Concorde

The Aérospatiale/BAC Concorde (/ˈkɒŋkɔːrd/) is a

Concorde
Franco-British turbojet-powered supersonic passenger
airliner that was operated from 1976 until 2003. It had
a maximum speed over twice the speed of sound, at
Mach 2.04 (1,354  mph or 2,180  km/h at cruise
altitude), with seating for 92 to 128 passengers. First
flown in 1969, Concorde entered service in 1976 and
operated for 27 years. It is one of only two supersonic
jetliner models to operate commercially; the other is the
Soviet-built Tupolev Tu-144, which operated in the late
1970s.[4][5]

Concorde was jointly developed and manufactured by

British Airways Concorde in 1986
Sud Aviation (later Aérospatiale) and the British
Aircraft Corporation under an Anglo-French treaty. Role Supersonic airliner
Twenty aircraft were built, including six prototypes and National origin United Kingdom and France
development aircraft. Air France and British Airways
were the only airlines to purchase and fly Concorde. Manufacturer British Aircraft Corporation
The aircraft was used mainly by wealthy passengers (later British Aerospace and
who could afford to pay a high price for the aircraft's BAE Systems)
speed and luxury service. In 1997, the round-trip ticket Sud Aviation (later
price from New York to London was $7,995
Aérospatiale and Airbus)
(equivalent to $12,900 in 2020),[6] more than 30 times
the cost of the least expensive scheduled flight for this First flight 2 March 1969
route.[7] Introduction 21 January 1976
[1]
The original programme cost estimate was £70 million Retired 24 October 2003
before 1962,[8] (£1.39  billion in 2020).[9] The Primary users British Airways
programme experienced huge cost overruns and delays, Air France
with the programme eventually costing between £1.5 See Operators below for
and £2.1 billion in 1976,[10] (£9.44 billion-13.2 billion others
in 2020).[9] This extreme cost was the main reason the
Produced 1965–1979
production run was much smaller than expected.[11]
Another factor that affected the viability of all Number built 20 (including 6 non-
supersonic transport programmes was that supersonic commercial aircraft)[2][3]
flight could be used only on ocean-crossing routes, to
prevent sonic boom disturbance over populated areas. With only seven airframes each being operated by
the British and French, the per-unit cost was impossible to recoup, so the French and British governments
absorbed the development costs. British Airways and Air France were able to operate Concorde at a profit
after purchasing their aircraft from their respective governments at a steep discount in comparison to the
programme's development and procurement costs.[12]

Among other destinations, Concorde flew regular transatlantic flights from London's Heathrow Airport and
Paris's Charles de Gaulle Airport to John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York, Washington
Dulles International Airport in Virginia, and Grantley Adams International Airport in Barbados; it flew
these routes in less than half the time of other airliners. While subsonic commercial jets took eight hours to
fly from Paris to New York (seven hours from New York to Paris), the average supersonic flight time on
the transatlantic routes was just under 3.5 hours.

Concorde aircraft were retired in 2003, three years after the crash of Air France Flight 4590, in which all
passengers and crew were killed. The general downturn in the commercial aviation industry after the
September 11 attacks in 2001 and the end of maintenance support for Concorde by Airbus, the successor to
Aérospatiale, contributed to the retirement.[13]

Contents
Development
Early studies
Slender deltas
Supersonic Transport Aircraft Committee
Ogee planform selected
Partnership with Sud Aviation
Cabinet response, treaty
Naming
Sales efforts
Testing
Design
General features
Powerplant
Heating problems
Structural issues
Range
Radiation concerns
Cabin pressurisation
Flight characteristics
Brakes and undercarriage
Droop nose
Operational history
1973 Solar Eclipse Mission
Scheduled flights
British Caledonian interest
British Airways buys its Concordes outright
Operating economics
Other services
Retirement
Air France
British Airways
Displays and restoration
Operators
Accidents and incidents
 Air France Flight 4590
Other accidents and incidents
Aircraft on display
Comparable aircraft
Tu-144
SST and others
Impact
Environmental
Public perception
Special missions
Records
Specifications
Notable appearances in media
See also
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Legacy
Articles
Videos

Development

Early studies

The origins of the Concorde project date to the early 1950s, when Arnold Hall, director of the Royal
Aircraft Establishment (RAE), asked Morien Morgan to form a committee to study the supersonic transport
(SST) concept. The group met for the first time in February 1954 and delivered their first report in April
1955.[14]

At the time it was known that the drag at supersonic speeds was strongly related to the span of the
wing.[N 1] This led to the use of short-span, thin trapezoidal wings such as those seen on the control
surfaces of many missiles, or in aircraft such as the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter or the Avro 730 that the
team studied. The team outlined a baseline configuration that resembled an enlarged Avro 730.[15]

This same short span produced very little lift at low speed, which resulted in extremely long take-off runs
and frighteningly high landing speeds.[16] In an SST design, this would have required enormous engine
power to lift off from existing runways, and to provide the fuel needed, "some horribly large aeroplanes"
resulted.[15] Based on this, the group considered the concept of an SST infeasible, and instead suggested
continued low-level studies into supersonic aerodynamics.[15]

Slender deltas
Soon after, Johanna Weber and Dietrich Küchemann at the RAE published a series of reports on a new
wing planform, known in the UK as the "slender delta" concept.[17][18] The team, including Eric Maskell
whose report "Flow Separation in Three Dimensions" contributed to an understanding of the physical
nature of separated flow,[19] worked with the fact that delta wings can produce strong vortices on their
upper surfaces at high angles of attack.[15] The vortex will lower the air pressure and cause lift to be greatly
increased. This effect had been noticed earlier, notably by Chuck Yeager in the Convair XF-92, but its
qualities had not been fully appreciated. Weber suggested that this was no mere curiosity, and the effect
could be used deliberately to improve low speed performance.[18][15]

Küchemann's and Weber's papers changed the entire nature of supersonic design almost overnight.
Although the delta had already been used on aircraft prior to this point, these designs used planforms that
were not much different from a swept wing of the same span.[N 2] Weber noted that the lift from the vortex
was increased by the length of the wing it had to operate over, which suggested that the effect would be
maximised by extending the wing along the fuselage as far as possible. Such a layout would still have good
supersonic performance inherent to the short span, while also offering reasonable take-off and landing
speeds using vortex generation.[18] The only downside to such a design is that the aircraft would have to
take off and land very "nose high" to generate the required vortex lift, which led to questions about the low
speed handling qualities of such a design.[20] It would also need to have long landing gear to produce the
required angle of attack while still on the runway.

Küchemann presented the idea at a meeting where Morgan was also present. Test pilot Eric Brown recalls
Morgan's reaction to the presentation, saying that he immediately seized on it as the solution to the SST
problem. Brown considers this moment as being the true birth of the Concorde project.[20]

Supersonic Transport Aircraft Committee

On 1 October 1956 the Ministry of Supply asked Morgan to form a

new study group, the Supersonic Transport Aircraft Committee
(STAC)[21] (sometimes referred to as the Supersonic Transport
Advisory Committee), with the explicit goal of developing a
practical SST design and finding industry partners to build it. At the
first meeting, on 5 November 1956, the decision was made to fund
the development of a test bed aircraft to examine the low-speed The HP.115 tested the low-speed
performance of the slender delta, a contract that eventually performance of the slender delta
layout.
produced the Handley Page HP.115.[20] This aircraft would
ultimately demonstrate safe control at speeds as low as 69  mph
1
(111 km/h), about 3 that of the F-104 Starfighter.[22]

STAC stated that an SST would have economic performance similar to existing subsonic types.[15]
Although they would burn more fuel in cruise, they would be able to fly more sorties in a given period of
time, so fewer aircraft would be needed to service a particular route. This would remain economically
advantageous as long as fuel represented a small percentage of operational costs, as it did at the time.[15]

STAC suggested that two designs naturally fell out of their work, a transatlantic model flying at about
Mach 2, and a shorter-range version flying at Mach 1.2 perhaps. Morgan suggested that a 150-passenger
transatlantic SST would cost about £75 to £90 million to develop, and be in service in 1970. The smaller
100 passenger short-range version would cost perhaps £50 to £80 million, and be ready for service in 1968.
To meet this schedule, development would need to begin in 1960, with production contracts let in 1962.[15]
Morgan strongly suggested that the U.S. was already involved in a similar project, and that if the UK failed
to respond it would be locked out of an airliner market that he believed would be dominated by SST
aircraft.[23]

In 1959, a study contract was awarded to Hawker Siddeley and Bristol for preliminary designs based on
the slender delta concept,[24] which developed as the HSA.1000 and Bristol 198. Armstrong Whitworth
also responded with an internal design, the M-Wing, for the lower-speed shorter-range category. Even at
this early time, both the STAC group and the government were looking for partners to develop the designs.
In September 1959, Hawker approached Lockheed, and after the creation of British Aircraft Corporation in
1960, the former Bristol team immediately started talks with Boeing, General Dynamics, Douglas Aircraft,
and Sud Aviation.[24]

Ogee planform selected

Küchemann and others at the RAE continued their work on the slender delta throughout this period,
considering three basic shapes; the classic straight-edge delta, the "gothic delta" that was rounded outward
to appear like a gothic arch, and the "ogival wing" that was compound-rounded into the shape of an ogee.
Each of these planforms had its own advantages and disadvantages in terms of aerodynamics. As they
worked with these shapes, a practical concern grew to become so important that it forced selection of one
of these designs.[25]

Generally one wants to have the wing's centre of pressure (CP, or "lift point") close to the aircraft's centre
of gravity (CG, or "balance point") to reduce the amount of control force required to pitch the aircraft. As
the aircraft layout changes during the design phase, it is common for the CG to move fore or aft. With a
normal wing design this can be addressed by moving the wing slightly fore or aft to account for this.[N 3]
With a delta wing running most of the length of the fuselage, this was no longer easy; moving the wing
would leave it in front of the nose or behind the tail. Studying the various layouts in terms of CG changes,
both during design and changes due to fuel use during flight, the ogee planform immediately came to the
fore.[25]

While the wing planform was evolving, so was the basic SST
concept. Bristol's original Type 198 was a small design with an
almost pure slender delta wing,[26] but evolved into the larger Type
223.

