Biology Form Six - Tie - DR Khaliyloullah

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Biology
for Advanced Level Secondary Schools
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Studentʼs Book
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Form Six
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Tanzania Institute of Education
PROPERTY OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA GOBVERNMENT

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
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Biology for Advanced Level Secondary Schools
© Tanzania Institute of Education, 2019
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Published 2019
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ISBN 978–9987–09–032–7
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P. O. Box 35094
Dar es Salaam
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Tel: +255-22-2773005
Fax: +255-22-2774420
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Email: director.general@tie.go.tz
Website: www.tie.go.tz
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All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
or otherwise, without prior written permission of the Tanzania Institute of Education.
ii Student's Book Form Six

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Preface
This book, Biology for Advanced Level Secondary Schools, is written specifically for
Form Six Biology Students in the United Republic of Tanzania. The book is prepared
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according to the 2009 Biology Syllabus for Advanced Level Secondary Education, Form
V-VI, issued by the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training.
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The book is divided into six chapters, which are: Transportation in living organisms,
Growth and development, Reproduction, Genetics, Evolution, and Ecology. In addition
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to the content, each chapter contains activities, illustrations, exercises, and revision
questions. Learners are encouraged to do all activities and answer all questions so
as to enhance their understanding and promote the acquisition of the intended skills,
knowledge, and attitudes.
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Student's Book Form Six iii

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Acknowledgements
The Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) would like to acknowledge the contributions
of all organisations and individuals who participated in design and development of this
textbook.
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Writers: Dr Neema G. Mogha, Dr Jamal Jumanne, Dr Heriel N. Moshi,
Ms Juliana B.R. Mosi, Mr Fortunatus Kyobya, & Ms Gladness Kirei
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Editors: Prof. Agnes M.S. Nyomora, Ms Judith Kahamba, Ms Consolata Blasi
& Dr Emmanuel K. Laisser (Chairperson of the panel)
Illustrators: Mr Fikiri A. Msimbe & Alama Art and Media Production Co.Ltd.
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Designer: Mr Anton K. Asukile
Coordinator: Ms Juliana B.R. Mosi

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TIE also extends its sincere gratitude to the secondary school teachers who participated
in the trial phase of the manuscript.
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Likewise, the Institute would like to thank the Ministry of Education, Science and
Technology for facilitating the writing of this textbook.
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Dr Aneth A. Komba
Director General
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Table of contents
Preface ............................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgements........................................................................................... iv
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Chapter One:Transportation in living organisms .........................................1
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Transportation in plants ...............................................................................................1
The movement of materials across the root ......................................................................9
Upward movement of water and mineral salts ................................................................12
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Translocation of manufactured food .....................................................................26
Transport in animals ...............................................................................................30
The blood ...............................................................................................30
The heart ...............................................................................................38
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The cardiac cycle ...............................................................................................42
The circulatory systems in animals .............................................................................46
Double circulatory system .......................................................................................... 49
Foetal and adult blood circulation in mammals ..........................................................51
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Chapter Two: Growth and development ...........................................................55
Mitosis .................................................................................................................55
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Growth patterns ....................................................................................................61
Growth and development in plants ..............................................................................66
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Primary and secondary growth in angiosperms ..................................................................67

Seed dormancy and viability ...............................................................................................73
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Chapter Three: Reproduction .............................................................................. 77

Meiosis..........................................................................................................................77
Gametogenesis in animals ..........................................................................88
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Gametogenesis in flowering plants ....................................................................92

Reproduction in plants...............................................................................................95
Fertilisation in plants ...............................................................................................96
Fruit and seed development ...................................................................................98
Life cycles of selected plants.................................................................................101
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Reproduction in animals...........................................................................................109
Menstruation cycle......................................................................................................109
Oestrus cycle....................................................................................................112
Fertilisation and zygote development in mammals .....................................................113
Birth ......................................................................................................................119
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Life cycles of selected animals ................................................................................122
Chapter Four: Genetics ...............................................................................129

Hereditary material ................................................................................................. 129
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Types of genetic material .................................................................................. 133
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)........................................................................................... 133
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Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)................................................................................ 136
Genetic code............................................................................................................. 142
Mendelian Principles of Inheritance........................................................................ 149
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Non-Mendelian inheritance..................................................................................... 164
Sex linkage................................................................................................................ 182
Mutation ................................................................................................................... 191
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Genetic engineering ................................................................................................. 197
Chapter Five: Evolution .............................................................................. 202

Theories of origin of life ....................................................................................... 202
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Theories of organic evolution ................................................................................ 207
Evidence of evolution ............................................................................................ 216
Comparative morphology and anatomy ................................................................... 219
Comparative biochemistry ....................................................................................... 223
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Biogeography ........................................................................................................... 224
Selective breeding ................................................................................................... 226
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Speciation .................................................................................................................227
Chapter six: Ecology .................................................................................... 233

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The ecosystem ..........................................................................................................233

Nutrients circulation .................................................................................................242
Ecological pyramids ................................................................................................ 248
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Methods of studying ecology ................................................................................... 253

Population dynamics ................................................................................................ 273
Population growth patterns and their interpretation .................................................284
Ecological succession ...............................................................................................290
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Glossary.................................................................................................................. 295
Bibliography ..........................................................................................................306
Index ....................................................................................................................... 308
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Chapter
One
Transportation in
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living organisms
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Introduction
Every living organism constantly needs the exchange of substances such as nutrients,
waste products, and respiratory gases with the environment in order to survive and grow.
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In this chapter, you will learn about transportation in plants, types of vascular tissues in
plants, and movement of materials across the roots. While learning about transportation
in plants, you will do several activities, including demonstration of the movement of
water and sap in plants. You will also learn about transportation in animals, particularly
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components of vertebrate circulatory systems, the blood, mechanism of blood clotting,
structure of the heart, the cardiac cycle, and the foetal circulatory system.
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Transportation in plants vascular tissues in plants, namely: xylem
Plants absorb water and minerals through and phloem, which together form the
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their roots and transport them to the leaves vascular system as shown in Figure 1.1.
for metabolic use such as photosynthesis. Between phloem and xylem, there is a layer
Transportation in plants mainly occurs called cambium whose function is to divide
and to form new xylem and phloem cells.
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through a vascular system, which is made up

of different types of tissues. These vascular The vascular system is made up of complex
tissues are structurally different and have tissues, which have different types of cells
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various adaptations to suit their roles. The that work together to achieve the essential
transportation of materials in plants from function of transporting materials in
soil to the leaves and that of photosynthetic plants. The vascular tissues also provide
products from leaves to various parts can mechanical support to the plant. Xylem
be either passive or active. transports water and dissolved mineral
salts from the soil to the upper part of
Types of vascular tissues in plants
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a plant while phloem is involved in the

Plants have tissues which transport food, transportation of photosynthetic products
water, and dissolved mineral salts from from the leaves to other parts of the plant
one part to another. There are two types of such as stems, leaves, fruits, and roots.
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Vessel element
Epidermis
Cortex
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Nucleus of Cambium
companion
cell
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Sieve plate Perforation Xylem
plate
Cambium
Pit
Phloem
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Companion cell
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Phloem Cambium Xylem
Figure 1.1 Longitudinal section of vascular tissues in plants
Activity 1.1 Identification of vascular which are arranged in bundles in the

tissues and their arrangement in the stem
and root of monocots and dicots
U young stem of a maize plant. Draw
a well-labelled diagram to represent
Materials: Sharp razor blade, dropper, what you have observed.
microscopic slides, coverslips, light (v) Repeat steps (ii) to (iv) for the young
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microscope, young maize, and bean plants root of a maize plant as well as the
of 2-3 weeks old, watch glass, petri dish, young stem and root of a bean plant.
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white tiles, and safranin stain.

Results: In a transverse section of a young
Procedure dicot stem or root, the vascular bundles are
(i) Collect samples of young maize and arranged in a ring. In a young monocot stem
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bean plants. Make sure you uproot and root, the vascular bundles are scattered.
the whole plant with its roots intact.
(ii) Cut through a transverse section a The xylem tissue
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thin layer of a young stem of a maize

plant. Mount it on a microscopic This forms a continuous system of columns
slide. Stain it with safranin and stretching from roots to the leaves. It has
cover it with coverslip. two major functions, which are mechanical
support and conduction of water and mineral
(iii) Place the mounted slide under the
salts. It is composed of four types of cells,
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light microscope and start to observe

namely: tracheids, xylem fibres, vessel
using a low magnifying lens. Then,
elements, and xylem parenchyma cells as
you can increase magnification
shown in Figure 1.2.
accordingly.
(iv) Observe the distribution and
arrangement of vascular tissues,
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Transportation in living organisms
Parenchyma cell up of cellulose and lignin, which provide

structural support to the vessel elements.
Vessel element They are connected together into long tubes
which enables easier transportation of water
and mineral salts. They possess perforation
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plates in their end walls which are not found
in tracheids. These perforations help to
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Tracheids
adjoin other vessel elements. Furthermore,
Perforation plate the vessel elements have no cytoplasm and
Pits nuclei at maturity. These features enable
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Primary cell wall them to transport large volumes of water
Secondary cell wall and mineral salts. Like tracheids, the vessel
elements have pits on their lateral walls.
Figure 1.2 The structure of xylem
However, vessel cells are continuous through
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Structural components of xylem and their perforation plates, while tracheids
their functions are discontinuous in their arrangement.
As shown in figure 1.2, one of the structural The xylem parenchyma is present in both
components of the xylem tissue is the primary and secondary xylem. It has a
tracheids. These are made up of secondary
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cellulose cell wall thickened with lignin and Its function is to store food and conduct
consist of single elongated cells with pointed water sideways. In some cases, the xylem
ends. Their walls contain numerous pits but parenchyma cells serve as storage devices
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have no perforations in the primary cell wall. for starch.
They lack living protoplasm at maturity
and their tubular shape at maturity allows There are pieces of evidence to show that the
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vertical transportation of water and mineral xylem tissue transports water and mineral
salts. The vertical upward movement of salts in plants. Such evidences are supported
substances in the xylem is by conduction. by the following explanations.
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The lignin helps in strengthening the cell (a) If a leafy shoot is cut and placed in
walls to make them rigid. water containing a dye such as red
The xylem fibres are shorter and narrower eosin, it takes up the dye. When the
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shoot is removed from the dye and

than tracheids and have much thicker and
cut at various heights, only the xylem
overlapping end walls. These overlapping tissue is stained red indicating that it
end walls have pits but they do not conduct transports water.
water. They are stronger and provide
additional mechanical strength to the xylem (b) The removal of a ring of tissues
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tissue. outside a woody stem does not affect

the flow of water. This is because
Like tracheids, vessel elements are tubular only the bark, including the phloem
xylem structures which allow vertical is removed. However, if the outer
transportation of water and mineral salts layers of the woody part (xylem) are
(upward the plant). Each vessel has a removed, upward transport of water
typical length of 10 cm. The walls are made stops and the leaves wilt.
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(c) Metabolic poisons, such as cyanide, Adaptation of the xylem to its functions
do not impede water flow through the The xylem is capable of transporting water
xylem. This proves that transportation and dissolved mineral salts from the roots
of water is a passive process and to the shoot. This is because, firstly, the
takes place in the dead cells of vessel
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vessel elements and tracheids have narrow
elements and tracheids.
lumina that allow water to rise up the stem
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(d) If the lumen of the vessel element and by capillary action. Secondly, these cells
tracheid cells are artificially blocked have lateral pits that allow lateral movement
by fats, the uptake and transportation of water. Thirdly, they have dead cells at
of water cease and the plant wilts. maturity, which enable them to transport
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large amount of water and dissolved mineral
Activity 1.2 Demonstration of the
salts. Fourthly, the vessel elements and
movement of water through xylem tissue
tracheids have lignified walls to prevent
Materials: Razor blade, young bean them from collapsing and withstand the
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seedlings, potassium permanganate solution, high pressure created by moving water.
and light microscope. The presence of lignified walls also provide
Procedure strength and support to the plant. Fifthly,
(i) Cut a section of the shoot and place the vessel elements have perforations at
it in a dilute solution of potassium
U their end walls and are joined end to end to
enable a continuous flow of water between
permanganate (KMnO4) or a dye
such as eosin. the vessel elements. Lastly, the overlapping
xylem fibres provide additional strength to
(ii) Wait for ten minutes and observe the
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xylem tracheids and the overall plant.
movement of the dye in the xylem
vessel to the shoot system. The phloem tissue
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(iii) Cut a cross section of the shoot and The phloem forms the primary food
examine it under a light microscope. conducting tissue in vascular plants.
It possesses tubular structures that are
(iv) Record and draw what you have
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modified for translocation. It is composed

observed. of living cells with cytoplasm, some of
Results: The xylem tissue will take the which have mechanical functions. It consists
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stain of potassium permanganate solution four types of cells, namely: sieve elements,
or eosin, indicating that, the xylem is phloem parenchyma cells, companion cells,
responsible for conducting water from the and fibres as shown in Figure 1.3.
soil.
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Phloem parenchyma
Sieve element
Companion cell
Nucleus Vacuole
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Sieve element Cytoplasm
with plate
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Companion cell
End wall of
parenchyma cell
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Sieve plate
Slim plug
Phloem parenchyma cell
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Celllose cell wall
(a) U (b)
Figure 1.3 (a) Transverse section of phloem and (b) Longitudinal section of phloem
The structural components of phloem The phloem parenchyma cells are generally,
and their functions living and elongated cells. They are
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As indicated in figure 1.3 (a) and (b), one mainly for storage and consist of stored
of the structural components of the phloem carbohydrates and accumulated tannins and
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tissue is sieve elements, also called sieve resins. When tightly packed together, they
members. These are conducting cells provide mechanical support to the plant. The
responsible for transporting food substances. companion cells have dense cytoplasm with
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They also constitute sieve tubes. Each small vacuoles and other cell organelles.
sieve element is separated from the other They are very crucial for regulating the
by a sieve plate, which contains pores that activities of sieve elements. The companion
allow the flow of fluid from one element
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cells are metabolically active since they

to the other. The pores occur when the contain many mitochondria for cellular
plasmodesmata of the end walls enlarge respiration, which produce the energy
greatly or expand. The pores are open needed for active transport. There are also
channels for transportation in sieve plate numerous ribosomes which are responsible
between sieve elements. Each sieve element for the active and constant production of
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is associated with one or more companion respiratory enzymes. Companion cells and
cells as shown in Figure 1.4. sieve tube elements are connected by strands
of cytoplasm called plasmodesmata.
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Steve tube element Companion cell

Cell wall of companion cell
Free ribosomes
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Large vacuole
Mitochondrion
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Phloem proteins Golgi apparatus
Sieve area
Ribosomes
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Cell wall
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Plastid Nucleus of companion cell
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Starch grain
Mitochondrion
Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum Sieve plate
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Small vacuole
Sieve pore
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Cellulose cell wall
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Callose Middle
lamella
Figure 1.4 A longitudinal section of sieve element and companion cell

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The phloem fibres are slender, flexible and There are pieces of evidence that
elongated sclerenchyma cells with tapering show organic materials formed during
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ends. They are found in the inner bark of photosynthesis are carried in the phloem
the stem. Their main role is to provide tissue. Such evidences are supported by
strength or mechanical support to mature the following explanations.
plant stems. (i) Cutting of the phloem makes the
Generally, phloem is responsible for solution contained in the sieve tubes
to exude. Examination of this solution
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the translocation of soluble synthesized

foods, such as sugars and proteins. It is reveals the presence of organic
also responsible for transporting ions and materials such as carbohydrates. The
hormones from the source tissues such as exudation of food solution from the
photosynthetic leaf cells to the sink tissues sieve tubes shows that the contents
such as non-photosynthetic root cells or of the phloem are transported under
developing flowers. pressure.

