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Ecological Approaches to Mental Health Consultation with Teachers on Issues

Related to Youth and School Violence
Article in The Journal of Negro Education · June 1996

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Journal of Negro Education
Ecological Approaches to Mental Health Consultation with Teachers on Issues Related to Youth
and School Violence
Author(s): Ron Avi Astor, Ronald O. Pitner and Brent B. Duncan
Source: The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 65, No. 3, Educating Children in a Violent
Society, Part I (Summer, 1996), pp. 336-355
Published by: Journal of Negro Education
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EcologicalApproachesto Mental Health
Consultationwith Teacherson Issues
Related to Youthand School Violence
ofMichigan;and
Ron Avi Astor and Ronald 0. Pitner,University
BrentB. Duncan, HumboldtState University
Thisarticlearguesthatecologicalissuesareat thecoreofconcerns abouttheviolence

U.S.
students,
particularlythoseinlow-incomeurbancommunities, areexposedtoorexperience
within
oroutsideofschool.Consequently,itsuggeststhatecological
systems mental
theory-based health
forteachers
consultation shouldbean essentialcomponent ofschoolviolence services.
prevention
itoutlines
Further, a broadframeworkforgenerating andschool-based
teacher- interventions
based
on empiricaldatafromtheyouthandschoolviolence literatures,
ecological
systems and
theory,
consultation
consultee-centered models.
It lies within our reach, before the end of the twentiethcentury,to change the futureof disadvantaged
children.The childrenwho today are at riskof growinginto unskilled,uneducated adults, unable to help
theirown childrento realize theAmericandream,can, instead,become productiveparticipantsin a twenty-
firstcenturyAmerica whose aspirationsthey will share. The cycle of disadvantage thathas appeared so
intractablecan be broken. (Schorr,1988).
Almost everychild in my class knows someone who was murderedor shot.I know it gets to themand
theycan't always thinkabout the lesson or school-but it's hard forme to thinkabout lessons too. I know
that most of my kids are on the streetsafterschool and they don't have any place to go and I'm afraid
thatsome of them mightget shot or beat up. Some of the kids come in and talk about walking to school
by the boarded-up houses and I think.. ."thankGod theymade it to school today." (a third-gradeteacher,
froman interviewwith the authors,January1994)
Such contrastingimagesof hope and despairhave hauntedmanyteachersworkingin
Americanschoolsin thepastfewdecades.Increasingly, problemsrelatedto issuessuch
as childmaltreatment, poverty, racism,and familyand community violencetendto be
systemic and overwhelming in someschoolsettings.Additionally,
manyoftheteachers
in theseschoolsare themselves experiencingproblemssimilarto thoseoftheirstudents.
Often,theseadultsneitherconfidenorconsultwiththeirfellowprofessionals aboutthe
violentexperiencestheyand theirstudentsshareorwitnesswithinand outsidetheschool
Instead,theirintenseand profound
setting. ofhopelessness,
feelings frustration,
isolation,
and angerfocuson theirstudentsand theproblemstheseyouthbringto school.Com-
poundingthissituation, mostschool-basedinitiativesaimedat eliminating or reducing
theincidenceand impactof youthand schoolviolenceare primarily directedtoward
students,implemented by nonteaching fromoutsidethe school,and not
professionals
partofthedailyfunctioning ofteachersortheschool.As such,theyoftenfailtorecognize
thatteachers, and otherschoolpersonnelmustaddressissues of violencein
principals,
ongoing,intimate,and complexways thatare frequently overlookedin curricularpack-
ages,programs, or auditorium eventsaimedat addressingthisissue.
JournalofNegroEducation,Vol. 65, No. 3 (1996)

336 Copyright
? 1998,HowardUniversity

Ourexperiences in mentalhealthconsultationpracticewithteachersand othereduca-
tionalprofessionalsinschoolsplaguedbyviolencehaveled us tobelievethatan expanded
andrefocused conceptual framework isneededtohelpeducatorsdevelopa comprehensive
and school-linkedapproachto violenceprevention. Thus,thisarticleoffersa framework
thatwillenableeducationaland psychological consultantsto moreclearlyconceptualize
theenvironmental and community contextofyouthand schoolviolence:ecologicaldevel-
opmentaltheory.We posit thatthe mentalheathconsultantsmusthave a thorough
understanding oftheecologicalcontextinwhichyouthandschoolviolenceoccurs.Further,
by blendingtheempiricalliterature on youthand schoolviolencewithteacher-centered
(Caplan& Caplan,1993)and ecologicaldevelopmental
case consultation theory(Bronfen-
brenner,1979),consultation servicescan be reframed to addresstheneeds of teachers,
otherschool-based andstudents
professionals, affected
ineducationalsettings byviolence.
Empiricalfindings toschoolviolencecanbe viewedthrough
relevant thelensofecological
developmental theoryand can,in turn,be used to guide and directconsultation.
This articlehas two purposes.First,it presentsa discussionof practicalissues we
believemustbe consideredwhenconsulting withteacherson issuesrelatedtoyouthand
schoolviolence.Thoughthe literature notesthatyouthand schoolviolenceoccursin
everycommunity in theUnitedStatesand in almosteveryschool(Lee & Croninger, 1995;
Metropolitan Life InsuranceCompany & HarrisPoll, 1993,1994,1995),this discussion
focuseson violenceinschoolsthatarelocatedinlow-income andhigh-crime communities
in theU.S. becausethesecommunities and schoolshave been shownto be moresignifi-
cantlyaffected by or involvedin violenceof a more lethaland interminable nature
(AmericanPsychological Association[APA],1993b;Astor,Behre,Fravil,& Wallace,1997;
Furlong,Babinski,Poland, & Mufioz,1996;National CenterforEducationStatistics
[NCES],1991).Second,it presentsecologicaldevelopmental theoryas an important tool
formentalhealthconsultants inhelpingteachersand otherschoolpersonnelframeappro-
priatequestionsand generateeffective, school-basedresponsesto youthand school
violence.
THE SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM
Whiledecreaseshavebeennotedin thenumberofadultviolentcrimescommitted in
citiesacrosstheUnitedStatesin thelast10 years,thenumberoflethalcrimescommitted
by adolescentsand youngchildrenhas burgeoned(Dohrn,1995;Sautter,1995).Indeed,
American youthhavebecomeparticularly vulnerable toassaultsand injury-related deaths
(Hausman, Spivak, & Prothrow-Stith,1994;Kachur et al., 1996).Between1985 and 1993,
therateofhomicideamongadolescents grewfaster thanitdid amongthegeneralpopula-
tion(Ash,Kellermann, Fuqua-Whitley,& Johnson, 1996).Homicidehasbecomethesecond
leadingcauseofmortality amongall adolescentsin theU.S. (Satcher, 1995).Nationaldata
revealthatadolescentsare at highand increasing riskofbeingvictimsand perpetrators
ofviolentacts.However,closerexamination of thedata revealsthatnotall adolescents
are equallyat risk.Forexample,theprevalenceofassaultiveviolenceand injury-related
deathsis morepronouncedamongmaleadolescentsand youngadults.As Harlow(1989)
reports,assaultinjuriesamongthisgrouparenotonlymorefrequent butaremorelikely
tobe severe.Indeed,youngmalesexperience violentcrimesat a ratedoublethatoftheir
femalecounterparts 1990;Hammond& Yung,1993).
(Christoffel,
Thepatterns ofyouthviolenceareevenmoredisconcerting whenspecificracial/ethnic
groupsare examined.AfricanAmericanyouthsin particularare at thegreatestriskof
beingbothvictimsand perpetrators ofassaultivecrimes(Hammond& Yung,1993;Gray,
1991;Isaacs,1992;Prothrow-Stith & Weissman,1991;Shakoor& Chalmers,1991).Homi-
TheJournalofNegroEducation 337