To test the new wing, NASA privately assisted the team by

modifying a Douglas F5D Skylancer with temporary wing Plan-view silhouette of the Bristol
modifications to mimic the wing selection. In 1965 the NASA test Type 223 SST project
aircraft successfully tested the wing, and found that it reduced
landing speeds noticeably over the standard delta wing. NASA
Ames test center also ran simulations that showed the aircraft would suffer a sudden change in pitch when
entering ground effect. Ames test pilots later participated in a joint cooperative test with the French and
British test pilots and found that the simulations had been correct, and this information was added to pilot
training.[27]

Partnership with Sud Aviation

By this time similar political and economic concerns in France had led to their own SST plans. In the late
1950s the government requested designs from both the government-owned Sud Aviation and Nord
Aviation, as well as Dassault.[N 4] All three returned designs based on Küchemann and Weber's slender
delta; Nord suggested a ramjet powered design flying at Mach 3, the other two were jet powered Mach 2
designs that were similar to each other. Of the three, the Sud Aviation Super-Caravelle won the design
contest with a medium-range design deliberately sized to avoid competition with transatlantic US designs
they assumed were already on the drawing board.[28]

As soon as the design was complete, in April 1960, Pierre Satre, the company's technical director, was sent
to Bristol to discuss a partnership. Bristol was surprised to find that the Sud team had designed a similar
aircraft after considering the SST problem and coming to the very same conclusions as the Bristol and
STAC teams in terms of economics. It was later revealed that the original STAC report, marked "For UK
Eyes Only", had secretly been passed to the French to win political favour. Sud made minor changes to the
paper, and presented it as their own work.[29]

Unsurprisingly, the two teams found much to agree on. The French had no modern large jet engines, and
had already concluded they would buy a British design anyway (as they had on the earlier subsonic
Caravelle).[30] As neither company had experience in the use of high-heat metals for airframes, a maximum
speed of around Mach 2 was selected so aluminium could be used – above this speed the friction with the
air warms the metal so much that aluminium begins to soften. This lower speed would also speed
development and allow their design to fly before the Americans. Finally, everyone involved agreed that
Küchemann's ogee shaped wing was the right one.[28]

The only disagreements were over the size and range. The UK team was still focused on a 150-passenger
design serving transatlantic routes, while the French were deliberately avoiding these. However, this proved
not to be the barrier it might seem; common components could be used in both designs, with the shorter
range version using a clipped fuselage and four engines, the longer one with a stretched fuselage and six
engines, leaving only the wing to be extensively re-designed.[31] The teams continued to meet through
1961, and by this time it was clear that the two aircraft would be considerably more similar in spite of
different range and seating arrangements. A single design emerged that differed mainly in fuel load. More
powerful Bristol Siddeley Olympus engines, being developed for the TSR-2, allowed either design to be
powered by only four engines.[32]

Cabinet response, treaty

While the development teams met, French Minister of Public Works and Transport Robert Buron was
meeting with the UK Minister of Aviation Peter Thorneycroft, and Thorneycroft soon revealed to the
cabinet that the French were much more serious about a partnership than any of the U.S. companies.[33]
The various U.S. companies had proved uninterested in such a venture, likely due to the belief that the
government would be funding development and would frown on any partnership with a European
company, and the risk of "giving away" U.S. technological leadership to a European partner.[24]

When the STAC plans were presented to the UK cabinet, a negative reaction resulted. The economic
considerations were considered highly questionable, especially as these were based on development costs,
now estimated to be £150 million, which were repeatedly overrun in the industry. The Treasury Ministry in
particular presented a very negative view, suggesting that there was no way the project would have any
positive financial returns for the government, especially in light that "the industry's past record of over-
optimistic estimating (including the recent history of the TSR.2) suggests that it would be prudent to
consider the £150 million [cost] to turn out much too low."[33]

This concern led to an independent review of the project by the Committee on Civil Scientific Research
and Development, which met on topic between July and September 1962. The Committee ultimately
rejected the economic arguments, including considerations of supporting the industry made by
Thorneycroft. Their report in October stated that it was unlikely there would be any direct positive
economic outcome, but that the project should still be considered for the simple reason that everyone else
was going supersonic, and they were concerned they would be locked out of future markets. Conversely, it
appeared the project would not be likely to significantly affect other, more important, research efforts.[33]

After considerable argument, the decision to proceed ultimately fell to an unlikely political expediency. At
the time, the UK was pressing for admission to the European Economic Community, and this became the
main rationale for moving ahead with the aircraft.[34] The development project was negotiated as an
international treaty between the two countries rather than a commercial agreement between companies and
included a clause, originally asked for by the UK government, imposing heavy penalties for cancellation.
This treaty was signed on 29 November 1962.[35] Charles De Gaulle would soon veto the UK's entry into
the European Community in a speech on 25 January 1963.[36]

Naming

Reflecting the treaty between the British and French governments that led to Concorde's construction, the
name Concorde is from the French word concorde (IPA:  [kɔ̃kɔʁd]), which has an English equivalent,
concord. Both words mean agreement, harmony, or union. The name was officially changed to Concord
by Harold Macmillan in response to a perceived slight by Charles de Gaulle. At the French roll-out in
Toulouse in late 1967,[37] the British Government Minister of Technology, Tony Benn, announced that he
would change the spelling back to Concorde.[38] This created a nationalist uproar that died down when
Benn stated that the suffixed "e" represented "Excellence, England, Europe, and Entente (Cordiale)". In his
memoirs, he recounts a tale of a letter from an irate Scotsman claiming: "[Y]ou talk about 'E' for England,
but part of it is made in Scotland." Given Scotland's contribution of providing the nose cone for the aircraft,
Benn replied, "[I]t was also 'E' for 'Écosse' (the French name for Scotland) – and I might have added 'e' for
extravagance and 'e' for escalation as well!"[39]

Concorde also acquired an unusual nomenclature for an aircraft. In common usage in the United Kingdom,
the type is known as "Concorde" without an article, rather than "the Concorde" or "a Concorde".[40][41]

Sales efforts

Described by Flight International as an "aviation icon" and "one of

aerospace's most ambitious but commercially flawed
projects",[42][43] Concorde failed to meet its original sales targets,
despite initial interest from several airlines.

At first, the new consortium intended to produce one long-range

and one short-range version. However, prospective customers British Airways Concorde in early BA
showed no interest in the short-range version and it was livery at London-Heathrow Airport, in
dropped.[35] the early 1980s

A two page advertisement for Concorde ran in the 29 May 1967

issue of Aviation Week & Space Technology which predicted a market for 350 aircraft by 1980 and boasted
of Concorde's head start over the United States' SST project.[44]

Concorde had considerable difficulties that led to its dismal sales performance. Costs had spiralled during
development to more than six times the original projections, arriving at a unit cost of £23 million in 1977
(equivalent to £146.09 million in 2020).[45] Its sonic boom made travelling supersonically over land
impossible without causing complaints from citizens.[46] World events had also dampened Concorde sales
prospects, the 1973–74 stock market crash and the 1973 oil crisis had made many airlines cautious about
aircraft with high fuel consumption rates; and new wide-body aircraft, such as the Boeing 747, had recently
made subsonic aircraft significantly more efficient and presented a low-risk option for airlines.[47] While
carrying a full load, Concorde achieved 15.8 passenger miles per gallon of fuel, while the Boeing 707
reached 33.3  pm/g, the Boeing 747 46.4  pm/g, and the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 53.6  pm/g.[48] An
emerging trend in the industry in favour of cheaper airline tickets had also caused airlines such as Qantas to
question Concorde's market suitability.[49]

The consortium received orders, i.e., non-binding options, for more than 100 of the long-range version
from the major airlines of the day: Pan Am, BOAC, and Air France were the launch customers, with six
Concordes each. Other airlines in the order book included Panair do Brasil, Continental Airlines, Japan
Airlines, Lufthansa, American Airlines, United Airlines, Air India, Air Canada, Braniff, Singapore
Airlines, Iran Air, Olympic Airways, Qantas, CAAC Airlines, Middle East Airlines, and TWA.[35][50][51]
At the time of the first flight the options list contained 74 options from 16 airlines:[52]

Airline Number Reserved Cancelled Remarks

Pan Am[53] 6 3 June 1963 31 January 1973 2 extra options in 1964

Air France 6 3 June 1963 2 extra options in 1964

BOAC 6 3 June 1963 2 extra options in 1964
Continental Airlines 3 24 July 1963 Mar 1973
American Airlines 4 7 October 1963 Feb 1973 2 extra options in 1965
TWA 4 16 October 1963 31 January 1973 2 extra options in 1965
Middle East Airlines 2 4 December 1963 Feb 1973

Qantas 6 19 March 1964 June 1973[54] 2 cancelled in May 1966

Air India 2 15 July 1964 Feb 1975

Japan Airlines 3 30 September 1965 1973
Sabena 2 1 December 1965 Feb 1973
2 extra options on 15 August 1966
Eastern Airlines 2 28 June 1966 Feb 1973
2 other extra options on 28 April 1967
United Airlines 6 29 June 1966 26 October 1972
Braniff 3 1 September 1966 Feb 1973
Lufthansa 3 16 February 1967 Apr 1973

Air Canada 4 1 March 1967 6 June 1972[55]

CAAC 2 24 July 1972 Dec 1979[56]

Iran Air 2 8 October 1972 Feb 1980

Testing

The design work was supported by a preceding research programme studying the flight characteristics of
low ratio delta wings. A supersonic Fairey Delta 2 was modified to carry the ogee planform, and, renamed
as the BAC 221, used for flight tests of the high speed flight envelope,[57] the Handley Page HP.115 also
provided valuable information on low speed performance.[58]
Construction of two prototypes began in February 1965: 001, built
by Aérospatiale at Toulouse, and 002, by BAC at Filton, Bristol.
Concorde 001 made its first test flight from Toulouse on 2 March
1969, piloted by André Turcat,[59] and first went supersonic on 1
October.[60] The first UK-built Concorde flew from Filton to RAF
Fairford on 9 April 1969, piloted by Brian Trubshaw.[61][62] Both
prototypes were presented to the public for the first time on 7–8
June 1969 at the Paris Air Show. As the flight programme
progressed, 001 embarked on a sales and demonstration tour on 4 Concorde 001 first flight in 1969
September 1971, which was also the first transatlantic crossing of
Concorde.[63][64] Concorde 002 followed suit on 2 June 1972 with
a tour of the Middle and Far East.[65] Concorde 002 made the first visit to the United States in 1973,
landing at the new Dallas/Fort Worth Regional Airport to mark that airport's opening.[66]

While Concorde had initially held a great deal of customer interest,

the project was hit by a large number of order cancellations. The
Paris Le Bourget air show crash of the competing Soviet Tupolev
Tu-144 had shocked potential buyers, and public concern over the
environmental issues presented by a supersonic aircraft—the sonic
boom, take-off noise and pollution—had produced a shift in public
opinion of SSTs. By 1976 the remaining buyers were from four
countries: Britain, France, China, and Iran.[46] Only Air France and
British Airways (the successor to BOAC) took up their orders, with Concorde on early visit to Heathrow
the two governments taking a cut of any profits made.[67] Airport on 1 July 1972

