most mammals show heat or estius, Estrus is period of sexual receplivity. It occurs during same time each year. Genetic, hormonal, and nervous system controls time of estrus. Thus the young are born in most suitable environmental conditions. SOME BASIC VERTEBRATE REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES 1, Fishes Fishes have high fecundity (release of gametes). Most species release millions of €ges and sperm annually. Fish species have specific reproductive methods, Structures, and physiology. These adaptations help them to adapt in different aquatc conditions. ill Seamed with CamScamnerMaster Success seve 2. Amphibians The amphibians have diverse reproductive strategies. Amphibians have three s caecilians, salamanders and anurans They show trends toward in anurans These living order: are especially preser al environments. One terrestiially These adaptations reproductive adaptations help them to adapt in the terres adaptation is the evolution of direct development of terrestrial eggs ovoviviparity, and viviparity. These are important adaptations in amphibians. It helped them to live in mountainous enviranments 3. Reptiles, birds and mammals The reptiles, birus, and early mammals have simple system: , developed complex including hum (a) Shelled egg wit eggs These eygs had three basic are also present in the mammalian embryc undergoes gastrulation t has a huge. yolk gastrulation is still seen in mammalian embryos lost (b) Evolution of internal development: development were evolved in some early mam with nutrients and oxygen during gestation It was protected from attack by the female's immune system After birth, the first mammals nourished their young with milk from the mammary glands. This mechanism is still present in primates (human) touay. (c) Evolution o e systems. These ) inammals, Nion-fesis! embryonic membranes. membra’ They develop embryo. It mass The same process of But the massive yolk has been es develop shelled des: The: hh yolk: The reptil The mechanisms of internal mals. The embryo was nou’'shed emale apes and monkeys are f reproductive behaviours: F nuously) breeders. Mating and asynchronous {which do not produce young conti ich of the year. Females mate only when in estrus. It births can take place over mut a increases the chance of fertilization. Human females show a less distinctive estrus phase. Therefore, it can reproduce throughout the year. They also undergo sexual activity without reproductive purpose Sexual behavior is not tied to ovulation. These are important physiological reproductive adaptation. They are caused due to evolution of the brain. This process gave humans some conscious control over their emotions and behaviors On the other hand, hormones, instincts, and the environment control sexual behaviours in other animals. (d) Development of culture: Thus sex has separated from reproductive function in humans. It has evolved a long-lasting relationship between human males and females (marriage). This relations: further supports the offspring This type of behavior has developed cultures in hun It is a key to the evolution and success of the human spucies Seamed with CamScamner239 Roproduetion & Development EXAMPLES OF REPROD CLASSES UCTION AMONG VARIOUS VERTEBRATE Almost all vertebrates reproduc, reproduce baithenogenotennt ually, Only a few lizards and fishes normal, : Sexual feproduction evolved among aquatic animals Then it spread in terrestrial animals ° FISHES All fishes rep: . wales The staal in aquatic environments Fertilization is external in bon) developing shiseene only small amount of yolk This yolk nourishes the Elnes pedi tee ns Short time. The growing fish seek food after consuming yolk Shes Ploduces Many thousands of eggs Some of them fertihzed Few of then SUNK ANd grow fo maturity Some died due to fungal ar Some died due i siltation (bury) and predation. Theretere., develops rapidly The young achieve maturity within a short { AMPHIBIANS The vertebrates face the problem of dtying or desiccating on land. The gametes quickly desiceate on the land. Thus the gametes can not be released near one another on the land terial infect tne fert The amphibians were the first vertebrates thal come on land But they are no completely adapted to tertestnial environment Their life cycle still need water Fertilization ts still external among most amphibians. The male grasps the femal in the froas and toads The female release eggs into the water. The male discharges fluid cont. 9 sperm onto the eggs The developmental period is much tonger in amphibians than in fishes But the eggs do not contain large amount of yolk. Two periods of development are present in amphibians These are larval and adult stages. The aquatic larva stage develops rapidly. The animal spends much tine eating and growing. Afte reaching a sufficient size, the larva metamorphosed into adult REPTILES The reptiles are first successful land vertebrates. They undergo sexua reproduction on land. There are following adaptations in the reptiles: 4. They have internal fertilization, Internal fertilization protects the gametes fron drying out. The animals need not to go to water for breeding. 