Foundations of Communication: General takeaways

I. Communication and the graduates

1. Studies have concluded that, for almost any job, employers seek
• oral communication
• teamwork
• interpersonal skills as crucial skills in the workplace.
2. In the field of engineering,
• speaking skills were very important for 72% of employers surveyed (Darling & Dannels,
2003, p. 12)
3. A survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers reported the top ten
personal qualities and skills that employers seek from college graduates (which unfortunately
many people lack):
• First: communication skills (face-to-face, presentational speaking, writing)
• Third: teamwork
• Fifth: analytical skills
• Eighth: interpersonal skills
• Ninth: problem-solving skills
4. Jobstreet.com 2018 Fresh Graduate Report released in April 2018: The top 3 things
employers now consider when screening job applicants are attitude or work ethic, communication
skills, and analytical thinking.

II. Nature of Communication. Definitions

1. Communication is a complex process through which we express, interpret, and
coordinate messages with others to create shared meanings, meet social goals, manage
personal identity, and carry out our relationships. Communication is about messages.
2. Messages are the verbal utterances, visual images, and non-verbal behaviors to convey
thoughts and feelings
3. Participants. Physical traits, psychological attributes, social experiences,
knowledge and skills, gender and culture
4. Encoding. The process of putting our thoughts and feelings into words and nonverbal
behaviors
5. Decoding. The process of interpreting another person’s message
6. Noise. Semantic, physical/environmental, psychological
7. Feedback. Reactions and responses to messages
8. Channel. The means through which messages are sent—audio or visual
9. ‘canned plan’ is a ‘mental library’ of scripts each of us draws from based on what worked
for us in the past
10. ‘scripts’ are actual messages or texts on what to say or do in specific situations, such as
when responding to an email from a teacher/superior

III. Types of communication

A. according to mode: verbal, non-verbal, & visual
B. according to context: intrapersonal, interpersonal, extended, organizational, intercultural
Communication settings are “the different communication environments within which
people interact, characterized by the number of participants, and the extent to which the
interaction is formal or informal.”
1. Intrapersonal
2. Interpersonal
3. Small group communication
4. Public communication
5. Mass communication

C. according to purpose and style: formal, informal

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IV. Characteristics of Communication.
1. Communication has purpose.
A. We communicate to develop and maintain a sense of self. Through it, we learn who
we are and what we’re good at.
B. We communicate to meet our social needs. Talk with another human being fulfills this
need.
C. We communicate to develop and maintain relationships.
D. We communicate to exchange information
E. We communicate to influence others.
2. Communication is continuous. We are always sending and interpreting messages. Even
silence communicates if another person infers meaning from it.
3. Communication is irreversible. Once an exchange takes place, we can never go back in
time and erase the communication. Emails, PMs, once sent can never be retrieved, and
we lose control over how others decide to make use of it.
4. Communication is situated. It means it occurs within a specific communication setting
that affects how messages are produced, interpreted, and coordinated. ‘Putangina’ might
be used for both good or bad situations in the context of use of Pinoy speakers.
5. Communication is indexical. How we communicate is also an index or measure of the
emotional temperature of our relationship. Exchanges can signal the level of trust,
who has control, and the degree of intimacy in a relationship.
• Trust is the extent to which partners rely on, depend on, or have faith that their
partners will not intentionally harm them.
• Control is the extent to which each person has power or is ‘in charge’ in the
relationship. Complementary feedback signals agreement about who is in control,
whereas symmetrical feedback signals disagreement
• Intimacy is the degree of emotional closeness, acceptance, and disclosure in a
relationship.
6. Communication is learned. We can always improve our ability to communicate.
7. Communication messages vary by conscious thought. Our messages may occur
spontaneously; be based on a ‘script’; be carefully constructed.
8. Communication is guided by cultural norms.