The United States government cut federal funding for the Boeing
2707, its rival supersonic transport programme, in 1971; Boeing did not complete its two 2707 prototypes.
The US, India, and Malaysia all ruled out Concorde supersonic flights over the noise concern, although
some of these restrictions were later relaxed.[68][69] Professor Douglas Ross characterised restrictions
placed upon Concorde operations by President Jimmy Carter's administration as having been an act of
protectionism of American aircraft manufacturers.[70]

Design

General features

Concorde is an ogival delta winged aircraft with four Olympus

engines based on those employed in the RAF's Avro Vulcan
strategic bomber. It is one of the few commercial aircraft to employ
a tailless design (the Tupolev Tu-144 being another). Concorde was
the first airliner to have a (in this case, analogue) fly-by-wire flight-
control system; the avionics system Concorde used was unique
because it was the first commercial aircraft to employ hybrid Concorde flight deck layout
circuits.[71] The principal designer for the project was Pierre Satre,
with Sir Archibald Russell as his deputy.[72]

Concorde pioneered the following technologies:

For high speed and optimisation of flight:

 Double delta (ogee/ogival) shaped wings[17]
Variable engine air intake ramp system controlled by digital computers[73]
Supercruise capability[74]
Thrust-by-wire engines, predecessor of today's FADEC-controlled engines[73]
Droop nose for better landing visibility

For weight-saving and enhanced performance:

Mach 2.02 (~2,154 km/h or 1,338 mph) cruising speed[75] for optimum fuel consumption
(supersonic drag minimum and turbojet engines are more efficient at higher speed[76]) Fuel
consumption at Mach 2 (2,120 km/h; 1,320 mph) and at altitude of 60,000 feet (18,000 m)
was 4,800 US gallons per hour (18,000 L/h).[77]
Mainly aluminium construction using a high temperature alloy similar to that developed for
aero-engine pistons.[78] This material gave low weight and allowed conventional
manufacture (higher speeds would have ruled out aluminium)[79]
Full-regime autopilot and autothrottle[80] allowing "hands off" control of the aircraft from climb
out to landing
Fully electrically controlled analogue fly-by-wire flight controls systems[71]
High-pressure hydraulic system using 28 MPa (4,100 psi) for lighter hydraulic
components,[81] tripled independent systems ("Blue", "Green", and "Yellow") for redundancy,
with an emergency ram air turbine (RAT) stored in the port-inner elevon jack fairing
supplying "Green" and "Yellow" as backup.[82]
Complex air data computer (ADC) for the automated monitoring and transmission of
aerodynamic measurements (total pressure, static pressure, angle of attack, side-slip).[83]
Fully electrically controlled analogue brake-by-wire system[84]
Pitch trim by shifting fuel fore-and-aft for centre-of-gravity (CoG) control at the approach to
Mach 1 and above with no drag penalty.[85] Pitch trimming by fuel transfer had been used
since 1958 on the B-58 supersonic bomber.[86]
Parts made using "sculpture milling", reducing the part count while saving weight and
adding strength.[87]
No auxiliary power unit, as Concorde would only visit large airports where ground air start
carts are available.[88]

Powerplant

A symposium titled "Supersonic-Transport Implications" was hosted by the Royal Aeronautical Society on
8 December 1960. Various views were put forward on the likely type of powerplant for a supersonic
transport, such as podded or buried installation and turbojet or ducted-fan engines.[89][90] Boundary layer
management in the podded installation was put forward as simpler with only an inlet cone but Dr. Seddon
of the RAE saw "a future in a more sophisticated integration of shapes" in a buried installation. Another
concern highlighted the case with two or more engines situated behind a single intake. An intake failure
could lead to a double or triple engine failure. The advantage of the ducted fan over the turbojet was
reduced airport noise but with considerable economic penalties with its larger cross-section producing
excessive drag.[91] At that time it was considered that the noise from a turbojet optimised for supersonic
cruise could be reduced to an acceptable level using noise suppressors as used on subsonic jets.
The powerplant configuration selected for Concorde, and its
development to a certificated design, can be seen in light of the
above symposium topics (which highlighted airfield noise,
boundary layer management and interactions between adjacent
engines) and the requirement that the powerplant, at Mach 2,
tolerate combinations of pushovers, sideslips, pull-ups and throttle
slamming without surging.[92] Extensive development testing with
design changes and changes to intake and engine control laws
would address most of the issues except airfield noise and the
interaction between adjacent powerplants at speeds above Mach Close up of engine nozzles of
1.6 which meant Concorde "had to be certified aerodynamically as production Concorde F-BVFB. The
a twin-engined aircraft above Mach 1.6".[93] nozzle consists of tilting cups.

Rolls-Royce had a design proposal, the RB.169, for the aircraft at

the time of Concorde's initial design[94] but "to develop a brand-
new engine for Concorde would have been prohibitively
expensive"[95] so an existing engine, already flying in the
supersonic BAC TSR-2 strike bomber prototype, was chosen. It
was the BSEL Olympus Mk 320 turbojet, a development of the
Bristol engine first used for the subsonic Avro Vulcan bomber.

Great confidence was placed in being able to reduce the noise of a

turbojet and massive strides by SNECMA in silencer design were
reported during the programme.[96] However, by 1974 the spade Concorde's intake ramp system
silencers which projected into the exhaust were reported to be schematics
ineffective but "entry-into-service aircraft are likely to meet their
noise guarantees".[97] The Olympus Mk.622 with reduced jet
velocity was proposed to reduce the noise[98] but it was not
developed.

Situated behind the leading edge of the wing, the engine intake had
wing boundary layer ahead of it. Two-thirds was diverted and the
remaining third which entered the intake did not adversely affect
the intake efficiency[99] except during pushovers when the
boundary layer thickened ahead of the intake and caused surging. Concorde's intake ramp system
Extensive wind tunnel testing helped define leading edge
modifications ahead of the intakes which solved the problem.[100]

Each engine had its own intake and the engine nacelles were paired with a splitter plate between them to
minimise adverse behaviour of one powerplant influencing the other. Only above Mach 1.6 (1,960.1 km/h;
1,217.9 mph) was an engine surge likely to affect the adjacent engine.[93]

Concorde needed to fly long distances to be economically viable; this required high efficiency from the
powerplant. Turbofan engines were rejected due to their larger cross-section producing excessive drag.
Olympus turbojet technology was available to be developed to meet the design requirements of the aircraft,
although turbofans would be studied for any future SST.[101]

The aircraft used reheat (afterburners) only at take-off and to pass through the upper transonic regime to
supersonic speeds, between Mach 0.95 and 1.7. Reheat was switched off at all other times.[102] Due to jet
engines being highly inefficient at low speeds, Concorde burned two tonnes (4,400 lb) of fuel (almost 2%
of the maximum fuel load) taxiing to the runway.[103] Fuel used is Jet A-1. Due to the high thrust produced
even with the engines at idle, only the two outer engines were run after landing for easier taxiing and less
brake pad wear – at low weights after landing, the aircraft would not remain stationary with all four engines
idling requiring the brakes to be continuously applied to prevent the aircraft from rolling.

The air intake design for Concorde's engines was especially critical.[104] The intakes had to slow down
supersonic inlet air to subsonic speeds with high pressure recovery to ensure efficient operation at cruising
speed while providing low distortion levels (to prevent engine surge) and maintaining high efficiency for all
likely ambient temperatures to be met in cruise. They had to provide adequate subsonic performance for
diversion cruise and low engine-face distortion at take-off. They also had to provide an alternative path for
excess intake air during engine throttling or shutdowns.[105] The variable intake features required to meet
all these requirements consisted of front and rear ramps, a dump door, an auxiliary inlet and a ramp bleed to
the exhaust nozzle.[106]

As well as supplying air to the engine, the intake also supplied air through the ramp bleed to the propelling
nozzle. The nozzle ejector (or aerodynamic) design, with variable exit area and secondary flow from the
intake, contributed to good expansion efficiency from take-off to cruise.[107]

Concorde's Air Intake Control Units (AICUs) made use of a digital processor to provide the necessary
accuracy for intake control. It was the world's first use of a digital processor to be given full authority
control of an essential system in a passenger aircraft. It was developed by the Electronics and Space
Systems (ESS) division of the British Aircraft Corporation after it became clear that the analogue AICUs
fitted to the prototype aircraft and developed by Ultra Electronics were found to be insufficiently accurate
for the tasks in hand.[108]

Engine failure causes problems on conventional subsonic aircraft; not only does the aircraft lose thrust on
that side but the engine creates drag, causing the aircraft to yaw and bank in the direction of the failed
engine. If this had happened to Concorde at supersonic speeds, it theoretically could have caused a
catastrophic failure of the airframe. Although computer simulations predicted considerable problems, in
practice Concorde could shut down both engines on the same side of the aircraft at Mach 2 without the
predicted difficulties.[109] During an engine failure the required air intake is virtually zero. So, on
Concorde, engine failure was countered by the opening of the auxiliary spill door and the full extension of
the ramps, which deflected the air downwards past the engine, gaining lift and minimising drag. Concorde
pilots were routinely trained to handle double engine failure.[110]

Concorde's thrust-by-wire engine control system was developed by Ultra Electronics.[111]

Heating problems

Air compression on the outer surfaces caused the cabin to heat up during flight. Every surface, such as
windows and panels, was warm to the touch by the end of the flight.[112] Besides engines, the hottest part
of the structure of any supersonic aircraft is the nose, due to aerodynamic heating. The engineers used
Hiduminium R.R. 58, an aluminium alloy, throughout the aircraft because of its familiarity, cost and ease of
construction. The highest temperature that aluminium could sustain over the life of the aircraft was 127 °C
(261 °F), which limited the top speed to Mach 2.02.[113] Concorde went through two cycles of heating and
cooling during a flight, first cooling down as it gained altitude, then heating up after going supersonic. The
reverse happened when descending and slowing down. This had to be factored into the metallurgical and
fatigue modelling. A test rig was built that repeatedly heated up a full-size section of the wing, and then
cooled it, and periodically samples of metal were taken for testing.[114][115] The Concorde airframe was
designed for a life of 45,000 flying hours.[116]
Owing to air compression in front of the plane as it travelled at
supersonic speed, the fuselage heated up and expanded by as much
as 300 mm (12 in). The most obvious manifestation of this was a
gap that opened up on the flight deck between the flight engineer's
console and the bulkhead. On some aircraft that conducted a
retiring supersonic flight, the flight engineers placed their caps in
this expanded gap, wedging the cap when the airframe shrank Concorde skin temperatures
again.[117] To keep the cabin cool, Concorde used the fuel as a heat
sink for the heat from the air conditioning.[118] The same method
also cooled the hydraulics. During supersonic flight the surfaces forward from the cockpit became heated,
and a visor was used to deflect much of this heat from directly reaching the cockpit.[119]