2. Many reptiles are oviparous. Their eggs are deposited outside the body of the female Others are ovoviviparous. Their egg hatch in the body of the female and tne youny are born alive. 3. The reptiies have developed two important evolutionary adaptations. Thest ate syelles egg and extiaemby on ome Lanes: The reptiles lay eggs in dr places without dange: of de vic (a) The extraembryonic chorion amnion protect the developing embryo They fe afuid-f ea sae ! EMOTO, Seamed with CamScamnerwy € (b) The allantois ts used for ga exe he BIRDS Birds wore evolved from the reptiles They have ratalned adaptations of fopiiles They have following adaptations. 1. Bids Lick a ponis except waterfowl Male deposit semen 67 the cloaca for yon then mugtate up tho cloace and fertilize the eggs This mothod of mating occurs MO quickly ingo. HLatoros excretory products the Important intemal fertilization Hard sholl is formed around it than the internal fertihzation of the reptiles 2. All birds are oviparous, Thoir eggshells aro much thicker than reptiles, Thus the birds can sit on their eggs brooding or incubation and warm them. This speed up the embryo development 3. Many young birds hatch, But they are unal care and feeding of young are common among birds. Mammals The most primitiv blo to survive on their own, Parental Its examples are duck- billed @ mammals aru monotremes: All other mammals are anteater, They lay eggs like reptiles platypus and spiny viviparous. Manimatian viviparily was: another major evolutionary adaptation. It has two forms 4, Marsupials: The marsupials develop their young ina pouch 2. Placental: It is a larger group: They retain the young inside the female, Mother nourishes them by placenta. Mother continues to nourish their young even after birth Mother nourishes the young with mammary glands. The mammals care their young until adulthood, The mammalian reproductive behaviour developed human culture. HUMAN MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Eee Human male produce perm. They delive se sperms into the vagina of the female. This function requires the following § ures: 4. Testes: Two testes produce sperm and the male sex hormone testosterone. 2. Accessory glands: Ac ory glands produce fluid, This fluid help in carrying the sperm to the penis, Tho fluid with its sperms is called semen. 3, Accessory ducts: !t stores secretions from the testes and accessory glands. It then passes this secretion to the penis. 4. Panis: A penis deposits semen into the vagina of female during sexual intercourse, PRODUCTION ANP TRANSPORT OF SPERM 1.° Testes The male reproductive organs are paired testes. T f ans E estes produce sperm. The testes descend from the abdominal cavity into the en Selina hang between the thighs. Thus testes are present outside the body. Therefore, the Seamed with CamScamnerNt DaeeuLEVO & Qeewogunwnt The Quer & S HES RAY survival, Muse temeeratue. Each ch tests is cony cred of aight Muntrnt fOhty MUS OE SEN Bao) SAQA FY DWE ale DAT WA WE NESS, + Spermatogenic cells: + Sustentacular cells: the tude des. TT secret hom (b) Intersdtial tis (Leydig cells): These calls seminiferous tutuies. These culls are ot male sex hormone testostenmne. Fig: Male reproductive system : ididymis re a er ees carries the spenm to the canis. The seminiferous tubules a into a network of tiny tubules called ths rate testis, Rote testis merges into a coiled tube called the epididymis. The epididymis has three main fap tt stores sperm until they become mature and ready to be ejaculated (b) It contains smooth muscle. These muscles propel the sperm towand the penis ‘Seamed with CamScamnerSuccess seme: by peristaltic contractions. (c) It acts duct system for sperm to pass into the ductus deferens. Fig: (b) Cross section of seminiferous tubules (c) Mature sperm 3. Ductus deferens The ductus deferens is the dilated portion of the epididymis. These ductus move upward after leaving the scrotum. They pass through the lower part of the abdominal wail through the ingzinal canal. Sometimes, abdominal wall weakens at inguinal canal. It causes inguinal hernia. In this case, the intestine may protrude downward into the scrotum. The ductus deferens then passes around the urinary bladder. It enlarges to form the ampulla. The ampulla stores sperm until they are ejaculated. The ductus deferens becomes the ejaculatory duct at the distal end of the ampulla. The urethra is the final section of the reproductive duct system. 