CHAPTER TWO

METHODS AND MATERIALS

3.1 Study area
3.1.1 Location
Sheikh is the secand largest distrcit in sahil region it located between berbera and burco risrict
sheikh papulation is around 10 in the part of Somaliland, about 52 km due west of Hargeisa. It
borders Maroodi-jeh region in the East, Awdal region in the West, Ethiopian the South and parts
of Awdal in the North. Most of the inhabitants in the region are agro pastoralists.
3.1.2 Topography
sheikh town is located around 1,428 meters above sea level. Landform is generally plain and
undulates in some areas. Topography is typically extended from the coastal range called Ogo,
which is highland and receives comparatively the highest rainfall in Somaliland (Lemma et al,
2011).
3.1.3 Climate
sheikh is a semi-arid area and it is generally characterized by four alternative wet and dry
seasons during the year with an average rainfall of between 500 and 650 millimeters annually..
March-May Spring (Gu’) and September-November Fall (Dayr) are the wet seasons. June-July
Summer (Xagaa) and December-February winter (Jilaal) are dry seasons alternatively occurring
between the wet seasons. Gulf of Aden coastal area gets ‘Xays’ rains in winter season and
occasionally Western inland and Golis mountain ranges get ‘Karan’ rains in Summer. Rain fall is
erratic and highly variable in space and time. Its occurrence, intensity and distribution are highly
unpredictable at any given season. Periodic drought occurs when the expected amount of rain
fails or becomes below normal in one or both wet seasons.
3.1.4 Population and income
In the absence of an official census it is difficult to guess the population in Gebiley district,
Gebiley district is mainly populated by agro-pastoralists focused on agriculture production and
the most important source of livelihoods is agriculture production and livestock rearing. The
district is also the most important agricultural area in western Somaliland it has a fertile soil with
different types of vegetations. Agriculture including beekeeping and livestock farming systems
are the biggest sources of income (Ministry of interior, 2012).
3.2 Stfudy design
A cross sectional epidemiological study was carried out from 8st January 2017 up to 17st April
2017. The study on ticks was done on range farms; additional information on tick control was
collected with a structured questionnaire.
3.3 Sample size

According to Thrusfield, (1995), the sample size was determined by using a 95% CI, 5%
precision and with an expected prevalence of 50% (No previous prevalence).
n= t² x pexp(1-pexp)d²
Where
 n = required sample sizes
t = confidence level at 95% (standard value of 1.96)
pexp = estimated prevalence of cattle with ticks (50%)
d = margin of error at 5% (standard value of 0.05)
Therefore, (1.96)2*0.5(1-0.5)/ (0.05)2
= 384.16 which was approximated to 385 cows.
3.4 Farm selection criteria
Ten range cattle farms were selected based on easy accessibility, the number of heads of cattle
and the judgment of the researcher to assess the presence and burden of Ixodid tick species in
cattle. Cattle were selected using systematic random sampling.
3.5 Data collection
Structured questionnaires were administered to the range cattle care takers. The questions were
designed to identify the main acaricides used, acaricide dilution procedure, information about
tick burden, economic impacts of ticks and control strategies of the farmer. Systematic random
sampling was used to select cows for sampling. Adult ticks were collected using a pair of forceps
from half of the animal’s body. The total ticks were doubled to make the total number of ticks of
the animal. Ticks were preserved with universal bottles contained 70% ethanol. Tick
identification was done in parasitology and microbiology laboratory in College of Veterinary
Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity of ISTVS using stereomicroscopes from 1st March
2014 to 10th March 2014. Ticks were identified using: tick identification guide software
developed by Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerpen-Belgium and University of Pretoria and
from a guide by Walter et al., (2003).
3.6 Data Analysis
Raw data was entered in excel and the results were put in a form of graphs, tables and pie charts.
Correlation coefficients were calculated to test the relationship between tick burden and age of
the sampled cattle using SPSS statistical package (v 16).

‫أ‬
IGAD SHEIKH TECHNICAL VETERINARY SCHOOL
SURVEY OF IXODID TICKS INFESTING CATLLE IN GABILEY DISTRICT
SOMALILAND
PROJECT PROPOSAL FOR OBTAINING THE DIPLOMA IN LIVESTOCK HEALTH
SCEINCE (DLH)
HAMSE SA’AD MUSE
NO: ISTVS230
JULY 2015
i
Declaration
I, Hamse Sacad Muse, hereby declare that apart from the assistance received from my
supervisor
this work represents my original fieldwork and has not appeared anywhere else.
Students signature ………………………………………………….
Date ………………………………………………………………….
Supervisors name: …………………………………………………
Supervisors signature: ……………………………………………….
ii
Dedication
This proposal is devoted to my dearly loved Family, my mother Deka Nuh Ahmed, my lovely
brothers and sister and also Hassan Mohamed Ahmed for their great contribution toward my
enjoyable education and respectful life and I would like to say ALLAH bless you.
iii
Acknowledgement
All thanks belong to the almighty ALLAH who created me from nothing to human being. I
would also like to thank everyone who took a part and played even minor role in my studies as
well as writing this Proposal. My especial thanks to all my dear tutors for their effort and honest
education they gave me.
I am so grateful to my supervisor Mr. A.A.Herzi for his encouragement and friendly support. I
am also thankful to Mr. Musa who helped me a lot during my research. I would also like to
greatly appreciate Mr. Yusuf Ahmed who gave me a big hand during my tick collection.
My greatest appreciation goes to my beloved Mother, my brothers, my Sister Hibo Sa’ad and my
wife Ayman Osman for their effort and praying to my success.
iv
Table of Contents
Declaration.......................................................................................................................................
i
Dedication.......................................................................................................................................
ii
Acknowledgement .........................................................................................................................ii
i
List of tables....................................................................................................................................
v
ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................................. vii
CHAPTER ONE............................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction to Ticks ............................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Problem Statement............................................................................................................. 2
1.2 Research questions ............................................................................................................ 2
1.3 Justification and significance of the study......................................................................... 3
1.4 Aim and Objectives........................................................................................................... 3
General Objectives...................................................................................................................... 3
Specific Objectives...................................................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 4
Literature Review............................................................................................................................