Concorde had livery restrictions; the majority of the surface had to be covered with a highly reflective white
paint to avoid overheating the aluminium structure due to heating effects from supersonic flight at Mach 2.
The white finish reduced the skin temperature by 6 to 11 °C (11 to 20 °F).[120] In 1996, Air France briefly
painted F-BTSD in a predominantly blue livery, with the exception of the wings, in a promotional deal with
Pepsi.[121] In this paint scheme, Air France was advised to remain at Mach 2 (2,120 km/h; 1,320 mph) for
no more than 20 minutes at a time, but there was no restriction at speeds under Mach 1.7. F-BTSD was
used because it was not scheduled for any long flights that required extended Mach 2 operations.[122]

Structural issues

Due to its high speeds, large forces were applied to the aircraft during
banks and turns, and caused twisting and distortion of the aircraft's
structure. In addition there were concerns over maintaining precise control
at supersonic speeds. Both of these issues were resolved by active ratio
changes between the inboard and outboard elevons, varying at differing
speeds including supersonic. Only the innermost elevons, which are
attached to the stiffest area of the wings, were active at high speed.[123]
Additionally, the narrow fuselage meant that the aircraft flexed.[73] This
was visible from the rear passengers' viewpoints.[124]

When any aircraft passes the critical mach of that particular airframe, the
centre of pressure shifts rearwards. This causes a pitch down moment on
the aircraft if the centre of gravity remains where it was. The engineers
designed the wings in a specific manner to reduce this shift, but there was
still a shift of about 2 metres (6 ft 7 in). This could have been countered by
the use of trim controls, but at such high speeds this would have
Fuel pitch trim
dramatically increased drag. Instead, the distribution of fuel along the
aircraft was shifted during acceleration and deceleration to move the centre
of gravity, effectively acting as an auxiliary trim control.[125]

Range

To fly non-stop across the Atlantic Ocean, Concorde required the greatest supersonic range of any
aircraft.[126] This was achieved by a combination of engines which were highly efficient at supersonic
speeds,[N 5][73] a slender fuselage with high fineness ratio, and a complex wing shape for a high lift-to-drag
ratio. This also required carrying only a modest payload and a high fuel capacity, and the aircraft was
trimmed with precision to avoid unnecessary drag.[17][125]
Nevertheless, soon after Concorde began flying, a Concorde "B" model was designed with slightly larger
fuel capacity and slightly larger wings with leading edge slats to improve aerodynamic performance at all
speeds, with the objective of expanding the range to reach markets in new regions.[127] It featured more
powerful engines with sound deadening and without the fuel-hungry and noisy afterburner. It was
speculated that it was reasonably possible to create an engine with up to 25% gain in efficiency over the
Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593.[128] This would have given 500 mi (805 km) additional range and a
greater payload, making new commercial routes possible. This was cancelled due in part to poor sales of
Concorde, but also to the rising cost of aviation fuel in the 1970s.[129]

Radiation concerns

Concorde's high cruising altitude meant people onboard received

almost twice the flux of extraterrestrial ionising radiation as those
travelling on a conventional long-haul flight.[130][131] Upon
Concorde's introduction, it was speculated that this exposure
during supersonic travels would increase the likelihood of skin
cancer.[132] Due to the proportionally reduced flight time, the
overall equivalent dose would normally be less than a conventional
flight over the same distance.[133] Unusual solar activity might lead
to an increase in incident radiation.[134] To prevent incidents of External view of Concorde's fuselage
excessive radiation exposure, the flight deck had a radiometer and
an instrument to measure the rate of increase or decrease of
radiation.[131] If the radiation level became too high, Concorde
would descend below 47,000 feet (14,000 m).

Cabin pressurisation

Airliner cabins were usually maintained at a pressure equivalent to

British Airways Concorde interior.
6,000–8,000 feet (1,800–2,400  m) elevation. Concorde's
The narrow fuselage permitted only a
pressurisation was set to an altitude at the lower end of this range, 4-abreast seating with limited
6,000 feet (1,800  m).[135] Concorde's maximum cruising altitude headroom.
was 60,000 feet (18,000  m); subsonic airliners typically cruise
below 44,000 feet (13,000 m).

A sudden reduction in cabin pressure is hazardous to all passengers and crew.[136] Above 50,000 feet
(15,000  m), a sudden cabin depressurisation would leave a "time of useful consciousness" up to 10–15
seconds for a conditioned athlete.[137] At Concorde's altitude, the air density is very low; a breach of cabin
integrity would result in a loss of pressure severe enough that the plastic emergency oxygen masks installed
on other passenger jets would not be effective and passengers would soon suffer from hypoxia despite
quickly donning them. Concorde was equipped with smaller windows to reduce the rate of loss in the event
of a breach,[138] a reserve air supply system to augment cabin air pressure, and a rapid descent procedure to
bring the aircraft to a safe altitude. The FAA enforces minimum emergency descent rates for aircraft and
noting Concorde's higher operating altitude, concluded that the best response to pressure loss would be a
rapid descent.[139] Continuous positive airway pressure would have delivered pressurised oxygen directly
to the pilots through masks.[138]

Flight characteristics
While subsonic commercial jets took eight hours to fly from Paris
to New York (seven hours from New York to Paris), the average
supersonic flight time on the transatlantic routes was just under 3.5
hours. Concorde had a maximum cruising altitude of 18,300 metres
(60,000 ft) and an average cruise speed of Mach 2.02 (2,150 km/h;
1,330  mph), more than twice the speed of conventional
aircraft.[140]

With no other civil traffic operating at its cruising altitude of about

56,000  ft (17,000  m), Concorde had exclusive use of dedicated Concorde performing a low-level fly-
oceanic airways, or "tracks", separate from the North Atlantic by at an air show in August 1981
Tracks, the routes used by other aircraft to cross the Atlantic. Due
to the significantly less variable nature of high altitude winds
compared to those at standard cruising altitudes, these dedicated SST tracks had fixed co-ordinates, unlike
the standard routes at lower altitudes, whose co-ordinates are replotted twice daily based on forecast
weather patterns (jetstreams).[141] Concorde would also be cleared in a 15,000-foot (4,570  m) block,
allowing for a slow climb from 45,000 to 60,000 ft (14,000 to 18,000 m) during the oceanic crossing as the
fuel load gradually decreased.[142] In regular service, Concorde employed an efficient cruise-climb flight
profile following take-off.[143]

The delta-shaped wings required Concorde to adopt a higher angle of attack at low speeds than
conventional aircraft, but it allowed the formation of large low pressure vortices over the entire upper wing
surface, maintaining lift.[144] The normal landing speed was 170 miles per hour (274 km/h).[145] Because
of this high angle, during a landing approach Concorde was on the "back side" of the drag force curve,
where raising the nose would increase the rate of descent; the aircraft was thus largely flown on the throttle
and was fitted with an autothrottle to reduce the pilot's workload.[146]

The only thing that tells you that you're moving is that occasionally when you're flying over
the subsonic aeroplanes you can see all these 747s 20,000 feet below you almost appearing to
go backwards, I mean you are going 800 miles an hour or thereabouts faster than they are. The
aeroplane was an absolute delight to fly, it handled beautifully. And remember we are talking
about an aeroplane that was being designed in the late 1950s  – mid 1960s. I think it's
absolutely amazing and here we are, now in the 21st century, and it remains unique.

— John Hutchinson, Concorde Captain, "The World's Greatest Airliner" (2003)[147]

Brakes and undercarriage

Because of the way Concorde's delta-wing generated lift, the undercarriage had to be unusually strong and
tall to allow for the angle of attack at low speed. At rotation, Concorde would rise to a high angle of attack,
about 18 degrees. Prior to rotation the wing generated almost no lift, unlike typical aircraft wings.
Combined with the high airspeed at rotation (199 knots or 369 kilometres per hour or 229 miles per hour
indicated airspeed), this increased the stresses on the main undercarriage in a way that was initially
unexpected during the development and required a major redesign.[148] Due to the high angle needed at
rotation, a small set of wheels was added aft to prevent tailstrikes. The main undercarriage units swing
towards each other to be stowed but due to their great height also needed to contract in length telescopically
before swinging to clear each other when stowed.[149]
The four main wheel tyres on each bogie unit are inflated to 232 psi
(1,600 kPa). The twin-wheel nose undercarriage retracts forwards and
its tyres are inflated to a pressure of 191  psi (1,320  kPa), and the
wheel assembly carries a spray deflector to prevent standing water
being thrown up into the engine intakes. The tyres are rated to a
maximum speed on the runway of 250  mph (400  km/h).[150] The
starboard nose wheel carries a single disc brake to halt wheel rotation
during retraction of the undercarriage. The port nose wheel carries
speed generators for the anti-skid braking system which prevents
brake activation until nose and main wheels rotate at the same rate.