4. Accessory glands . The ductus deferens passes around the urinary bladder. Several accessory glands add their secretions to the sperm. These accessory glands are seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands, (a) Seminal vesicle: The paired seminal vesicles secrete water, fructose, prostaglandins, and vitamin C. This secretion provides energy to the motile sperm. It neutralizes the acidity of the vagina. The pH of the vagina is about 3 to 4. But sperm motility and fertility increases it to about 6. (b) Prostatg gland: The prostate gland secretes water, enzymes, cholesterol, Seamed with CamScamner243 Reproduction & Development buffering salts and phospholipids. Bul @) Renee: These glands secrete a clear alkaline fluid. This fluid penis before sexu fy It helps in ejaculation of sperms. It also lubricates the called semen. Tr al intercourse. The fluid containing sperms and fluid is It contai . one average human ejaculation produces 3 to 4 ml of semen. @iNS 300 to 400 million sperm. Hypothalamus Posterior 4 pituitary ineurohypophysis) Interatitia! cell Intestes lon of Fig: Hormonal control of Reproductive Functions in Adult Human Males 5. Penis The penis has two functions. It carries urine through the urethra to the outsy during urination. It transports semen through the urethra during ejaculation. The penis contains three cylindrical strands of erectile tissue: two corpora cavernosa and the corpus spongiosum. ¢ Corpus spongiosum: It extends beyond the corpora cavernosa and becomes the expanded tip of the penis. This tip of the penis is called glans penis. Penis has loosely fitting skin. This skin folds forward over the glans to form the prepuce or foreskin. The removal of the prepuce for religious or health reasons is called circumcision (tA®’), Some people believe that ae ll Seamed with CamScamner1 Surcoss semas Zoology © circumision ean prevent the cancer of the penis. 6. Sperm A mature (a) The acr J consists of a head, midpiece, and tail ho haploid nucleus. This nuclous has mostly DNA. The sver most of the head Acrosome contains an enzyme ) helps the sperm in penetrating the outer layer of the ondary 00 . : spiral mitochondria, These mitochondtia supply energy plece: I! contin 10 vim tail contains microtubules. Tail bends to produce whip like (c) Tail: The movements REPROPUCTIVE ¢ UNCTION s control the sexual function of human male. Male Special jegulatory hormones J lied androgens. The hormones that travel from jonadotropin. The interstitial ae collectively cal lo sex hormone testosterono. There is following \ hormones » prant and pituitary glane y8 produce the mat teed back control of male hormones 4. The decreasing level of testosterone in the blood stimulated the hypothalamus — Hypothalamus secretes GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone) GnRH stimulates the secretion of FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone). LH is also called ICSH (interstitial cell simulating hormone, It increases the secretion of testosterone. secretion of LH. The testes 2. Tho higher level of testosterone inhibits the called inhibin. Inhibin inhibits the secretion of FSH secrete another hormone from the ante.ior pituitary, This cycle maintains a constant rate (homeostasis) of spermatogenesis ctive Hormones In an Adult Major Human Male Reprodu' Dara {to the testes are called gi t cells of tes pn a CTE i AMAT | FSH (folliclo- Help in sperm maturation. Pituitary gland stimulating hormone) _| Increases testosterone production Controls pituitary secretion Hypothalamus Inhibits FSH secretion Sustentacular cells in testes Pituitary gland GnRH (gonadotropin- roleasing hormone, (nhibin LH (luteInizing Stimulates testosterone secretion hormone) or ICSH (Intorstitial coll- stimulating hormono) Testosterone Interstitial cells in Seamed with CamScamner 1._Increases sperm production245 Reproduction & Development - Stimulates development of Male primary and secondary Sexual characteristics Inhibits LH secretion testes 3. Uterine tube. Uterus Urinary. bladder ‘Anus Lapla minora Vagina Labla majora ig) ; roductive system Fig: Female rep ctive sys Fig: Ovarian cycle Seamed with CamSeamner— /| 248 ]] pastor Success series Zoology C Fig: Oogensis REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM les is more complex than males. The They also nourish, carry, and protect The mother nurses the offspring for thly rhythmcity of its reproductive number of structures. These HUMAN FEMALE The reproductive role of human fema females produce gametes (eggs OF ova). the developing embryo after fertilization. some time after birth. The female shows mon! system. The female reproductive system consists of a structures have specialized functions: 4. Ovaries: Two ovaries produce eggs and the female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone. uterine tubes carry eg: i a uterine tube 2. Uterine tubes: Two Fertilization occurs in the upper third portion of fter fertilization. It carries the 3. Uterus: The uterus receives the blastocyst al developing embryo. 