4
2.1 Introduction to Hard Ticks ................................................................................................ 4
2.2 Seasonal Variation............................................................................................................. 5
2.3. Geographical Distribution of Ticks Species..................................................................... 5
2.4 Earlier Records of Species of Ticks found in Somaliland................................................. 6
2.5 Biology of Ticks................................................................................................................ 7
2.5.1. Life Cycle of Ticks........................................................................................................ 7
2.5.2. One-host Ticks............................................................................................................... 8
2.5.3. Two-host Ticks.............................................................................................................. 8
2.5.4. Three-host Ticks............................................................................................................ 9
2.6 Environment ...................................................................................................................... 9
2.7 Health risk association with some species of ticks.......................................................... 10
2.8 Medical significance of Ixodid ticks: .............................................................................. 10
2.9 Effect of Ticks on Animal Health and Production .......................................................... 11
2.9.1 Tick worry .................................................................................................................... 12
2.9.2 Anemia........................................................................................................................ 12
v
2.9.3 Wounds and myiasis..................................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 13
Methods and Methodology ...........................................................................................................
13
3.1 Study area ........................................................................................................................ 13
3.2 Study Design: .................................................................................................................. 13
3.3 study population .............................................................................................................. 14
3.4 Data Analysis................................................................................................................... 14
3.5 Tick collection ................................................................................................................. 14
CHAPTER FOUR......................................................................................................................... 15
RESULT ....................................................................................................................................... 15
Chapter five:..................................................................................................................................
17
Discussion.....................................................................................................................................
17
Conclusion and Recommendation ................................................................................................
19
6.1 conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 19
6.2 Recommendation ............................................................................................................. 19
Reference ......................................................................................................................................
20
Appendix.......................................................................................................................................
22
List of figures
Figure 1 Map of the study area .....................................................................................................
13
Figure 2 Proportion of the three Genera .......................................................................................
16
List of tables
Table 1 list of tick speceis, found in Gailey districtand their proportion ..................................... 15
Table 2 Distribution of ticks in the studied area and their predilected sites.................................
16
Table 3Location, number o collected tick and tick burden...........................................................
16
vi
Acronyms
B.bovis--- Babesia bovis
ECF------ East cost fever
FAO------Food and Agricultural management
ISTVS---IGAD Sheikh Technical Veterinary School
NGO’s------Non Governmental Organizations
NSD------Nairobi Sheep disease
TBD’s-----Tick borne diseases
vii
ABSTRACT
The aim of this survey of ixodid ticks was to investigate the distribution of hard Ticks infesting
in cattle of Gabiley district. Ixodid tick infestation is one of the major problems faced by cattle
keepers in Somaliland. Besides direct effects on the hides, ixodid ticks transmit diseases to cattle
such as ECF, Babesiosis and Anaplasmosis. It is necessary to know the predominant tick species
in an area in order to predict the most likely TBD’s in that area.
This study aimed at determining the abundance of ixodid ticks on cattle Gabiley district. A total
of 200 heads of cattle of all age and sex were sampled. Collected ticks were then preserved
using
70% ethanol and identified using under a stereomicroscope. A total of 675 ticks were collected
of which, 532 were males while 143 were females.
The most abundant tick in Gabiley was A. coherence which is the first time reported in
Somaliland even Somalia (26%), Rhipicephalus pulchelus were the second most abundant tick
species in this district (22%) .Basing on the predominant tick species in this study, NSD, ECF
and Babesia may be the major livestock diseases facing livestock farmers in Gabiley district.
Since study was cross sectional study, further studies should be carried out for both rainy and
dry
seasons about controlling the most likely TBD’s.
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Introduction to Ticks
Ticks are blood-feeding external parasites of mammals, birds, and reptiles throughout the world
(Vredevoe 2006). Ticks of all types are important vectors of animal and human pathogens. It
was
established that ticks were being controlled for a lack of a better method to control tick-borne
diseases (TBD). Ticks can be injurious to cattle due to the blood loss that can occur when a large
number of ticks feed and infested especially the lower part of animal (limps) (Cankovic, M.
1982). Ticks and Tick Borne Diseases are widely distributed throughout the world, particularly
in tropical and subtropical countries. It has been estimated that 80% of the world’s cattle are
infested with ticks (FAO 1984). Ticks belong to the family Ixodidae, in the order Acarina,
which also includes the spiders, scorpions and mites. They are divided into two families, the
Argasidae and the Ixodidae. The Ixodidae have a hard scutum and for this reason are usually
known as hard ticks. They are hematophagous parasites of vertebrates all over the world that
can
be seen with the naked eye. Ticks act as vectors for a number of pathogenic microorganisms
(protozoan, Rickettsia, bacterial and virus) that cause many fatal diseases to both humans and
animals (Carlos de Matos 2008).
Tick-borne diseases are a constraint to livestock production in many developing countries as
they
cause high morbidity and mortality, which results in decreased production of meat, milk and
other livestock by-products. The most important tick-borne diseases of livestock in sub-Saharan
Africa are East Coast Fever caused by Theileria parva, Babesiosis caused by Babesia bigemina
and B.bovis, Anaplasmosis caused by Anaplasma marginale and Heart water caused by Ehrlichia
ruminantum (Biryomumaisho et al., 2012).
In most east and central African countries, ECF is the main TBD and responsible for high
morbidity and mortality of cattle particularly exotic breeds and their crosses. Although farmers
for decades have employed application of acaracides as the main control strategy, ticks and the
diseases they transmit continue to be the major causes of morbidity and mortality in cattle
2
particularly calves. Coupled with changing climatic conditions, dynamics of individual tick
species could change (Bazaruzanga, 2008).