Additionally, due to the high average take-off speed of 250 miles per
hour (400  km/h), Concorde needed upgraded brakes. Like most
airliners, Concorde has anti-skid braking  – a system which prevents
the tyres from losing traction when the brakes are applied for greater
Concorde main undercarriage
control during roll-out. The brakes, developed by Dunlop, were the
first carbon-based brakes used on an airliner.[151] The use of carbon
over equivalent steel brakes provided a weight-saving of 1,200  lb
(540  kg).[152] Each wheel has multiple discs which are cooled by
electric fans. Wheel sensors include brake overload, brake
temperature, and tyre deflation. After a typical landing at Heathrow,
brake temperatures were around 300–400 °C (570–750 °F). Landing
Concorde required a minimum of 6,000 feet (1,800 m) runway length,
this in fact being considerably less than the shortest runway Concorde
ever actually landed on, that of Cardiff Airport.[153]

Droop nose

Concorde's drooping nose, developed by Marshall's of

Cambridge,[154] enabled the aircraft to switch from being streamlined
to reduce drag and achieve optimal aerodynamic efficiency during
flight, to not obstructing the pilot's view during taxi, take-off, and
landing operations. Due to the high angle of attack, the long pointed
nose obstructed the view and necessitated the ability to droop. The
droop nose was accompanied by a moving visor that retracted into the
nose prior to being lowered. When the nose was raised to horizontal,
the visor would rise in front of the cockpit windscreen for Tail bumper of Concorde G-
BOAG at the Museum of Flight in
aerodynamic streamlining.[154]
Seattle
A controller in the cockpit
allowed the visor to be
retracted and the nose to be lowered to 5° below the standard
horizontal position for taxiing and take-off. Following take-off and
after clearing the airport, the nose and visor were raised. Prior to
landing, the visor was again retracted and the nose lowered to 12.5°
below horizontal for maximal visibility. Upon landing the nose was
raised to the 5° position to avoid the possibility of damage due to
Concorde landing at Farnborough in collision with ground vehicles, and then raised fully before engine
September 1974 shutdown to prevent pooling of internal condensation within the
radome seeping down into the aircraft's pitot/ADC system
probes.[154]
The US Federal Aviation Administration had objected to the restrictive visibility of the visor used on the
first two prototype Concordes, which had been designed before a suitable high-temperature window glass
had become available, and thus requiring alteration before the FAA would permit Concorde to serve US
airports. This led to the redesigned visor used on the production and the four pre-production aircraft (101,
102, 201, and 202).[155] The nose window and visor glass, needed to endure temperatures in excess of
100 °C (210 °F) at supersonic flight, were developed by Triplex.[156]

Operational history

1973 Solar Eclipse Mission

Concorde 001 was modified with rooftop portholes for use on the 1973 Solar Eclipse mission and equipped
with observation instruments. It performed the longest observation of a solar eclipse to date, about 74
minutes.[157]

Scheduled flights

Scheduled flights began on 21 January 1976 on the London–

Bahrain and Paris–Rio de Janeiro (via Dakar) routes,[158] with BA
flights using the Speedbird Concorde call sign to notify air traffic
control of the aircraft's unique abilities and restrictions, but the
French using their normal call signs.[159] The Paris-Caracas route
(via Azores) began on 10 April. The US Congress had just banned
Concorde landings in the US, mainly due to citizen protest over
sonic booms, preventing launch on the coveted North Atlantic The official handover ceremony to
routes. The US Secretary of Transportation, William Coleman, British Airways of its first Concorde
gave permission for Concorde service to Washington Dulles occurred on 15 January 1976 at
International Airport, and Air France and British Airways Heathrow Airport
simultaneously began a thrice-weekly service to Dulles on 24 May
1976.[160] Due to low demand, Air France cancelled its
Washington service in October 1982, while British Airways
cancelled it in November 1994.[161]

When the US ban on JFK Concorde operations was lifted in

February 1977, New York banned Concorde locally. The ban came
to an end on 17 October 1977 when the Supreme Court of the
United States declined to overturn a lower court's ruling rejecting
efforts by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and a
grass-roots campaign led by Carol Berman to continue the ban.[162] British Airways Concorde in
In spite of complaints about noise, the noise report noted that Air Singapore Airlines livery at Heathrow
Force One, at the time a Boeing VC-137, was louder than Airport in 1979
Concorde at subsonic speeds and during take-off and landing.[163]
Scheduled service from Paris and London to New York's John F.
Kennedy Airport began on 22 November 1977.[164]

In December 1977, British Airways and Singapore Airlines shared a Concorde for flights between London
and Singapore International Airport at Paya Lebar via Bahrain. The aircraft, BA's Concorde G-BOAD,
was painted in Singapore Airlines livery on the port side and British Airways livery on the starboard
side.[165][166] The service was discontinued after three return flights because of noise complaints from the
Malaysian government;[167] it could only be reinstated on a new
route bypassing Malaysian airspace in 1979. A dispute with India
prevented Concorde from reaching supersonic speeds in Indian
airspace, so the route was eventually declared not viable and
discontinued in 1980.[168]

During the Mexican oil boom, Air France flew Concorde twice
weekly to Mexico City's Benito Juárez International Airport via
Washington, DC, or New York City, from September 1978 to Air France Concorde (F-BTSD) short-
November 1982.[169][170] The worldwide economic crisis during lived promotional Pepsi livery, April
that period resulted in this route's cancellation; the last flights were 1996
almost empty. The routing between Washington or New York and
Mexico City included a deceleration, from Mach 2.02 to Mach
0.95, to cross Florida subsonically and avoid creating a sonic boom
over the state; Concorde then re-accelerated back to high speed
while crossing the Gulf of Mexico. On 1 April 1989, on an around-
the-world luxury tour charter, British Airways implemented
changes to this routing that allowed G-BOAF to maintain Mach
2.02 by passing around Florida to the east and south. Periodically
Concorde visited the region on similar chartered flights to Mexico
City and Acapulco.[171]
Air France Concorde at CDG Airport
in 2003
From December 1978 to May 1980, Braniff International Airways
leased 11 Concordes, five from Air France and six from British
Airways.[172] These were used on subsonic flights between
Dallas–Fort Worth and Washington Dulles International Airport, flown by Braniff flight crews.[173] Air
France and British Airways crews then took over for the continuing supersonic flights to London and
Paris.[174] The aircraft were registered in both the United States and their home countries; the European
registration was covered while being operated by Braniff, retaining full AF/BA liveries. The flights were
not profitable and typically less than 50% booked, forcing Braniff to end its tenure as the only US
Concorde operator in May 1980.[175][176]

In its early years, the British Airways Concorde service had a greater number of "no shows" (passengers
who booked a flight and then failed to appear at the gate for boarding) than any other aircraft in the
fleet.[177]

British Caledonian interest

Following the launch of British Airways Concorde services, Britain's other major airline, British
Caledonian (BCal), set up a task force headed by Gordon Davidson, BA's former Concorde director, to
investigate the possibility of their own Concorde operations.[178][179][180] This was seen as particularly
viable for the airline's long-haul network as there were two unsold aircraft then available for
purchase.[181][182][183]

One important reason for BCal's interest in Concorde was that the British Government's 1976 aviation
policy review had opened the possibility of BA setting up supersonic services in competition with BCal's
established sphere of influence. To counteract this potential threat, BCal considered their own independent
Concorde plans, as well as a partnership with BA.[184][185] BCal were considered most likely to have set
up a Concorde service on the Gatwick–Lagos route, a major source of revenue and profits within BCal's
scheduled route network;[186][187] BCal's Concorde task force did assess the viability of a daily supersonic
service complementing the existing subsonic widebody service on this route.[182][185][188]
BCal entered into a bid to acquire at least one Concorde.[181][183][188] However, BCal eventually arranged
for two aircraft to be leased from BA and Aérospatiale respectively, to be maintained by either BA or Air
France. BCal's envisaged two-Concorde fleet would have required a high level of aircraft usage to be cost-
effective; therefore, BCal had decided to operate the second aircraft on a supersonic service between
Gatwick and Atlanta, with a stopover at either Gander or Halifax.[182] Consideration was given to services
to Houston and various points on its South American network at a later stage.[188][189] Both supersonic
services were to be launched at some point during 1980; however, steeply rising oil prices caused by the
1979 energy crisis led to BCal shelving their supersonic ambitions.[185]

British Airways buys its Concordes outright

By around 1981 in the UK, the future for Concorde looked bleak. The British government had lost money
operating Concorde every year, and moves were afoot to cancel the service entirely. A cost projection came
back with greatly reduced metallurgical testing costs because the test rig for the wings had built up enough
data to last for 30 years and could be shut down. Despite this, the government was not keen to continue. In
1983, BA's managing director, Sir John King, convinced the government to sell the aircraft outright to the
then state-owned British Airways for £16.5  million plus the first year's profits.[190][191] In 2003, Lord
Heseltine, who was the Minister responsible at the time, revealed to Alan Robb on BBC Radio 5 Live, that
the aircraft had been sold for "next to nothing". Asked by Robb if it was the worst deal ever negotiated by
a government minister, he replied "That is probably right. But if you have your hands tied behind your back
and no cards and a very skillful negotiator on the other side of the table... I defy you to do any
[better]."[192] British Airways was subsequently privatised in 1987.

Operating economics

In 1983, Pan American accused the British Government of subsidising British Airways Concorde air fares,
on which a return London–New York was £2,399 (£8,276 in 2020 prices), compared to £1,986 (£6,851)
with a subsonic first class return, and London–Washington return was £2,426 (£8,369) instead of £2,258
(£7,789) subsonic.[193][194][195]

Research revealed that passengers thought that the fare was higher than it actually was, so the airline raised
ticket prices to match these perceptions.[73][196] It is reported that British Airways then ran Concorde at a
profit.[197][198]

Its estimated operating costs were $3,800 per block hour in 1972 (equivalent to $23,510 in 2020),
compared to actual 1971 operating costs of $1,835 for a 707 and $3,500 for a 747 (equivalent to $11,726
and $22,366, respectively); for a 3,050 nmi (5,650 km) London–New York sector, a 707 cost $13,750 or
3.04¢ per seat/nmi (in 1971 dollars), a 747 $26,200 or 2.4¢ per seat/nmi and Concorde $14,250 or 4.5¢ per
seat/nmi.[199]
Concorde's unit cost was then $33.8 million[200] ($160 million in 2019 dollars[201]).

Other services

Between March 1984 and January 1991, British Airways flew a thrice-weekly Concorde service between
London and Miami, stopping at Washington Dulles International Airport.[202][203] Until 2003, Air France
and British Airways continued to operate the New York services daily. From 1987 to 2003 British Airways
flew a Saturday morning Concorde service to Grantley Adams International Airport, Barbados, during the
summer and winter holiday season.[204][205]
Prior to the Air France Paris crash, several UK and French tour operators operated charter flights to
European destinations on a regular basis;[206][207] the charter business was viewed as lucrative by British
Airways and Air France.[208]

In 1997, British Airways held a promotional contest to mark the 10th anniversary of the airline's move into
the private sector. The promotion was a lottery to fly to New York held for 190 tickets valued at £5,400
each, to be offered at £10. Contestants had to call a special hotline to compete with up to 20  million
people.[209]

Retirement

On 10 April 2003, Air France and British Airways simultaneously

announced they would retire Concorde later that year.[210] They
cited low passenger numbers following the 25 July 2000 crash, the
slump in air travel following the September 11 attacks, and rising
maintenance costs: Airbus, the company that acquired Aerospatiale
in 2000, had made a decision in 2003 to no longer supply
replacement parts for the aircraft. Although Concorde was
technologically advanced when introduced in the 1970s, 30  years
later, its analogue cockpit was outdated. There had been little
commercial pressure to upgrade Concorde due to a lack of
competing aircraft, unlike other airliners of the same era such as the
Boeing  747.[211] By its retirement, it was the last aircraft in the Concorde's final flight: G-BOAF from
British Airways fleet that had a flight engineer; other aircraft, such Heathrow to Bristol, on 26 November
as the modernised 747-400, had eliminated the role.[212] 2003. The extremely high fineness
ratio of the fuselage is evident.
On 11 April 2003, Virgin Atlantic founder Sir Richard Branson
announced that the company was interested in purchasing British
Airways' Concorde fleet "for the same price that they were given
them for – one pound".[213][214] British Airways dismissed the
idea, prompting Virgin to increase their offer to £1  million
each.[215][216] Branson claimed that when BA was privatised, a
clause in the agreement required them to allow another British
airline to operate Concorde if BA ceased to do so, but the
Government denied the existence of such a clause.[217] In October
2003, Branson wrote in The Economist that his final offer was
"over £5 million" and that he had intended to operate the fleet "for
many years to come".[218] The chances for keeping Concorde in
service were stifled by Airbus's lack of support for continued
maintenance.[219][220][N 6]