cideis theleadingcauseofdeathforAfrican American youths(Ashetal.,1996;Hammond
& Yung,1994;NationalCenterforHealthStatistics, 1992).As Ash etal. (1996)note,the
rateoffirearm-related homicidesmorethantripledforAfrican American maleadolescents
from1985to 1993.
Garbarino,Dubrow,and Pardo(1992)comparedtheeffects ofviolenceon childrenin
war-tomdevelopingcountries and childreninimpoverishedinner-cityareasoftheUnited
States.Theirfindings suggestseveraldisturbingconclusions.First,theyfoundthatpoor
childreninU.S.innercitiesobserveandexperience as muchormoreviolencethanchildren
in manywarringnations.Second,whencomparingshort-and long-term mentalhealth
implications,theymaintainedthatthe U.S. childrenfaredworseon bothcounts(e.g.,
post-traumatic sleepand conductdisorders,
stress,depression, etc.)thandid thechildren
in somewar-torn countries.Moreover,in someinner-cityU.S. communities, theschool,
thoughsurrounded by whatoftenappearstobe senselessand uncontrollable familyand
community violence,is theurbanchild'sonlysafehaven.
The Natureand Frequencyof School Violence

Violent
School-Associated Deaths.Consistent withthepatterns oflethalviolenceamong
adolescentsand youngchildrennotedoverthepast decade,an increasehas also been
notedin thelethality oftheviolentactsthatoccurin thenation'sschools.Althoughit is
notentirely clearwhatpercentofyouthviolenceoccursin schoolsettings, manyforms
of violencebetweenyouthsare associatedwiththe social or physicalcontextsof the
school.As earlyas 1978,theSafe SchoolStudymandatedby Congresssuggestedthat
schoolsmaybe themostviolentsetting forAmericanyouths(NationalInstitute ofEduca-
tion& U.S. Department ofHealth,Educationand Welfare, 1978).Thefindings ofa recent
Galluppoll indicatethat92% ofthegeneralpublicbelieveviolenceis a seriousproblem
in U.S. schools(Elam,Rose,& Gallup,1994).
Reporting on data gatheredfrom1992to 1994,Kachuretal. (1996)estimatethatthe
overallincidenceofschool-associated violentdeathsforchildrenin grades9 through12
was 0.27per 100,000student-years. Theyfurther contendthatracial/ethnic in
minorities
urbanschoolswereat greatestriskofinvolvement in theseincidents.
AfricanAmerican
studentsin all gradeshad thehighestestimatedrateofschool-associated violentdeaths
(0.28per100,000student-years forAfrican American students comparedto0.03per100,000
forWhiteAmericanstudents).Similarly, such deathsweremorelikelyto occuramong
studentsin urbansettingscomparedto thosein ruralor suburbansettings(.18,.09,and
.02 per 100,000,respectively). The mostshockingaspectof thesenumbers,however,is
thattheyrepresent actualdeathsand do not includeattempted murders,assaultswith
deadlyweapons,sexualassaults,feloniousbattery, or beatingsthatdo notresultin fatal
injuries.As such,theypresenta conservative and extreme measureofthedegreeofschool-
associatedviolencethatis reallyoccurring and can onlyhintat theactualprevalenceof
violencein ournation'sschools.
Injury-Related
Fighting. A recentnationalsurveyconductedby theCentersforDisease
Controland Prevention (1996)notesthat46%ofhighschoolmalesand 30%ofhighschool
femalesreportedbeingin at least one fightover a 12-month periodthatwas serious
enoughto requiremedicaltreatment by a doctoror nurse.Nevertheless, aggregated
nationaldata hide some important regionaldifferences and geographicalvariationsin
the scope of school violence.For example,duringa 12-month period,42% of polled
studentsin Detroitschoolsreportedbeingin injury-related fightscomparedto only28%
of studentsin San Franciscoschools.Likewise,the12-month incidenceof suchfighting
338 TheJournal
ofNegroEducation

formale highschoolstudentsin Detroitwas 199.6fightsper 100 studentscomparedto
96.4per 100studentsin San Francisco.
Whereand WhenSchool ViolenceOccurs

Previousstudieshave underscored theimportance ofdocumenting whereand when
schoolviolenceoccurs.For example,thelandmarksafeschoolstudyconductedduring
the1970sfoundthatviolenceusuallyoccurredin areassuchas stairways, hallways,and
cafeterias;
and thattheriskofschoolencounterswas greatestduringthetransition
periods
betweenclasses(NationalInstitute ofEducation& U.S. DepartmentofHealth,Education
and Welfare,1978).Thatstudyfurther notedthat80% of theviolentcrimescommitted
againstyouthand adultsat schoolsoccurredduringregularschoolhours.Manyother
articlesand policyreportshave implicatedtheseand otherdangerousschoollocations
and times (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development,1993; Goldstein,1994;
D. C. Gottfredson,1995;G. D. Gottfredson,
1985;Kachuretal., 1996;Olweus,1991;Slaby,
Barham,Eron,& Wilcox,1994).Ofall assaultsandrobberiesreportedatsecondaryschools,
forexample,a NationalInstitute ofEducationand U.S. DepartmentofHealth,Education
and Welfare(1978)studyreportsthat32% occurredbetweenclass periods,while26%
occurredduringlunch.
Perceptionsof School Violence

