SCIENCE 10: REVIEWER

PLATE TECTONICS AND VOLCANOES

EXCLUSIVELY FOR HAWKING ONLY<3

QUESTIONS

● What theory states that the Earth's

outer layer is broken into large
slowly moving pieces?

○ PLATE TECTONICS
THEORY

● What is the name of the Mesozoic

supercontinent that consisted of all
the present continents?

○ PANGAEA
● These are systematic waves that are
created due to the sudden release of
energy in the Earth crusts.
The interior of the Earth is
divided into layers based on
chemical and physical
Properties.

○ EARTHQUAKE The Earth has an outer silica-rich,

solid crust, a highly viscous mantle,
● Which earthquake waves travel and a core comprising a liquid outer
through the outer core? core that is much less viscous than
the mantle, and a solid inner core.
○ PRIMARY WAVES or
P-WAVES

● A method used by seismologists in

locating the epicenter of an
earthquake.
LITHOSPHERE
○ TRIANGULATION METHOD

LITHOSPHERE

EARTH ● Rigid layer that can break under

stress
Structure of the Earth
● Comprises the crust and the
The Earth is made uppermost layer of the mantle
up of 3 main layers:
● Crust ● Crust is composed of major and
● Mantle minor blocks of rocks which we refer
● Core to as tectonic plates

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● Continental crust is thicker but less
dense than the oceanic crust.
● Continental crust floats higher than
the oceanic crust because of
density difference
The lithosphere (solid part of the Earth) is
composed of three major layers, the crust
(outermost layer), the mantle (the middle
layer), and the core (the innermost layer).
Due to intense heat in the Earth's
interior, the molten rock (magma) in
the mantle moves in a cyclic pattern
forming convection cells (Figure 1.1).
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The Earth's crust is composed of several
broken plates that move continuously.
These movements are caused by the
properties and processes that occur in the
Earth's interior.
The Convection In the cell. the warmer
material from the lower layer of the mantle
near the core rises.
As it rises, moving away from
the core, it slowly cools down
and eventually sinks again and is
replaced by the rising warmer
material forming a never-ending
Cycle.
This movement is extremely slow
that its effects can only be
discerned after thousands or
millions of years.
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THEORIES

Theories on the movement of the

Lithosphere:

● Continental Drift theory (Alfred

Wegener) (Oskin, 2017)

○ This theory states that the

Earth was once composed of
only one supercontinent
called Pangaea.

○ Through time, this

supercontinent split into two
sub- continents, Laurasia
and Gondwanaland.
○ Million years further, Laurasia
split into a few smaller
continents forming the
continents in the northern
hemisphere of the Earth.
This includes Asia, Europe,
North America. South
America, and Africa.
This theory states that the Earth's
crust is composed of several broken
plates that continuously move either
away, past, or towards each other.
● Seafloor Spreading Theory
○ States that the seafloor is
continuously spreading, and
the extra crust gets recycled
into the mantle

○ On the other hand, the ● Plate Tectonics Theory

continents of the southern
hemisphere, Australia and
Antarctica, are the two
continents divided from
Gondwanaland.
ALFRED WEGENER
An Austrian climatologist, who
first noted the theory on the movement of
the Earth's land masses and is known today
as the modern Plate Tectonic Theory
(Oskin,2017).
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○ States that the crust is
composed of different plates
which move either towards,
away or past each other.
○ The modern version of the
Continental Drift Theory of
Alfred Wegener
PLATE TECTONICS
● The Earth's crust is divided into 15
major plates which are moved in
various directions.

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EXCLUSIVELY FOR HAWKING ONLY<3

● This plate motion causes them to

collide, pull apart, or scrape against
each other. ● Earthquake

● Each type of interaction causes a ○ Systematic waves that are

characteristic set of Earth structures created due to the sudden
or "tectonic" features. release of energy in the
Earth crusts
● The word, tectonic, refers to the
deformation of the crust as a
consequence of plate interaction.
PACIFIC RING OF FIRE

The study of earthquakes and the

waves they create is called seismology,
(from the Greek word "seismos"
Which means "to shake"). In turn,
scientists who study earthquakes
are called seismologists. During an
earthquake, sudden release of stored
energy in the Earth's crust creates
seismic waves sometimes they cause
tsunamis and fire which may lead to loss
of life and huge damage to property.

EARTHQUAKE
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earthquake. An S wave is slower

SEISMIC WAVES
● Seismic waves are the waves of
energy caused by the sudden
breaking of rock within the earth or
an explosion. They are the energy
that travels through the earth and is
recorded on seismographs.
than a P wave and can only move
through solid rock. This wave moves
rock up and down, or side-to- side.
● The distance between the beginning
of the first P wave and the first S
wave tells you how many seconds
the waves are apart.