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(ii) The concentration of sugars in the in the companion cells. Additionally, the
phloem depends on environmental sieve tube elements have a tendency of
conditions. During the day when losing organelles in order to increase the
photosynthesis is taking place, size of the lumen for easy passage of food.
the concentration of sugars in the
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Passive and active transport in plants
phloem is higher compared to the
concentration in the dark when there The plant can absorb water and dissolved
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is no photosynthesis. mineral salts using two transportation
mechanisms, namely: active and passive
(iii) When a ring of the phloem is removed
transports.
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from around the stem, movement of
food materials downwards becomes Active transport: In active transport,
interfered; and because of this, food materials or molecules are transported
accumulates above the ring. against the concentration gradient. For
example, sometimes the soil may have a low
(iv) If a photosynthesizing plant is
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concentration of mineral salts than the cell
subjected to CO2 from a radioactive
sap, but mineral salts can still move from
isotope of 14C as a photosynthetic
the soil to the cell sap by active transport,
substrate, the end products of
which requires energy to pump materials
photosynthesis if traced later in the
phloem will be found to contain 14C.
U against the concentration gradient.
(v) Aphids are insects that feed on the Passive transport: In passive transport,
contents of the sieve tubes of a living materials move along their concentration
plant. Analysis of the juice extracted gradient. In this case, energy is not required.
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from the aphids reveals the presence For example, ions from the soil, which are in
of sugars and amino acids that are high concentration can diffuse to the cell sap
in
products of photosynthesis. The with low concentration. However, passive

juice is obtained after anesthetising transport may involve the movement of
the feeding aphid, then cutting off water molecules from a region of low solute
concentration to a region of high solute
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its body to let its stylet exude juice

sucked from the sieve tubes. concentration. Thus, the mechanisms for
passive transport are osmosis and diffusion.
Adaptations of phloem tissues to their
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Osmosis: This is a special kind of diffusion

functions
that moves water molecules from a place of
The structure of the phloem tissue suit its its higher concentration to a place of lower
function of translocation of food in that, its concentration to create a stable and equal
sieve tubes form a tubing column through cellular environment. It may also involve
which the food solution flows. There are the movement of liquids or molecules
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lateral pits in the walls of the sieve tube from a region of low solute concentration
members which allow lateral movement (high water potential) to the region of
of food materials. The food materials flow high solute concentration (low water
through the phloem tissue by an active potential) through a differentially permeable
mechanism. The energy to facilitate this membrane. Osmosis is an important process
flow is supplied by the mitochondria present in the transport of materials for the proper
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functioning, growth and stability of plants. diffusion. Sometimes, movement can be

For example, if osmosis was not present, aided by channel and carrier proteins.
photosynthesis would never occur, and In this case, it is called a facilitated
the plant would wilt and finally die. This diffusion, which refers to the type of passive
is because the stomatal guard cells have
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transport under the aid of proteins. The
vacuoles that filled up with water and transport proteins, which allow the passage
other fluids. During osmosis, the guard
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of ions are called ion channels. These are
cells becomes turgid as they swell and selective and therefore, they open or close
the resulting turgor pressure triggers the in response to certain signals. For example,
stomata to open. The stomata then take in the binding of specific ions, make them
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carbon dioxide from the air to be used in the open and in the absence of such ions, the
production of food through photosynthesis. channels are closed. This helps the cell to
Furthermore, osmosis distributes water control the movement of molecules and ions
through selectively permeable membranes in and out of it. The rate at which diffusion
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in order to maintain the volume and pressure occurs is affected by various factors. Firstly,
of all plant cells. For instance, the movement the diffusion gradients or the difference in
of water and dissolved substances from the concentration gradients between two
one cell to another is largely facilitated points, the higher the gradient the faster
by the osmosis process. A wilted plant
looks weak because the vacuoles of their
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lungs, diffusion is achieved by speeding
cells do not have proper amounts of water up the flow of blood through the lungs or
mainly obtained through osmosis. In plant by breathing faster. Secondly, the large the
roots, osmosis occurs when the water
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surface area of a membrane through which
concentration outside roots is higher than diffusion is taking place, the greater the rate
inside. This pressure difference triggers the
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of diffusion. For example, membranes with

roots to take in water through the root cell microvilli, have a large surface area for
walls thereby creating a pressure balance. the absorption. Lastly, the rate of diffusion
Diffusion: This involves the movement of decreases rapidly with the increase in the
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molecules of liquid and gases or ions from distance; for effective diffusion, a very
a region of high concentration to that of short distance is required. The differences
low concentration. Movements of materials between passive and active transport in
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of this nature may also be called simple plants are summarised in Table 1.1.
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Table 1.1 Differences between passive and active transport in plants
Passive transport Active transport

It does not require cellular energy for With active transport, cellular
the movement of molecules from high energy in the form of Adenosine
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to low concentrations. Triphosphate (ATP) is needed
to pump molecules against the
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concentration gradient.
Occurs along the concentration gradient. Occurs against the concentration
The movement of molecules occurs gradient. The movement of molecules
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from a low concentration of solute to occurs from a high concentration of
high concentration in order to maintain solute to a low concentration of solute.
equilibrium.
It maintains the dynamic equilibrium of It disrupts equilibrium, which is
water, gases and nutrients between cells established by diffusion.
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and extracellular environment. No net
diffusion or osmosis after the equilibrium
is established.
Involves channel protein molecules for Involves carrier protein molecules for
transporting anything soluble in lipids,
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monosaccharaides, water, oxygen, carbon such as protein, ions, large cells, and
dioxides, and hormones. complex sugars.
It is a physical process such as osmosis, Chemical processes to release energy
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diffusion, filtration, and facilitated are involved.
diffusion.
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The movement of materials across the

Exercise 1.1 root
The plant root has three main functions,
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1. Describe the structure, function, and

adaptations of the xylem tissue. which altogether facilitate growth and
development of the plant. These functions
2. Differentiate between the following include anchoring of the plant in the soil,
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terms as used in transportation in absorption of water and soluble mineral

plants: salts, and storage of food in some plants
(a) Osmosis and diffusion. such as cassava and sweet potatoes. A plant
(b) Passive and active transport. requires water and mineral salts from the
3. Provide evidence to show that the soil for its growth and development. There
are different pathways in the plant through
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xylem and phloem tissues perform

their respective roles. which water and mineral salts move from
the soil into its entire body across the roots.
4. Describe the structure, function and
The endodermis of the roots has waterproof
adaptations of phloem tissue. suberized bands or Casparian strips, which
5. With the aid of a diagram, describe control the movement of water between cell
the structure of the phloem tissue. wall and cytoplasm.
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Pathway of water and mineral salts and through the stems to the petioles of
movement across the root leaves and terminates in the mesophyll of
Absorption of water and mineral salts the leaf. There are three pathways in which
mostly takes place in the root hair zone. water move in the roots. These pathways are
apoplast, symplast and vacuolar pathways
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The root hairs, which extend from the
epidermal cells are delicate structures which as indicated in Figure 1.5.
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are always replaced by new ones through The apoplast pathway
active mitosis. They lack cuticle to allow
absorption of water, the root hairs provide This is the movement of water across the
a large surface area for absorption. They cell wall through intercellular space. The
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also have sticky walls through which they highest percentage of water movement in
adhere tightly to soil particles. Their large plants goes through the apoplast pathway.
numbers and possession of extremely thin The movement of water in this pathway
layers provide a large surface area for occurs exclusively through the cell wall and
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absorption. Root hairs take in water from the intercellular spaces without the involvement
soil mainly through the process of osmosis. of any membranes or cytoplasm. In the
apoplast pathway, the system of adjacent
The passage of water into the roots is cell walls is continuous throughout the plant.
through the thin walls of the root hair and Around 50% of a cellulose cell wall is ‘free
the epidermal cells of the root tips. From the
U space’, which can be occupied by water.
epidermal cells, the water passes laterally When water evaporates from the mesophyll
through thin-walled cortical cells and then cell walls into the intercellular air spaces, a
through the endodermal cells. From the tension develops in the continuous stream
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endodermis, the water moves into the xylem of water in the apoplast. As a result, water
tissue where the direction of movement is is drawn through the walls in a mass flow
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upward. The xylem tissue is continuous by the cohesion of water molecules.

from the root to the aerial parts of the plant
Cytoplasm
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Cell wall
Plasma membrane Plasmodesmata Tonoplast Vacuole
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Epidermis Cortex Endodermis Pericycle
Casparian strip Xylem

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Key:
Apoplast pathway
Symplast pathways
Vacuola pathways
Figure 1.5 Apoplast, Symplast and Vacuolar pathways in plants

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The movement of water through the cell could be contaminated with toxins to pass
walls in the apoplast is prevented by wax- through the cells. In this way, the strip offers
like material known as suberin, which is a protective function against the entry of
deposited in the cell wall to form Casparian toxic substances.
strips in the endodermis. In this movement,
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The symplast pathway
water is thereby forced to enter the living
protoplast of the endodermal cell, as the Symplast pathway involves the movement of
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only available route to the xylem. The water and other low molecular weight solutes
movement of water is important because such as sugars, amino acid and ions between
salts from the endodermal cells may then be adjacent cells through the cytoplasm. In this
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actively deposited into the vascular tissues. pathway, there is the movement of water
This process lowers the water potential in and mineral salt molecules from cell to cell
the xylem, which becomes more negative by means of plasmodesmata, which are the
causing water to be drawn in from the cytoplasmic strands extending through pores
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endodermis. in adjacent cell walls. The plasmodesmata
forms a network of the cytoplasm of all
Roles of Casparian strips cells. Water and solutes contained in the
The Casparian strip is a band of water cytoplasm of one cell can move through
proof which provides living support to the the symplast pathway without crossing
endodermis of roots. For example, if a root
U further membranes. The movements in the
endodermal cell undergoes plasmolysis, symplast pathway are aided by cytoplasmic
the loss of water results into the falling streaming.
off of the cell surface membrane onto the
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Apoplast and symplast pathways are both
cytoplasmic region. However, due to the involved in the movement of water across
presence of Casparian strips, the membrane the root. Water flows through apoplast in
in
remains held in place. Therefore, when the the cortex, enters the symplast pathway
cell gains water, the whole membrane goes in the endodermis where the walls are
back to the cell wall and the entire cell impermeable to the flow of water due to
nl
resumes a normal life. Additionally, the the presence of Casparian strips.

Casparian strips cause an active secretion
of salts from endodermal cells into the In the endodermis, plasmodesmata help to
allow the passage of water into pericycle
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xylem. This leads to more negative water

potential in the xylem and as a result, it from where it enters the xylem. Mineral
enhances the movement of water from the nutrients also use the same pathway as
endodermal cells to the xylem. Moreover, by that of water. However, their absorption
restricting the movement of water passing and passage into the symplast pathway
through the protoplasm, the Casparian mostly occur through active absorption.
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strips limit large volumes of water which The movement of water inside the xylem
is purely along the pressure gradient.
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The vacuolar pathway the process of osmosis. This is possible

In this pathway, water moves from vacuole because water potential is higher in the soil
to vacuole of neighbouring cells, crossing than in the roots. The rise up of water at the
both symplast and apoplast pathways. In the base of the stem is caused by the capillary
action whereas the root pressure pushes
y
process, water passes through membranes
and tonoplasts by osmosis. However, the water upward the stem.
nl
water molecules encounter high resistance; The adhesion and cohesion make columns
as a result, little flow usually occurs making of water to move up through the xylem.
this pathway insignificant. Therefore, The continuous pull of water in the xylem
O
apoplast and symplast pathways are the is due to transpiration pull caused by
major routes for the movement of water in water evaporation through stomata in
plants. Water moves by osmosis across the the leaves. This upward movement of
vacuoles of the cells of the root system and water and mineral salts from the soil to
it moves down the concentration gradient the shoot through the xylem tissues of a
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from the soil solution to the xylem. plant is known as the ascent of sap. It is
Exercise 1.2 called the sap because it contains many
dissolved minerals. The movement of sap
1. With the help of a diagram, briefly is facilitated by cohesion, adhesion, root
describe how plants obtain water and
U pressure, capillarity, and transpiration pull.
dissolved mineral salts from the soil At the leaf surface, the plant loses water
to the xylem. by transpiration and guttation processes.
2. Describe the structure of a root hair However, the plant loses much water by
e
cell and state the ways in which its transpiration through stomata pores than by
structure relates to its function. guttation through hydathodes. The process
in
of transpiration has a number of effects to

3. Discuss the location of a Casparian
the plants including traspiration pull and
strip and explain its role in water
cooling of the plant. Explanation of the
movement in higher plants.
forces responsible for upward movement
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4. Briefly differentiate between apoplast of materials in plants is provided in the

and symplast pathways of water following subsections.
movement and state which one of
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these would need active transport. The cohesion-tension theory

The upward movement of water by cohesion
is bestly explained using cohesion-tension
Upward movement of water and theory. The theory suggests that plants are
mineral salts able to get water from the soil because
water molecules are cohesive in nature.
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The upward movement of water and mineral

salts from the soil to the upper part of Since water molecules have an ability to
the plant occurs as a result of a number hold each other without breaking, then they
of forces. These forces include osmosis, can be drawn up from soil particles into
diffusion, transpiration, and capillary action. the root hairs by osmosis. Water is a polar
Water from the soil enters the root hairs by molecule such that, when its two molecules
approach one another, the slightly negatively