Although species of ticks and (TBDs) differ among ecological regions, their impact on animal
production is important wherever they occur (FAO 1984). In Somaliland several species of ticks
belonging to genus Amblyomma, Hyalomma, Rhipicephalus which are the most important
vectors of Tick Borne Diseases in the sub-Saharan Africa have been reported (Walker et al.
2003). Locally, ticks and tick-borne diseases are considered a major problem in cattle. The
extensive system of rearing animals in Somaliland also facilitates the infestation to spread
through introduction of infested animals into previously uninfested herds making it hard for any
control system to be put in place.
Regardless of the presence of ticks, there is little scientific data in regard to species composition
and geographical distribution of ticks that infest the cattle in Somaliland specially Gabiley
District which has the highest population of cattle in Somaliland. Therefore the present study
shows us the survey of the ixodid or hard tick species and their distribution of cattle in Gabiley
District.
1.1 Problem Statement
Extensive farming system is the main farming system adopted in Gabiley district; however
Ixodid ticks remain a problem to range farming system. Although there are many acaracides and
tick control programmes, ticks remain important vectors in many protozoan diseases in cattle in
Gabiley district specially East Coast Fever and Babesiosis. The prevalence of the different tick
species is not clearly documented yet this may influence of TBD’s in this area. Therefore this
study aims at investigating the presence of Ixodid tick species on cattle and the control
strategies
of ticks in Gabiley District of Somaliland.
1.2 Research questions
1. What are the most abundant ixodid tick species infesting cattle in Gabiley District?
2. What are the tick control methods used by farmers in Gabiley District?
3
1.3 Justification and significance of the study
Control of tick-borne diseases in East Africa has proved difficult largely because of lack of
epidemiological information (Norval et al., 1992) and because control strategies commonly
applied are not integrated in the production systems (Perry, 1994). In most parts of Africa,
earlier
investigations were not location/production system-specific and did not target biological,
management and socioeconomic parameters of the production system to establish the
presence
and magnitude of the problems due to tick-borne diseases (Pegram and Chizyka, 1987) As a
result in many parts of Somaliland and Somalia including Gabiley district are still not well
defined the distribution and different kinds of ixodid ticks infested in cattle. So this present
Survey will take apart to know the distribution and identification of hard ticks infesting in cattle
of Gabiley district to help the control of TBDs in Gabiley District and it will help the
Governments and NGO’s who are concerned to the planning of tick management programmes
such us construction of dip tanks in the area were tick infestation are high and the investigation
of alternative means of control. It’s vital to properly identify tick species and examine its
distribution when determining disease risk and control strategies since different tick species
transmit different diseases. In additionally this study will be future reference that can be used
by
Somali veterinary students specially those who are interesting to know more about tick
infestation of cattle and its distribution in this district.
1.4 Aim and Objectives
General Objectives
The aim of this study was to investigate tick distribution of cattle in Gabiley District
Specific Objectives
 To identify species of ticks that affects cattle in Gabiley District
 To investigate the distribution and abundance of tick species found in Gabiley District.
 To propose tick key identification to the district veterinary authority
4
CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review
2.1 Introduction to Hard Ticks
Ticks (subphylum Chilecerata); class Arachnida; subclass Acari; super order Parasitic forms;
order: Ixodida) are obligate blood-feeding ectoparasites of global medical and veterinary
importance. Ticks live on all continents of the world (Steen et al. 2006). There are
approximately 899 species of ticks; the majorities are ectoparasites of wildlife and approximately
10% of these are recognized as disease vectors or for their ability to cause direct damage through
blood feeding (Jongejan and Uilenberg 2004). The general geographic distribution of ticks in
Gabiley district of Somaliland is not well documented, but their specific distributions in the
various provinces or sub-regions of provinces in Somaliland have been somehow determined.
The extent of economic losses due to ticks in the area to be investigated is unknown –though this
information will be required before advice is given regarding tick control strategies (Pegram
1990). Other forms of injury attributed to ticks include anemia, dermatitis and toxicosis leading
to paralysis. Worldwide there is growing concern because tick-borne infectious diseases are
emerging and resurging (Telford and Goethert 2004; Walker 1998; Walker 2005).
2.1.1 Classification of Ticks
Since this group of ectoparasites is more closely related to the spiders and scorpions, it has
been placed in the class Arachnida, subclass Acari, which also includes all taxa commonly
referred to
as mites. The suborder of Ixodides (order Acarina) contains the hard and soft ticks of the families
Ixodidae and Argasidae (Beaver, Jung & Cupp, 1984). The Super family of Ixodidae includes
three
families of ticks, namely Argasidae, Ixodidae and Nuttalliedae. There are approximately 899 spp.
in
22 genera and three families (Keirans, 1992; Keirans & Robbins, 1999). Of the three families the
Ixodidae (hard ticks) is the largest, consisting of more than 650 species (Hoogstraal, 1956). The
Ixodidae and Argasidae are large and cosmopolitan families, whereas the Nuttalliellidae contains
only
one species (monotypic), which is restricted to some areas in South Africa and Tanzania
(Bedford, 1934; Keirans, Clifford, Hoogstraal & Easton, 1976).
The majority of ixodid ticks use three-hosts, one host for each stage of the life cycle (larva,
nymph and
adult), but in some species this has been reduced to two or even one host. The latter ticks spend
two or
more life cycle stages on the same host individual (Oliver, 1989). Ixodid ticks need several days
to
5
feed, and once the female is engorged she drops from the host to deposit several thousand eggs,
and
then dies. Argasid ticks feed intermittently and several species do not remain attached to their
hosts.