BODY WAVES ● This number will be used to tell you

how far your seismooranh is from
● P Waves (compression wave) the enicenter of the earthanake.

● The first kind of body wave is the P

wave or primary wave.

● This is the fastest kind of seismic

wave. The P wave can move
through solid rock and fluids, like
water or the liquid layers of the earth
and gases. It pushes and pulls the
rock it moves through just like sound
waves push and pull the air.

● It is considered as the first signal ● Love Waves

from an earthquake to be felt.
● The first kind of surface wave is
called a Love wave, named after
Augustus Edward Hough Love, a
British mathematician who worked
out the mathematical model for this
kind of wave in 1911. It's the fastest
surface wave and moves the
ground from side-to-side.

● S wave or shear wave (transverse

wave)

● The second type of body wave is the

S wave or secondary wave, which
is the second wave you feel in an
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● Rayleigh Waves
● The other kind of surface wave is the
Rayleigh wave, named for John
William Strutt (Lord Rayleigh),
who mathematically predicted the
existence of this kind of wave in
1885. A Rayleigh wave rolls along
the ground just like a wave rolls
across a lake or an ocean. Because
it rolls, it moves the ground up and
down, and side-to-side in the same
direction that the wave is moving.
Most of the shaking felt from an
earthquake is due to the Rayleigh
wave, which can be much larger
than the other waves.
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Pangea
● The Mesozoic supercontinent that
consisted of all the present
continents split into two
sub-connnents, Laurasia and
Gondwanaland
Laurasia
● Split into a few smaller continents
forming the continents in the
northern hemisphere or the Earth.
This includes Asia, Europe, North
America, South America, and Africa.
Gondwanaland
● Split into the southern hemisphere of
the Earth. This includes Australia
and Antarctica
Tsunamis
● Earthquakes that occur underwater
that produce huge surface waves on
the ocean. come in all sires from 2 m
to 20 meters tall
Seismograph
● Can be used to find valuable
resources such as water and oiland
to locate the underground resources
Epicenter
● Usually the location where the
waves from an earthquake are
hignly intense.
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Hypocenter or Focus
● Location below the earth's surface
where the earthquake Starts
Triangulation Method
● Method to locate the epicenter of an
earthquake
Andrija Mohorovicic
● A Yugoslavian seismologist who
found out that the velocity of seismic
waves changes and increases at a
distance of about 50 km below the
Barth's surface
Mohorovicic Discontinuity
● Boundary between the crust and the
mantle
Gutenberg Discontinuity
● Boundary between mantle and core
Beno Gutenberg
● German seismologist who found out
about the Gutenberg discontinuity
Inge Lehmann
● Danish seismologist that predicted
the innermost layer of the Earth.
Discovered a new region of seismic
reflection within the core.
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The magnitude of an earthquake is based
on the measurement of the maximum
motion recorded by a seismograph. The
most commonly used are the Local
Magnitude (ML) or known as the Richter
magnitude the surlace wave magnitude
(MS), body-wave magnitude (Mb), and
moment magnitude (MW).
Earthquake can be measured using a
RICHTER SCALE and MERCALLI SCALE.
Intensity
● Is a measure of the amount of earth
shaking that happens at a given
location. This can be measured
through the RICHTER SCALE.
Magnitude
● On the other hand. measures the
size of the seismicwaves or the
amount of energv released at the
source of the earthquake and will be
measured using a MERCALLI
SCALE
Orogeny
● An event that leads to both structural
deformation and compositional
differentiation of the Earth's
lithosphere at convergent plate
margins, the primary mechanism by
which mountains are built on
Canananie
Subduction
● A geological process that takes
place at convergent boundaries of
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tectonic plates where one plate

moves under another and is forced
to sink due to high gravitational
potential energy into the mantle.

Mount Everest

● Known as the world's "highest

mountain”. ABOVE SEA LEVEL.

Mauna Kea

● Known as the world's "highest

mountain".BELOW SEA LEVEL .
Cinder Cone Volcano
Mount Chimborazo ● Steep slope
● Emits ash during eruption
● Known as the world's "highest
mountain" AROVE EARTH'S
CENTER.

Mountain Belt or Ranges

● A range of mountains linked

together.

The Himalayas
Shield Volcano
● Highest mountain range on Earth. ● Wide base
● Emits lava
Sierra Madre Mountain Ranges ● Looks like a shield hence the name

● The longest mountain range in the

Philippines.

Volcanoes

● Emit volcanic products like lava,

rocks, ashes, and gases from the
interior of the Earth through its
vents.