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charged oxygen atom of one molecule into the root xylem due to water potential
forms a hydrogen bond with a slightly difference. Root pressure is caused by this
positively charged hydrogen atom of the accumulation of water in the xylem which
other molecule. This attractive force along pushes on the rigid cells. The pressure then
with other intermolecular forces is one of provides a force which pushes the water
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the principal factors that are responsible for up the stem.
the occurrence of surface tension in liquid
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The root pressure is responsible for
water. These forces also allow plants to draw transporting water to the leaves of
water from the root through the xylem to the herbaceous plants and grasses. However,
leaf. The theory further holds that, water is
O
in tall trees such as Eucalyptus and redwood
constantly lost through transpiration from whose heights may sometimes exceed
the leaf, when one water molecule is lost, 100 m, root pressure is not sufficient to
another is pulled along by the processes of transport the water up to the leaves and
cohesion and tension. Apart from cohesion, therefore transpiration pull complements
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another force of attraction between water the movement. Moreover, the ascent of
molecules and the vessel wall also facilitates sap continues even when the root pressure
the upward movement of water. This force is absent and under normal conditions, the
is called adhesion. xylem sap is under tension (pulled) rather
Root pressure
U than pressure (pushed).
Roots absorb water from the soil by Capillarity
osmosis. The absorption takes place in the Capillary action is the movement of liquid
intercellular spaces of the root cells in the within narrow spaces of a solid. It is
e
root hairs. There is a higher concentration caused by the attraction of intermolecular
of water in the soil than in the roots. This forces between the liquid and the solid
in
difference in the concentration of water surfaces. The xylem cells are part of the
between the soil and the roots creates a plant’s transpiration system through which
concentration gradient, which results into nutrients are transported throughout the
nl
the movement of water from the soil to the plant. Capillarity is responsible for the
roots. Thus, the xylem in the root develops movement of water up the xylem vessels
a positive water potential and the water because these vessels are very narrow.
is pushed up the tubes which are formed
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The capillary action brings water from

by the xylem elements. The pressure with the soil up to the roots, stems and the rest
which the water is pushed to the xylem of of the plant. The molecules of water are
the root is called root pressure. This is a attracted to the walls of the xylem vessels
force, which aids water movement up the inside the stem. As explained earlier, water
xylem. It is caused by an active distribution molecules are also attracted to each other.
Fo
of mineral nutrient ions into the root xylem. Therefore, although the attraction between
When transpiration rate is low, the ions water molecules and xylem vessel walls is
are not carried up the stem; instead, they strong, the water molecules are still attracted
accumulate in the root xylem and lower to each other. This attraction helps to force
the water potential thus creating a water water up from the ground and disperse
potential gradient between the soil and root throughout the plant.
xylem. Water then diffuses from the soil
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Transpiration pull Solute transport across membranes in

plant
When water is lost from the leaves during
transpiration, the water potential of the The mineral salts required by plants
leaves decreases. This creates a water are absorbed by roots and transported
y
potential gradient with neighbouring cells, within plants in the form of ions. The cell
which forces water to be replaced in the membrane functions as a semi-permeable
nl
leaves due to water potential gradient and barrier to allow only some molecules to
transpiration pull. enter into the cell. Some solutes such as
sugars are transported across the plant cell
So long as the water column remains membrane in an uncharged state. These
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unbroken, and sunlight energy causes uncharged solutes are non-electrolytes
transpiration, water will keep rising and and their movement across the membrane
moisture will continue to move in the plant’s depends on concentration gradient. If the
vascular tissues (xylem vessels). The water concentration outside the membrane is
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potential of root cells is lower than that of higher than inside, the gradient will allow
the soil causing water to move from the soil solutes to move across the membrane into
to the roots and then moves upwards to the the cell. In contrast, the movement of solutes
leaves by transpiration pull. It is important in the form of ions (the electrolytes) across
to note that, transpiration pull is sufficiently
enough to move water upwards to the leaves
U the membrane depends on their chemical
and electrical potential (electrochemical
of the plant of any height. This may work potential gradient) developed outside the
with the assistance of capillarity and root membrane. This is because these solutes
pressure in some plant species.
e
carry an electric charge. Therefore, the
Activity 1.3 Demonstration of movement electrical properties of the cell, is an
of sap from roots to the shoots important control mechanism of ions
in
transport through membranes. The transport

Materials: A fresh young plant with roots,
of solutes across the membrane is called
razor blade or knife.
passive transport if it is along the chemical
nl
Procedure potential gradient or electrochemical

(i) Cut a fresh shoot stump while the potential gradient. There are three main
plant is still rooted in the soil. kinds of passive transport, which are simple
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(ii) Observe what happens. diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis.

It is important to note that passive transport
(iii) Record what you have observed. of ions down the electrochemical gradient
Result: The cut shoot stump will continue across the membrane whether by simple
to exude sap from its xylem vessels, which diffusion, facilitated diffusion or osmosis
indicates that there is a movement of sap is made possible by the presence of ion
Fo
from the roots to the shoots. channels in the membrane.

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Simple diffusion is the movement of layer and create diffusion-friendly openings

molecules from a region of higher for molecules to move through. This means
concentration to a region of lower that electrolytes may diffuse directly inside
concentration. The cell membrane allows the cell, given that their concentration
non-polar molecules that do not bond with outside the membrane is higher than inside
y
water to flow from an area where they are the cell as shown in Figure 1.6.
highly concentrated to an area where they Facilitated diffusion is defined as a form
nl
are less concentrated. Embedded in the of passive transport involving the movement
membrane are trans-membrane protein of molecules along their concentration
molecules called channel proteins that gradient by the guide of another molecule
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traverse from the outer layer to the inner usually membrane protein forming a pore
Extracellular space
se Phospholipids
bilayer (cell
U membrane)
Solute molecules
e
Intracellular space
in
Time
nl
Figure 1.6 Diffusion of solute molecules across the cell membrane

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or channel. When the concentration of a molecules and charged ions; once such ions
given solute inside the cell is lower than its are dissolved in water they cannot diffuse
concentration outside (in the membrane), freely across cell membranes due to the
the solute can also get inside the cell by hydrophobic nature of the fatty acid tails of
facilitated diffusion. Facilitated diffusion the phospholipids that make up the bilayers.
is a process by which solute enters the Facilitated transport proteins shield these
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cell through carrier proteins. This is molecules from the hydrophobic core of the
used especially in the case of large polar membrane, providing a route by which they
can cross as shown in Figure 1.7.
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Solute molecules
Extracellural space
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Protein channel
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Plasma membrane
O
Transported molecule
Intracellural space Carrier proteins
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Figure 1.7 Facilitated diffusion
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules One molecule or one ion of solute displaces
across a semi-permeable membrane from one molecule of water. Osmolarity is the
low concentration to a higher concentration
of solutes. The solute cannot effectively
U term used to describe the concentration of
solute particles per litre. Osmosis occurs
move to balance the concentration on both when there is a difference in molecular
sides of the membrane, so water moves to concentration of water on the two sides of
achieve this balance. It is affected by the the membrane as indicated in Figure 1.8.
e
concentration of solute in the water.
in
Solution of lower concentration Solution of higher concentration

Fewer solute molecules More solute molecules
Higher water molecules potential Lower water molecules potential
nl
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Solute molecule
Water molecule
Solute molecules
can not pass through
the partially permeable
membrane
Fo
Water molecules
can pass across the
partially permeable
membrane
Figure 1.8 Osmosis model

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Movement of ions across the membrane and out of the cell. The pump utilizes a
become active transport when it occurs molecule of ATP that allows the shape of
against the electrochemical potential the pump to change while emptying its
gradient. An additional input of energy contents either into or out of the membrane
y
in the form of ATP is needed in this case. as shown in Figure 1.9.
There are varieties of cell membrane pump The mechanism of this pump is such that
helping in the membrane solute transport.
nl
three sodium ions from inside the cell bind
However, the Sodium-Potassium pump is to the protein pump. Then the phosphate
the most known pump that uses energy to group from a molecule of ATP binds to the
transport Sodium and Potassium ions in
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Na+
Extracellular space
+ –
Sodium (Na+) Potassium (K+)
se
Concentration
Plasma
membrane
U
e
ATP ADP
in
Phosphate
– +
Intracellular space K+
nl
Figure 1.9 Sodium-Potassium pump
protein pump, which then changes its shape steady state. The movement of solutes or
to release the sodium ions outside the cell. ions into the cytosol through the membrane
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This is followed by two potassium ions such as plasma membrane or tonoplast

binding to the pump before the phosphate is called influx. In contrast, the exit of
group once again releases ATP. The pump solutes outside the cytosol or tonoplast
changes its shape again by the action of through respective membranes is termed as
ATP to release the ions inside the cell. efflux. Recent experiments on membrane
Fo
Figure 1.10 summarizes the passive and transportation have revealed that proteins
active transport of solutes across the cell enhance movement of solutes across the
membrane. membrane. These proteins are highly
Active and passive transport processes specific with complex structure and different
through the membrane result in equal ion transporting mechanism. Proteins
and opposite ion fluxes when a cell is in a transporting solutes across the membrane
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Solute
Ion channel Carrier
High protein protein Protein pump
y
nl
Plasma
membrane
O
Low ATP ADP + Pi
Electrochemical Simple Active
se
Facilitated transport
potential gradient diffusion
diffusion
Passive transport
Figure 1.10 Passive and Active transport of solutes across the cell membrane
can be grouped into three categories,

U voltage changes, light, hormone binding
namely: ion-channel proteins, carrier and ions themselves. When ion gates are
proteins, and protein pumps. open, the ions surrounding the membrane
can diffuse passively through the channels
e
Ion-channel proteins: These are proteins
in the cell membrane which form pores that and when they are closed ions are stopped
to get inside the cell. It is important to
in
allow ions to pass through and move to the

cytosol or tonoplast. Their functions include note that, channel proteins have a sensing
establishing a resting membrane potential, region which responds to the stimulus by
shaping action potentials and other electrical changing the conformational shape of the
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signals by gating the flow of ions across the protein thereby opening or closing the gate
membrane. They are selective pores through as summarized in Figure 1.11.
which ions can diffuse easily across the cell Special techniques have been developed to
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membrane. Movement of ions inside the detect electric current in the ion channels
cell through ion-channels of membranes proteins. This is possible because these
is passive. Ion-channel proteins are highly solutes in the form of ions carry a charge
specific for one or certain types of ion and their diffusion across the membrane
species. This specificity partly depends on channel establishes an electric current.
the size of the pore itself and the density of
Fo
A variety of channels exists in the membrane

electric charges of the ions. However, these which may open in different voltage ranges
protein channels in the membrane are not or in response to different stimuli such as
open all the time but they are gated. The K+ and Ca2+concentrations. Protein channels
opening and closing of the gates is always in which allow the influx of ions are called
response to external stimuli. These include:

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Extracellular space K+
Gate
y
nl
Plasma
membrane
O
Intracellular space
se
Channel proteins
U
Figure 1.11 A model showing gated ion-channel
inward rectifying or inward channels and are mostly found in a cell membrane of the
those which allow efflux are termed as cell and those of organelles. They do not
e
outward rectifying or outward channels. form pores in the membrane instead, they
For example, specific Ca 2+ channels selectively bind the solute to their specific
in
are inward rectifying while most anion sites and transport them inside. Binding of
channels are always outward. Most of the the solute is possible because proteins tend
channel membrane proteins are described to change their conformational shape to suit
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as inducible proteins because they are the shape of the solute. After the release
synthesized only when a particular solute of solute from the binding site, the carrier
is available for influx or efflux. protein takes back to its original shape to
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Carriers proteins: These are membrane pick up another solute. The binding and
proteins, which carry solutes and ions from release of solute through carrier protein
one side of a membrane to the other. They resembles an enzyme catalysed reaction
model. Movement of solute across the
Fo
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membrane through carrier proteins is a On the contrast, active transport of solutes

slower process compared to ion-channels takes place against the electrochemical
transport, but it transports much wider range potential gradient and in this case, the carrier
of solutes. Carrier proteins transport may be proteins are termed as pumps. In active
passive or active. The passive transport of transport energy utilized comes from the
y
proteins through carriers is also known as hydrolysis of ATP.
facilitated diffusion as shown in Figure 1.12.
nl
O
Extracellular space
Solute
se
Plasma
membrane
U
Carrier protein Solute
e
Intracellular space
Figure 1.12 Facilitated diffusion through carrier proteins

in
Protein pumps: These are membrane H+/K+-ATPase enzyme pumps out one
proteins that pump ions across a membrane H+ for each K+ taken in. This results to
nl
against their concentration gradient through an overall no net movement of charge

active transport. This is another way by in the membrane and therefore termed
which the cell transports ions such as as an electroneutral pump. In contrast,
H+ and Ca2+ across the membrane. Some
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electrogenic pumps results in net charge at

protein pumps may also transport large the membrane after it had pumped the ions
organic solutes across the membranes. inside the cell. The H+-ATPase is a good
Protein ion pumps are of two types. These example of an electrogenic pump because
are electroneutral and electrogenic pumps. it drives out H+ resulting in a net positive
The electroneutral pumps are those proteins charge. Another example of electrogenic
Fo
that transport ions inside the cell with no pump is Na+/K+- ATPase enzyme which
resultant net charge across the membrane pumps three Na+ ions for every two K+ ions
as shown in Figure 1.13. For example, taken in, resulting in a net positive charge
in the membrane surface.

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Extracellular space
Active transport
Membrane protein pump
Low concentration
K+
y
nl
Plasma
membrane
O
K+
ATP ADP + Pi
Intracellular space High concentration
se
Figure 1.13 The role of protein pumps and ATP in active transport across the cell membrane
Transpiration These are called lenticels and through them,

Most of the water taken by roots from
U sometimes water evaporates. However, the
the soil is lost to the atmosphere through amount of water that is lost through these
stomata in the form of water vapour by a slits is almost negligible.
process called transpiration. Transpiration
e
The mechanism of opening and closing
is the process by which a plant loses water of stomata
in the form of vapour. It is essentially
in
Stomata are pores that are largely located in

evaporation of water from aerial plant
the leaf epidermis. They are more distributed
leaves. The water lost by transpiration
in the lower surface of the leaf compared to
largely evaporates through the stomatal
the upper surface. It is through these pores
nl
pores. About 90% of water lost from plants

that gases diffuse in and out of the leaves.
occurs in this way. Some amount of water
Each stoma is surrounded by two guard
evaporates from outer walls of epidermal
cells. Unlike the other epidermal cells,
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cells through cuticles. This kind of water

the guard cells possess chloroplasts and
movement is called a cuticular transpiration
have cytoplasm with a nucleus as shown
and it contributes only 10% of the total
in Figure 1.14.
amount of water lost through transpiration.
Since the stomata pores close during the Changes in turgidity of the guard cells
night, then the only way the plants can lose control the size as well as the closure and
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water by transpiration is through the cuticle. the opening of the stomatal pore. There are
Nevertheless, cuticle is the major barrier different hypotheses which explain causes
against uncontrolled loss of water through of the changes in the turgidity of the guard
the leaves. There are small slits in the stem cells and hence, the opening and the closing
and bark of the tree for gaseous exchange. of the stomatal pore.
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Epidemal cell Thickened outer wall

of guard cell
(a)
Thickened inner wall
of guard cell
y
Stoma
nl
Nucleus
Chloroplast
O
Guard cell
(b)
Epidemal cell
Chloroplast
se
Nucleus
Stoma
Figure 1.14 (a) The cross-section of a stoma and (b) The transverse section of a stoma
Starch-sugar hypothesis
U the soil to the stem and then to the leaves
The starch-sugar hypothesis suggests that where it evaporates through the stomata
starch-sugar interconversion is responsible into the atmosphere.
e
for the opening and closing of stomata. The The evaporation is facilitated by the
amount of starch in the guard cells increases differences in the water potential between
during the day and decreases during the the air spaces in the leaf and the atmosphere.
in
night. This is because photosynthesis The water vapour moves from a high water
takes place during the day. The process of potential inside the leaf to a low water
photosynthesis result in the accumulation potential in the atmosphere. When the guard
nl
of sugars in the guard cells which increases cells lose water and become less turgid, the
the concentration of solute in the cells. The stomata pore closes.
increase in solutes potential leads to osmotic The starch-sugar hypothesis on the
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movement of water from the neighbouring mechanism of the closing and the opening
cells into the guard cells. Turgidity of the of the stomata faces a number of challenges.
guard cells increases as the water moves For example, studies on plant physiology
in. Structurally, the inner walls of the guard have proven that sugars which accumulate
cells are thicker and less elastic than the in the guard cells during photosynthesis
outer ones. Therefore, when water enters
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are not enough to cause the required solute

the guard cells, the outer walls expand more potential for an osmotic movement of water
than the inner walls. The guard cells then from epidermal cells into the guard cells.
assume a kidney shape when the outer walls The hypothesis also fails to explain the
become fully stretched. This leads to the role of the rise in pH on the basis of carbon
opening of the stomatal aperture. During dioxide concentration. Moreover, sugar
the ascent of sap, the water moves from has never been noticed in the cell sap of