4, Vagina: The vagina receives semen from the penis during Menstrual flow takes place through vagina. It acls as birt! ing childbirth. from the uterus through vagina duri al genital organs gs from the ovaries to the uterus. sexual intercourse. h canal. The baby have protective passes 5, External genital organ: The extern functions. It plays a role in sexual arousal. 6. Mammary glands: The mammary glands contained paired breasts. Mammary gland produces milk for the newborn baby. PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT OF THE EGG s and female 1. Ovary The female gona hormones. The ovaries are js located on each side of the uterus. ds are the paired ovaries. Ovaries produce egg located in the pelvic part of the abdome! Across section of an ovary shows rou n. One ovary inded Seamed with CamScamner247 Reproduction & Davalopment e: These vesi foil contains Pal called follicles, The follicles produce eggs. Each changes into secondary ure egg called a primary oocyte. The primary oocyte The process of re ry oocyte egg. The eggs are released from the follicles. lease ii 5 x . grows inward. It forme comet is called ovulation. The lining of the follicle ") ;: luteum ("yellow body"). Corpus luteum acts as a ime tissue. It secretes the female sex hormones estrogen and 2. Uterine tube Ali Leas Seems eoneay oocyte from the ovary. They pass it to proximal part of uterine t re ca uterine tubes or fallopian tubes. The CHAAR 6 ne tube has feathery fimbriae. These fimbriae encircle the ry. econdary oocyte is released each month. The motion of fimbriae sweeps the oocyte into the uterine tube. The secondary oocyte cannot move itself, The inner mucous membrane of the uterus has cilia. The peristaltic contraction of the tube and motions of cilia move the secondary Socyts through the tube. Fertilization occurs in the uppermost third of the uterine tube. A fertilized oocyte (zygote) moves towards uterus. It is implanted in the uterus. The journey takes four to seven days. The secondary oocyte degenerates without fertilization. 3. Uterus _ The uterine tubes open in the uterus. Uterus is a hollow, muscular organ. It is present in front of the rectum and behind the urinary bladder. The uterus terminates in a narrow portion called the cervix. Cervix joins the uterus with the vagina. The uterus has three layers of tissues. (a) Perimetrium: It is the outer layer. It extends beyond the uterus and forms the two broad ligaments. These ligaments stretch from the uterus to the lateral walls of the pélvis. (b) Myometrium: It is the middle muscular layer. It makes up most,of the uterine wall. (c) Endometrium: It is the specialized mucous membrane. It contains an “abundance of blood vessels and simple glands. 4. Vagina The cervix leads to the vagina. Vagina is a muscular tube 8 to 10cm long. The wall of the vagina is composed of smooth muscle and elastic tissue. 5. External genitalia The external genital organs or genitalia are composed of mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, vestibular glands, clitoris, and vaginal opening. The group of these organs is called the vulva. The vaginal opening is partially covered by a thin membrane in most young women, This membrane is called hymen. It can be ruptured during normal strenuous (tough) activities. Or it can be stretched or broken during sexual activity. Seamed with CamScamnera Master Success series Zoology C copyryps © 2001 Barjain Cumminge an nerf Acxiaon Waly Longa, We 6. Mammary glands The mammary glands are mo% milk. They contain adipose tissu size of the breasts. Its amount is different almost same amount of mammary tissue. HORMONAL CONTROL OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTION —$<$<$<$<$<= ‘during a few days each month. The cyclical production The female is fertiiz only 4 of hormones controls the development of a secondary cocyte in a follicle. The hypothalamus secretes gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH). It acts on the anterior pituitary gland. It releases follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). These