Severalnationalsurveyshave indicatedthatschoolviolenceis a seriousconcernfor
elementary schoolteachers(Metropolitan LifeInsuranceCompany& HarrisPoll,1994;
NCES, 1991).Likewise,commonthemesand difficulties emergewhenteachers'concerns
about schoolviolenceare ecologicallyoriented.For example,Astor,Meyer,and Behre
(1997)notethatduringtheconsultation process,teachersoftendiscussschoolviolence
as itrelatesto otherecologicalissuessuchas teacherburnout, absenteeism,and turnover
rates.Teachersalso mentionisolation,lackofadministrative support,and lackofclarity
abouthow tointervene whenviolenteventsoccuras issuesfurther hinderingtheirability
to intervene effectively.
Otherpractitioners workingin schoolsare also likelyto encounter potentiallylethal
or lethaleventsin theirworkplaces.Forexample,in a recentnationalsurveyon school
violence,71% of school-basedsocial workersreportedthe occurrenceof a potentially
lethalor lethaleventin theschoolsin whichtheyservedduringthelastacademicyear
(Astoretal., 1997).Over 87% of thesocial workerspolled who servedin low-socioeco-
nomic-status, schoolsreportedsimilareventsin theirschools.However,very
inner-city
high percentagesof social workersin urban (78%), suburban(70%), and rural(81%)
schoolsalso reportedat leastone potentiallylethalor lethaleventat theirschoolsin the
same year.In anothersurvey,over 30% of school-basedsocial workersindicatedthat
theyconsideredleavingtheprofession due to theirconcernsoverschoolviolence(Astor
etal., 1997).
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY AND MENTAL HEALTH CONSULTATION WITH TEACHERS:

A FOCUS ON YOUTH AND SCHOOL VIOLENCE
An understanding oftheinterplay ofhistorical, and psychosocial

sociocultural, forces
in theschoolsettingis a prerequisite
foranytypeofeffective mentalhealthconsultation
withteachers(Caplan & Caplan, 1993).In guidingthe developmentof teacher-based
interventions,
theconsultant mustexploreand monitoran interconnected fieldofforces:
the school community, the teachers'and consultants'representative
organizationsor
TheJournal
ofNegroEducation 339

agencies,teachersand consultants individually,and youthclientsand theirfamilies.
Professionalsin severalfieldsrelatedto childand familymentalhealthhave developed
modelsthatemphasizea multidisciplinary and coordinated approachto servicedelivery
(APA, 1993a;Behrman,1992;Burchard,1990;Morrill,1992;Stroul& Friedman,1986).
Ongoingmultidisciplinary consultation-collaborationservicesare essentialcomponents
of thesemodels.Unfortunately, however,mostare psychologically orientedand focus
mainlyonemotional, behavioral,orcognitive deficits
withinindividualchildren oryouth.
Thespecifictoolsforhelpingconsultants understand theoverburdened ecologicalenviron-
mentsofviolence-plagued schoolsarerarelydescribedin theconsultation nor
literature,
are thecomplexservicedeliverysystemsconfounding contemporary youthand school
violenceinterventioneffortsdiscussedto anygreatextent.
EcologicalSystemsTheory
Ecologicalsystems theory is an important toolformentalhealthconsultants inhelping
teachersand otherschoolpersonnelframeappropriate questionsand generateeffective,
school-basedresponsesto youthand schoolviolence.The foundational workof Lewin
(1935,1951),Bronfenbrenner (1977,1979,1980),Hobbs(1966),Garbarino (1982),Garbarino
et al. (1992),and others(Jessor, 1993;Sameroff, Seifer,Barocas,Zax, & Greenspan,1987;
Sameroff & Fiese,1990) articulatesand definesa theoretical and researchbase foran
ecologicalmodelofdevelopment. Theseauthorsdescribea multilevel approachforconcep-
tualizingand studying thedevelopment ofthechild.Bronfenbrenner (1979),forexample,
identifies fourinseparableand interconnected systemsthatframeall humantransactions
and influence humandevelopment-themicrosystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and the
macrosystem-which togetherencompassthe ecosystem.An integration of schematic
representations of Bronfenbrenner's conceptualizationby Hobbs (1966) and Garbarino
(1982)visuallydepictsthechildin thesefoursystems(see FigureI).
TheMicrosystem. Microsystems arethosedomainsinvolvingdirectinteraction between
a childand an environment. Accordingto Bronfenbrenner (1979),a microsystem is "a
patternof activities, roles and interpersonal relationsexperiencedby the developing
personin a givensettingwithparticularphysicaland materialcharacteristics" (p. 22).
Thereare manymicrosystems in a child'slife-his or herimmediateinteractions within
thehome,schoolsetting, or neighborhood peergroup,forexample-each ofwhichcan
be further brokendown intosmallerand smallersubsystems.
Researchsuggeststhatchildren developingin overburdened orimpoverished commu-
nitiesfrequently have a verylimitednumberofsupportive microsystems. Someofthese
childrenmay onlyhave the school as a safe physicalsetting(Garbarinoetal., 1992),
whileothersmaybe experiencing theirdevelopment in potentiallyharmful, negative,or
functionally nonexistent microsystems. Bothcircumstances place an enormousstrainon
thechild,family, and school.In turn,teachersworkingwithchildrenfromphysically or
psychologically impoverished environments mayfeelhopelessor overwhelmed by the
added burdensplacedon them.
Froman ecologicalperspective, havingdetailedknowledgeof both students'and
teachers'microsystems is essentialforeffective mentalhealthconsultation, particularly
as itrelatesto theprevention ofyouthand schoolviolence.Forexample,an ecologically
sensitiveconsultant will ask questionsthathelp teachersexploreand becomeaware of
theeffects of thenumberand qualityof normative developmental settingsavailableto
thestudentsin theirclassrooms.
TheMesosystem. Themesosystem referstothatpattern ofinteractionsand relationships
betweentwoor moremicrosystems in whicha childparticipates. Forexample,relations
340 TheJournal
ofNegroEducation

FIGURE I
An EcologicalRepresentation
ofChildDevelopment:
TheMicro-,Meso-,Exo-,and Macrosystems
-> -> '-* TIMEANDDEVELOPMENT - -> >

Politics Meda Macrosystem Religion Holidays
wcpMesosystemm
\ ~~~Nfosystem Microsystem
/i g y
/policeD<pt.\ R *wk / ~~~~Parents
/ Doctors \/Sibl/ngs a
wyers Gags F EcI

COMMUNITYAIL
i
c ol Yuth Groups Pak CHrL oeEnvirommeict/
NEIGHBORHOOD | SCHOOL
T
\ Pl\
Play Grounds
Teachers
Seach'Ai
Aid Peers
PEe!.inst
Centers
Shopping SpeechTherapist
Psychologists
'ea1e Microsystem Microsystem