They may feed several times during their lifetime on a number of different hosts and lay a few
hundred eggs in batches. Argasid ticks also exhibit remarkable longevity and live for many years
and
may endure long periods of starvation (Sonenshine, 1991).
The phylogenetic relationships of the three families of ticks, the Argasidae, Ixodidae and
Nuttalliellidae, are unresolved. The monospecific Nuttalliellidae (Nuttalliella namaqua) has
morphological features of both the Argasidae and Ixodidae (Keirans, Clifford, Hoogstraal &
Easton, 1976), so its phylogenetic relationship to them is unclear. Although molecular analyses
of
the phylogenetic relationships of the Argasidae and Ixodidae have been done (Black & Piesman,
1994; Dobson & Barker, 1999), these studies did not include the Nuttalliellidae because so few
individuals of N. Namaqua have ever been found (Roshdy, Hoogstraal, Ranaja & El Shoura,
1983).
2.2 Seasonal Variation
In Somaliland the total number of the ticks increases after the beginning of the rainy season
(April) and then gradually decreases through the dry season. According to this team
Rhipicephalus species, are the most numerous throughout the year and Rhipicephalus pulchelus
is the most common tick, constituting more than 90% of all the ticks. Amblyomma species which
are more numerous during the rainy season disappear almost entirely during the dry months
while the Hyalomma species which are present only in small number do not appear (Pegram
1975).
2.3. Geographical Distribution of Ticks Species
The geographic distribution of many indigenous ticks is not linked with gross climatic
conditions, but rather with factors within the microclimate of the vegetation within their
distribution range. Accurate information on tick ecology, such as geographical distribution and
seasonal variations in numbers is thus required. Such information is important in the planning of
tick management programmes and the investigation of alternative means of control (Nyangiwe,
2007). Nevertheless, different tick species are known to transmit different diseases; therefore, to
achieve effective control of ticks and the diseases they transmit accurate information on their
species composition is also essential as shown by Allen (2008).
6
Moreover, knowing the species involved in the tick bite incident may alert veterinarians to watch
for specific disease(s) and may aid in differential diagnosis if clinical symptoms should appear
(Kebede, 2004).
Ticks are found on all continents and are bound to certain climates as far as the requirements for
temperature, humidity; sun-radiation and shade of each species are concerned. Furthermore, each
species is climate sensitive and requires specific environmental conditions for its habitat. The
respective species only have a chance for survival when these prerequisites are fulfilled. It is
these constraints that determine the distribution of tick populations within certain latitudinal and
altitudinal limits. Relative humidity is considered at microclimate level. Humid rather than wet
conditions are essential for the development and survival of eggs, and the survival of unfed
hatched larvae. Each species is adapted to a particular relative humidity range in a biotope and it
varies with the instars and its size. Larvae and nymphs have high humidity requirements,
whereas the adults can protect themselves better against evaporation because of their larger size
and thicker tegument. The requirement ranges from 100 % to very low relative humidity
(livestock and global climate change conference, May 2008).
2.4 Earlier Records of Species of Ticks found in Somaliland
Walker et al. (2003) reviewed the main hard ticks (Ixodid ticks) occurring in Somaliland and
recorded three genus and 13 species. The genuses are: Amblyomma, Rhipicephalus and
Hyalomma. The species include Amblyomma gemma, A. lepidum, A. variegatum, Hyalomma
dromedarii, H. impeltatum, H. truncatum, Rhipicephalus camicasi, R. evertsi evertsi, R.
praetextatus, R. pravus, R. pulchelus, R. sanguineus and R. turanicus.
According to Pegram (1975) Amblyomma gemma and A. variegatum were found only in the
south west around Gabiley where the average annual rainfall is 17-20 inches. Neither of these
species could be found in the east even in the areas of the north east where the average annual
rainfall exceeded 15 inches. Unlike Walker et al. (2003), Pegram (1975), Amina (2011) included
Rhipicephalus simus, R. sanguineusas and R. longicoxatus in his list. However, he reported that
R. simus and R. sanguineusis were less common while R. longicoxatus was very rare.
Pegram (1975) also found Hyalomma rufipes, H. excavatum, H. erythraeum and H. punt in
Somaliland.
7
2.5 Biology of Ticks
2.5.1. Life Cycle of Ticks
There are four stages in the life cycle of an ixodid tick, namely the egg, the larva, the nymph, and
the
adult (Sonenshine, 1991). The three instars (larva, nymph and adult) climb on to the vegetation
in
order to attach to a passing host or quest for a host from the soil surface. Once on the host, the
tick
crawls to a predilected feeding site where it cuts the skin with its chelicerae and inserts its
hypostome
that together with cement secreted by the salivary glands, anchors the tick firmly in place. The
tick
remains in place for several days (larva, 3–6 days; nymph, 4–7 days; adult female, 7–9 days)
during
which time active growth of gut and cuticle occurs in order to accommodate the blood meal,
most of
which will be acquired in the final
24 hours of engorgement. During feeding the blood meal is concentrated by the extraction of
water,
which is then secreted back into the host by specialized salivary gland cells and is an important
means
by which tick-borne pathogens invade their hosts. Once fully engorged the tick withdraws its
hypostome and falls to the ground where it begins digesting the blood meal and developing to the
next
instars. Digestion is slow, and development of the new instars takes several months in temperate
regions. The newly molted (or hatched) unfed tick may remain quiescent for a time, but will
eventually ascend the vegetation to quest for a host and a blood meal. After the engorged female
detaches from a host digestion of the blood meal and oogenesis take place followed by
oviposition.
The incubation period of the eggs varies with the species and ambient temperature.
Embryogenesis
usually lasts 20 –50 days. Ixodid ticks have substantial capability to swallow and concentrate a
large
volume of host blood, their rapid metabolism and body development can explain the on-host
intervals.