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the guard cells during the opening of the cell surface membrane. This is the enzyme
stomata. The starch-sugar inter-conversion that catalyses the decomposition of ATP
is very slow to the extent that it cannot effect into ADP, free phosphate ions, and energy
quick movements of water through stomata. that pumps out hydrogen ions (protons)
from the guard cells. Potassium ions then
y
Potassium ions hypothesis
enter the guard cells to balance the charge.
The evidence from plant physiology These protons return to a carrier which
nl
experiments have proved that stomata can also brings chloride ions (Cl-) and causes
also open in the absence of carbon dioxide potassium ions (K+) to enter the guard cells.
and light. Therefore, the starch–sugar The movement of ions into the guard cells
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hypothesis has been challenged in that the lowers the water potential in these cells,
accumulation of sugars in the guard cells making it more negative. This causes the
is not the main reason for turgidity changes entry of water by osmosis and makes the
in the guard cells. It has been proven that guard cells turgid as shown in Figure
potassium and chlorine ions are responsible
se
1.15 (a). The turgidity of the guard cells
for the changes in the turgidity of the guard result in an increase in the pressure potential,
cell. which causes the stomata to open. In the
In the presence of sunlight, potassium ions absence of sunlight, for example in the
(K+) and chloride ions (Cl-) enter the guard
cells by active mechanism stimulated by
U night, the stomatal pore closes as a result of
the reversed process of opening as shown
ATPase enzyme which is located in the in Figure 1.15 (b).
e
in
H+ Cl–
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H + K+
ATP ADP
Guard
K+ cell
Cl–
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H 2O
H2O
(a) (b)
Figure 1.15 The mechanism of (a) stomatal opening and (b) stomatal closing
Fo
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Effects of transpiration in plants of stomata allows water to be lost to the

Transpiration should not always be atmosphere. Transpiration also reduces the
considered as a hazardous process in the water content of the soil.
plant life for drawing water from the soil
Factors affecting the rate of
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and causing drying of the soil. However,
it has been described as “a necessary transpiration
evil” because it is unavoidable but with a The factors which influence the rate of
nl
number of negative effects. The necessity transpiration are of two types, namely:
of transpiration to the plants becomes external or environmental and internal
evident through the beneficial effects factors. The external or environmental
O
gained by the plants. Transpiration pull factors that influence the rate of transpiration
result into availability of water and mineral include the following.
salts in various parts of plants. In addition,
transpiration is the source of water required Relative humidity and vapour pressure:
The drier the air around the plant, the greater
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for the photosynthesis process. In order
for evaporation to occur, energy is needed the transpiration rate. This means that when
which is obtained from the leaf. The process humidity is high, the rate at which the plant
results in cooling the leaf surface at the loses water through transpiration is low.
site of evaporation. The cooling of the leaf Air movement (wind): As the wind blows,
avoids excessive temperatures, which could
U water vapour around the external surface of
affect the rate of photosynthesis. Moreover, the leaf is cleared away. This means that,
transpiration helps in the removal of excess any air movement will tend to sweep away a
water from the plant because the plant layer of water around the leaf surface. This
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requires a very little amount of water to creates a water potential gradient between
perform its function. It is known that out of the leaf surface and the epidermal cells of
100% of water absorbed by the roots only
in
the leaf which causes water to flow out of

10% is needed and used by the plant, the
the leaf. Therefore, windy conditions result
rest 90% is lost to the atmosphere through
in increased transpiration rates.
the process of transpiration. In this way, it
nl
adds water in the atmosphere in the form of Temperature: A rise in temperature

vapour. This in turn condenses and then falls increases the kinetic energy of water
as rain to make water available in the soil. molecules, which in turn, increases the rate
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Despite its importance, transpiration can of evaporation of water. At the same time,
cause reduction of the water content of a these changes lower the relative humidity
plant. This can result in wilting and if this of the air, as well as increasing the rate of
process lasts for a long time, can lead to transpiration.
the death of the plant. Transpiration also Light: Light affects transpiration because
interferes with the process of gaseous
Fo
stomata usually open in the light and close

exchange through the stomata. This is in darkness. It follows that an increase in
because the stomata have to open to take the intensity of light increases the rate of
in carbon dioxide as a raw material for transpiration and vice versa.
photosynthesis. However, the opening

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Water availability: The rate of transpiration Stomata: Generally, the greater the
depends on the amount of water, which is number of stomatal pores the higher the
available in the soil. This means that, the rate of stomatal transpiration. The rate of
greater the amount of soil water, the higher transpiration also depends on the stomatal
the rate of transpiration and vice versa. distribution. Thus, in most of the dicot plant
y
The internal factors that affect the rate leaves, many stomatal pores are located on
the lower surfaces and therefore the rate of
nl
of transpiration include anatomical and
morphological features of the plants. These transpiration is higher on these sides than
factors are elaborated in the following on the upper ones.
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sections. Guttation
Surface area of the leaf: The greater the This is the loss of water in the form of
total surface area of a leaf, the greater the drops of liquid from the surface of the plant
rate of transpiration and vice versa. The leaves through special structures called
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reduction of the leaf surface is achieved hydathodes, which are found on the leaf
when leaves are modified to needles as in margin or surface. Guttation is caused by
pine plant or to spines as in cacti. root pressure and capillary action. Guttation
and transpiration involve loss of water from
Cuticle: The thinner the cuticle the higher
the plant. However, several differences
the rate of cuticular transpiration and vice
U exist between the two pocesses as shown
versa.
in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Differences between transpiration and guttation
e
Transpiration Guttation
It involves loss of water from plants It involves loss of water in the
in
in the form of vapour. form of drops of liquid water.

It takes place during the day. It takes place during the night.
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The driving force is the transpiration The driving force is root pressure.
pull.
It takes place in all terrestrial higherIt takes place mostly in herbaceous
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plants. plants.
It maintains the temperature of the It has no relationship with the
plant. maintenance of temperature.
Water which is given out is pure and The water which is given out
contains no salts. contains salts.
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It occurs through stomata that are It occurs through a special group

located on the lower side of the of cells known as hydathodes
leaves. which are located at the margins
of the leaves.
It is favoured by high light intensity. It is favoured by low light intensity
and humidity.
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Exercise 1.3 either be from the source to the sink or from

1. E x p l a i n t h e p a t h o f u p w a r d the sink to the source. For example, during
dry season, deciduous trees shed their leaves
transportation of water and mineral
and consequently photosynthesis stops.
salts in plants.
However, during wet season, the food which
y
2. Describe the forces governing the was stored in the sink will be transported
upward movement of water and through the phloem to the source to facilitate
nl
mineral salts in plants. the growth of new buds and leaves. This
3. Discuss the mechanism of stomata means that the movement is now from the
opening and closing. sink to the source to facilitate the formation
O
4. Briefly elaborate the hypotheses of new leaves for photosynthesis. Note
about stomatal opening and closing that the transport of water in the xylem
in plants. occurs only from the roots to the leaves
and therefore it is uni-directional.
5. Explain the internal and external
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factors that affect the rate of The path of manufactured food
transpiration. Leaves are the main photosynthetic organs
6. Distinguish between transpiration of the plant. However, in some plants,
and guttation. stem plays the role of photosynthesis.
U Other parts of the plant which are non-
Translocation of manufactured food photosynthetic, and which are located far
Most of the carbohydrates which are away from photosynthetic organs need to
manufactured in the leaves and other green get the products of photosynthesis for their
e
parts of the plants are transported through growth. These parts include growing parts
the phloem to other parts of the plant for of the plants such as roots, developing buds,
in
use and storage. This process is known as fruits, stems and storage organs such as roots
translocation. The area where carbohydrate and stems. Therefore, plants have developed
is made is called source and the area where means of transporting the produced food
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carbohydrate is taken for use and storage from the leaves to other parts, which are
is called sink. Therefore, transportation in non-photosynthetic. As discussed earlier,
plants occurs in the direction of the source to phloem is the tissue in vascular plants which
the sink by translocation. Examples of the carries products of photosynthesis away
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sink are roots and stems. Translocation of from the leaves to other parts of the plant.
manufactured food from the photosynthetic
The large percentage of food substances
cells to different parts of the plant body
carried in the phloem tissue is the
for use and storage requires specialized
carbohydrate called sucrose, a disaccharide
cells and it occurs through a specific path.
sugar, which is inactive and highly soluble.
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Unlike the movement of water and mineral

Since it is inactive, it plays a minor role
nutrients from the roots to the shoots
in metabolism. This condition makes
through xylem which occurs in one direction
it ideal for being transported because
only, translocation of food materials through
there is no possibility of being used
phloem is bi-directional in the sense that the
during transport. On reaching the required
movement of materials through phloem can
destination, it is converted back to the

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active form of monosaccharides such as in circumference. Therefore, the

glucose and fructose ready for use. Other remaining part of the phloem, which
substances carried by phloem include amino is capable of translocating food
acids, inorganic ions, vitamins, and plant materials, is very small.
hormones. (e) Sieve tube, which is a very fine part
y
of phloem, is concerned with the
Features of phloem translocation
movement of materials. The sieve tube
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The following are among the important elements display various structural
features of phloem translocation. adaptations such as lack of nucleus
at maturity and the presence of sieve
O
(a) The amount of materials carried plates which make them well suited
through phloem may be very large. for transportation.
The stored food in plant roots and
stems are carried through the phloem. The mechanism of transporting
Taking into consideration the amount manufactured food material in a
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of food substances consumed and phloem tissue
those stored, it is obvious that phloem Several models and hypotheses have been
tissues carry large amounts of food developed to describe the movement of
substances. U food materials in the plants. However,
(b) There is a higher rate of flow of one common model is the mass flow
materials through the phloem sieve or the pressure-flow model, which was
tubes. The experiments conducted to suggested by Münch in 1930. This is the
trace the food substances carried in the model for large scale movement of food
phloem tissue, revealed that the rate of in plants due to the active transportation
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the flow of materials in the phloem is of sugars into the phloem. With this
very high. model, the process of translocation of the
in
(c) The distance through which the manufactured materials starts when the
food substance travels may be long. glucose prepared in the leaves is converted
Since some trees are very tall, food into sugars mainly sucrose. This is then
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substances travel along a great distance moved into the companion cells and then
from the manufacturing site down to into the living phloem sieve tube cells by
the roots.
active transport. A hypertonic condition
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(d) The size of phloem is small. It would in the phloem is created as a result of this
be recalled that the phloem tissue is movement. This involves the movement
a thin layer of an inner layer of tree of sugar from the sources such as leaves,
bark. This is the only part which followed by the passive entry of water.
is concerned with the translocation This creates a pressure forcing the fluid to
of food material. Furthermore, it is
move to a sugar sink like the root, where
only the newly formed phloem tissue
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that is capable of translocating food cells actively take up sugar from the phloem
substances. The older and outer layers and the water returns to the xylem. Osmotic
cannot translocate food substances pressure rises and phloem sap moves from
because they become stretched and an area of higher osmotic pressure to the
die as the plant grows and increases area of low pressure.
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In his experiment, Münch prepared a model in container A, the hydrostatic pressure

as shown in Figure 1.16 with two containers built up in the closed system A-C-B tube,
A and B each of which contained a sugar which in turn forced water out of container
solution. The solution in container A was B. Consequently, the mass flow of solution
more concentrated than that in container occurred through tube C along the generated
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B. Each container had a semi-permeable pressure gradient; due to osmotic uptake of
membrane. The two containers were water, the osmotic gradient also was built
nl
connected by a tube. After being placed in from container A to container B. Since the
water, the two solutions initially took up the water continued to dilute the contents of
water by osmosis. However, the tendency of container A and solutes accumulated at
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water uptake was higher in container A than container B, then the system came into
it was in container B. As the water entered equilibrium.
A manometer attached to B would
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C register a hydrostatic pressure
U
Semi-permeable Semi-permeable
membrane
membrane A B
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Solution of more Solution of less
negative solute negative solute
potential eg. potential eg. diluted
in
concentrated sucrose solution

sucrose solution Water
Mass flow of solution
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Movement of water
Figure 1.16 Illustration of Münch’s mass flow hypothesis

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This model can be used to explain the flow represent the sink, which is the area where
of sugar molecules from the leaves to the sugar is used up or stored in an insoluble
roots. Container A can represent the leaves, form. In this case, it is the root, young shoot,
which are the source of sugars manufactured or fruits. The hydrostatic pressure in the
during photosynthesis process as indicated leaves increases and the pressure gradient
in Figure 1.17. Water then leaks out is created between the leaves (source) and
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continuously in the mesophyll cells in the the roots (sink) resulting in the mass flow
leaves making the solute potential (Ψs) of of solute along the gradient. In plants,
the leaf cells more negative. This causes the solutes are constantly being used up at the
water to be brought to the leaf from xylem sink (B) and produced at the source (A),
by osmosis. The process results in raising and therefore, the equilibrium state is not
the pressure potential (Ψp). Container B can reached.

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A
Photosynthetic tissue
Sugars from photosynthetic tissues, mainly in the

CO2 Sugars
leaves, are concentrated into conducting sieve cells.
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Water
Water enters sieve cells along the osmotic gradient
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caused by increased amount of sugars. This results
Mass in the increased hydrostatic pressure (turgor) in
flow
the cells.
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Sieve cells A mass flow of water occurs due to turgor pressure
gradient between the photosynthetic tissue and
other cells in the plant. This allows the movement
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of manufactured food (sugars) from leaves to other
parts of the plant.
Non- photosynthetic cells use manufactured food

Sugars Water
U
(sugars). This causes the removal of water from
neighbouring cells through osmosis which results
B in the decrease of turgor pressure.
Non-photosynthetic tissue
e
Figure 1.17 Diagram showing phloem translocation of photosynthetic product
Evidence of mass flow through the

in
measured in the phloem, matches closely

phloem with the pressure differences which are
The studies on plant physiology reveal that measured at the sources and sinks. However,
food moves through phloem by mass flow this is only true when the pores are open.
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mechanism. This is because the phloem sap Criticism against the mass flow
flows out of the cut phloem by mass flow. hypothesis
This signifies a pressure gradient. Since
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(i) The mass flow hypothesis neglects

hydrogen is actively transported out of the
the living nature of the phloem. In
phloem, then the phloem sap has a high
other words, it does not explain why
pH than it is expected. Moreover, when
sieve tube cells must be living and
a feeding aphid is anaesthetized and its
metabolically active.
mouthparts carefully cut, sucrose solution
flows out of the stylet of the aphid. The (ii) The hypothesis indicates that all
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prolonged flow of this solution suggests a organic substances in the phloem tubes
hydrostatic pressure in the sieve tubes. The are transported or swept at the same
rate of movement in phloem is faster than it constant speed. However, experiments
would be if the movement was by diffusion. show that amino acids and sugars are
Additionally, the rate of transport, which is transported at different rates.
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(iii) Bidirectional movement of solutes the movement of materials within a cell or

in the translocation process, as between parts of an organism. In contrast,
well as the fact that translocation transportation is defined as the circulation
is heavily affected by changes and all other processes by which substances
in the environmental conditions pass into or out of cells and move within
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such as temperature and metabolic the organism. The vertebrate circulatory
inhibitors, are not fully explained by system has three major components.
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this hypothesis. First, the blood which is a fluid in which
(iv) Furthermore, the hypothesis does transported materials are dissolved. Second,
the blood vessels which form a network
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not show the role of metabolism in
phloem translocation. For example, of tubes or body spaces through which
the active mechanisms of loading the fluid flows. A transport network of the
sucrose to the sieve elements at the vertebrate circulatory system is made up
sources and the unloading of sucrose of arteries, veins, and blood cells. The last
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from the sieve elements at the sinks component of vertebrate circulatory system
are not explained. is the heart which is a means of driving the
fluid through the tubes or spaces. Animals
Exercise 1.4 have two different types of circulatory
1. Explain the features which facilitate
U systems, which are open circulatory system
in arthropods and some molluscs and closed
passage of manufactured food
circulatory system in echinoderms, some
through the phloem tissue.
molluscs and vertebrates. This closed
2. Discuss how the Münch’s model system is either single or double circulatory
e
demonstrates translocation of food systems. In mammals, the circulation of
through the phloem from the source blood in foetus differs from that of an adult.
in
to the sinks.
3. Give evidence to show that food The blood
passes through the phloem by mass Blood is the first component of the vertebrate
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flow. circulatory system. It is a constantly