O
47
Mesosystem /y
Laws Macrosystem Norms
AdaptedfromHobbs (1966) and Garbarino(1982).
The Journalof Negro Education 341

betweena child'shome and school constitute a mesosystem. Mesosystemsassume a
varietyofformsand combinations thatinclude,in Bronfenbrenner's (1979)view,"other
personswho participate activelyin bothsettings, intermediate linksin a socialnetwork,
formal andinformal communications amongsettings, and,againclearlyinthephenomeno-
logicaldomain,theextentand natureofknowledgeand attitudes existingin one setting
abouttheother"(p. 25).
Researchsuggeststhatchildrenin overburdenedenvironments frequently have
extremely negativeor nonexistent mesosystems. Veryoftenin such settings, students'
parentsand peergroupshave historiesofextremely negativepersonalexperiences with
schoolsystemsrangingfromschooldropoutto academicfailure.For example,Duncan
and Burns(1994)foundthatparentsoftroubledchildrenfrequently reporthavingsuch
seriousproblemswithschoolpersonnelthatcommunication patternsare markedlydis-
turbed.Perhapsmorefrequently, overburdened schoolstendto avoid suchparents,and
vice-versa.Moreover, withaggressive andemotionally impairedchildren, parentalcontact
is frequentlyrestricted to discussionofsevereproblems.
A restricted rangeof microsystems leads to a limitednumberof mesosystems such
as therelationship betweentheschooland socialserviceagencies,youthprograms, police,
and volunteer organizations. In suchinstances, teachersoftenstrugglewiththequestion
ofwhoseroleor responsibility it is withinthebroaderecologicalenvironment to handle
a child'sproblem.Quitecommonly, theyresistorarereluctant toaddresssocialproblems
thattheysee as theresponsibility ofothermicrosystems. Someteachersmayblameother
microsystems suchas thehomeormentalhealthsystemfortheproblem, and subsequently
designatetheproblemas outsidetheresponsibility of theschool.However,ecological
theorymaintainsthatthehealthymaintenance of mesosystems are essentialforproper
individualas well as organizational development.
TheExosystem. As Bronfenbrenner (1979)relates,theexosystem refers to "one ormore
settingsthatdo notinvolvethedevelopingpersonas an activeparticipant, butin which
eventsoccurthataffector are affected by whathappensin the settingcontaining the
developingperson"(p. 25). Schoolboarddecisions,stressful eventsin a parent'semploy-
ment,eventsin theteacher'sfamilylife,or changesin thenetworkof a child'sparental
supports(e.g.,friends) areexamplesofsuchevents.Whiletheyaffect thechild'smicrosys-
temsin an indirectmanner,theycan also alterthe qualityand natureof interaction
betweenthechildand each ofthemesosystems.
Exosystem factors havebeenshowntoexertpowerful influence onandwithinimpover-
ishedsettings(APA,1993a;Eron,Gentry, & Schlegel,1994;Garbarinoetal., 1992;Jessor,
1993;Hammond& Yung,1993).In suchsettings, parentalunemployment orunderemploy-
ment,highratesofteacherburnoutorstress,internal battlesamongschooldistrict person-
nel,conflictive schoolboard policies,or nonexistent or fragmented provisionof school
servicesand equipmenthave a huge and negativeimpacton children'sdevelopment.
TheMacrosystem. Themacrosystem includestheoverallstructural patterns oftheculture
in whicha child lives and grows.The economy,laws, politicalevents,and religious
beliefsof a societyor community fall withinthe macrosystem domain.Accordingto
Bronfenbrenner (1979),themacrosystem refersto "consistencies, in theformand content
oflower-order systems(micro-, meso-,and exo-)thatexist,or couldexist,at thelevelof
the subcultureor the cultureas a whole,along withany beliefsystemsor ideology
underlying such consistencies" (p. 26). Thisincludesthesimilarities in thestructure of
education,familycustomsand behavior,and government withina specificcultureas well
as thedissimilarities betweensubgroupsor subsystems.
Culturaldifferences at thesocietallevelare obvious,butthesedifferences maynotbe
as apparenton an interpersonal level.Forexample,schoolsservingurban,minority, and
342 TheJournal
ofNegroEducation

low-incomestudentshave been shownto be underfunded at everylevel comparedto
thoseservingsuburban,non-minority, and middle-to upper-income students(Kantor&
Brenzel,1992;Kozol, 1991).Additionally,however,thelackofresourcesdevotedto the
formermay cause inordinatestressand organizationalconflictwithinthesesettings.
Subsequently,theirteachersmayframea violenceprobleminterpersonally whenin fact
itis primarily
relatedto lackofresourcesorinequitablepolicydecisions.In suchsettings,
thementalhealthconsultant shoulddirectteachersto exploretherelationship between
themacrosystem and theirown interpersonaltransactionsof concern.
Teacher-Centered MentalHealthConsultationWithinan Ecological
SystemsFramework
Understandinga child'sdevelopment is onlypossiblewhenone understands thetotal
contextinwhichhe orshelives.Viewingdevelopment as a continualtransaction
between
thechild'smicro-,meso-,exo-,and macrosystems requiresthementalhealthconsultant
to considerdevelopment on a varietyoflevelsand in a multitude ofnaturalsettings.
In
thislight,behavioris considerednormalor abnormalonlyin relationto a complexset
ofdirectand indirectreactionsand transactionsbetweenthechildand elementsofeach
oftheseecologicalsystems. Thus,a childwho exhibits behavioralor emotionalproblems
is symptomaticofdisequilibriumin theecosystem.Itis notonlythechildwhois troubled,
but ratherthe entireecosystemof which the child is part.As Conoley and Gutkin
(1986)note:
From this perspective dysfunctionalbehavior patternsexhibitedby individuals are seen as failures in
matchingenvironmentaldemands with individual skills, attitudesor developmental stages... Problems
exist not withinpeople or environmentsper se, but ratherwithinthe interactionbetween the individual
and the contextualcomplexity.(p. 403)
The underlyingpremiseofteacher-centered mentalhealthconsultation is to improve
theabilityofthosewithdirectresponsibility forchildren withinoneofthemostimportant
elementsofthemicrosystem to addressfourcriticaldeficitareas:teachers'lackofknowl-
edge,lackofskill,lackofprofessional objectivity,
and lackofself-confidence (Caplan &
Caplan,1993).Whenecologicalor systemicissues are theprimaryfocusof a teacher's
problems, thedistinctionsbetweenthesefourareasbecomenoticeably blurred.Moreover,
in highlyoverburdened or distressedenvironments, all fourdeficitsmay be present
simultaneously.
In such settings,
however,it becomesless helpfulto conceptualizethe problemas
residingwithintheteachers. Anexclusivefocusonteachers inadvertentlyplacestheblame
ontheseprofessionals whentheproblemis infactsystemwide. Consequently, consultation
inoverburdened settingsshouldfocusongroupempowerment ororganizational strategies
thatteacherscan use to overcomeecologicalbarriers. Thisapproachcontrasts withmany
currentviolenceinterventions, whichfocusonly on the individual(e.g., social skills
training)and thusimplythattheproblemexistswithintheindividualand can be solved
by changingtheindividual.Theecologicalapproachreframes theproblembyexamining
how the individualor groupwith commonproblemscan alterselectaspectsof the
burdensomecontext.
Theecologicalapproachtomentalhealthconsultation inthedistressed schoolenviron-
mentpositsthatinformation on youthand schoolviolenceis a toolforteacherempower-
mentratherthana prescription forsolvingtheproblemor an excuseforinaction.What
at firstmay appear as teachers'lack of objectivityor confidence withregardto these
issuesmayin factbe due to theirlackofknowledgeaboutand awarenessoftheeffects
of the environment or of the availabilityof community resourcesand organizational
support.Thus,theconsultant is encouragedto sharewithhis or herteacher-consultees
TheJournal