During off-host periods, ticks experience some environmental distress such as climate and
temperature. High temperatures and body-water homeostasis are of importance in processes that
influence off-host survival. Ticks as a group have this capability to survive without food and/or
water
longer than most other arthropods. Ixodid species usually spend an annual total of 12-21 days on
the
host compared to the off-host period (Needham & Teel, 1991, Roberts & Janovy 1996; Poulin &
Morand 2000).
Off-host fasting is characterized by slow metabolism with lengthy intervals of immobility,
interrupted by movement within the microhabitat to increase water uptake, or to seek a position
for
8
detection of a passing blood-meal source. Spending a long period off the host gives the tick an
opportunity to find a suitable species of animal to which to attach (Camin, 1963).
Ticks as gorging and fasting creatures, are considered to be two exceptionally different animals.
A
creature that is adapted for existing on a host body as a blood feeder, the other as a conservative
one
that can survive off the host and has the ability to expand its life strategies to adjust to the
availability
of water and energy resources to increase its chances of obtaining a blood meal (Knülle &
Rudolph,
1982). Diversity in daily and seasonal behavior influences both physiological ageing and the
balance
of energy and water resources (Haldane, 1949).
2.5.2. One-host Ticks
Larvae hatch from eggs, climb on to a host, attach, engorge and moult on the host to nymphs.
The
nymphs re-attach, engorge and moult to males and females on the same host. The adult ticks re-
attach
to the same host, partially engorge and mate and the females engorge fully. After detaching from
the
host, the females drop to the ground and deposit eggs and eventually die. With the elimination of
the waiting period for a host and shortening of metamorphosis, the monoxenic cycle on the host
is shortened to possibly 3-4 weeks. There are not many one-host species, but some are important
from
the veterinary point of view. One-host ticks include Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus, R.
(B.)
microplus, and Margaropus species. (Shah-Fischer & Ralph Say, 1989, Walker, Bouattour,
Camicas,
Estrada-Peña, Horak, Latif, Pegram & Preston, 2003)
2.5.3. Two-host Ticks
After the new generation of larvae hatch from eggs laid by females, they climb on to the first
host,
engorge and moult to nymphs. The nymphs re-attach, engorge, detach, drop to the ground and
moult
to females and males. The adult ticks climb on to the second host, attach, partially engorge and
mate.
The females engorge fully, detach and drop to the ground and eventually lay eggs that give rise
to the
next generation. In the dixenic host life cycle, the three stages develop on two different
individuals
that may or may not belong to the same species. In the first, the engorged larva moults on the
host and
the nymph reattaches close by. At the end of the blood meal the nymph detaches and
metamorphoses
on the ground. There are only two searches for a host, which eliminate the risks linked with the
need
for nymphal host searching and attachment. Hyalomma species and some Rhipicephalus species
belong to this group (Shah-Fischer & Ralph Say, 1989; Walker, Bouattour, Camicas, Estrada-
Peña,
Horak, Latif, Pegram & Preston, 2003).
9
2.5.4. Three-host Ticks
Briefly, each stage of the parasitic cycle takes place on a different host. The fully engorged
females
detach from the third host, lay eggs in a sheltered locality and then die. Amblyomma species and
the
majority of Rhipicephalus species belong to this group. In the life cycle of a three-host tick,
which is
common to most ticks, host finding occurs three times. The tick requires three hosts (irrespective
of
the host species) for development and completion of its life cycle. There are three parasitic
phases
separated by two phases on the ground, when metamorphosis occurs (Shah-Fischer & Ralph Say,
1989; Walker, Bouattour, Camicas, Estrada-Peña, Horak, Latif, Pegram & Preston,2003).
2.6 Environment
The climate will determine the plant population and herbivore biomass in a habitat (Coe,
Cumming &
Pilli son, 1976), not to mention that it also affects the tick population directly. Factors such as
rainfall, minimum and maximum daily temperatures, duration of intense period (Needham &
Teel,
1991), and seasonality can play potential roles in confining the tick population to a certain region
(Rechav, 1984; Pegram, Perry, Musisi & Mwanaumo, 1986). Since many tick species deposit
their
eggs in the soil, its properties such as water retaining capacity and its roughness (as it might
cause
mechanical damage to the soft parts of ticks’ body) will play an important role in the survival of
eggs
and juvenile ticks (Randolph, 1994). Vegetation cover and type can influence tick survival by
improving environmental boundaries (Tukahirwa, 1976), through their influence on microclimate
and
in the course of interactions with various herbivores in the ecosystem (Coe, Cumming &
Pillipson,
1976; Cumming, 1982).
The frequency and intensity of natural disasters and disturbances such as fire, seasonal changes,
grazing levels, severe drought, and floods on tick populations in Africa have mostly not been
documented and it seems that they reasonably affect tick populations in certain habitats (Wilson
1986;
Spickett, Horak, Van Niekerk & Braack, 1992). During a severe drought, the animals are
nutritionally
stressed which can cause lower resistance to infestation and/or energy deficiency so that the
animal
stops grooming (O’Kelly & Seifert, 1969). This results in a higher tick burden.
Fire has secondary effects on tick abundance by altering landscape heterogeneity (Turner,
Hargrove, Gardner & Romme, 1994) and the densities of grazing hosts in recently burned areas
(Minshull & Norval, 1982). Ticks can live in areas where the habitat is considered inappropriate
at a
broader scale. Conversely, suitable areas can be converted into unsuitable areas or habitats over
periods of time, for example such as sandy patches within woodland or pools of water within
10
low-lying grassland. Microhabitat will be influenced by vegetation and also soil types in many
instances, and is most likely to affect ticks by affecting their dispersal (Minshull & Norval,
1982).
Strong evidence exists to suggest that the distribution of ticks in a habitat is determined by their
microclimatic requirements (Lees, 1946; Londt & Whitehead, 1972).