4. Briefly explain the challenges of circulating fluid in the body of humans
the mass flow hypothesis of phloem and other animals. It has a function of
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translocation. transporting necessary substances such

5. Explain why the end products of as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and
photosynthesis are safely transported removing metabolic wastes away from
from the source to the sink without the cells. Blood is the main component of
the transport system in vertebrates. While
being oxidized on their way.
55% of blood is composed of the plasma,
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Transport in animals the remaining 45% constitute of blood

Transportation of materials in animals such cells. Approximately 8% of an adult’s
as vertebrates occurs mainly through the human body weight is made up of blood.
blood vascular system. The heart whose The composition of blood by sex indicates
walls are made up of the cardiac muscles that females have an average of 4 -5 litres
pumps the circulating blood. Circulation is while males have 5 - 6 litres. This is due

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to differences in their body size. Males the metabolic cells to the lungs in order to be
are relatively bigger in size than their removed outside the body. The underlying
females. The blood has a pH ranging from transport mechanism is summarised in
7.35 to 7.45. Hence, it is slightly alkaline. Figure 1.18.
Its viscosity is about 4.5 - 5.5 times the
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Apart from the transportation of the gases,
viscosity of water making it easier to flow blood also transports nutrients from the
in the vessels than water.
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digestive tract and storage sites to the
Functions of the blood rest of the body. Waste products to be
Blood has three major functions in the detoxified or removed by the liver and
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body, namely: transport, protection, and kidneys respectively are also transported by
regulation. the blood. Moreover, the blood transports
hormones from the glands in which they
Transport: This is the main function are produced to their target cells. Finally,
of the blood. It is the primary means the blood also transports heat generated
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of transport in the body of vertebrates. during metabolism to the skin that helps
Substances transported by the blood include to regulate body temperature.
gases, nitrogenous wastes, hormones, and
nutrients. One of the transport roles of the Protection: The blood is also involved in
body protection and inflammation.
blood is to pick up oxygen (O2) processed
in the lungs to all body cells. Cells need
U
For example, leukocytes, or white blood cells
oxygen for undertaking cellular respiration tend to destroy the invading microorganisms
to generate energy, which will enable them and cancer cells. Antibodies and other
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to carry out some metabolic activities. Blood proteins present in blood plasma destroy
also transports carbon dioxide (CO2) from pathogenic substances.
in
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Mitochondrion
NaHCO3
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3–
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CO2 Tissue Plasma

fluid
CO2 + HHbNH2 HHbNH COOH Na+
Haemoglobin (Carbamino-
haemoglobin) HHb
Tissue Cl–
O2 O2 + Hb–
fluid
HbO2 Erythrocyte
(Oxyhaemoglobin) Chloride shift
Fo
Figure 1.18 Mechanism of transportation of carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2) in the body
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Platelets or thrombocytes also tend to blood cells and platelets or thrombocytes.

initiate the process of blood clotting and They are named so because they are
helps to minimize blood loss during an enclosed in a plasma membrane and they
injury. have a definite shape and structure. With
the exception of platelets, all the other
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Regulation: The blood is involved in
regulating the functions of many factors in formed elements are cells. Platelets are tiny
fragments of bone marrow cells. Figure 1.19
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the body. For example, it is responsible for
controlling the concentration of hydrogen summarises the major components of the
ions or pH in the body by interacting with vertebrate blood.
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acids and bases. It regulates the temperature Blood plasma: Plasma is a pale yellow
of the body and maintaining it at tolerable sticky liquid component of the blood. It
levels. Furthermore, it controls body water forms about 55% of the total blood's volume
balance by transferring water to and from in the body. About 90% of plasma consists
tissues. The blood also regulates the levels of water and the remaining 10% is a variety
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of salt required in the body. of substances in solution and suspension
forms.These substances include proteins,
Composition of the blood
electrolytes, nutrients, gases, hormones,
In vertebrates, blood is composed of two and waste products. Plasma proteins are
main components, namely: plasma and the
formed elements. The formed elements of
U the most abundant plasma solutes and they
account for about 8% by weight of plasma
the blood include red blood cells, white volume in the blood. Most plasma proteins
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Whole blood
in
Plasma Formed elements

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Amino Nitrogenous Platelets

acids wastes
Nutrients Electrolytes
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Leukocytes Erythrocytes
Proteins Gases Granulocytes Agranulocytes
Albumins Fibrinogens Neutrophils Basophils

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Lymphocytes Monocytes
Eosinophils
Globulins
Figure 1.19 Composition of blood

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are produced by the liver, except hormones proteins in the blood. These proteins can
and gamma globulins. Although they serve be subdivided into three classes based on
a number of functions such as maintenance their molecular weight. These are alpha, beta
of osmotic pressure and water balance in and gamma globulins. They include high-
blood and tissues, they have other functions density lipoproteins, an alpha-1 globulin,
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such as transport. The components of plasma and a low-density lipoproteins called beta-1
vary considerably as new substances are globulin. Lipoproteins with high density are
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removed or added in the blood. If a person involved in lipid and fat transport to the cells
eats a balanced diet, plasma composition for use in metabolism, membrane synthesis,
is kept relatively constant by various and function of hormones. They also tend
O
homeostatic mechanisms. When plasma to prevent cholesterol from invading and
protein levels drop, the liver is stimulated staying in the walls of blood vessels. On the
other hand, the lipoprotein of low density
to produce more proteins. In addition, when
transports cholesterol and fats to tissues
the blood becomes too acidic (acidosis), the
to be involved in manufacturing steroid
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respiratory system and kidneys restore the
hormones and cell membranes. Therefore,
normal and slightly alkaline state. globulins play a vital role in the regulation
Plasma proteins of cholesterol, and hence, they help in
There are three major categories of plasma preventing cardiovascular diseases.
U
proteins, each having its own properties and Fibrinogens: These proteins constitute
functions. They include albumins, globulins, 4% of the total plasma proteins. The liver
and fibrinogens. produces them and they are responsible for
the formation of fibrin threads of a blood
e
Albumins: These are the smallest and most
abundant form of plasma proteins. About clot. They are soluble precursors of a protein
60% of plasma proteins are albumin. These called fibrin and forms the framework of
in
proteins act as a carrier to transport some the blood clot.

molecules such as drugs, hormones, and Other components of blood plasma
fatty acids through the blood circulation. Nitrogenous wastes: These form another
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With the help of sodium ions, these are the group of solutes found in the blood plasma.
major blood proteins which are involved in They are the by-products of metabolism
maintaining osmotic pressure of the blood. which include urea, uric acid, creatinine,
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Osmotic pressure helps in maintaining water and ammonium salts. They are toxic in
in the blood stream. It has been observed nature, hence, they are cleared from the
that reductions in the amount of albumin blood stream and excreted by the kidneys.
content in the plasma result in a loss of
fluid from the blood and the increase of Nutrients: These include some materials
fluid in the interstitial space and tissues. absorbed from digestion including glucose,
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This allows easier movement of ions and amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol and
nutrients across cell barriers. triglycerides, cholesterol, and vitamins.
They are absorbed by the digestive tract
Globulins: These are the second category
and are transported in the blood plasma.
of plasma protein, which are important in
immune globulin. Their abundance ranges Respiratory gases: The blood plasma
from 36% to 38% of the total plasma transports some amounts of oxygen and
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carbon dioxide. In this case, oxygen is Formed elements of the blood

transported as it binds to the haemoglobin They include erythrocytes, leukocytes, and
inside the red blood cells, while carbon platelets as shown in Figure 1.20. These
dioxide is transported after it dissolves in elements are named so because they have
plasma to form bicarbonate ions.
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some unusual features. Firstly, erythrocytes
Electrolytes: Plasma is also composed of a and platelets are not true cells. For example,
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number of electrolytes in the form of cations erythrocytes have no nuclei and other
and anions. The cations include sodium, necessary organelles such as mitochondria
potassium, calcium, and magnesium. and ribosomes, while platelets are only
fragments of cells. The leukocytes or white
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The anions include chloride, phosphate,
sulphate, and bicarbonate. The most blood cells are the only true cells because
abundant of these electrolytes are sodium they contain all the necessary organelles.
ions that contribute to the osmolality and Secondly, with the exception of white blood
normal blood pH than any other ion. cells, other formed elements survive in the
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blood stream for only a few days compared
Amino acids: These are formed as a result to other blood materials. The last unusual
of the breakdown of tissue proteins. They behaviour of these elements is that they do
are involved in the process of protein not divide; instead, division of cells found
synthesis.
U in the red bone marrow renews them.
Hematopoietic stem cell

e
in
Myeloid stem cell Lymphoid stem cell

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Megakaryblast Proerythroblast Myeloblast Monoblast Lymphoblast

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Reticulocyte
Natural killer cell Small lymphocyte

(large granular
lymphocyte)
Megakaryocyte Erythrocyte Basophil Neutrophil Eosinophil Monocyte
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T - Lymphocyte B - Lymphocyte
Platelets
Figure 1.20 Formed elements of the blood (WBC RBC and Platelets)

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Red blood cells (RBCs): A red blood cell implies that red blood cells are incapable of
or erythrocyte is a biconcave, disc-shaped repairing themselves. The loss of organelles
cell with a thick rim and a thin sunken gives a red blood cells its biconcave shape.
lower centre. These cells have two main This gives the cell a greater surface area to
functions. The first function is to pick up volume ratio to enable oxygen and carbon
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oxygen from the lungs and deliver it to dioxide to diffuse rapidly to and from the
the rest of the body. The second role is to haemoglobin.
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pick up carbon dioxide from the body and The life span of circulating red blood
unload it in the lungs. The plasma membrane cells is about 120 days for a healthier
of an erythrocyte has glycoproteins and
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person. After this period, red blood cells
glycolipids, which in turn determines a die in the spleen, where they become
person’s blood type. The proteins that trapped in narrow channels, then broken
determine blood type are synthesized based up and finally destroyed through the
on the genetic information present in the process of haemolysis. This occurs when
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DNA of an individual. The inner surface haemoglobin is released leaving empty
of the cell contains two types of proteins, plasma membranes that become digested
namely: spectrin and actin. These proteins by cells known as macrophages in the
give membrane resilience and durability. liver and spleen. The haemoglobin is then
As a result, the red blood cell is able to
stretch, bend and fold when it squeezes
U broken down into different components
and recycled for further use or disposed.
through small blood vessels and capillaries.
Furthermore, these proteins enable the cells White blood cells (WBCs): These are also
to spring back to their original shape when known as leukocytes. They are the only
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they pass through larger blood vessels. Like blood formed elements that are true cells,
any other blood cells, red blood cells are with nuclei and the normal organelles.
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formed in a process called haematopoiesis Leukocytes are far less numerous than their
which occurs in the red bone marrow. The counterpart erythrocytes. Their amount is
latter is composed of large and soft networks less than 1% of the total blood volume. On
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of reticular connective tissues. average, there are 4800–10,800 WBCs/µl

of blood. The white blood cells are vital
The cytoplasm of the erythrocytes consists to our defence system against disease.
of 33% solution of haemoglobin (Hb). This
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They form a blood mobile army that helps

solution is the one that gives red blood cell to prevent and protect our bodies against
its reddish colour. Haemoglobin carries the invasion of bacteria, viruses, parasites,
most of the oxygen and some of the carbon toxins, and tumour cells. White blood
dioxide transported by the blood. Red cells are subdivided into granulocytes and
blood cells lose nearly all the inner cellular agranulocytes.
components during maturation. The inner
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cellular components or organelles that Granulocytes

are lost include mitochondria, which are These are white blood cells that contain
normally involved in cellular respiration organelles and usually appear as coloured
and the nucleus that contains the genetic granules in the light microscope.
material of the cell to enable it to repair itself Granulocytes are further subdivided into
through mitosis. The absence of a nucleus neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
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Neutrophils: These are the most numerous Lymphocytes: Lymphocytes are the main
granulocytes in the white blood cells. Its WBCs present in the lymph nodes. They can
population is between 50–70% of the WBCs be medium and large lymphocytes which are
population. They are about twice as large as usually seen in the connective tissues and
erythrocytes. They contain very fine light only occasionally in the blood circulation.
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pink cytoplasmic granules that can be seen The main function of lymphocytes is to
even under a light microscope. The other build the body immune system. They are
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name for neutrophils is polymorphonuclear also responsible for presenting antigens
as they have a variety of nuclear shapes. The to activate other cells of the body immune
main function of neutrophils is to destroy system. Lastly, they coordinate the actions
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bacteria. It also releases some chemicals of other immune cells to secrete antibodies
that kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria. that serve in the immune memory. This is
Eosinophils: In contrast to neutrophils, why young children have more lymphocytes
the eosinophils have large granules and than adults do because they are developing
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a prominent nucleus. The nucleus of immunity to many new infectious agents.
eosinophil is divided into two lobes. Their Monocytes: They are the largest of the
major role is in the destruction of allergens formed elements about 3 - 4 times bigger
and inflammatory chemicals. They also than red blood cells. They have an irregular
release enzymes that disable parasites
U shape than lymphocytes with a blue-grey
function in the body. For example, a person cytoplasm, and a kidney-shaped nucleus.
with tapeworm in his/her digestive tract They are differentiated into macrophages
will have an increased eosinophil count. and digest pathogens, dead neutrophils and
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Normally, the population of eosinophils dead cells. Moreover, they also present
is usually less than 3% of the total WBCs antigens to activate other immune cells.
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in the body.
Platelets
Basophils: These are the least in numbers to Platelets are tiny cell fragments in the blood
all the granulocytes. They do not exceed 1% that enhance blood clotting. They are also
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of the total white blood cells in the blood. known as thrombocytes. They have no cell
Their nucleus is pale and usually hidden nucleus and other important organelles, and
by granules. Their major role is to secrete therefore, not termed as cells. They are small
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histamine, which increases tissue blood fragments of cytoplasm produced from

flow, via dilating the blood vessels. They haematopoiesis in the red bone marrow cells
are also responsible for secreting heparin, before entering blood circulation. Platelets
which is an anticoagulant that promotes have secretory factors or receptors called
mobility of other WBCs, thereby preventing vasoconstrictors, which promptly constrict
them from clotting. blood vessels in a phenomenon that is called
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Agranulocytes vascular spasms. Vascular spasm is a prompt

These are white blood cells that do not constriction of the broken blood vessel. It is
contain granules. They are subdivided into the first immediate protection against blood
lymphocytes and monocytes. loss as it forms temporary platelet plugs to
stop more bleeding. Platelets also secrete
clotting factors known as procoagulants