current research findings on theirgeneraland specific areasofconcernas wellas informa-
tionon resourcesand supportive programs. Thisknowledgecanfrequently inform teach-
ers' decisionmakingand facilitateeffective teacheradaptationand problemsolving
aroundissuesofviolenceandviolenceprevention. Inthesetypesofsituations, consultation
servicesshouldbe guidedby thefollowingquestions:
* Is theteacherawareofresearchdirectly relevantto theissue or topicofconcern?
* Is theteacherknowledgeable aboutthepotentialschoolor community resourcesavail-
able regarding thisproblem?
* Has theteacherthoughtof,discussed,or assessedhis or herconcernwiththeparents?
* Has the teacherdiscussedtheproblemwithpotentialsourcesof supportwithinthe
school?
* Is theteacheropen to receivingor availableto receivethisinformation?
* Aretherenaturalsupportswithinthesettingthattheteacherhas notutilized?
* Arethereotherconsultees withinthesystemexperiencing thesameorsimilarproblems?
Teachers'lack ofskillin handlingproblemsrelatedto youthand schoolviolencein
overburdened settingsmaybe due to deficitsin theirpreserviceor inservicetraining,
administrative support,parentalsupport,co-teachersupport,or inadequatephysical
resources. Underthesecircumstances, thementalhealthconsultant's ethicalresponsibility
is tohelpteachers identify resourceswithintheirschoolcommunities, orbuildings
districts,
thatcan addresstheproblemmoreeffectively or help teachersgaintheskillstheyneed
to do so. Towardthisend,theconsultant's knowledgeofschool,district, and community
resourcesis essential.Consultantsshould also be aware thatpersonsor organizations
withtheskillstoaddressschoolandyouthviolencemayexistwithinanothermicrosystem
suchas thechild'shome,neighborhood, or largercommunity.
Caplanand Caplan's(1993)approachis particularly comprehensive and detailedwith
regardtotheobstaclesteachers'lackofobjectivity maycreate.However,in overburdened
settings,teacher-consultees mayexpressstrong, openlyracist,derogatory, or prejudicial
attitudes towardcertaingroupsina schoolcommunity ortowardparentsand/orchildren
of a particular racial,ethnic,or religiousgroup.Whenthesefeelingsand attitudesare
systemic and embeddedwithintheschooland schooldistrict organizations,mentalhealth
consultants mustweightheeffects-individually andcollectively-of teachers'stereotypi-
cal attitudes,behaviors,and feelingstowardvariouspopulations.
Our consultation experiencessuggestthatschoolwideor groupinserviceworkshops
or smallgroupdialoguesessionsare themosteffective meansfordispellingstereotypes
withininstitutions. Encouragingand structuring positivecontactbetweentwo or more
microsystems, suchas theschooland thehomeor theschooland community groups,is
also a usefulmeansofsuspendingteachers'tendenciesto view theirstudentsand their
students'parentsand homecommunities stereotypically.
Froman ecologicalperspective, teachers'lack of confidenceabout theirabilityto
handleproblemsofyouthand schoolviolenceis theresultofa numberofrelateddeficits:
a lackofadministrative support;insufficient remuneration or otherformsofrecognition;
thepresenceofan abundanceofoverwhelmed, disturbed, or otherwisedifficultstudents
in theirclassrooms;and inadequatepreservice or inservicetraining abouttheirstudents
andtheproblemstheyface.Factorsoriginating outsideoftheschoolsetting-thosearising
inteachers'family lives,forexample-also lead toan erosionofself-confidence. Ironically,
therehas beenverylittleresearchinvestigating how teachers'personallivesand stresses
outsidetheirworklivesaffect thequalityoftheirteaching, theirmotivation to teach,or
theirself-confidence in theirabilityto teach.Consultants shouldbe awarethatexternal
stressescan affectteachers'work performance. Similarly,stressorswithinthe school
bureaucracy itselfcan diminishteachers'feelingsofself-efficacy.
344 TheJournal
ofNegroEducation

In schoolswhereteachersfacea numberof deficitssuch as poor salaries,low per-
pupilexpenditures,highstudentfailurerates,and difficult
studentpopulations,teachers
maybe experiencing severestressand notbe awarethatthesituationis largelyoutside
oftheircontrol.Thementalhealthconsultantin thistypeofsetting
mustbe acutelyaware
thatlack of resourcesand supportcreatesa situationin whichteachers'lack of self-
confidenceis appropriate
and normative.
The Complexityof School Violence:Social Statusand Hierarchy
The following statement,
relatedto us by an inner-city
elementary
schoolprincipalin
1992,capsulizesa recurring
themein our consultationswithschoolprofessionals:
I have about 25 childrenin thisschool who are constantlygettingintofights.They are in my officeeveryday
almost all the time... it doesn't matterwhich teachertheyhave, they act out and get into fights.I know
theyare all having some troubleat home and the stufftheysee on the streetsdoesn't help any. If we can't
get to these childrensooner or later theywill get into more serious things.I've seen it beforewith other
youngstersover and over again.
Ecologicaltheorysuggeststhatnegativesocialattribution cyclesbetweenpeers,school
personnel, and highlyaggressivechildrenmaycontribute to theperpetuation ofviolence
in theschoolsetting.It further suggeststhatresearchon and observation ofthewaysin
whichclassroomand school social hierarchiesinteractwiththosechildrenwho are
involvedin youthand schoolviolencecanbe used todesignclassroominterventions that
arewithintheteacherscontrol. Forexample,severalrecurring themesemerging fromour
consultationswithschoolpersonnelare corroborated in theliterature. One of themost
compellingof theseis thefindingthathighlyaggressivechildrenare overwhelmingly
perceivednegatively by peers,teachers, and schooladministrators (Beynon& Delamont,
1984;Cairns& Cairns,1991;Lancelotta& Vaughn,1989;Patterson, 1982;Pearl,1987;
Younger& Piccinin,1989).
Conversely,thesechildrenhave negativeperceptions ofothermembersoftheschool
socialsystem(Dodge,1980,1986,1985;Guerra& Slaby,1989;Dodge,Pettit, McClaskey,
& Brown,1986).Theyalso seemtobe awareoftheirnegativesocialstatus.As such,they
cometoviewschoolas a punitivesetting and subsequently losetheirmotivation toremain
investedin schoolsocialsystems.Thispatternof socialrejectionand isolationhas been
outlinedby Cairnsand Cairns(1991)and others(Coie, Underwood,& Lochman,1991;
Younger& Piccinin,1989),who positthatby thethirdgrade,highlyaggressivechildren
tendto gravitatetowardotheroutcastor similarly rejectedyouthand formaggressive
peer groups.Eron's (1987) longitudinalstudysuggeststhatearlyaggressionactively
interferes
withinitialacademicgains,thuscontributing significantlyto a patternofaca-
demicfailure.Forsomechildren, theseschool-based cyclesmaybe veryfirmly established
as earlyas kindergarten and firstgrade(Patterson, Capaldi,& Bank,1991).
Whatalso emergesfroma reviewof developmental researchis a pictureofa strong
socialhierarchy withinschoolsthatseparateschildrenwho "act out" theiraggressions
fromthosewho are nonaggressive. Froma youngage, manyaggressivechildren(or
groupsofaggressivechildren) maintaina socialstatusnearthebottomoftheschoolsocial
hierarchy.Thathierarchy is maintained bothby theaggressivechildren'sactionsand by
adults'and peers'perceptions ofbehavioralpatterns withintheschool.
Based on the stability of peer and teacherratingsof aggressivechildren,it is clear
that,withina givenschool setting,virtuallyeveryoneknowswho thesechildrenare,
and thisremainsconstantformostchildrenthroughout theirelementary schoolyears.
However,teachersand principalsin elementary schoolshave the abilityto influence
children'ssocialgroupsand playgroups.Iftheybecomeawareofthissocialpatternthey
can develop ways to increasean aggressivechild'spositiveinvolvement with"non-
TheJournal