hormones control the maturation and release of oocyte from the ovary. These hormones control twa cycles: (a) Menstrual. cycle: The cyclic preparation of the uterus for receiving a fertilized egg is called menstrual cycle. (b) Ovarian cycle: They cycle during which the ooc! ovulation occurs is called ovarian cycle. Menstrual cycle monthly prepare the uterine lining for the fertilized egg. It begins alt puberty. The ovaries lose their sensitivity to FSH and LH, at the age 45 to 55 dified Sweat glands. They produce and secrete ‘es. The amount of adipose tissue determines the in different women. But they have yto matures and Seamed with CamScamner( 249 / Reproduction & Develogment. ears. The Ye rontilvimer ene normal amounts of progesterone and estrogen, Thus On average, ona mer Cycle stop. This condition is called menopause. from 22 to 45 d ue cycle is completed in 28 days. But its range may be ays. Following events take place during this time: e Ovarian actvty 12°86 O98 YQ Oe Ovation Wensivetion Prchierative phase Encralory phase Wensironton Fig: Menstrual cycle 4. Hypothalamus is the controlling center for ovulation and menstruation. It teleases GnRH hormone. The GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete FSH and LH. . 2. FSH promotes the development of the cocyte in one of the immature ovarian follicles. 3. The follicles produce estrogen. It develops the endometrium. It also inhibits the production FSH. Seamed with CamScamnerMaster Success es 20009 © s the anterior pituitary to secrete LH. LH y follicle releases the secondary the broken follicle the corpus 4. High level of estrogen stimulate: matures the follicle. It enlarges rapidly. Finall oocyte during ovulation. LH also changes luteum. progesterone. These hormones 5. The corpus luteum secretes estrogen and complete the development of the endometrium. They maintain it for 10 to 14 days. 6. If the oocyte is not fertilized, the corpus luteum disintegrates into a corpus albicans. It stops the estrogen and progesterone secretion. 7. The endometrium breaks down without estrogen and progesterone. Thus menstruation starts. The menstrual flow is mainly composed of sloughed-off endometrial cells, mucus and blood 8. The progesterone and estrogen levels starts the secretion of FSH. It stimulates t Thus new monihly cycle starts. HORMONAL REGULATION IN THE PREGNANT FEMALE Pregnancy starts series of physiological events. 4. The cells of the embryo and placenta telease the hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). It saves the corpus luteum from the disintegration. Corpus luteum secretes progesterone. Progesterone is necessary to maintain the uterine lining. 2. After sometime, the placenta takes over the production of progesterone. Thus the corpus luteum degenerates. After two week of implantation, the concentration’ of hCG becomes high in blood of female. The urine tests and hCG immunological test can check for pregnancy at this time. 3. Other hormones are also secreted with the development of embryo. These hormones are prolactin and oxytocin. They stimulate the mammary glands to secrete and eject milk after childbirth. Oxytocin and prcstaglandins also stimulate the uterine contractions. These contractions expel the baby from the uterus during childbirth. Summery of the Menstrual Cycle decrease further. The pituitary again he development of another follicle. 1. Follicle matures in the ovary 2. Menstruation (endometrium breaks down) 3__Endometrium rebuilds Ovary releases secondary oocyte 1. Corpus luteum forms 2. Endometrium thickens and becomes glandular Seamed with CamScamnerroduction & Dev Hypothalamus ~ Anterior pituitary Increasing levels of estrogen stimutata @ single surge vt LH secretion but Innibit FSH f Increasing levels of estrogen and progesterone together inhibit both FSH and | secretion. Ke i a 3118 is <| |< i2 a] 5 ig a} 'a iz w]e ‘i wi) ic F Zz 12 iz = = als 'g a] iS Maturing Corpus 13 ai? follicle luteum 2 ' In ovary In ovary \ ; =aa=====:Estrogen Progesterone. uy some estrogen Development Stimulates maintenance of endometrium of secondar growth and 2 for possible implantation of : thickening of [Of Ps Sex characteristics endometrium ‘@mlized ovum Fig: Hormonal Control of Reproductive Functions in an Adult Human Sources . Stimulates thickening of uterine | Ovarian follicle, corpus luteum . Maturation of oocyte and development of femal characteristics 2 sexual . Inhibits FSH secretion; increases LH secretion Develop immature oocyte and Pituitary gland stimulating hormone) follicle. . Increases estrogen secretion . Stimulates new gamete formation and development of FSH (follicle- - Seamed with CamScamner~__ulerine