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Composite Volcano or Stratovolcano
● Half way of having steep slope and
wide base
● Emits both ash and lava
Types of Volcanoes in Terms of
Activity:
Active Volcano
● These are volcanoes that are
"currently erupting or are expected
to erupt in the near future".
Dormant Volcano
● These are "not currently erupting but
have erupted within recordable
history and are expected to erupt
again in the future."
Extinct Volcano
● "These volcanoes are considered as
dead and are not expected to erupt
in the future.”
❖ Most volcanoes are formed along
the plate boundaries, it is expected
that many active volcanoes along
with them (National Geographic,
2014).
❖ When the tectonic plates moye apart
(diverge), magma will ooze out from
the cracks and fissures of the crust
that are moving apart forming vents.
❖ These will then lead to formation of
new land masses, volcanoes and
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volcanic activities.
❖ When the plates move towards each
other (converge), upon collision, the
plate that sinks (subducts) will melt
in the mantle.
❖ Where there is melting of the plates,
formation of volcanoes occurs.
❖ Philippines Institute of Volcanology
and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) -
monitors and classifies volcanoes
and volcanic activities.
Active Volcanoes
● Erupted within historic times (within
the last 600 years) Accounts of
these eruptions were documented
by man. Erupted within the last
10,000 years based on the analyses
of materials from young volcanic
deposits.
Potentially Active Volcanoes
● Morphologically young-looking but
with no historical or analytical
records of eruption.
Inactive Volcanoes
● No recorded eruptions. Physical
form has been intensively weathered
and eroded, bearing deep and long
gullies.
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Orogeny
● An event that leads to both structural
deformation and compositional
differentiation of the Earth's
lithosphere (crust and uppermost
mantle) at convergent plate margins.
Orogenic Belt / Orogen
● Develops when a continental plate
crumples and is pushed upwards to
form one or more mountain ranges
Orogenesis
● Series of geological processes
collectively The word "orogeny*
comes from Ancient Greek (5pos,
éros, "mountain" and yéveous,
génesis, "creation, origin")
Grove Karl Gilbert in 1890
● (American) employed the term
orogeny to describe the process of
mountain-building
MOUNTAIN V.S VOLCANOES
Volcanoes and mountains differ in several
ways. A volcano is a type of a mountain, but
it has magma, crater, and lava. A mountain
does not have these three things.
Mountains are peaceful areas whereas
volcanoes are very much dangerous and
are not a good place to be at. Volcanoes
can be a part of a mountain range.
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● Mountain is a landform that
stretches above the surface of the
Earth that can be steep like a peak
or probably not so steep.
● Volcanoes can be like mountains,
but volcanoes have a certain
pressure inside a magma chamber
that creates an orifice through which
lava and hot gases erupt into the
atmosphere.
❖ Most mountains and mountain
ranges are parts of mountain belts
that have formed where two
lithospheric plates have converged
and where, in most cases, they
continue to converge.
Circum Pacific System
● A nearly continuous chain of
volcanoes and mountain ranges
surrounds most of the Pacific basin
Alphine Himalayan System (Tethyan)
● Formed where the African, Arabian,
and Indian plates have collided with
the Eurasian Plate Mast such linear
belts are residual ranges.
Young Mountains
● Have steep slopes and high, pointed
peaks.
Old Mountain
● have been eroded and are lower and
more rounded.
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Caldera
Topography of a Mountain
● Depends not only on the processes
that create the elevated terrain but a
so on the forces that support this
terrain and on the toes of processes
erosional or tectonic)that destroy it
○ Two properties of rocks
contribute to the support of
mountains, mountain belts,
and plateaus, namely
STRENGTH and DENSITY.
MOUNTAIN BELTS ASSOCIATED WITH
VOLCANISM
● Mid-ocean ridges and rises
● Volcanic structures along subduction
zones
● Landforms assodiated with hot spot
volcanism
❖ Regions where this process occurs
are known as SUBDUCTION
ZONES
● very large crater with relatively low
rims.
❖ Examples of such structures include
those formed by Krakatoa in
Indonesia in 1883 and by Thera
(also called Santorin or Santoríni) in
the Aegean Sea a few thousand
years ago.
❖ Hot Spot volcanoes are recognized
by an age progression from one end
of the chain to the other. An active
volcano commonly serves as an
"anchor" at one end of the chain.
The most studied and best
well-known hot spot volcanoes and
seamounts define the
Hawaii-Emperor volcanic chain.
The origin and evolution of Hawiïan
volcanoes, seamounts, and guyots
are caused by hotspots.

Accretionary Orogens

● Evolve in generally curvilinear belts

comprising dominantly mafic to
silicic igneous rocks and their
sedimentary products and
accumulated largelv in marine
settings. In the mostintense
eruptions of this sort. the remnants
of the volcano collapse into the void
at its centre sometimes leaving a
caldera.

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