2.7 Health risk association with some species of ticks
Amblyomma lepidum transmits the bacterium Ehrlichia ruminantum (cowdria ruminantum)
which
causes heart water in cattle and the protozoan’s theileria mutans and theileri velifera which cause
benign bovine theileriosis. Hyalomma impeltatum and dromedarii under experimental conditions
has
transmitted the protozoan’s Theileria annulata to cattle. Some strains of Hyalomma truncatum
have a
toxin in their saliva that causes the skin disease known s sweating sickness in cattle, especially
young
once. In the other side the long mouth parts of Hyalomma truncatum causes skin damages in
cattle
and secondary bacterial infection which leads abscess (walker et. al.2003).
Amblyomma variegatum is three host ticks that infest cattle in all its stages and is known to
transmit
bacterium Ehrlichia ruminantum that causes heart water in cattle and the small ruminants. Heavy
infestation of Amblyomma variegatum suppresses the immunity of cattle making worse the skin
disease. Its heavy infestation also damages teats and reduces the productivity as it causes
scarring on
teats of cattle sufficient to reduce suckling efficiency (walker et. al.2003).
Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi is a two host tick that feed on cattle as one of its preferred host. It’s
known to transmit the bacterium Anaplasma marginale to cattle causing bovine Anaplasmosis.
The saliva of female ticks contains a toxin that cause paralysis particularly in lambs, but it may
also
affect calves and adult sheep.
Rhipicephalus Pulchelus has a three host life cycle and it feeds on cattle as well as the other
domestic
animals. This tick species transmit he bacterium theileria taurotragi which causes benign bovine
theileriosis. They attach large numbers on cattle to cause direct parasitic harm (walker et
al.2003).
2.8 Medical significance of Ixodid ticks:
Several blood parasites, protozoa, viruses and bacteria are transmitted by ticks and have been
incriminated and lead the animal become diseased as they cause also cattle death. Ticks can be
injurious to cattle due to the blood loss that can occur when a large number of ticks feed and
infested especially the lower part of animal (limps) (Cankovic, M. 1982). Ticks are responsible
11
for a great variety of cattle health problems. A part from transmission disease; ticks parasitism
also reduce milk and meat production and increase susceptibility to other diseases that leads the
animal emaciated according to (Walker et al. 2003).
Ticks and tick borne pathogens are responsible for mortality and morbidity in livestock, wild life,
pets and humans. In cattle, tick-borne pathogens such as Anaplasmosis, Babesiosis, heart water
diseases, tick typhus, tick fever, louping ill and viral encephalomyelitis cause disease of
worldwide economic significance (M S Mtshalia et al, 2006). Ticks are vital to human and
veterinary medicine. They are among the most important to all arthropod vector of disease.
These arthropod ectoparasites have a major impact on husbandry, productivity and welfare of
domestic animals (Colebrook & wall, 2004). These obligate parasites live; feed and shelter on
the surface of heir host (Marshall, 1981). As a result, skin and other subcutaneous tissue can be
directly compromised by irritation, Hypersensitivity and alopecia. The skin become inflamed,
corrugated and scaly which subsequently results in dermal lesions Ticks may also cause indirect
harm including behavioral disturbance, such as increased frequency of rubbing or scratching,
leading to reduce time in feeding. For cattle, less grazing and general disturbed behavior
decreases the production of meat or milk (Matthysse, 1946). In some cases, infected animals may
resort to self-wounding, particularly when ticks are present in high densities (Berriatua et al,
200). Ticks in the cattle transmit the organisms that cause tick fever which is serious blood
parasite disease of cattle. The disease can be a lethal to all susceptible animals. The rest may
suffer severe loss of condition. Hides and skin of infested cattle are damaged by ticks bite,
reducing their value. In severe cases the hide saleability may become decreased (B. Radunz,
2008 and M. H. B. Kabirl et al. 2011)
2.9 Effect of Ticks on Animal Health and Production
The impact of ticks on livestock health and production can be divided into two. These are effects
of tick burden as ectoparasites and the effect of diseases transmitted by ticks serving as vectors.
As ectoparasites, ticks are responsible for blood loss, irritations that result in ‘tick worry’ and
interrupt the grazing habits of cattle. Damage and loss of udders and damage to hides are also
caused by the attachment and feeding activities of ticks, which provide portals of entry for
secondary bacterial infections and for larvae that induce myiasis and tick paralysis due to the
toxins they secrete into the blood. The secreted toxins may even disseminate to the respiratory
organs and cause death of the animal (Sere, 1979; Soulsby, 1982). In determining the direct
12
effects of ticks on livestock, early studies indicated a large difference in mean annual weight gain
(48 kg) between heavily tick-infested and tick-free animals (Spring ell, 1974). It was also
reported that in heavily tick infested European cattle, 65% of the body weight reduction was due
to loss of appetite while the remaining 35% was due to interference with the growth process
(Seebeck et al., 1971). The latter is supported by the observation that tick infested animals had
relatively more fat and less muscle than tick-free controls, suggesting interference in protein
synthesis caused by tick bites (Norval et al., 1988). High tick numbers cause proportionally
greater live weight losses in tick susceptible Boran cattle than in tick resistant animals of the
same breed (Sere, 1979). These factors also contribute to losses in milk production, calving
interval and weaning performance.
2.9.1 Tick worry
Tick worry is a generalized state of unease and irritability of cattle severely infested with ticks,
often leading to serious loss of energy and weight. This negative effect on the growth of animals
and their production is thought to be due to the effects of a toxin in the saliva of ticks (Hunter,
2004). Moderate to heavy tick infestations can impact negatively on the growth and production
of cattle. Infestations with Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus and Rhipicephalus
appendiculatus were reported to cause weight losses of 1.5 g and 4.4 g, respectively (Norval et
al., 1988) while Amblyomma spp. resulted in losses of about 63 g (Stachurski et al., 1993).