wall after menstruation controls pituitary secretion GnRH (gonadotropin Hypothalamus hormone) NEG (human chorlonie | 1 Prevents corpus luteum from gonadotropin) disintegrating Stimulate: rpus luteum to placenta estrogen and erone ction of FSH fromthe | Ovaries Embryonic membranes and Inhibla omen anterior pituitary gland LH (Luteinizing 1 Stimulates further development | Pituitary gland hormone) of oocyte and follicle 2. Stimulates ovulation 3. Increases progesterone secretion 4. Help in development of corpus luteum 7. Stimulates uterine contractions | Pituitary gland during labor 2._Milk release during nursing Prolactin Promotes milk secretion by Pituitary gland mammary glands after childbirth ‘Stimulates thickening of uterine Corpus luteum Progesterone wall Placenta and 1. Increases flexibility of pubic ovaries symphysis during pregnancy 2. Dilate uterine cervix during labor and delive PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH $ The pregnancy period in humans is nine month. The human body of female caries, nourishes, and protects the embryo EVENTS OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT: FROM ZYGOTE TO NEWBORN The development of a human being is divided into prenatal (before birth") and postnatal (“after birth") periods. The developing individual begins life as a zygote during the prenatal period. Then it becomes morula. Morula is a ball of cells. Then it bacomes a blastocyst that implants in the endometrium. (a) Embryo: The individual from two weeks after fertilization to the end of Relaxin Seamed with CamScamner253 Reproduction & Development the eighth week Of its existence is call 0. (b) Fetus: It is called fetus from nine Weske oon (c) Baby: It is called a newborn, or baby during or after birth. Pregnancy is divided into three month periods. These periods are called trimesters, The first trimester begins at fertiization. Most of the organs are ued during this time. The next two trimesters are periods of growth for the The First Trimester Fertilization takes Place in the upper third of the uterine tube. Zygote goes through several Cleavages in the tube. 1. Blastocyst It becomes morula on the fourth Gay. It develops into blastula stage called a blastocyst. Blastocyst has 50 to 120 cells. The blastocyst moves into uterus, It attaches to the uterine wall and implants. The outer cells of the blastocyst called trophoblast Trophoblasts attach with the endometrium during implantation. Implantation is completed 11 to 12 days afier fertilization. Now the female is taken as pregnant, 2% Gastrulation The mammalian development has one unique feature. Most of the cells of the early embryo do not take Part in the body of embryo, They form supportive and Protective membranes. Only the inner call mass gives rise to the embryonic * body. Finally, these cells arrange in a flat sheet. It undergoes gastrulation like reptiles and birds. 3. Organogenesis and growth Organogenesis and growth start after gastrulation. Regulatory events and inductive-tissue interactions control the organ systems. All of the major body systems start developing by the middle of the first trimester. The Second Trimester The second trimester starts after fourth month. The fetus grows rapidly during this trimester. Now, the Pregnant mother can feel fetal movements. The -heartbeat of fetus can be heard with a Stethoscope. The upper and lower eyelids. - separate and the eyelashes form during the sixth month. The eyes open during the seventh month. The bones begin to ossify during this period. The Third Trimester The third trimester extends from the seventh month until birth. The fetus develops sufficiently during this time. It has developed the circulatory and respiratory systems. It can survive if born prematurely. The fetal weight doubles during the last month. il Seamed with CamScamnerSane brptanted Lato blstocynt oem thatocyst Fig: Early development of human embryo THE PLACENTA: EXCHANGE SITE AND HORMONE PRODUCER The organ that maintains the embryo and fetus throughout the pregnancy and through which gases, nutrients, and wastes are exchanged between the maternal and fetal systems is called placenta. Mammals develop embryonic membranes. These membranes are amnion, yolk sac, chorion and allantois. These membranes help in lengthy phase of pregnancy in mammals. Chorion and allantois form embryonic parts of the placenta. The tiny, finger like projections come out of blastocyst during implantation. These projections develop into numerous chorionic villi. These villi contain embryonic blood vessels. These blood vessels do not merge with the vessels of mother. Thus the two bloodstreams remain separate throughout the