rejected"childrenand stop the trajectoryof isolationand rejection.Ecologicaltheory
suggeststhatteachersshoulduse thisknowledgeto generatesolutionsto youthviolence
that:(a) raisethesocialhierarchyofhighlyaggressivechildrenwithintheschoolsocial
hierarchy, and (b) facilitate
morepositiveperceptions betweenthesechildrenand the
variousschoolsocialsubsystems.
FOSTERING TEACHER-BASED SCHOOL VIOLENCE PREVENTION EFFORTS
TableI presentsa snapshotofhowecologicalconceptscanbe appliedtomentalhealth

consultationatthemicro-,meso-,exo-,and macrosystemlevelsinoverburdened violence-
riddenschoolsettings.As shown,theseconceptsguideconsultation in fourcriticalareas:
theinterpretationofpsychologicalknowledge,theassessmentoftheschoolecology,the
development ofpotential
interventions, ofquestionsforfuture
andthegeneration research.
TableII delineatesand presentsexamplesofteacher-generated
violenceprevention inter-
ventionsbased in parton thisapproach.
Changeat theMesosystemLevel
Effecting
Home-School Interactions.
Researchdemonstrates thatthehome-schoolrelationship of
violentchildrenis typicallyweak (Garbarinoetal., 1992;Olweus,1991;Patterson, 1982;
Pattersonetal., 1991).Typically,outreacheffortson thepartofschoolpersonneltoward
theparents(or othercaretakers) ofthesechildrenis rareand negative(Olweus,1991).In
manycases,theseparentshave themselves experienced schoolfailureand othernegative
experiencesin schoolsettings.Manyhave also beenfoundtobe ineffective in controlling
violencewithintheirownhomesettings (Eron,Huesmann,& Zelli,1991;Patterson, 1982).
Nevertheless, teachersand principalscontinueto expectsuchparentsto disciplinetheir
childrenafterthelatterhave been involvedin violentepisodesat school.Subsequently,
theseparents'oftenintenseand mutualfeelingsof frustration createa cyclethatonly
increasesthenegativeattitudesand interactions betweenhomeand school.At thevery
minimum,the aggressivechildlearnsthathis or her school and parentsrarelyhave
positivecontact, ifanycontactat all.
Ecologicaltheorypredictsthatchildren'sawarenessofa weak mesosystem or lackof
communication betweensettings maycontribute to thefrequency oftheirinvolvement in
aggressiveactionsandepisodes(Bronfenbrenner, 1979;Goldstein& Huff,1993).Therefore,
mentalhealthconsultation withteachersshouldfocuson ways to help teacherschange
the negativeperceptionsexistingwithinthe home and school.They shouldbeginby
sharingwithteachersfindings gleanedfromresearchinthisarea.Consulteeswhobecome
aware of thisresearchoftenattemptto createa positiverelationship betweenthetwo.
Theyfrequently becomeless angryat theparentsand morewillingto contactthehomes
ofviolentchildren aftertheyencounter researchsuggesting thatparentsareusuallyunable
to controlthechild'saggressionat home.Thisinformation helpslay thefoundation for
a potentialallianceand sharedset of goals betweenteachersand parents,the school
and thehome.Consultantscan thenlead teacherstowarddesigningor implementing
interventionsthatattempt toportray schoolsas supportive settings
forparentsoftroubled
childrenratherthanpunitiveor blamingones.In theformer, teachersand otherschool
personnelacknowledgeand sharethedifficult taskofhandlingaggressivechildren while
emphasizingand strengthening theparents'capacityto raisethosechildrencorrectly.
Community-School andPeerGroup-School Interactions.Patterson's
(1982;Patterson etal.,
1991)researchstronglysupportsthe notionthataggressivechildrenneed to be more
comprehensively monitored andsupervised byadultsthanotherchildren. Ampleevidence
supportsthenotionthatpeersocialization beforeandafterschoolandduringtheweekends
346 TheJournal
ofNegroEducation

TABLEI
OrientedDimensions
Ecologically forConsideration
inMentalHealthConsultation
withTeachers
on ViolencePrevention,
bySystemLevels
ROLE SYSTEM LEVEL RECOMMENDED APPROACHES
Interpretation Micro- Providerelevant information and research on possibledynamics in

ofSocialand theschoolsetting (e.g.,peergroupdynamics, schoolclimate,
Psychological teacher-child interactions, teachersupport systems, teacherburnout
Knowledge prevention, schoolpolicy,etc.)through teacherin-service training,
groupconsultations, or on a case-by-case basis.
Meso- Shareresearch findings on effective home-schoolinteractions (e.g.,
school-based programs, parentalinvolvement activities);
familiarize
teacherswithschemataoutlining thedomainsofthehome,
community, and school;provideinformation aboutspecific
community resources availableto theschool.
Exo- Heighten teachers'awarenessofexosystems through data,research,
and school-based examples;helpthemto integrate knowledge
aboutlackofmesosystem supports intoan awarenessofthearrayof
forcesaffecting theproblemofschoolviolence.
Macro- Describemacrosystem interactions (interpersonal and intergroup)
withtheexo-,meso-,and microsystems usingresearch on the
impactofracism,poverty, community violence,and lackofmaterial
resources on education;discusshowsocialdefinitions ofviolence
affectsschools'responses to violence.
Assessmentof Micro- Assessthedynamics withinand betweenvariousschoolsubgroups
theSchool (e.g.,teachers;administrators; secretarialstaff;
pupilpersonnel
Ecology professionals; maintenance staff;transportation workers; classroom,
schoolyard, and lunchroom assistants;and schoolmonitors); explore
theeffectiveness ofnatural support systems withinand betweenthe
differentsubgroups; assessteachers'understanding oftheirschools'
vision,purpose,procedures, and informal powerhierarchies; assess
thenumber and quantity ofothermicrosystems.
Meso- Assesstherelationship betweentheschooland othermicrosystems
suchas local agencies,peergroups,home,religious organizations,
youthgroups,and recreation facilities.
Exo- Assesstheextent to whichexosystem forcesaffect thehomeand
schoolenvironment; determine howtheeducationalsystem
accommodates to meettheneedsofparents whoare under-or
unemployed or singleparents; determine theextent oforganized
criminal activities (e.g.,gangs)intheschoolcommunity; assessthe
impactofdistrict and statelevelpolicieson teachersalaries,per-
pupilspending, schoolfunctioning, dropouts, homevisits,
absenteeism, etc.;determine thelevelofcontinuing education
trainingavailableforteachers.
Macro- Assesstheimpactofracism,poverty, religion,and local and state
politicson theschool;discussthefunction and roleoftheschoolin
thecommunity setting; assesspresent schoolactivities withina
historicaltimeframe.