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that promote further blood clotting. Another Platelet plug formation: The second
function of platelets is to dissolve blood step in blood clotting is plug formation
clots when they are no longer needed to by the actions of platelets. This is done by
return the injured part into normal. They aggregating the earlier formed platelets
are also responsible for the digestion and and forming a plug that temporarily seals
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destruction of bacteria. Lastly, platelets to cover the break in the blood vessel
secret chemical substances that tend to wall. The platelet plug is also known as
nl
attract neutrophils and monocytes to sites haemostatic plug or platelet thrombus. They
of inflammation. help to arrange the coming events that lead
to clot formation. Meanwhile, endothelial
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Mechanism of blood clotting
cells release nitric oxide and another
Human body protects itself against excessive chemical substance called prostacyclin.
loss of blood through the blood clotting These chemicals assist in restricting platelet
mechanism. This mechanism is haemostatic aggregation to the injured part only. In case
in which platelets and fibrinogen plasma
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of severe injury, where the endothelium
protein play a major role in all stages. is injured and underlying collagen fibres
The term haemostasis refers to the normal being exposed, platelets will function as
response of the blood vessels to injury collagen fibres.
by forming a clot that serves to prevent
haemorrhage. Blood clotting mechanism
U Blood clot: This is the final stage of
occurs in three stages namely vascular blood clotting aimed at converting plasma
spasms, platelet plug formation, and blood fibrinogen into fibrin. This is a sticky protein
clotting or coagulation. The blood clotting that adheres to the walls of a damaged blood
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begins almost immediately after an injury to vessel. At this stage, blood cells and platelets
the blood vessel with vasoconstriction and become stuck to fibrin and form fibrin
in
the response is very fast, localized to the mesh which helps to seal the break in the
injured part and carefully controlled. The blood vessel. The process of blood clotting
sequence of events that occur during blood involves three stages. In the first stage, a
complex substance called prothrombin
nl
clotting include the occurrence of vascular

spasm, platelet plug, and blood clot. activator is formed from the body chemical
reactions in response to damage in the blood
Vascular spasm: This is the first step where vessels. In the second stage, prothrombin
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the damaged vessels respond to injury by activator converts a plasma protein called
constricting blood vessels in the injured prothrombin into thrombin. Thrombin is an
area. There are various factors involved enzyme that hydrolyses fibrinogen protein
in the initiation of vascular spasm. These into fibrin. Fibrin is insoluble and fibrous in
factors include the release of chemicals nature and forms needle-like fibres called
by endothelial cells, platelets and some fibrin mesh. This mesh traps blood cells and
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reflexes initiated by pain receptors. It starts effectively seals the hole until the blood
with the stimulation of pain receptors, vessel can be permanently repaired.
which innervate the nearby vessels, causing
them to constrict before allowing other
mechanisms to take over. Usually, vascular
spasm lasts for about 20–30 minutes.
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Exercise 1.5 to their smaller size compared to adults.

This gives them a large surface area-volume
1. Discuss the composition and ratio. Hence, they have more heat loss per
functions of the mammalian blood. unit area requiring a high metabolic rate to
2. Briefly describe functions played by maintain constant body temperature.
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plasma proteins in the mammalian
Heart structure
body.
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The heart is surrounded by a double-walled
3. Explain why do red blood cells lose
and tough sac called pericardium and is
their nuclei and mitochondria as they
located within a fluid-filled cavity known
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mature and state the advantages of as the pericardial cavity. The superior end
this tendency to the cell. of the heart is the base, which is further
4. Discuss the changes in blood attached to the aorta, pulmonary arteries,
composition as it passes through pulmonary veins, and the vena cava as
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the following parts: (i) lungs (ii) shown in Figure 1.21. Its inferior part is
intestine (iii) kidneys and (iv) active the apex placed just above the diaphragm.
muscles.
About two-thirds of its mass points to the
5. Briefly discuss how platelets, fibrin, left of the cavity and the remaining one-
and red blood cells interact to form a
blood clot in the injured part.
U third is on the right. It is made up of four
chambers and several valves that regulate
the normal flow of blood in the body.
The heart The pericardium produces serous fluid to
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This is another component of the vertebrate lubricate the heart. It is also responsible
circulatory system. It is a muscular organ for preventing friction between the heart
between the two lungs behind the sternum and the organs surrounding it. In addition,
in
that serves as a body’s circulatory pump. pericardium has a role of holding the heart
It is a central component of the circulatory firm in its position and maintaining a hollow
system and it is responsible for pumping space for it to expand. Pericardium has two
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the blood thereby distributing oxygen and layers, the first one is the visceral layer
nutrients throughout the body. It is because that covers the outside of the heart while
of this role that the heart is taken as the most the parietal layer forms a sac around the
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important organ in the body so that even a outside of the pericardial cavity.
minor dysfunction or abnormality causes
Heart walls
drastic consequences to the organism. For
a normal healthier adult, the heart goes The wall of the heart consists of three layers
72 beats or cardiac cycles in one minute. namely epicardium, myocardium, and
However, this rate is different for children endocardium. The epicardium or visceral is
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whose heart rates are higher and relatively the outermost layer of the heart. It is a thin
faster than adults are. This is because babies’ layer of serous membrane, which lubricates
growth rate is very high and hence, their and protects the outside parts of the heart.
cells burn food fast to fuel growth. Another Just below epicardium is the second layer
reason for their higher heartbeat rate is due called myocardium that is much thicker
than epicardium. It is the muscular layer

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Aorta
Pulmonary artery
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to the lungs
Superior
vena cava
Pulmonary
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veins
Pulmonary veins from lungs
Left atrium
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Right atrium
Bicuspid valve
Inferior
vena cava
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Semilunar
valves
Tricuspid valve
Left ventricle
Right ventricle
U
Wall separating sides of Pericardium
the heart (septum)
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Figure 1.21 Longitudinal section of the heart
in
of the heart wall, which contains the heart last layer is endocardium that is found just
or cardiac muscle tissues. Myocardium below the myocardium. It is a thin simple
comprises the majority of the thickness squamous endothelium layer, which covers
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and mass of the heart wall to enhance the the parts inside the heart.
pumping of the blood. The atria have a thin
Heart chambers
myocardium because they do not need to
The heart is made up of four chambers.
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pump blood far. They only pump the blood

to the ventricles. In contrast, ventricles have These are right and left atria (singular is
a very thick myocardium because they have atrium), right and left ventricles. The atria
to pump blood to the lungs and throughout are present in the upper part of the heart.
the body. The same reasons explain why the The right atrium is involved in receiving
right side of the heart has less myocardium deoxygenated blood from the body cells.
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in its walls than the left side. The left side Compared to ventricles, atria are smaller
has to pump blood through the entire body chambers and have thin less muscular walls.
via systemic circulation while the right side The two valves, which separate the right
is supposed to pump blood to the lungs and left atrial chambers from the ventricles
via pulmonary circulation. The third and are known as atrioventricular valves.
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The left atrium has the bicuspid valve while Ventricles are connected to the arteries
the right atrium has the tricuspid valve. Atria because these vessels carry the blood away
are the receiving chambers, hence, they are from the heart as shown in Figure 1.22.
connected to the blood veins which carry
Heart valves
blood to the heart. Ventricles, on the other
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hand, are chambers found on the lower The atrioventricular and semilunar valves of
part of the heart. They are responsible for the heart chambers differ in terms of their
nl
pumping oxygenated blood into all organs location and functions. Atrioventricular
and cells of the body. They are larger and valves are positioned in the middle of the
stronger blood pumping chambers that heart between the atria and ventricles. Their
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send blood out of the heart. Like atria, role is to allow the blood to flow from the
valves called semilunar valves also separate atria down into the two ventricle chambers.
ventricular chambers from the aorta and The atrioventricular valve present on the
pulmonary artery. Semilunar valves are right side is called the tricuspid valve. This
is because it consists of three cusps or flaps
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either the pulmonary valve or aortic valve.
Pulmonary artery Pulmonary vein

to the lungs
U Aorta
from the lungs
Superior vena cava
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Semilunar valves at
bases of arteries
in
Inferior
vena cava Left atrium
Right atrium
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Bicuspid valve
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Tricuspid valve Left ventricle
Right ventricle
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Figure 1.22 Simplified structure of the heart showing its valves and chambers

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that tend to prevent or allow blood to pass Blood flow through the heart
through. The atrioventricular valve present The flow of the blood through the heart starts
on the left side is known as the bicuspid when deoxygenated blood returning from
valve or the mitral valve because it has two the body enters the heart from the superior
flaps. Chordae tendineae are strings that
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and inferior vena cava. From there, the blood
attach both the tricuspid and bicuspid valves enters the heart through the right atrium.
to the ventricular side. These strings tend
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Then it will be pumped through the tricuspid
to pull on atrioventricular valves in order valve into the right ventricle. The blood
to prevent them from folding backward will then be pumped through the semilunar
thereby allowing the blood to regurgitate. valve into the pulmonary artery. The
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Regurgitation is the process in which the pulmonary artery carries the blood to the
blood flows in the opposite direction from lungs to release the carbon dioxide and
normal. This occurs when chordae tendineae absorb oxygen. After oxygenation, the
close the valve to block the normal direction blood will return from the lungs to the heart
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of flow. During this process, the ventricles through the pulmonary veins. Finally, the
contract and the atrioventricular valve blood will enter the heart again through
take a parachute-shaped structure with the the left atrium. This will then contract to
chordae tendineae acting as a rope to hold pump blood via a bicuspid valve to the
the parachute thus pushing the blood to the
opposite direction.
U left ventricle. From the left ventricle, the
blood will be pumped through the aortic
The semilunar valves are named so because semilunar valve into the aorta. The aorta will
they are crescent moon-shaped cusps. then distribute blood into arteries through
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They are located at the point where the systemic circulation until the blood returns
pulmonary artery and aorta leave the heart. to the heart via the vena cava to restart the
cycle again.
in
The semilunar valve on the right side of

the heart is called the pulmonary valve Heart sounds
while the valve on the left side of the heart
The sounds of a normal heartbeat are
is called the aortic valve. The pulmonary
nl
known as lub and dup. They are caused by

valve is named so because it prevents the
blood pushing on the atrioventricular and
blood to flow back from the pulmonary
semilunar valves. The lub is the first sound
trunk to the right ventricle. The aortic
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to come and takes a relatively longer period

valve also is named so because it prevents
than the dup. It is caused by the closing
the regurgitating blood present in the aorta
of the atrioventricular valves to initiate
from flowing back into the left ventricle
ventricular systole. The dup, on the other
chamber. The semilunar valves are smaller
hand is shorter and have sharper sound
than the atrioventricular valves, hence; do
than the lub. It is a result of the closing of
not have chordae tendineae to hold them
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the semilunar valves after the completion

in place. However, their cusps have cup
of ventricular systole. For a normally
shapes for catching regurgitating blood
functioning heart, these two sounds repeat
and for generating blood’s pressure that
in a pattern of lub-dup-pause fashion. Any
promptly closes it.
other sounds apart from these is an indicator
of the heart problem such as valve leakage.
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Cardiac output associated with veins and arteries, which

Cardiac output (CO) is the term used to take in the pumped blood and transports it
describe the volume of blood pumped by to the destinations.
the heart in one minute. It is calculated
The cardiac cycle
y
from the following equation: CO = Stroke
Volume (SV) x Heart Rate (HR). The value The cardiac or heart cycle refers to the
sequence of events which takes place in
nl
of cardiac output is expressed in L/min. In
the equation, stroke volume (SV) denotes the process of completing one heartbeat. It
the amount of blood pumped into the aorta involves the path of the blood, as it enters
in each ventricular systole. It is normally into the heart then pumped to the lungs,
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measured in millilitres. Heart rate is the then traveling back to the heart, and finally
number of heart beats per minute. For a pumped to the other parts of the body. The
healthier person with an average of 70 kg, events of cardiac phase are divided into
the cardiac output is around 5L/min with four sub-phases, namely: atrial diastole
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an assumption that the heart rate is 70 beats phase, atrial systole phase, ventricular
per minute and the stroke volume (SV) is 70 diastole phase, and ventricular systole
mL. Cardiac output is an effective indicator phase. However, it is important to note that
of whether or not the heart can meet oxygen the events occurring in the first and second
and nutrients demands of the body.
U diastole phases are happening at the same
time. This is also true for the events taking
Function of the heart place during systole phases.
The primary function of the heart is to
Atrial diastole phase: During the first
pump the blood in order to transport
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diastole phase, both the atria and ventricles
oxygen, nutrients and other materials in the
are in the state of relaxation and the
body. The presence of two types of blood
in
atrioventricular valves are open. This

vessels, the veins and arteries facilitate
contraction will allow the deoxygenated
this function. It pumps the deoxygenated
blood that is returning to the heart from
blood through the pulmonary artery to the
other parts of the body to pass through the
nl
lungs for oxygenation before pumping it

superior and inferior vena cava and flow to
again as oxygenated blood via arteries to
the right atrium. The opened atrioventricular
the body cells and tissues. The pumping
valves (tricuspid and bicuspid valves) will
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mechanism of the heart is made possible

then allow blood to pass through the atria
by the coordination of a number of parts
to the ventricles. Electrical impulses from
such as its chambers and valves. The four
the sinoatrial (SA) node will then travel to
chambers that are present in this organ takes
the atrioventricular (AV) node. As a result,
in and distributes both the oxygenated and
the atrioventricular node sends signals that
deoxygenated blood. These chambers are
trigger both atria to contract once again.
Fo

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This contraction enables the right atrium to Atrial systole phase: Atrial systole phase
force the blood into the right ventricle. The begins with a simultaneous contraction of
tricuspid valve which is located between the two atria which results into the blood being
right atrium and right ventricle functions to pumped into the ventricles. Both ventricles
prevent the blood from flowing back into the will receive electrical impulses from fibre
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right atrium as summarized in Figure 1.23. branches causing them to contract.
nl
Superior vena Pulmonary vein
cava
Pulmonary artery
O
Aorta
Inferior vena Left atrium
cava
Right atrium
se
Left ventricle
Right ventricle
U
Figure 1.23 Atria in the state of diastole
When this contraction occurs, the to prevent the blood from flowing back
atrioventricular valves close and the into the right ventricle. The function of the
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semilunar valves that include pulmonary pulmonary artery is to carry deoxygenated
valve and aortic valve open. The contraction blood along the pulmonary circuit to
in
will cause deoxygenated blood from the right the lungs. From the lungs, the blood will
ventricle to be pumped to the pulmonary pick oxygen and return to the left atrium
artery. The pulmonary valve will function of the heart via the pulmonary veins as
indicated in Figure 1.24.
nl
Pulmonary vein
Pulmonary artery Aorta
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Atrial wall
contracted
Left atrium
Right atrium
Fo
Tricuspid valve Bicuspid valve
Right ventricle Left ventricle

Figure 1.24 Atria in the state of systole
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Ventricular diastole phase: During the the left atrium to force the blood into the
second diastole phase, semilunar valves left ventricle.
close while atrioventricular valves open.
At the same time, the right atrium will
This will allow the oxygenated blood from
also force the blood to flow into the right
the pulmonary vein to fill the left atrium.
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ventricle. The bicuspid valve, which is
At the same time, the blood from vena cava
located between the left atrium and left
fills the right atrium. The sinoatrial node
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ventricle, will function to prevent the
contracts once again to trigger both atria to
oxygenated blood from flowing back into
contract. This atrial contraction will cause
the left atrium as shown in Figure 1.25.
O
Pulmonary vein
Vena cava Semi-lunar valves
se
Left atrium
Right atrium
Tricuspid valve U Bicuspid valve
Figure 1.25 Ventricles in the state of diastole

e
Ventricular systole phase: At this phase, from flowing back to the left ventricle. At
both atrioventricular valves close while the same time, the deoxygenated blood will
in
the semilunar valves open. The ventricles also be pumped from the right ventricle to
will receive impulses and contract. This the pulmonary artery. From the aorta, the
contraction causes the oxygenated blood in oxygenated blood is distributed to different
nl
the left ventricle to be pumped to the aorta. parts of the body via arteries and fine
While this is happening, the aortic valve capillaries through the process of systemic
will be preventing the oxygenated blood circulation as indicated in Figure 1.26.
rO
Aorta Pulmonary
artery
Fo