2.9.2 Anemia
Anemia is an inevitable consequence of heavy infestation by any blood-feeding parasite, and
cattle deaths attributable to anemia as a result of tick infestation are common (Jonson, 2006).
Engorging ixodid females will increase their weight by 100–200 times but the actual amount of
blood ingested is much greater than this, as blood meal is concentrated and fluid excreted in
saliva (Kempetal. 1982). The anemia caused by heavy tick infestation results in loss of condition
in cattle causing a reduction in meat production and milk yield (Gates and Westcott, 2000).
2.9.3 Wounds and myiasis.
The mouthparts of ticks puncture the skins during feeding, causing damage to the hide, the
damage taking the form of small rounded areas of necrosis, which is often followed by secondary
fly attack resulting in serious skin infection (Gracey et al., 1999). Ticks with longer mouthparts
such as Amblyomma and Hyalomma cause more extensive damage than those with shorter
mouthparts such as Rhipicephalus. (Mattioli et al, 2000.)
13
CHAPTER THREE
Methods and Methodology
3.1 Study area
Gabiley is a beautiful city 54 km west of Hargeisa the nation's capital of Somaliland. Gabiley
locates on Somaliland's western fertile region known as "Dhul-beereed". It is called the bread
basket of Somaliland because of its agricultural productivity level compared to the other regions
of the country. It is also the administrative center of the region of Gabiley.
The region of Gabiley is bounded on the west by Awdal region and on the north by the Gulf of
Aden. On the east it is bordered by the nation's capital Hargeisa, and on the south Gabiley district
is bounded by the fifth-Somali State in the Ethiopian Federation.
Figure 1 Map of the study area
Gabileydistrict
Gabiley district
In this study a total of four villages were selected conveniently and cores sectional survey aimed
at finding out of tick species and their distribution in cattle was conducted in this villages.
The selected villages were: Gabiley, Carr tuul, Sanlawa and Galolay, which are scattered
throughout the district. Ticks collection was started from 20th April 2015—16th May 2015.
3.2 Study Design:
A cross-sectional study design was used to determine the relative abundance of tick species on
different age groups and sex of cattle and in one month of study area. A questionnaire survey of
14
such study design was also included for assessment of pastoralists’ perception on cattle tick
control options and its methods of applications practiced in the area.
3.3 study population
The study population will constitute Local cattle breeds but the most populated breed in this area
is indigenous cattle which are Zebu who’s kept under traditional management system which is
the only system that they use. A simple random sample will use to collect tick from the cattle
which different area including Gabiley and its surrounding villages.
3.4 Data Analysis.
Raw data was entered in excel and the results were put in a form of graphs, tables and pie charts.
Al the data are then used by SPSS version 19.
3.5 Tick collection
Ticks were collected from the predilection site, such as ears, bodies, bellies, feet, tails and peri
anal regions of the cattle. The collection was made different herds. The ticks were placed and
preserved with pre-filled in 70% ethanol in separate, both internal and external labeled vials and
transported to ISTVS laboratory for identification. The containers are labeled including: Date,
Site, location, and the sex. (Walker et al 2003, Estrada- Pena et al (2004), Apanaskevich &
Horak (2005, 2008).
Major collection sites of ticks per animal were six sites. Predilection sites for adult ticks were.
Ear: Both surfaces of a single ear as well as the external ear canal.
Neck: Includes the lateral surfaces, the dewlap and the mane.
Legs: Includes the axilla, the leg (from elbow to fetlock) and foot (below fetlock).
Upper perineum: Extends from the base of the tail, and includes the area around the anus.
Lower perineum: Extending from below the upper perineum to the base of the scrotum, or
udder.
Tail: Includes the tail and tail brush.
15
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULT
A survey of distribution of the tick was carried out in Gabiley district of Somaliland. Four
different Villages were selected during this study. In each village were collected from sample of
50 zebu species of different age group and sex.
A total of 675 ticks were collected from different locations, three Genera and eight species were
identified (see Table 1 and 2). Some of the tick species was found common to all the villages
such
as Amblyomma gemma, A.varreigatum, Rhipicephalus pulchelus and Rh. evertsi evertsi.
(SeeTable2). Amblyomma species were most abundant ticks on cattle (68%), followed by
Rhipicephalus (31%), while Hyalomma species were less abundant (1%) (See figure 2). The
average tick burden per animal were higher significantly in Caro tuul area when we compare
with
Gabiley (See table 3)
Table 1 list of tick speceis, found in Gailey districtand their proportion
Genus Species Male Female Total %
Amblyomma
Gemma 108 22 130 19%
variegatum 100 28 128 19%
Coherence 145 30 175 26%
Lepidum 25 0 25 4%
Hyalomma
Marginatum 3 1 4 1%
Rufipes 4 0 4 1%
Rhipicephalus
evertsi evertsi 42 10 52 8%
Pulchelus 97 52 149 22%
Pravus 8 0 8 1%
Total 532 143 675 100%
16
Figure 2 Proportion of the three Genera
Table 2 Distribution of ticks in the studied area and their predilected sites
TICK SPECEIS PREDLICTED SITES DISTRIBUTION
Amblyomma gemma Legs and perineum Gabiley, Sanlawa, and Caro tuul,
Amblyomma lepidum Lower perineum and Neck Caro tuul, and Sanlawa
Amblyomma variegatum leg and perineum Gabiley, Galolay Sanlawa and Caro tuul
Amblyomma coherence Legs and perineum Gabiley, Galolay Sanlawa and Caro tuul
Hyalomma rufipes perineum and tail Sanlawa
Hyalomma marginatum perineum and tail Sanlawa and Carro tuul
Rhipicephalus pulchelus Ear and perineum Sanlawa, Carro-tuul and Galolay
Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi Tail Sanlawa, Carro-tuul and Galolay
Rhipicephalus pravus Neck and Ear Galolay
Table 3 Location, number o collected tick and tick burden
Number of Animal, Ticks And Tick burden
Villages Sampled cattle No. of ticks Average Tick burden
Gabiley 50 145 2.9
Carro-tuul 50 255 5.1
Sanlawa 50 140 2.8
Galolay 50 135 2.7
Total 200 675 13.5
Amblyomma
Hyalomma
Rhipicephalus
17
Chapter five:
Discussion
Most of the species found in Gabiley District were previously reported by walker et al (2003),
Bazaruzanga, et al (2010), Amina (2011). A. coherence is the first report from Somaliland. This
species is widely distributed in neighboring Ethiopia. De Castro (1994)
A. coherence is the most common tick species in Gabiley District. The presence of A. coherence
in Gabiley may be introduced through the movement of the animals across the bounder between
Somaliland and Ethiopia. A. coherence is suspected as vector of Cowdria Ruminantum and
Dermatophilus congolensis. (Petney, Horak and Rechav1987) This species generally it attaches
to the cattle between March and June during the early time of the rainy season (Pegram et al.,
1981: De Castro (1994),
Amblyomma gemma: was the third most abundant tick species found Cattle in Gabiley District.