V. Communication contexts. (Jurgen Habermas) are the “values, attitudes, beliefs,

orientations, and underlying assumptions prevalent among people in a society”; made up
of the physical, social, historical, psychological, and cultural situations that surround a
communication event
1. Physical context. Location, environmental conditions (temperature, lighting, noise level),
and physical proximity of participants
(Segue A: Increasingly, communication occurs via smart phones and over the internet,
allowing us to close the distance between us and our interlocutors. But what are the
drawbacks of using this channel?)
Segue B: A Grade 10 student inadvertently hurt the feelings of his favorite Physics teacher,
with words that were misinterpreted by the teacher. Now, he is graduating in a few months
and so he is contemplating doing right by the teacher by issuing an apology. Should he do it
by email, or in person?)
2. Social context. Nature of relationship that already exists between participants. The better
the relationship, the more success we’ll have in correctly interpreting messages.
(Segue C. How can the social context between social media commenters foment
disagreement, and what may be done to avoid such conflicts?)
3. Historical context. Refers to the background provided by previous communication
between the participants. (History may be factored in so that some communication gaps
may be overlooked.)

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 4. Psychological context. Includes the moods and feelings each person brings to the
encounter.
(Segue D. For example, you are under a great deal of stress from having flunked an
important exam. You are now studying for yet another exam to try and neutralize the
previous one, but your bf/gf would like to hang out. How would you respond?
5. Cultural context “includes the beliefs, values, orientation, underlying assumptions
and rituals that belong to specific culture”. Everyone is part of one or more cultural
groups (e.g. race, ethnicity, religion, sex, sexual orientation, physical ability). When two
people from different cultures interact, misunderstandings may occur because of their
different cultural values, beliefs, orientations, and rituals.
(Segue E. Provide a unique cultural context among Filipinos that is always the source of
misunderstanding when they interact with people of a different culture.)

VI. Communication models:

VII. Principles of Nonverbal Communication.

Nonverbal communication Is the most common medium of communicating information in any
culture. There are 9 principles that govern it.
1. fluid
2. fast
3. can add or replace verbal comm
4. universal
5. confusing and contextual
6. can be intentional or unintentional
7. communicate feelings and attitudes
8. communicates more than verbal comm
9. is key in the speaker/audience relationship

(Read the full discussion here: https://open.lib.umn.edu/businesscommunication/chapter/11-1-

principles-of-nonverbal-communication/)

B. Eight Types of Nonverbal Communication

1. space (proxemics)
2. time (chronemics)
3. physical characteristics
4. body movements (kinesics)
5. touch (haptics)
6. paralanguage
7. artifacts
8. environment

(For a full discussion, please check this out:

https://open.lib.umn.edu/businesscommunication/chapter/11-2-types-of-nonverbal-
communication/

C. When communicating, nonverbal messages can interact with verbal messages in the
following ways: conflicting, complementing, and substituting.
Conflicting
Conflicting verbal and nonverbal messages within the same interaction can sometimes send
opposing or conflicting messages. A person verbally expressing a statement of truth while
simultaneously fidgeting or avoiding eye contact may convey a mixed message to the receiver
in the interaction. Conflicting messages may occur for a variety of reasons often stemming from
feelings of uncertainty, ambivalence, or frustration. When mixed messages occur, nonverbal
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communication becomes the primary tool people use to attain additional information to clarify
the situation; great attention is placed on bodily movements and positioning when people
perceive mixed messages during interactions. Definitions of nonverbal communication creates
a limited picture in our minds but there are ways to create a clearer one. There are different
dimensions of verbal and nonverbal communication that have been discovered. They are (1)
structure versus non-structure, (2) linguistic versus non-linguistic, (3) continuous versus
discontinuous, (4) learned versus innate, and (5) left versus right hemispheric processing.