Figure 1.26 Ventricles in the state of systole

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The structure of cardiac muscles these discs are cell surface membranes
The heart is the specialized organ in that separate individual muscle cells. The
chordates, which is concerned with the structure of the membrane in the muscle
pumping of blood throughout the body. It cells is modified to allow rapid diffusion
y
is made up of the special type of muscles of ions, contraction and relaxation of the
known as cardiac muscles. The heart beats muscle fibres. The fibres branch and cross-
nl
powerfully and continuously throughout the connect with each other to form a complex
entire life without any rest. This is because net-like arrangement. There is no nerve cell
the cardiac muscles have incredibly high in cardiac muscles but only muscle fibres
contractile strength and stamina. for conduction of electrical impulse. The
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rapid diffusion of ions in the membrane
The cardiac muscle is composed of muscle
causes the rapid spread of action potentials
fibres each of which possesses one or two
(excitation) through the muscle. Thus, the
nuclei and many large mitochondria as
excitation of one cell causes an action
shown in Figure 1.27. The muscle fibres are
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potential to spread to other cells quickly
made up of many myofibrils that contain
such that the whole mass of fibres behaves
actin and myosin filaments. These proteins
as one unit. Another feature that is unique to
interact to bring about a contraction of the
the cardiac muscle tissue is autorhythmicity
cardiac muscle. The muscle appears with
U
striations due to the presence of the actin and
or myogenicity. The cardiac muscle tissue
is able to set its own contraction rhythm
myosin filaments. The dark bands known
due to the presence of pacemaker cells or
as intercalated discs separate the individual
sino-atrial node (SAN), which stimulates
muscle cells from each other. In other words,
the other cardiac muscle cells.
e
in
Intercalated disc cross striations of myofibrils

nl
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Fo
Nucleus in sarcoplasm
Branching fibre (cytoplasm)
Figure 1.27 The structure of cardiac muscle
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Adaptations of cardiac muscles to their cell becomes excited, the action potential
functions spreads quickly to all other cells causing
As explained earlier, the role of the heart all fibres to work as a unit.
is to pump the blood throughout the body.
Exercise 1.6
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This function requires energy, the strength of
the muscles in the heart and permeability of 1. Describe the structure of mammalian
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the action potential through the heart walls. heart including its location and
The cardiac muscle is equipped with position within the body cavity.
structural and physiological features to 2. With the help of well-labelled
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facilitate the pumping action of the heart. diagrams, explain what happens to
The muscle is made up of striated fibres, the flow of blood in the heart during
which make it tough and strong, to withstand atrial systole and ventricular diastole
the pumping activity of the heart. The phases of the cardiac cycle.
muscle fibres are packed with numerous
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3. Describe the structure and functions
mitochondria for the liberation of enough
of the cardiac muscle and briefly
energy required for the pumping activity.
explain how it is adapted to its
Moreover, the muscle is highly supplied
functions.
with blood vessels for perfusion of nutrients
and oxygen. Interestingly, the cardiac
U 4. W h a t i s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f
muscle cells have an ability to oxidize atrioventricular valves and semilunar
lactic acid from skeletal muscle for energy valves in the functioning of the heart?
release. Additionally, the cardiac muscle 5. Compare diastolic and systolic blood
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contains many connective tissues that add pressures and the ways in which they
up to its strength, and the inner surface affect the flow of blood.
of the muscle has a fluid, which acts as a
in
lubricant, to protect it from tearing. The circulatory systems in animals

The cardiac muscle contracts more slowly The circulatory system of animals is a
nl
than the skeletal muscles and thus, does not combination of circulating fluid such as
fatigue as easily as the skeletal muscles. blood, tubes through which the fluid flows,
However, contraction of the cardiac muscle for example, blood vessels and a pumping
is efficient due to the pressure of sufficient organ such as the heart or modified blood
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myofibrils with actin and myosin filaments. vessel. This system is used to transport
The cardiac muscle is myogenic. That is, it blood and other materials throughout the
has the ability of self-stimulation without body of an animal. Animals have different
the assistance of neurone. This makes the shapes, sizes, and types of circulatory
cardiac strokes to be self-generated within systems. The animal can have either an
Fo
the heart itself. Thus, there are no neurones open or a closed circulatory blood system.
in the walls of the heart but the muscle fibres
The open circulatory system
branch and cross-connect each other to form
a net-like arrangement for the transfer of This is a circulatory system in which blood
action potentials. This means that, when one and interstitial fluid may mix up as shown
in Figure 1.28 (a).

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The ‘blood’ in these organisms is called throughout the body in a continuous circuit
haemolymph that is an intermediate involving different types of vessels. Unlike
mixture of blood and interstitial fluid. In in the open circulatory system, in the closed
this system, the organs are directly bathed circulatory system, organs are not in direct
with the blood and there is little control contact with the blood.
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over the direction of blood circulation. They are rather bathed by the fluid leaking
Blood moves on to the head region through
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out of capillaries that are the narrow, thin-
waves of contraction of the muscular walls walled parts of the system.
and valves, where open circulation starts
again. With an open circulatory system, This tissue fluid is also the medium in
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the blood is pumped into an open cavity which the exchange of materials between
and is allowed to diffuse to other parts of the blood and the body tissues take place.
the body. This type of circulatory system This exchange of materials occurs before
is found in some organisms like arthropods the fluid returns to the blood vessels.
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and molluscs. Vertebrates and a few invertebrates have
a closed circulatory system.
The closed circulatory system
The differences between open and
This is a system in which blood flows within
closed circulatory systems
a complex network of vessels or tubes that
are all connected to each other as shown in
U Generally, the closed and open circulatory
systems differ in the following aspects as
Figure 1.28 (b). The heart pumps the blood
summarised in Table 1.3.
e
Heart Ostia Heart
Valve
Valve
in
Artery
Vein
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Diffusion back
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to the heart
Body cells
Fluid pumped
Artery out of the heart
Open body cavity Closed body cavity
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(a) Open circulatory system (b) Closed circulatory system
Figure 1.28 The open and closed circulatory systems
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Table 1.3 The differences between open and closed circulatory systems
S/n Open circulatory system Closed circulatory system
1. The blood is not confined to vessels. The blood is confined to vessels.
2. The organs are in contact with the blood, The organs are not immersed in blood,
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that is, they are immersed in blood. that is, they are not in contact with
the blood.
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3. The blood circulates slowly around the The blood circulates rapidly around
body due to low pressure. the body due to high pressure.
4. The direction of blood flow can slightly The direction of blood flow has defined
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be controlled. control.
5. The rate of flow cannot be controlled. The rate of flow can be controlled.
6. The supply and elimination of materials The supply and elimination of
takes place slowly. materials takes place rapidly.
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7. The exchange of materials takes place The exchange of materials between
between blood and sinuses. blood and tissues takes place through
capillaries.
U
Types of closed circulatory system the gills, where oxygen is absorbed and
The flow of blood in the closed circulatory carbon dioxide is released. The blood then
systems is of two types depending on flows from the gills to the rest of the body
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whether the blood passes through the heart parts before returning to the heart. The
once or twice in each complete circulation. blood flow is slow because the body organs
The two types of closed circulatory systems are arranged in series. These causes blood
in
are single and double circulatory systems. pressure to fall from one organ to another,
as a result, the blood faces resistance when
Single circulatory system passing through the capillaries. The single
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This is the blood circulation in which the circulatory system solves the problem of
blood passes through the heart, once in each separating oxygenated and deoxygenated
circuit around the whole blood circulation blood, but it does not solve the problem of
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system in an organism as shown in Figure low blood pressure. The blood that leaves
1.29. Fish is an example of organisms the heart is under high pressure, but once
that have a single circulatory system. The it is far away and enters through a network
blood in fish is pumped from the heart to of fine vessels in the gills, the pressure
slows down.
Fo

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rest of the body. In animals with double

Head circulation, the body organs are arranged
in parallel form. The system solves the
problem of mixing oxygenated blood and
Gills deoxygenated blood. It is also solves the
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problem of low blood pressure as blood
travels to the cells far away from the heart.
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Heart
The return of blood to the heart from the
respiratory surface enables sustenance
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of high blood pressure and allows rapid
Liver
circulation of blood in the body. This
improves the efficiency of oxygen
Gut distribution, therefore ensuring a high
metabolic rate. Examples of animals with
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double circulation are mammals and birds.
Trunk In the double circulatory system, the blood
flows through the pulmonary and systemic
Kidneys circulation pathways. Pulmonary circulation
U is the flow of the blood between the lungs
and the heart. In this route, a pulmonary
artery carries deoxygenated blood from the
right ventricle to the lungs. The oxygenated
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Tail
blood from the lungs to the heart is conveyed
to the left atrium by a pulmonary vein. On
in
Key: Oxygenated blood the other hand, the systemic circulation

involves the movement of blood between
Deoxygenated blood the heart and all other parts of the body
except the lungs.
nl
Figure 1.29 Single circulatory system in fish

In this case, oxygenated blood leaves the
Double circulatory system left ventricle to various parts of the body
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through the aorta as shown in Figure 1.30.

In this system, blood is first pumped to the
The vena cava returns the deoxygenated
respiratory surface (lungs) to take oxygen
blood from various parts of the body to
after which it flows back to the heart before
the heart. Within the heart the blood flows
it is pumped over the body tissues. The
through coronary circulatory system.
blood passes through the heart twice for
The oxygenated blood enters the muscles
each circuit of the body. Double circulation
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through the coronary arteries and the

is made possible because the heart is divided
deoxygenated blood is brought back to the
into two halves whereby one-half pumps
heart chambers by coronary veins.
deoxygenated blood to the lungs and the
other half pumps oxygenated blood to the
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Jugular vein Carotid artery

Head and Neck
Subclavian vein Subclavian artery

Arms
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Anterior vena cava
RA LA
Dorsal aorta
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RV LV
Pulmonary
artery Pulmonary
Lung vein
Hepatic vein Hepatic artery
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Liver
Hepatic portal vein

Gastric artery
Anterior mesentric artery

Gut
Posterior vena cava Posterior mesentric artery
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Segmental lumbar Segmental lumbar
veins arteries
Trunk
Renal vein Renal artery

Kidneys
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Iliac vein Iliac artery
Posterior and
Legs
Key: RA= Right atrium
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Deoxygenated blood
RV= Right ventricle
Oxygenated blood
LA= Left atrium
LV= Left ventricle
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Figure 1.30 Systemic and pulmonary circulation systems (double circulation)

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Exercise 1.7 blood flowing at high pressure to the

tissues?
1. With examples, differentiate between
6. Consider a red blood cell traveling
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open and closed circulatory systems.

from the right ventricle all the way to
2. Discuss the main advantages of a
the right coronary artery; describe all
double circulatory system over a
valves it must pass before reaching
single circulatory system.
the destination.
3. Explain differences between single
and double circulatory systems.
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4. Give reasons why the flow of blood

in single circulatory system is slower
than in a double circulatory system.
5. What advantages do the mammals
and birds gain by having oxygenated

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Foetal and adult blood circulation in The umbilical vein carries the blood from
mammals the placenta to the foetus. A considerable
The foetal circulation is the system which amount of blood enters the foetal ductus
encompases the entire foetal placental venosus. This is the short vessel, which
connects the umbilical vein to the inferior
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circulation comprising the umbilical cord
and the blood vessels within the placenta. vena cava. Afterward, the blood is carried to
the inferior vena cava, while the remaining
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The foetal circulation works differently from
that of an adult mammal, mainly because blood enters the liver through the inferior
the foetal lungs are not in use. The foetus, border of the liver and then supplies the
therefore, obtains oxygen and nutrients from right lobe of the liver. The blood then moves
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the mother across the placenta by diffusion. to the right atrium of the heart via inferior
These materials are conveyed to the foetus vena cava. In the foetus heart, there is an
by blood vessels in the umbilical cord. opening between the right and left atriums
called foramen ovale as shown in Figure
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1.31.
Superior vena cava

U Ductus arteriosus
Foramen ovale Pulmonary trunk
Right atrium Left atrium

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Inferior vena cava
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Left hepatic vein

Right hepatic vein
Ductus venosus
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Aorta
Umbilical vein
Umbilicus
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Umbilical artery
Umbilical cord
Internal iliac artery

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Placenta Lower extremities
Figure 1.31 Foetal circulatory system
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Most of the blood from the right atrium blood away from the lungs because the
flows through this hole directly into the latter is not used for gaseous exchange.
left atrium. From here, the blood flows into Apart from bypassing the lungs, the blood
the left ventricle, from which it is pumped also by-passes pulmonary veins, atrium
through the aorta into the body. Some of
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and ventricle of the left side of the heart.
the blood moves from the aorta through the The foetal haemoglobin has a very high
internal iliac arteries to the umbilical arteries affinity for oxygen compared to the adult
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and re-enters the placenta, where carbon haemoglobin. This feature enables the foetus
dioxide and other waste products from to extract more oxygen from the maternal
the foetus are taken up into the maternal blood supply.
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circulation by diffusion.
As soon as the baby comes out of the
Some of the blood that enters the right mother’s womb, its lungs start functioning.
atrium does not pass directly to the left This reduces the resistance against the
atrium through the foramen ovale, but it blood flow through the pulmonary vessels
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enters the right ventricle and is then pumped and therefore, allows blood to flow through
into the pulmonary artery. In the foetus, the pulmonary capillaries preferentially to
there is a special connection between the ductus arteriosus. Hence, the initiation of
pulmonary artery and the aorta, which pulmonary circulation takes place as shown
is called the ductus arteriosus as shown
U in Figure 1.32.
in Figure 1.31. This directs most of the
Ductus arterious
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Lungs
Pulmonary vein
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Pulmonary RA LA Foramen ovale

artery (hole in the heart)
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RV LV
Inferior vena
cava
Aorta
Tissues
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Liver
Dictus
venosus
Hepatic portal vein
Gut
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Umbilical artery
Umbilical vein (deoxyginated
(oxygenated blood)
blood) Placenta
Key RA= Right atrium
Before birth RV= Right ventricle
After birth LA= Left atrium
Before and after birth LV= Left ventricle
Figure 1.32 Foetal and post-natal circulatory systems

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The volume of blood circulating in the body Differences between the foetal and
increases and the flow of the blood to the adult blood circulation
placenta is prevented due to the tying of There are both similarities and differences
the umbilical cord. These factors cause an between the foetus and adult blood
increase in the blood pressure in the aorta
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circulation systems. The cause of these
and the left part of the heart. This increase in differences is that most functions that
pressure leads to the closure of the foramen
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are performed by the gut, kidney, liver
ovale in a few months after birth. and lungs in the adult are all performed
Furthermore, as the concentration of oxygen by placenta in the foetus. For example,
the placenta supplies the nutrients and
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in the blood increases, the ductus arteriosus
closes off in few hours after birth. In a oxygen in the foetus. In addition, the
similar way, the ductus venosus shuts down waste materials, which are returned to
thereby allowing hepatic portal vein and the maternal circulation, pass through the
hence the liver to function. placenta. Generally, the differences between
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foetal and adult circulation systems are
summarised in Table 1.4.
Table 1.4 Differences between foetal and adult circulatory systems
S/n Foetal circulation
U Adult circulation
1. There are umbilical vessels. The umbilical vessels are missing.
2. Blood bypasses the liver due to The blood goes to the liver as ductus
the presence of a ductus venosus. venosus is sealed.
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in
3. There is no pulmonary circulation There is pulmonary circulation since the

due to the presence of ductus ductus arteriosus is sealed.
arteriosus.
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4. There is the mixing of oxygenated The oxygenated and deoxygenated blood

and deoxygenated blood due to the do not mix as the foramen ovale is sealed.
presence of foramen ovale.
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5. Lungs are not functional, thus Lungs are functional, and therefore, are
gaseous exchange takes place at sites for gaseous exchange.
the placenta.
6. There is no functional hepatic There is a functional hepatic portal vein.
portal vein.
7. Haemoglobin has a high affinity Haemoglobin has a low affinity for
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for oxygen. oxygen.