TABLEI (continued)
EcologicallyOrientedDimensionsforConsiderationin Mental Health ConsultationwithTeachers
on Violence Prevention,by SystemLevels
ROLE SYSTEM LEVEL RECOMMENDED APPROACHES
Assistance
in Micro- Encourage teachers to use thestrengths ofschoolsubsystems as
Intervention supports; explorewithteachersthedomainofvariousprofessionals
Planning within theschooland discusshowtheymight worktogether to
addresstheproblem;ifconcernsaresharedbymanyconsultees,
encouragegroupconsultations to developa moresystemic solution
and reduceisolation; encourageteachersto thinkoftheschoolas a
sociodevelopmental entityakinto thefamily; clarifywithin-school
policyand procedures.
Meso- Exploreand/or strengthen a rangeofmesosystem interventions (e.g.,
family celebrations, homevisits,student presentations, frequent
telephonecontacts, home-schoolcommunications methods, use of
theschoolforadulteducationactivities, creationofan activePTA).
Exo- Attend schoolboardmeetings; writeletters to districtlevel
administrators;becomeawareoftheeffect oflocal industry,
factories,and employment strainson children's families; workwith
law enforcement, library system,and socialagenciesto provide
supports forfamilies or neighborhoods.
Macro- Use mediasourcesto expandpublicawarenessaboutchronicand
pervasive issuesrelatedto schoolviolence.Advocateforsupportive
statelawsor educationalcodes. Have theschoolbecomeawareof
theimpactofethnicity, race,religionand poverty and develop
teacher-initiatedcurricula or programs thatintegrate theseissues.
Helpconsulteesinterpret and understand socialand politicalforces
affectingthem.
Helping Micro- Collectdataon theeffect ofpoorlyequippedclassrooms and
Teachers deterioratingbuildings on teachers'and children's mentalhealth,
Conduct and on children's academicachievement; determine children's
TheirOwn understanding ofviolenceand schooldynamics; exploretheeffects
Researchon ofteachersupport systems on student performance; determine how
theSchool andto whatextent teachersare affected byschoolpolicyor school
Ecology organization.
Meso- Evaluatetheeffectiveness ofhome-schoolinterventions (e.g.,home
visitsortelephonecalls,family celebrations in school,school
performances); collectdataon theeffects of
community-school-teacher interventions on schoolattendance,
dropout, and academicachievement.
Exo- Evaluatedistrict-level supportsto theclassroom, continuing
educationclassesforteachers, and teacherinvolvement indistrict-
levelpolicymaking; determine effectsofexosystem pressures (e.g.,
theshutdown ofor massivelay-offs at localfactories) on children's
behavioral and schoolperformance; determine effects ofper-pupil
spending levelson thementalhealthofteachersand students.
Macro- Assessteacher'sawarenessand integration ofmacrosystem issues
thateffectthemon an interpersonal basis;explorethepoliticaland
socialmeaning oftheschoolwithchildren, parents, teachers, and
community members; exploreresponsibility issueswithregardto
violenceprevention.
348 TheJournal
ofNegroEducation

TABLE11
Consultation
Outcomes:SampleTeacher-Generated
Interventions
SYSTEM LEVEL TEACHER-GENERATED
INTERVENTIONS
MICROSYSTEM Developconflict management programs targeting children,teachers, staff,

aides,
bus drivers, cafeteria workers, parents,and volunteers
Developclearand detailedschoolprocedures and policyon howstudents,
teachers, parents, shouldrespondto perpetrators and victims ofaggression
Raisethesocialstatusand prosocialbehaviorofaggressive children within the
peergroupbyinvolving themas visibleleadersin peertutoring orschool
beautification programs; instudent-organized violenceprevention dramatic or
artprograms; oras principal orteacherassistants, yardor assembly monitors,
trafficguards, or iunchroom assistants.
Increasethenumber ofadultmonitors during classroom transitionperiodsand in
high-risk schoollocations
Provideviolenceprevention trainingforhalland yardmonitors and forbus
drivers
Developsystems ofmonitoring childrenbeforeand after schooland betweenthe
schooland homesettings
Assignteachersas mentors and buddiesto students throughout theirschoolyears
MESOSYSTEM Institute frequent andfriendly visitsbyteachersand principals to thehomesof
all students
Establish frequent positivephonecontactswithparents to relaynewsofstudent
progress and oftheschool'svisionforchildren's academicand socialfutures
Initiateschoolwideorclassroom family-oriented celebrations(e.g.,sciencefairs,
performances, dinners, picnics)whereteachersand parents can interact
informally
Recruit volunteers fromand linkchildren up withneighborhood religious
organizations, sportsprograms, and youthgroups
Compilea resource bookforteachers, parents,and students oflocal support
organizations and services
Establish a formal linkagebetweentheschooland relevant socialserviceand
othersupport organizations and institutions
(e.g.,policeyouthdivisions, child
protective services, local newspaper reporters)
Petition and playa keyroleintheestablishment ofmoremicrosystems suchas
parks,recreational centers,libraries,transportationservices,etc.
EXOSYSTEM Participate inschoolboardmeetings focusingon district-levelschoolviolence
policy
Workwiththecitycouncilto blockoffthestreets aroundcertainschoolsduring
schoolhoursto reduceoreliminate drugtraffic,drive-by violence,and gang
activityand to improve playground safety
Workwithlocal employers to promote theprovision ofacademicandfamily
mentalhealthservicesforchildren whoseparents havebeen laidoffor are
unemployed
Workwithlocal agenciesororganizations to establishHead Start, infant/toddler,
or parenting programs
Establish jointschool-neighborhood programs to walkchildren to and from
school

TABLE11(continued)
Interventions
ConsultationOutcomes: Sample Teacher-Generated
SYSTEM LEVEL TEACHER-GENERATED