It has been suggested that Concorde was not withdrawn for the
reasons usually given but that it became apparent during the
grounding of Concorde that the airlines could make more profit
carrying first-class passengers subsonically.[221] A lack of
commitment to Concorde from Director of Engineering Alan A Concorde at the Intrepid Museum
MacDonald was cited as having undermined BA's resolve to in New York City
continue operating Concorde.[222]
Other reasons why the attempted revival of Concorde never happened relate to the fact that the narrow
fuselage did not allow for "luxury" features of subsonic air travel such as moving space, reclining seats and
overall comfort.[223] In the words of The Guardian's Dave Hall, "Concorde was an outdated notion of
prestige that left sheer speed the only luxury of supersonic travel."[223]

Air France

Air France made its final commercial Concorde landing in the

United States in New York City from Paris on 30 May
2003.[224][225] Air France's final Concorde flight took place on 27
June 2003 when F-BVFC retired to Toulouse.[226]

An auction of Concorde parts and memorabilia for Air France was

held at Christie's in Paris on 15 November 2003; 1,300 people
attended, and several lots exceeded their predicted values.[227]
Air France Concorde in Auto &
French Concorde F-BVFC was retired to Toulouse and kept
Technik Museum Sinsheim
functional for a short time after the end of service, in case taxi runs
were required in support of the French judicial enquiry into the
2000 crash.[228] The aircraft is now fully retired and no longer functional.[229]

French Concorde F-BTSD has been retired to the "Musée de l'Air" at Paris–Le Bourget Airport near Paris;
unlike the other museum Concordes, a few of the systems are being kept functional. For instance, the
famous "droop nose" can still be lowered and raised. This led to rumours that they could be prepared for
future flights for special occasions.[230]

French Concorde F-BVFB is at the Auto & Technik Museum Sinsheim at Sinsheim, Germany, after its last
flight from Paris to Baden-Baden, followed by a spectacular transport to Sinsheim via barge and road. The
museum also has a Tupolev Tu-144 on display – this is the only place where both supersonic airliners can
be seen together.[231]

In 1989, Air France signed a letter of agreement to donate a Concorde to the National Air and Space
Museum in Washington D.C. upon the aircraft's retirement. On 12 June 2003, Air France honoured that
agreement, donating Concorde F-BVFA (serial 205) to the Museum upon the completion of its last flight.
This aircraft was the first Air France Concorde to open service to Rio de Janeiro, Washington, D.C., and
New York and had flown 17,824 hours. It is on display at the Smithsonian's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center
at Dulles Airport.[232]

British Airways

British Airways conducted a North American farewell tour in October 2003. G-BOAG visited Toronto
Pearson International Airport on 1 October, after which it flew to New York's John F. Kennedy
International Airport.[233] G-BOAD visited Boston's Logan International Airport on 8 October, and G-
BOAG visited Washington Dulles International Airport on 14 October.[234]

In a week of farewell flights around the United Kingdom, Concorde visited Birmingham on 20 October,
Belfast on 21 October, Manchester on 22 October, Cardiff on 23 October, and Edinburgh on 24 October.
Each day the aircraft made a return flight out and back into Heathrow to the cities, often overflying them at
low altitude.[235][236][237] On 22 October, both Concorde flight BA9021C, a special from Manchester, and
BA002 from New York landed simultaneously on both of Heathrow's runways. On 23 October 2003, the
Queen consented to the illumination of Windsor Castle, an honour reserved for state events and visiting
dignitaries, as Concorde's last west-bound commercial flight departed London.[238]
British Airways retired its Concorde fleet on 24 October 2003.[1]
G-BOAG left New York to a fanfare similar to that given for Air
France's F-BTSD, while two more made round trips, G-BOAF
over the Bay of Biscay, carrying VIP guests including former
Concorde pilots, and G-BOAE to Edinburgh. The three aircraft
then circled over London, having received special permission to fly
at low altitude, before landing in sequence at Heathrow. The
captain of the New York to London flight was Mike Bannister.[239]
The final flight of a Concorde in the US occurred on 5 November
2003 when G-BOAG flew from New York's JFK Airport to BA Concorde G-BOAB at London
Seattle's Boeing Field to join the Museum of Flight's permanent Heathrow Airport. This aircraft flew
collection. The plane was piloted by Mike Bannister and Les for 22,296 hours between its first
Broadie, who claimed a flight time of three hours, 55 minutes and flight in 1976 and its final flight in
12 seconds, a record between the two cities that was made possible 2000, and has remained there ever
by Canada granting use of a supersonic corridor between since.
Chibougamau, Quebec and Peace River, Alberta. [240] The museum
had been pursuing a Concorde for their collection since 1984.[241]
The final flight of a Concorde worldwide took place on 26 November 2003 with a landing at Filton,
Bristol, UK.[242]

All of BA's Concorde fleet have been grounded, drained of hydraulic fluid and their airworthiness
certificates withdrawn. Jock Lowe, ex-chief Concorde pilot and manager of the fleet estimated in 2004 that
it would cost £10–15  million to make G-BOAF airworthy again.[230] BA maintain ownership and have
stated that they will not fly again due to a lack of support from Airbus.[243] On 1 December 2003,
Bonhams held an auction of British Airways Concorde artefacts, including a nose cone, at Kensington
Olympia in London.[244][245] Proceeds of around £750,000 were raised, with the majority going to charity.
G-BOAD is currently on display at the Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum in New York.[246] In 2007, BA
announced that the advertising spot at Heathrow where a 40% scale model of Concorde was located would
not be retained; the model is now on display at the Brooklands Museum, in Surrey, England.[247]

Displays and restoration

Concorde G-BBDG was used for test flying and trials work. It was retired in 1981 and then only used for
spares. It was dismantled and transported by road from Filton to the Brooklands Museum in Surrey where it
was restored from essentially a shell.[248] It remains open to visitors to the museum, and wears the original
Negus & Negus livery worn by the Concorde fleet during their initial years of service with BA.

Concorde G-BOAB, nicknamed Alpha Bravo, was never modified and returned to service with the rest of
British Airways' fleet, and has remained at London Heathrow Airport since its final flight, a ferry flight
from JFK in 2000.[249] Although the aircraft was effectively retired, G-BOAB was used as a test aircraft
for the Project Rocket interiors that were in the process of being added to the rest of BA's fleet.[250] G-
BOAB has been towed around Heathrow on various occasions; it currently occupies a space on the
airport's apron and is regularly visible to aircraft moving around the airport.[251]

One of the youngest Concordes (F-BTSD) is on display at Le Bourget Air and Space Museum in Paris. In
February 2010, it was announced that the museum and a group of volunteer Air France technicians intend
to restore F-BTSD so it can taxi under its own power.[252] In May 2010, it was reported that the British
Save Concorde Group and French Olympus 593 groups had begun inspecting the engines of a Concorde at
the French museum; their intent was to restore the airliner to a condition where it could fly in
demonstrations.[253]
G-BOAF forms the centrepiece of the Aerospace Bristol museum at Filton, which opened to the public in
2017.[254]

Operators
Air France
British Airways
Braniff International Airways operated Concordes between Washington/Dulles and
Dallas/Ft. Worth international airports, utilizing its own flight and cabin crew, under its own
insurance and operator's license. Stickers containing a US registration were placed over the
French and British registrations of the aircraft during each rotation, and a placard was
temporarily placed behind the cockpit to signify the operator and operator's license in
command.[255]
Singapore Airlines had its livery placed on the left side of Concorde G-BOAD, and held a
joint marketing agreement which saw Singapore insignias on the cabin fittings, as well as
the airline's "Singapore Girl" stewardesses jointly sharing cabin duty with British Airways
flight attendants. All flight crew, operations, and insurances remained solely under British
Airways however, and at no point did Singapore Airlines operate Concorde services under
its own operator's certification, nor wet-lease an aircraft. This arrangement initially only
lasted for three flights, conducted between 9–13 December 1977; it later resumed on 24
January 1979, and operated through 1 November 1980. The Singapore livery was used on
G-BOAD from 1977 to 1980.[256]

Accidents and incidents

Air France Flight 4590

On 25 July 2000, Air France Flight 4590, registration F-BTSC, crashed in Gonesse, France, after departing
from Charles de Gaulle Airport en route to John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York City, killing
all 100 passengers and nine crew members on board as well as four people on the ground. It was the only
fatal accident involving Concorde. This crash also damaged Concorde's reputation and caused both British
Airways and Air France to temporarily ground their fleets until modifications that involved strengthening
the affected areas of the aircraft had been made.