pregnancy. The umbilical cord connects the placenta with the abdomen of the fetus. Two fetal umbilical arteries and one fetal umbilical vein coils around each other in the umbilical cord. Seamed with CamScamner255 Reproduction & Development BIRTH: AN END AND A BEGINNING The birth process is called parturition. The human infant is born after 266° days after fertilization, or 280 days from the beginning of the last menstrual period. It has following process: 1, The uterine muscles of mother start contracting during parturition. The cervix » begins to dilate, or open. “2. Ovaries and placenta produce hormone relaxin. It slightly separates the pelvic bones of mother. Thus the baby can pass through the birth canal. ° 3. Chang of hormone levels initiate parturition. The Pituitary gland of baby secretes adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). It stimulates the adrenal glands to secrete steroids. These steroids stimulate the placenta to produce prostaglandins. The pituitary gland of mother secretes oxytocin. The prostaglandins and oxytocin stimulate the uterus. . The uterus starts powerful muscular contractions. The contractions become stronger over a period. These contractions last from 2 to 18 hours. The cervix becomes fully dilated during that time. It ruptures the amniotic sac. The baby al Seamed with CamScamnerSuccess series Zoology C uterus within.an hour. §. Uterine contractions continue after the bir) of the baby. It expels the aftorbirth. The umbilical cord is cut and tied. Umblllcal cord Placenta e Se, is expelled from the B First stage of tabor: dilation ‘A Human fetus just before birth aa -Placenta e ease C Second stage of D Third stage of labor: fabor: expulsion Placental delivery Fig: Stages of Labor and Parturition MILK PRODUCTION AND LACTATION Milk secretions by the mammary glands and milk release from the breasts are called lactation. 1. Development of mammary glands Mammary glands are unique characteristic of mammals. Mammary glands evolved from sweat glands in the skin. The increasing levels of prolactin during pregnancy enlarge the breasts. The placental secretions uf estrogen and progesterone inhibit milk secretion from the breasts before birth. The placenta has been expelled from the uterus. Thus the concentrations of estrogen and progesterone drcp. Therefore, the breasts start producing large amounts of milk. 2 Secretion of colostrum = -** The breasts of mother do not release milk for one to three days after birth. The baby receives colostrum during these days. Colostrum is a high protein fluid present in the breast at birth. Colostrum contains an abundance of matemal antibodies. These antibodies strengthen the immune system of the baby. It also functions as a laxative (against constipation). It removes fetal wastes called Seamed with CamScamnermeconium 257 Reproduction & Development 3. Secretion of milk The eullary gland secretes prolactin after three days. Prolactin stimulates the milk pro luction. The suckling of milk stimulates the pituitary. Il releases oxytocin and prolactin. Oxytocin stimulates the release of milk from the mammary glands. Reproduction Asexual reproduction Feect Fission Colony Budding Gemmules Parthenogenesis Spermatophores _ DEFINITIONS AND KEY POINTS Sexual The reproduction take place by formation and fusions of reproduction gametes is called sexual reproduction. aslo 63 copies of the parents is called reproduction The production of offspring without formation and fusion of gametes is called asexual reproduction, The division of one cell, body, or body part into two is | calied fission. A colony is a group of closely associated individuals of one species. The development of new individual by formation of an outgrowth is called budding. Gemmules are collections of many cells surrounded by a body wall. The reproduction without sperm and normal fertilization is called parthenogenesis. The packets of sperm called spermatophores. Semen Ovulation Menstrual cycle’ arian cycle Placenta Colostrum ———____-— Oo Embryo .| wastes are exchanged between the maternal and fetal The fluid with its sperms ts cailed semen The process of release of egg Is called ovulation The cyclic preparation of the uterus for receiving a fertilized egg is called menstrual cycle. They cycle during which the cocyte matures and ovulation occurs is called ovarian cycle. The individual from two weeks after feftilization to the end of the eighth week of its existence is called an embryo. The organ that maintains the embry4 and fetus throughout the pregnancy and through which gases, nutrients, and systems is called placenta. _ Colostrum is a high protein fluid present in bie: Seamed with CamScamner