1. Structure versus non-structure

Verbal communication is a highly structured form of communication with set rules of grammar.
The rules of verbal communication help to understand and make sense of what other people
are saying. For example, foreigners learning a new language can have a hard time making
themselves understood. On the other hand, nonverbal communication has no formal structure
when it comes to communicating. Nonverbal communication occurs without even thinking about
it. The same behavior can mean different things, such as crying of sadness or of joy. Therefore,
these cues need to be interpreted carefully to get their correct meaning.
2. Linguistic versus non-linguistic
There are only a few assigned symbols in the system of nonverbal communication. Nodding the
head is one symbol that indicates agreement in some cultures, but in others, it means
disagreement. On the other hand, verbal communication has a system of symbols that have
specific meanings to them.
3. Continuous and discontinuous
Verbal communication is based on discontinuous units whereas nonverbal communication is
continuous. Communicating nonverbally cannot be stopped unless one would leave the room,
but even then, the intrapersonal processes still take place (individuals communicating with
themselves). Without the presence of someone else, the body still manages to undergo
nonverbal communication. For example, there are no other words being spoken after a heated
debate, but there are still angry faces and cold stares being distributed. This is an example of
how nonverbal communication is continuous.
4. Learned versus innate
Learned non-verbal cues require a community or culture for their reinforcement. For example,
table manners are not innate capabilities upon birth. Dress code is a non-verbal cue that must
be established by society. Hand symbols, whose interpretation can vary from culture to culture,
are not innate nonverbal cues. Learned cues must be gradually reinforced by admonition or
positive feedback.
Innate non-verbal cues are "built-in" features of human behavior. Generally, these innate cues
are universally prevalent and regardless of culture. For example, smiling, crying, and laughing
do not require teaching. Similarly, some body positions, such as the fetal position, are
universally associated with weakness. Due to their universality, the ability to comprehend these
cues is not limited to individual cultures.
5.Left versus right-hemispheric processing
This type of processing involves the neurophysiological approach to nonverbal communication.
It explains that the right hemisphere processes nonverbal stimuli such as those involving
spatial, pictorial, and gestalt tasks while the left hemisphere involves the verbal stimuli involving
analytical and reasoning tasks. It is important to know the implications in processing the
differences between verbal and nonverbal communication messages. It is possible that
individuals may not use the correct hemisphere at appropriate times when it comes to
interpreting a message or meaning.

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Complementing
Accurate interpretation of messages is made easier when nonverbal and verbal communication
complement each other. Nonverbal cues can be used to elaborate on verbal messages to
reinforce the information sent when trying to achieve communicative goals; messages have
been shown to be remembered better when nonverbal signals affirm the verbal exchange.
Substituting
Nonverbal behavior is sometimes used as the sole channel for communication of a message.
People learn to identify facial expressions, body movements, and body positioning as
corresponding with specific feelings and intentions. Nonverbal signals can be used without
verbal communication to convey messages; when nonverbal behavior does not effectively
communicate a message, verbal methods are used to enhance understanding.
VIII. Intercultural communication and organizational culture:
A. Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions:
1. power distance index (PDI)
2. individualism & collectivism (IDV)
3. masculinity and femininity (MAS)
4. uncertainty avoidance factor (UAI)
5. long-term orientation (LTO)
6. indulgence & restraint (IND)
Compare countries here: https://www.hofstede-insights.com/product/compare-countries/
B. Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner: Seven (7) dimensions of culture model
1. Universalism v particularism
2. individualism v communitarianism
3. specific v diffuse
4. neutral v affective
5. achievement v ascription
6. sequential time v synchronous time
7. internal direction v external direction
Tips for working with identified cultures:
https://expertprogrammanagement.com/2017/10/trompenaars-cultural-dimensions/
C. Hall: high-context and low-context cultures
1. association
2. interaction
3. territoriality
4. temporality
5. learning
For Taxonomies of Cultural Patterns:
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Intercultural_Communication/Comm
unications_256%3A_Intercultural_Communication/01%3A_Chapters/1.05%3A_Taxonomies_of
Cultural_Patterns

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