INTERVENTIONS
MACROSYSTEM Encourage parents and caretakersto reducethenumber ofhourschildren spend

watching television,particularlyviolentshows
Workwithlocaltelevision stationsto improve ofviolentactivities
theirreporting
inthesurrounding community and to increasetheirreporting
ofschoolor
community successes
Addresschildren's concernsaboutpoverty or racismand theconnection ofthese
issuesto community and schoolviolence
Help children cope withtheviolencetheyhavewitnessed ina variety
ofsettings
Collectdataon district suspensions and expulsion forviolentbehaviorinschools
and present itto statelegislators
Monitor students' schoolprogress, particularlyduringperiodsofdevelopmental
transition
Redefine theclassroomand schoolas democratic entities
thatembody
democratic procedures, rules,and decisionmaking processes
Advocatefora definition ofschoolviolencethatis consistent withresearch
findings
can affecta child's tendency to engage in violent activities at school and elsewhere (Astor,
1995; Goldstein, 1994; D. C. Gottfredson, 1995; G. D. Gottfredson, 1985). Many highly
aggressive children have been found to receive peer enculturation in unmonitored groups
such as gangs or street groups in their neighborhoods (Dryfoos, 1990; Eron et al., 1994;
Garbarino et al., 1992; Goldstein & Huff, 1993). As mentioned earlier, these children often
have few positive microsystems (e.g., home, school, neighborhood). Therefore, increasing
the number of adult-supervised microsystems in such children's lives, and encouraging
stronger linkages between these subsystems and the school, should be a key theme in
teacher-based violence prevention consultation. The goal of this structured involvement,
which can include membership in sports teams, clubs, the arts, or other peer-oriented
activities, is to reduce the amount of time children spend with violent and unsupervised
peers. Another teacher-based mesosystem strategy is the recruitmentof model individuals
from the communities of troubled youth to work with teachers in the classroom and in
implementing other school and extracurricular activities.
Effecting Change at the Exosystem Level

Interventions at the exosystem level are not widely described or mentioned in the
research literature. However, many school districts have developed and implemented
policies regarding suspension and expulsion that directly relate to incidents of youth and
school violence (National Education Goals Panel, 1994a, 1994b, 1995, 1996). These policies
include those that mandate the creation of crisis intervention plans and formal guidelines
for teacher involvement with violent students. However, districts can add significantly
to order or chaos in schools distressed by violence by increasing the allotment of trained
as opposed to novice teachers at these schools and taking steps to reduce their teacher
turnover rates. Districts can also provide funds for school beautification projects and
350 The Journalof Negro Education

providesupportand rewardsforteacherswho developand initiateinnovative
programs
thatincreasetheirschools'readinessto addressviolence.
Effecting
Changeat theMacrosystem
Level
Using the ecologicalsystemsframework, manyof the teacher-consultees we have
workedwithhave attempted macrosystem-level interventions.
Some have woventheir
students'experiences withor againstviolenceintotheschools'history, art,drama,and
Othershaveorganizedpoliticalprotests,
socialstudiescurricula. vigils,school-community
ritualsofmourning, oryouthgroupsdenouncingviolence.Mostcontendthatsuchmea-
suresare veryeffective in givingchildrenin distressedenvironments a senseofcontrol,
expression,and self-worth as well as a way to understandand expressappropriate pain
and angertowardsocietyfornotstoppingthesenselessviolencein theirlives.Teachers
andprincipals alikehaveobservedthattheseinterventions maybe morehelpfultochildren
thantherapy groupsorindividualtherapy becausetheyareschoolwide, lessstigmatizing,
and do notfocusthepathologyofviolenceupon children.
Is youthand schoolviolencepartof a largersocietalpatternthatcan be sortedout
and understoodon thesocietallevel?Prominent socialscientists
(Donnerstein, Slaby,&
Eron,1994)andtheAmerican Psychological Association (1993b)havetakenstrong political
positionson thelevelsand typesofaggressive, violentbehaviorportrayed in themedia.
Yet,manyresearchstudieshave suggestedthatthemassmedia-particularly television,
motionpictures, popularmusic,and printjournalism-influence theoverallincidenceof
youthviolence.Researchon televisionand violencealso suggeststhatwhencompared
to theirpeers,aggressivechildrenspendmanymorehoursper day watchingtelevision,
and theywatchmoreviolentprograms(Eron,1987).Indeed,theaveragechildspends
moretimewatchingtelevision thanattending school.Thistimespentwatchingtelevision
is also timenot spentplayingwithfriends,doinghomework,or interacting in other
microsystems. Whenprovidedwithinformation on thenatureand extentof children's
televisionviewing,manyteachersand principalshave focusedon strategiesaimed at
reducingtheamountand typesoftelevisionchildrenare exposedto on a dailybasis.For
example,someteachers havesentnoteshometoalloftheparentsintheirclassesexplaining
theresearchon televisionexposure.Thesenoteshaveincludedsuggestions fortheamount
oftimechildren ofdifferentages shouldspendwatchingtelevision; theyalso recommend
showschildrenshouldwatch.
CONCLUSION
Mentalhealthconsultation servicesthatsupportteachersin developingmoreeffective

school-based responsestoyouthandschoolviolencearecritical toeffortsaimedatempow-
eringteachersand otherschool personnelin overburdenedsettings.To successfully
addresstheviolencechildrenand adultsexperienceand witnesswithinand outsideof
theschool,innovativeconsultation-collaboration modelsmustbe developedand imple-
mented.Theecologicalsystems approachtoteacher-based, mentalhealthviolencepreven-
tionconsultationis suchan approachbecauseithelpsteachersrealizeand maximizetheir
rolein enculturating,politicizing,
and guidingstudentsto understand and eliminatethe
aggressivebehaviortheywitnessor expresswithinthecontextofU.S. society.
An ecologicalsystemsapproachtoyouthand schoolviolenceconsultation withteach-
ersdemandsthatthementalhealthconsultant be awareofthecomplexities andpersuasive-
nessofviolencein oursociety.It also recognizestheimportance forconsultants
tounder-
standthatalthoughsome violenceintervention can be gearedtowardyouth
initiatives
in general,othersshouldbe directedtowardtheecologicaldynamicsthatmakeminority

youthin high-density, low-incomeurbanenvironments morevulnerableto or inclined
towardviolence.Thatconsultants gainspecificknowledgeaboutnationaltrendsin youth
and schoolviolenceis criticalinthisregard.Suchknowledgeframesthemeaningofyouth
and youthand schoolviolenceinbroadterms.However,demographic dataalonedo not
help schoolpersonnelunderstandtherelationship of different ecologicalenvironments
totheincidence orprevalence ofviolenceamongcertain youth.Consultants shouldsystem-
aticallyexplorewiththeirteacher-consultees thereasonswhyteachersbelieveviolence
occursin theirschools,whentheybelieveviolenceis likely,and how thesetimesand
spaces interactwiththe prescribedsocial structure of the school (e.g., teacherroles,
administrator roles,etc.).Becauseyouthand schoolviolenceis so specificwithregardto
location,an examination ofteachers'and students'perceptions ofthecombinedphysical
and social structure of the school as it relatesto violencemay be important forthe
generation ofeffectiveinterventions in a givenschool.
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