According to the official investigation conducted by the Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la Sécurité
de l'Aviation Civile (BEA), the crash was caused by a metallic strip that had fallen from a Continental
Airlines DC-10 that had taken off minutes earlier. This fragment punctured a tyre on Concorde's left main
wheel bogie during take-off. The tyre exploded, and a piece of rubber hit the fuel tank, which caused a fuel
leak and led to a fire. The crew shut down engine number 2 in response to a fire warning, and with engine
number 1 surging and producing little power, the aircraft was unable to gain altitude or speed. The aircraft
entered a rapid pitch-up then a sudden descent, rolling left and crashing tail-low into the Hôtelissimo Les
Relais Bleus Hotel in Gonesse.[257]

The claim that a metallic strip caused the crash was disputed during the trial both by witnesses (including
the pilot of then French President Jacques Chirac's aircraft that had just landed on an adjacent runway when
Flight 4590 caught fire) and by an independent French TV investigation that found a wheel spacer had not
been installed in the left-side main gear and that the plane caught fire some 1,000 feet from where the
metallic strip lay.[258] British investigators and former French Concorde pilots looked at several other
possibilities that the BEA report ignored, including an unbalanced weight distribution in the fuel tanks and
loose landing gear. They came to the conclusion that the Concorde veered off course on the runway, which
reduced takeoff speed below the crucial minimum. John Hutchinson, who had served as a Concorde
captain for 15 years with British Airways, said "the fire on its own should have been 'eminently survivable;
the pilot should have been able to fly his way out of trouble'", had it not been for a "lethal combination of
operational error and 'negligence' by the maintenance department of Air France" that "nobody wants to talk
about".[259][260][261]

On 6 December 2010, Continental Airlines and John Taylor, a mechanic who installed the metal strip, were
found guilty of involuntary manslaughter;[262] however, on 30 November 2012, a French court overturned
the conviction, saying mistakes by Continental and Taylor did not make them criminally responsible.[263]

Before the accident, Concorde had been arguably the safest operational passenger airliner in the world with
zero passenger deaths-per-kilometres travelled; but there had been two prior non-fatal accidents and a rate
of tyre damage some 30 times higher than subsonic airliners from 1995 to 2000.[264][265][266][267] Safety
improvements were made in the wake of the crash, including more secure electrical controls, Kevlar lining
on the fuel tanks and specially developed burst-resistant tyres.[268] The first flight with the modifications
departed from London Heathrow on 17 July 2001, piloted by BA Chief Concorde Pilot Mike Bannister.
During the 3-hour 20-minute flight over the mid-Atlantic towards Iceland, Bannister attained Mach 2.02
and 60,000 ft (18,000 m) before returning to RAF Brize Norton. The test flight, intended to resemble the
London–New York route, was declared a success and was watched on live TV, and by crowds on the
ground at both locations.[269]

The first flight with passengers after the 2000 grounding for safety modifications landed shortly before the
World Trade Center attacks in the United States. This was not a commercial flight: all the passengers were
BA employees.[270] Normal commercial operations resumed on 7 November 2001 by BA and AF (aircraft
G-BOAE and F-BTSD), with service to New York JFK, where Mayor Rudy Giuliani greeted the
passengers.[271][272]

Other accidents and incidents

Concorde had suffered two previous non-fatal accidents that were

similar to each other.

12 April 1989: A Concorde of British registration, G-

BOAF, on a chartered flight from Christchurch, New
Zealand, to Sydney, suffered a structural failure in-flight
at supersonic speed. As the aircraft was climbing and
accelerating through Mach 1.7, a "thud" was heard. The Damage to Concorde rudder after
crew did not notice any handling problems, and they 1989 accident
assumed the thud they heard was a minor engine surge.
No further difficulty was encountered until descent
through 40,000 feet (12,000 m) at Mach 1.3, when a vibration was felt throughout the aircraft,
lasting two to three minutes. Most of the upper rudder had become separated from the
aircraft at this point. Aircraft handling was unaffected, and the aircraft made a safe landing at
Sydney. The UK's Air Accidents Investigation Branch (AAIB) concluded that the skin of the
rudder had been separating from the rudder structure over a period of time before the
accident due to moisture seepage past the rivets in the rudder. Furthermore, production staff
had not followed proper procedures during an earlier modification of the rudder, but the
procedures were difficult to adhere to.[264] The aircraft was repaired and returned to
service.[264]
21 March 1992: A Concorde of British registration, G-BOAB, on a scheduled flight from
London to New York, also suffered a structural failure in-flight at supersonic speed. While
cruising at Mach 2, at approximately 53,000 feet (16,000 m) above mean sea level, the crew
 heard a "thump". No difficulties in handling were noticed, and no instruments gave any
irregular indications. This crew also suspected there had been a minor engine surge. One
hour later, during descent and while decelerating below Mach 1.4, a sudden "severe"
vibration began throughout the aircraft.[265] The vibration worsened when power was added
to the No 2 engine, and it was attenuated when that engine's power was reduced. The crew
shut down the No 2 engine and made a successful landing in New York, noting only that
increased rudder control was needed to keep the aircraft on its intended approach course.
Again, the skin had become separated from the structure of the rudder, which led to most of
the upper rudder becoming separated in-flight. The AAIB concluded that repair materials
had leaked into the structure of the rudder during a recent repair, weakening the bond
between the skin and the structure of the rudder, leading to it breaking up in-flight. The large
size of the repair had made it difficult to keep repair materials out of the structure, and prior to
this accident, the severity of the effect of these repair materials on the structure and skin of
the rudder was not appreciated.[265]
The 2010 trial involving Continental Airlines over the crash of Flight 4590 established that
from 1976 until Flight 4590 there had been 57 tyre failures involving Concordes during
takeoffs, including a near-crash at Dulles Airport on 14 June 1979 involving Air France
Flight 54 where a tyre blowout pierced the plane's fuel tank and damaged the port-side
engine and electrical cables, with the loss of two of the craft's hydraulic systems.[273]

Aircraft on display
Of the 20 aircraft built,[2] 18 remain in good condition.

List of aircraft accessible to the public:

Registration Livery Location
G-AXDN British Airways Cambridge, England
G-BBDG British Airways Surrey, England
Concorde on display at the Airbus
G-BOAA British Airways North Berwick, Scotland Museum, Toulouse, France
G-BOAB British Airways Heathrow, England
G-BOAC British Airways Manchester, England
G-BOAD British Airways New York, USA
G-BOAF British Airways Filton, England
G-BOAG British Airways Seattle, USA
British Aircraft
G-BSST Yeovilton, England
Corporation
F-BTSD Air France Le Bourget, France
F-BVFA Air France Dulles, Virginia, USA
F-BVFB Air France Sinsheim, Germany
F-BVFC Air France Blagnac, France
Roissy-en-France,
F-BVFF Air France
France
F-WTSA Air France Athis-Mons, France
F-WTSB Air France Blagnac, France
Comparable aircraft

Tu-144

The only supersonic airliner in direct competition with Concorde

was the Soviet Tupolev Tu-144, nicknamed "Concordski" by
Western European journalists for its outward similarity to
Concorde.[274] It had been alleged that Soviet espionage efforts
had resulted in the theft of Concorde blueprints, supposedly to
assist in the design of the Tu-144.[275] As a result of a rushed
development programme, the first Tu-144 prototype was
substantially different from the preproduction machines, but both
were cruder than Concorde. The Tu-144S had a significantly Concorde (left) and Tu-144 in Auto &
shorter range than Concorde. Jean Rech, Sud Aviation, attributed Technik Museum Sinsheim
this to two things,[276] a very heavy powerplant with an intake
twice as long as that on Concorde, and low-bypass turbofan
engines with too-high a bypass ratio which needed afterburning for
cruise. The aircraft had poor control at low speeds because of a
simpler supersonic wing design. In addition the Tu-144 required
braking parachutes to land while Concorde used anti-lock
brakes.[277] The Tu-144 had two crashes, one at the 1973 Paris Air
Show,[278][279] and another during a pre-delivery test flight in May
1978.[280][281]
Boeing 2707 3-view diagram
The later production Tu-144 versions were more refined and
competitive. The Tu-144D had Kolesov RD-36-51 turbojet engines
providing greater fuel efficiency, cruising speed and a maximum
range of 6,500  km,[282] near the Concorde's maximum range of
6,667 km.[283] Passenger service commenced in November 1977,
but after the 1978 crash the aircraft was taken out of passenger
service after only 55 flights, which carried an average of 58
passengers. The Tu-144 had an inherently unsafe structural design
as a consequence of an automated production method chosen to
simplify and speed up manufacturing.[284] The Tu-144 program
was cancelled by the Soviet government on 1 July 1983.[282]
Lockheed L-2000 mockup

SST and others

The American designs, the "SST" project (for Supersonic Transport) were the Boeing 2707 and the
Lockheed L-2000. These were to have been larger, with seating for up to 300 people.[285][286] Running a
few years behind Concorde, the Boeing 2707 was redesigned to a cropped delta layout; the extra cost of
these changes helped to kill the project.[287] The operation of US military aircraft such as the Mach 3+
North American XB-70 Valkyrie prototypes and Convair B-58 Hustler strategic nuclear bomber had shown
that sonic booms were quite capable of reaching the ground,[288] and the experience from the Oklahoma
City sonic boom tests led to the same environmental concerns that hindered the commercial success of
Concorde. The American government cancelled its SST project in 1971, after having spent more than
$1 billion.[289]
The only other large supersonic aircraft comparable to Concorde are strategic bombers, principally the
Soviet Tu-22, Tu-22M, M-50 (experimental), T-4 (experimental), Tu-160 and the American XB-70
(experimental) and B-1.

Impact

Environmental

Before Concorde's flight trials, developments in the civil aviation industry were largely accepted by
governments and their respective electorates. Opposition to Concorde's noise, particularly on the east coast
of the United States,[290][291] forged a new political agenda on both sides of the Atlantic, with scientists
and technology experts across a multitude of industries beginning to take the environmental and social
impact more seriously.[292][293] Although Concorde led directly to the introduction of a general noise
abatement programme for aircraft flying out of John F. Kennedy Airport, many found that Concorde was
quieter than expected,[73] partly due to the pilots temporarily throttling back their engines to reduce noise
during overflight of residential areas.[294] Even before commercial flights started, it had been claimed that
Concorde was quieter than many other aircraft.[295] In 1971, BAC's technical director was quoted as
saying, "It is certain on present evidence and calculations that in the airport context, production Concordes
will be no worse than aircraft now in service and will in fact be better than many of them."[296]

Concorde produced nitrogen oxides in its exhaust, which, despite complicated interactions with other
ozone-depleting chemicals, are understood to result in degradation to the ozone layer at the stratospheric
altitudes it cruised.[297] It has been pointed out that other, lower-flying, airliners produce ozone during their
flights in the troposphere, but vertical transit of gases between the layers is restricted. The small fleet meant
overall ozone-layer degradation caused by Concorde was negligible.[297] In 1995, David Fahey, of the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in the United States, warned that a fleet of 500
supersonic aircraft with exhausts similar to Concorde might produce a 2 percent drop in global ozone
levels, much higher than previously thought. Each 1 percent drop in ozone is estimated to increase the
incidence of non-melanoma skin cancer worldwide by 2 percent. Dr Fahey said if these particles are
produced by highly oxidised sulphur in the fuel, as he believed, then removing sulphur in the fuel will
reduce the ozone-destroying impact of supersonic transport.[298]

Concorde's technical leap forward boosted the public's understanding of conflicts between technology and
the environment as well as awareness of the complex decision analysis processes that surround such
conflicts.[299] In France, the use of acoustic fencing alongside TGV tracks might not have been achieved
without the 1970s controversy over aircraft noise.[300] In the UK, the CPRE has issued tranquillity maps
since 1990.[301]

Public perception

Concorde was normally perceived as a privilege of the rich, but

special circular or one-way (with return by other flight or ship)
charter flights were arranged to bring a trip within the means of
moderately well-off enthusiasts.[302]