This species is one of the most common ticks found in Africa (walker 2003). This species is very
common in Somaliland Amina reported; 2011 ‘’ it is consistent with the findings of Pegram
(1975) who reported that A. gemma was found only in the South-west Borama where the average
annual rainfall is 17-20 inches”. Amblyomma gemma adults feed on domestic animals such as
cattle but wild animals are the preferred hosts of this tick species, Donitz, (1909).
Amblyomma variegatum: was the fourth wide spread tick found in this district. It’s mostly
found by semi arid as well as humid regions (Bazaruzanga at el 2007). And also Pegram 1975)
was reported that A.varreigatum are found in Somaliland particularly west region such as
Gabiley and Borama and where the rain fall is 17-20 inch .this species are widely distributed
Somaliland (Amina 2011). This tick transmits the bacterium Ehrlichia ruminantum (= Cowdria
ruminantum) which causes heart water in cattle, sheep and goats. It also transmits the bacterium
Ehrlichia bovis, causing bovine ehrlichiosis, and the protozoans Theileria mutans and Theileria
velifera causing benign bovine theileriosis. Heavy infestations suppress the immunity of cattle,
making worse the bacterial skin disease dermatophilosis. Heavy infestations also damage teats
and reduce productivity (Walker et al, 2003, Tessema et al, 2010).
Amblyomma lepidum and Hyalomma marginatum: this two ticks are very rare in Somaliland
and there are very little data that was reported before A. lepidum is found in Borama and its
18
highly infests in cattle (A.A. Latif 2003)this tick transmits Bacterium Ehrlichia ruminantum and
the protozoan theileria mutans and T. velifera (walker 2003) H.Marginatum was reported in the
first time from Borama (Amina 2011) but this species was reported that its found in Ethiopia and
it transmits the disease Theileria Annulata(walker et al 2003).
Hyalomma rufipes This species was found many parts in Somaliland (Bazaruzanga, et al. 2010
and Amina, 2011). This tick species is the most important vector in southern Africa of the virus
causing Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever in humans. It also transmits the bacterium
Anaplasma marginale to cattle causing bovine Anaplasmosis (= gall sickness), the bacterium
Rickettsia conorii causing tick typhus in humans and the protozoan Babesia occultans to cattle.
The feeding of adults on cattle causes large lesions at the attachment sites, leading to the
formation of severe abscesses. H. rufipes is a tick of dry climates and is mostly found in the arid
regions of southern Africa (Theiler, 1962; Howell, Walker & Neville, 1978). Walker, (1991)
Rhipicephalus pulchelus is the second most common ticks found on Gabiley District.
Confirming its position is one of the most widely distributed tick species in Somaliland (Pegram,
1975, Amina2011, Musa Awale2011). This three-host tick seems to be most active during the
rainy season and this could be a reason as to why there is a difference in distribution of the tick
in the District, yet it was a rainy season. The fact that Cattle are one of the preferred hosts of this
species is also apparent in this study. R. pulchelus might be the tick responsible for the spread of
Nairobi Sheep Disease(NSD) in Somaliland (Pegram 1975).
Rhipicephalus pravus: this was found moderately common in most study areas of this District.
Walker et al 2003) and (Amina 2011) was found this tick species and they reported that it is
existed in Somaliland. This species transmits diseases such as Nairobi Sheep Disease, Rickettsia
Conori, and Heavy infestation of cattle (Walker et al 2003).
Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi: was the one of the most common tick species found on Cattle in
Gabiley District. This is in agreement with Pegram (1975), Walker et al. (2003) and Amina
(2011).when they concluded that Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi is mainly distributed in
Somaliland.
The farmers in this study area use different methods for controlling ticks such as Spraying and
giving the animal drugs like Ivermectin but the users of this method were very rare comparing to
the other farmers.
19
Chapter Six
Conclusion and Recommendation
6.1 conclusions
This study was a step in the right direction since it’s the first of its kind to be done in Gabiley
District. Tick and tick borne diseases are in fact a real problem that needs to be addressed in
order to improve the livestock health and production to the public health.
Therefore, it’s required to educate to the community about tick borne disease an establish tick
control by using acaracides.
Using acaracides should be taking into account during the rainy season when the tick infestation
is high.
6.2 Recommendation
 Ministry of livestock should provide the pastoralists trainings of the use of Acaracides
and tick borne diseases treatment.
 Ministry of livestock should provide dipping facilities.
 Further studies of ticks and tick borne disease in the area.
20
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22
Appendix

Male A. gemma Female A. gemma

Male Rh. Pulchelus Female Rh. pulchelus

Tick identification and classification Materials needed for tick collection

Male A. coherence Female A. coherence