The aircraft was usually referred to by the British as simply Parade flight at Queen's Golden
"Concorde".[303] In France it was known as "le Concorde" due to Jubilee, June 2002
"le", the definite article,[304] used in French grammar to introduce
the name of a ship or aircraft,[305] and the capital being used to
distinguish a proper name from a common noun of the same spelling.[304][306] In French, the common
noun concorde means "agreement, harmony, or peace". [N 7] Concorde's pilots and British Airways in
official publications often refer to Concorde both in the singular and plural as "she" or "her".[308][N 8]

As a symbol of national pride, an example from the BA fleet made occasional flypasts at selected Royal
events, major air shows and other special occasions, sometimes in formation with the Red Arrows.[309] On
the final day of commercial service, public interest was so great that grandstands were erected at Heathrow
Airport. Significant numbers of people attended the final landings; the event received widespread media
coverage.[310]

In 2006, 37 years after its first test flight, Concorde was announced the winner of the Great British Design
Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum. A total of 212,000 votes were cast with Concorde
beating other British design icons such as the Mini, mini skirt, Jaguar E-Type, Tube map, the World Wide
Web, K2 telephone box and the Supermarine Spitfire.[311][312]

Special missions

The heads of France and the United Kingdom flew in Concorde

many times.[313] Presidents Georges Pompidou,[314] Valéry
Giscard d'Estaing[315] and François Mitterrand[316] regularly used
Concorde as French flagman aircraft in foreign visits. Queen
Elizabeth II and Prime Ministers Edward Heath, Jim Callaghan,
Margaret Thatcher, John Major and Tony Blair took Concorde in
some charter flights such as the Queen's trips to Barbados on her
Silver Jubilee in 1977, in 1987 and in 2003, to the Middle East in The Queen and The Duke of
1984 and to the United States in 1991.[317] Pope John Paul II flew Edinburgh disembark Concorde in
on Concorde in May 1989.[318] 1991.

Concorde sometimes made special flights for demonstrations, air

shows (such as the Farnborough, Paris-LeBourget, Oshkosh AirVenture and MAKS air shows) as well as
parades and celebrations (for example, of Zurich Airport's anniversary in 1998). The aircraft were also used
for private charters (including by the President of Zaire Mobutu Sese Seko on multiple occasions),[319] for
advertising companies (including for the firm OKI), for Olympic torch relays (1992 Winter Olympics in
Albertville) and for observing solar eclipses, including the solar eclipse of June 30, 1973[157][320][321] and
again for the total solar eclipse on August 11, 1999.[322]

Records

The fastest transatlantic airliner flight was from New York JFK to London Heathrow on 7 February 1996
by the British Airways G-BOAD in 2 hours, 52 minutes, 59 seconds from take-off to touchdown aided by
a 175 mph (282 km/h) tailwind.[323] On 13 February 1985, a Concorde charter flight flew from London
Heathrow to Sydney—on the opposite side of the world—in a time of 17 hours, 3 minutes and 45 seconds,
including refuelling stops.[324][325]

Concorde also set other records, including the official FAI "Westbound Around the World" and
"Eastbound Around the World" world air speed records.[326] On 12–13 October 1992, in commemoration
of the 500th anniversary of Columbus' first New World landing, Concorde Spirit Tours (US) chartered Air
France Concorde F-BTSD and circumnavigated the world in 32 hours 49 minutes and 3 seconds, from
Lisbon, Portugal, including six refuelling stops at Santo Domingo, Acapulco, Honolulu, Guam, Bangkok,
and Bahrain.[327]
The eastbound record was set by the same Air France Concorde (F-BTSD) under charter to Concorde
Spirit Tours[321] in the US on 15–16 August 1995. This promotional flight circumnavigated the world from
New York/JFK International Airport in 31 hours 27 minutes 49 seconds, including six refuelling stops at
Toulouse, Dubai, Bangkok, Andersen AFB in Guam, Honolulu, and Acapulco.[328] By its 30th flight
anniversary on 2 March 1999 Concorde had clocked up 920,000 flight hours, with more than 600,000
supersonic, many more than all of the other supersonic aircraft in the Western world combined.[329]

On its way to the Museum of Flight in November 2003, G-BOAG set a New York City-to-Seattle speed
record of 3 hours, 55 minutes, and 12 seconds. Due to the restrictions on supersonic overflights within the
US the flight was granted permission by the Canadian authorities for the majority of the journey to be
flown supersonically over sparsely-populated Canadian territory.[330]

Specifications
Data from The Wall Street Journal,[212] The Concorde Story,[331] The
International Directory of Civil Aircraft,[75]
Aérospatiale/BAC Concorde
1969 onwards (all models)[332]

General characteristics
Crew: 3 (2 pilots and 1 flight engineer)
Capacity: 92–120 passengers

(128 in high-density layout)[N 9] Other line drawings of Concorde

Length: 202 ft 4 in (61.66 m)
Wingspan: 84 ft 0 in (25.6 m)
Height: 40 ft 0 in (12.2 m)
Wing area: 3,856.2 sq ft (358.25 m2)
Concorde G-BOAC
Empty weight: 173,504 lb (78,700 kg)
Gross weight: 245,000 lb (111,130 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 408,010 lb (185,070 kg)
Fuel capacity: 210,940 lb (95,680 kg)
Fuselage internal length: 129 ft 0 in (39.32 m)
Fuselage width: maximum of 9 ft 5 in (2.87 m) external, 8 ft 7 in (2.62 m) internal
Fuselage height: maximum of 10 ft 10 in (3.30 m) external, 6 ft 5 in (1.96 m) internal
Maximum taxiing weight: 412,000 lb (187,000 kg)
Powerplant: 4 × Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 Mk 610 turbojets with reheat, 31,000 lbf
(140 kN) thrust each dry, 38,050 lbf (169.3 kN) with afterburner

Performance
Maximum speed: 1,354 mph (2,179 km/h, 1,177 kn)
Maximum speed: Mach 2.04 (temperature limited)
Cruise speed: 1,341 mph (2,158 km/h, 1,165 kn)
Range: 4,488.0 mi (7,222.8 km, 3,900.0 nmi)
Service ceiling: 60,000 ft (18,300 m)
Rate of climb: 3,300–4,900 ft/min (17–25 m/s) at sea level[333][334]
Lift-to-drag: Low speed– 3.94; Approach– 4.35; 250 kn, 10,000 ft– 9.27; Mach 0.94– 11.47,
Mach 2.04– 7.14
Fuel consumption: 47 lb/mi (13.2 kg/km)
 Thrust/weight: 0.373
Maximum nose tip temperature: 127 °C (260 °F; 400 K)
Runway requirement (with maximum load): 3,600 m (11,800 ft)[335]

Notable appearances in media

See also
BAC 221 used for ogee delta wing research
Barbara Harmer, the first qualified female Concorde pilot

References

Notes
1. In particular, R. T. Jones' work at NACA demonstrated this in depth.
2. Consider especially the English Electric Lightning, whose wing can be considered either a
highly swept rectangle, or a delta with a notch cut out of the root.
3. Or, more rarely, "bent" back into position. Examples include the Douglas DC-3 and
Messerschmitt Me 262.
4. This apparently took place some time in 1957, according to Conway's unclear statement
about "the following year" which apparently references the first STAC meeting in late 1956.
5. "It is the world's most efficient jet engine." -Ricky Bastin, Concorde Engineer[73]
6. Quote: "Airbus, the manufacturer of Concorde, has said it is becoming uneconomic to
maintain the ageing craft and that it will no longer provide spare parts for it."
7. concorde s.f. concord, unity, harmony, peace.[307]
8. Quote: Raymond Baxter commentating as Concorde flies for first time: "She rolls ... She
flies!"
9. BA and Air France Concordes originally had 100 seats. Due to weight considerations Air
France removed 8 seats after the safety modifications of CY2000–2001.

Citations
1. Lawless, Jill (26 October 2003). "Final Concorde flight lands at Heathrow" (https://www.was
hingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A11477-2003Oct24.html). The Washington Post.
Associated Press. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080513093402/https://www.was
hingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A11477-2003Oct24.html) from the original on 13 May 2008.
Retrieved 26 August 2017.
2. Towey 2007, p. 359.
3. "Ageing luxury jet" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/850899.stm). BBC News. 25 July 2000.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090314020636/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/85089
9.stm) from the original on 14 March 2009. Retrieved 13 November 2006.
4. Gordon and Rigmant 2005
 5. Melik-Karamov [Мелик-Карамов], Vitaly [Виталий] (January 2000). "Life and Death of the
Tu-144, [Жизнь и смерть самолёта Ту-144]" (https://web.archive.org/web/2000111509320
0/http://www.ropnet.ru/ogonyok/win/200003/03-26-31.html). No. 3. Flame [Огонёк]. Archived
from the original (http://www.ropnet.ru/ogonyok/win/200003/03-26-31.html) on 15 November
2000.
6. 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price
Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda
et Corrigenda (https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44525121.pdf) (PDF).
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External links

Legacy
British Airways Concorde page (http://www.britishairways.com/concorde/index.html)
Design Museum (UK) Concorde page (http://www.designmuseum.org/design/concorde)
Heritage Concorde preservation group site (http://heritageconcorde.com/)

Articles
Donald Fink (10 March 1969). "Concorde Enters Flight Test Phase" (http://aviationweek.co
m/site-files/aviationweek.com/files/uploads/2015/02/1969-%20First%20Concorde%20Fligh
t%20%282%20of%202%29.pdf) (PDF). Aviation Week & Space Technology.
"First Concorde Supersonic Transport Flies" (http://aviationweek.com/site-files/aviationwee
k.com/files/uploads/2015/02/1969-%20First%20Concorde%20Flight%20%281%20of%20
2%29.pdf) (PDF). Aviation Week & Space Technology. 17 March 1969.
Capt R. E. Gillman (24 January 1976). "Concorde as viewed from the flightdeck" (https://ww
w.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1976/1976%20-%200119.html). Flight International.
Dave North (20 October 2003). "End of an Era" (http://aviationweek.com/blog/2003-concorde
-end-era). Aviation Week & Space Technology.

Videos
"Video: Roll-out (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pn0PJc-v510&list=PLNxwX7r4A557de
ayljDNLqVA7Pl9Y8K9Z&index=14)." British Movietone/Associated Press. 14 December
1967, posted online on 21 July 2015.
"This plane could cross the Atlantic in 3.5 hours. Why did it fail? (https://www.youtube.com/w
atch?v=a_wuykzfFzE)." Vox Media. 19 July 2016.

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