8. The pressure is higher in the The pressure is higher in the aorta than
pulmonary artery than in the in the pulmonary artery.
aorta.
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Revision questions 10. Describe the foetal circulatory system

as compared to maternal circulatory
1. Explain why transportation of materials system.
is necessary in plants and animals.
11. Explain the role played by protein
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2. Describe the structure of specialised pumps during active transport in plants.
conducting tissues of plants.
12. Explain why pure water has maximum
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3. Explain how water and mineral salts water potential.
are transported through the plant.
13. Name three substances apart from
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4. Give a detailed description of phloem food molecules and water that are
translocation as conceptualised by transported in the blood, their functions
Münch in 1930. and location in the body.
5. The stomatal pores open during the 14. Describe the chambers of the heart and
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day and close during the night. Give give reasons why the left ventricle is
an illustrated description to support more muscular than the right ventricle.
this view.
15. In which part of the circulatory system
6. Describe the structure, function, and does blood flow:
adaptation of the cardiac muscle.
U (a) Most rapidly?
7. Koku has a heart rate of 50 beats per
minute. Her cardiac output is 5 L/min. (b) Most slowly?
Her end-diastolic volume is 150 mL. (c) Give reasons for the rapid
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Calculate her stroke volume and end and slow flow of the blood
systolic volume. in the parts mentioned in (a)
in
8. Explain the structural and functional and (b) above.

differences between phloem and xylem 16. Explain how the shape and contents of
tissues.
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a red blood cell relate to its function.

9. With the help of well-labelled diagrams, 17. Explain the changes that take place in
explain what happens to the flow of foetal circulation after birth.
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blood in the heart during atrial diastole

and ventricular systole phases of the
cardiac cycle.
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Chapter
Two
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Growth and
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development
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Introduction
Growth is a fundamental characteristic of living organisms. It is an increase in the
number of cells through mitosis, leading to an irreversible increase in size. In unicellular
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organisms, growth involves cell divisions, enlargement and increase in their numbers
while in multicellular organisms it involves cell divisions, enlargement, differentiation,
specialisation, and increase in size rather than numbers. In this chapter, you will learn
about mitosis process, growth patterns, the role of apical and lateral meristems in primary
U
and secondary growths respectively. You will also learn about the concept, types and
significance of seed dormancy and viability, ways of overcoming seed dormancy, and the
factors that govern seed viability.
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Mitosis
Mitosis is a process by which a cell
in
nucleus divides to produce two daughter

nuclei, which contain sets of chromosomes
identical to the parent cell. This process
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is followed by cleavage of cytoplasm,

reformation of a cell membrane, cell wall
(in a plant cell) and separation of the
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two daughter cells. Mitosis results in an

increase in the number of cells, therefore,
it brings about growth and development
in multicellular organisms. In unicellular
organisms, mitosis is a basis of asexual
reproduction as it leads to the production Figure 2.1 The cell cycle
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of the entire organisms and hence an The cell cycle has five phases, which are
increase in their numbers. Normally, a growth phase I, synthesis, growth phase
series of events occurs between one cell II, cytokinesis and mitosis. The first three
division and the subsequent divisions. This phases of the cell cycle are growth phase I
sequence of events constitutes a cell cycle (G1), synthesis (S) and growth phase II (G2)
as summarized in Figure 2.1. which together constitute the interphase.
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The G1 phase occurs soon after nuclear The last phase in the cell cycle is cytokinesis.
division (mitosis) and cytoplasm division This is a physical division of the cell which
(cytokinesis). involves equal division of cytoplasm into
In the G 1 phase, there is an intensive two. This results into two daughter cells
with an equal distribution of cytoplasm
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cellular synthesis where all cell organelles,
except mitochondria and chloroplasts, are and organelles.
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synthesized. During this stage, the cell Events that take place during the
metabolic rate is usually very high. These mitotic stage
activities result into an increase in cell size. Mitosis comes from the Latin word mitos,
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At this stage, young cells grow as they which means a thread. Mitosis occurs in
synthesise their organelles. This process the somatic cells, and therefore, it is also
produces functional daughter cells, that are known as somatic cell division. The basic
of the same size, and have all the structures characteristic of mitotic nuclear division is
needed.
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its tendency of resulting into two daughter
The synthesis (S-phase) is characterised by nuclei, which resemble each other. Before
DNA replication to form two copies with mitosis, DNA of parent nucleus replicates,
identical structures. Protein molecules called which then divides into two new nuclei
histones are synthesised and bound with each containing an exact copy of the DNA
each strand of DNA. Each chromosome
U as in the parent nucleus. The sequence of
duplicate in two chromatids resulting into events which occur during mitosis and cell
a doubled number of chromosomes (4n). division, are shown in Figures 2.2 - 2.7.
These activities lead to an increase in size
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Interphase
of the cell.
Interphase is a non-dividing phase of the
The G2 phase involves the division of cell where important events that prepare
in
mitochondria and chloroplasts. There the cell for division process take place. In
is also an increase in storage of energy this stage, the nuclear envelope remains
to be used during mitosis. G2 phase is a intact and the chromosomes occur in the
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stage where more cell growth occurs as form of diffused chromatin fibres as shown
mitochondria and chloroplasts divide. In in Figure 2.2. Interphase is a period of
this phase, chromosomes begin the process intensive synthesis of cell organelles and
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of condensation prior to their division. The the growth of the cell. DNA replication and
formation of mitotic spindle starts. proteins synthesis also occur in this phase.
The mitotic phase involves the separation Almost 90% of the cell’s time in the cycle
of sister chromatids and their distribution is spent in this phase.
into daughter nuclei. Mitosis involves
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four phases namely prophase, metaphase,

anaphase, and telophase.

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Growth and Development
Nuclear membrane
Chromatin threads
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Cell surface membrane
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Centrioles
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Cytoplasm
Nucleolus
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Figure 2.2 Interphase stage of mitosis
Prophase called aster. Some of these microtubules

In this stage, the chromosomes become
U called spindle fibres, may be seen extending
short and thick. In animals, centrioles across the cell from one pole to another. At
migrate to the opposite poles of the cell. the end of prophase, nucleolus and nuclear
Short microtubules may develop from each membrane disintegrate as shown in Figure
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centriole and form a star-shaped structure 2.3. In plant cells, there are no asters.
in
Asters
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Centriole
Nucleolus
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Pair of chromatids
(chromosomes)
Centromere
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Nuclear membrane
Figure 2.3 Prophase stage of mitosis
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Metaphase
In this stage, chromosomes attached to their centromeres arrange themselves at the
equator of the spindles as seen in Figure 2.4.
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Spindle fibres
(microtubules)
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Centromeres on
‘equator’ of spindles
U
Figure 2.4 Metaphase stage of mitosis
Anaphase sister chromatids become separated and are

During anaphase, the centromeres split pulled together with centromeres leading
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into two and are pulled to the opposite towards the opposite sides of the cell as
poles by the spindle fibres. This leads to the spindle fibres contract as shown in
in
separation of chromosomes into two sister Figure 2.5.

chromatids. As the centromere splits, the
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Chromatids are pulled

apart with centromeres
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Figure 2.5 Anaphase stage of mitosis

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Telophase The nuclear membrane re-forms around the

Daughter chromatids reach the opposite chromosomes at both poles to form two
poles of the cell. They uncoil and lengthen to daughter nuclei. Lastly, the spindle fibres
form chromatins which are less conspicuous. disappear, the centrioles replicate and a
new nucleolus reforms in each of the new
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At this time, genetic content has divided
equally and re-organised into two nuclei. nuclei as it is shown in Figure 2.6.
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Pair of centrioles
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Nuclear membrane
Nucleolus
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Chromatin threads
U Cytoplasm
Cytokinesis
(cell division) beginning
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in
Figure 2.6 Telophase stage of mitosis
Activity 2.1 Examination of the stages (iii) Observe each slide carefully under
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of mitotic nuclear division the microscope, noting characteristics

Materials exhibited by the nucleus in each
prepared slide.
1. Prepared slides showing stages of
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mitosis. (iv) Draw and label the diagrams for each

stage of mitosis observed.
2. Light microscope.
Procedure (v) Name the stages of mitosis identified.
(i) Place a light microscope on a flat
table.
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(ii) Place the prepared slides displaying

any of the four stages of mitosis
under a light microscope.
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Cytokinesis membrane pinches off and completely

Generally, cytokinesis is a process by separates the two daughter cells.
which the cytoplasm divides to separate In plant cells, there is no constriction of
the daughter cells. It begins after telophase plasma membrane due to the presence of
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stage. Cytokinesis in plant and animal cells a rigid cell wall. Thus, cytokinesis in plant
is different because of their cytological cells starts with the fusion of Golgi vesicles
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differences. In animal cells, cytokinesis to form a cell plate at the equatorial region
starts by the constriction of the cell surface between the two newly formed daughter
membrane from outside inward. Two nuclei as indicated in Figure 2.7 (b). More
cleavage furrows develop as the cells vesicles fuse with the plate, which finally
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constrict inwardly from the periphery as develops into the primary cell wall and the
shown in Figure 2.7 (a). As the constrictions two cells separate into daughter cells.
continue to deepen towards the centre, the
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(a) (b)
U
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Cleavage furrow Actin ring Cell plate Cell wall
Figures 2.7 Cytokinesis in (a) animal cell and (b) plant cell
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Location of mitosis in plant and animal flowers, branches, stems or leaves. Lateral
cells meristems such as cambium undergoes
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Mitosis in plants occurs only in the cell division which results into increase in
meristematic cells that are located at the tips width or diameter. Intercallary meristems at
of roots, shoots and the lateral meristems in the nodes of monocot stem are responsible
the vascular cambium between the xylem for stem elongation and leaf at the nodes.
and phloem. In these organs, meristematic In animals such as human beings, mitosis
cells are confined in specific areas called occurs in somatic or body cells. It starts soon
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regions of active cell division just behind after fertilisation, during which the zygote
the tip of the radicle, plumule, and buds. develops into an embryo and then foetus.
These regions are capable of undergoing After birth, mitosis continues to allow
rapid cell division, resulting in an increase growth and development. After certain
in size of the roots and stem. Mitosis in the points of growth and specifically, after
buds leads to development of buds in either maturity, the cells in some organs cease to

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divide. Examples of these organs include In plants, the same process occurs when
the brain, lungs, kidneys and other internal the cell plate grows across the equator of
organs. The cells of the eyes, ears, tongue, the parent cell from the centre outwards.
lips, sex organs and bones, also cease to As the cellulose is deposited on the formed
divide, and this helps to limit their sizes cell plate, a cell wall is formed. In plants,
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under normal conditions. However, the cells mitosis occurs only in the meristematic
of the skin (cornified layer) are constantly cells, which are located at the node tips of
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lost. Therefore, mitosis in the germinative roots, shoots and in the vascular cambium
layer of the skin is constantly taking place between the xylem and phloem. All animal
to ensure a constant replacement of the cells are capable of undergoing mitosis
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lost cells. during the early stages of development
especially, during embryogenesis. However,
Significance of mitosis
at a certain stage after birth, mitosis ceases
The mitotic nuclear division occurs in both in some body organs such as brain, eyes,
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unicellular and multicellular organisms. ears and reproductive organs but it continues
This process is equally important in all in other organs.
groups of organisms. The significance of
mitosis to living organisms are as follows: Exercise 2.1
1. Explain the importance of mitotic
(a) Maintains genetic stability because
U cell division in organisms.
daughter cells are identical to parent
cells. 2. Briefly, explain why interphase is
(b) Enhances growth through an increase considered the most active stage of
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in the number of cells. the cell cycle.
(c) It is a means of healing of wounds and 3. With the aid of illustrations, describe
in
replacement of worn-out cells. the phases of mitotic nuclear division.

(d) Enhances regeneration of part of an 4. Briefly explain differences between
organism. For example, a lizard tail. cytokinesis in plant and animal cells.
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(e) Mitosis process is used as a means of 5. Differentiate between mitosis in

reproduction by unicellular organisms plant and animal cells.
such as protozoans, which reproduce
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asexually. Growth patterns

Difference between mitosis in plant and Growth in living organisms is a result of
animal cells interaction between various factors such
as environmental conditions and genetic
Although the purpose is the same, the
makeup of an individual. However, many
process of mitosis differs between plant and
organisms share similar basic patterns of
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animal cells. In animals, asters are formed

growth, which can be expressed graphically
during the prophase stage whereas in plants
as growth curves. These are obtained when
asters do not form. This is because higher
growth parameters such as weight and
plants lack centrioles. Cytokinesis in animal
length are plotted against time.
cells takes place when the membrane of the
parent cell constricts inwardly from outside.
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Plants and animals exhibit various growth Allometric growth pattern

patterns including isometric, allometric, This is a pattern of growth where different
limited and unlimited growth patterns. parts of the body grow at different rates
However, organisms may exhibit more with respect to each other. Animals such
than one of these patterns. For example,
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as mammals exhibit the pattern of growth
mammals grow allometrically and their whereby any change in the size that results
growth is limited.
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from growth causes a change in shape. This
Growth patterns refer to variation in growth is because the growth of body organs occurs
of organisms at different stages of their life at a different mean rate from the growth of
the rest of the body. For example, in humans,
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cycle. Most of the growth patterns form
S-shape curve commonly known as the the proportions of various structures change
sigmoid curve. This is characterized by a as a result of simultaneous changes in the
slow growth rate in the beginning due to a patterns of growth and development. During
few number of cells. The slow growth rate the infant stage when acquired immunity is
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is followed by rapid growth but ultimately still weak and the risk of disease is high, the
tends to slow down. thymus gland grow rapidly to produce white
blood cells, which help to fight infections.
Isometric growth pattern At adult age, the mass of thymus gland
This growth pattern occurs in some chordates
such as fish, frog and some insects such as
U lessens to half. Typical curves showing the
allometric growth pattern of various human
grasshoppers, where a body organ except organs are shown in Figure 2.9.
wings and genitalia grows at the same mean
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rate as the rest of the body. This means that
Relative growth (percentage of total postnatal growth)
Thymus gland
the shape of the body remains unchanged
despite its increased size as in Figure 2.8.
in
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Final size of organ
Brain
Relative growth curve
of human as a whole
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Reproductive organs
Time from birth (years)
Figure 2.9 Allometric growth as shown by

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different parts of human body
Figure 2.8 Isometric growth

wth)
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Limited growth patterns Growth curve of an annual plant

The annual plants and animals like humans, When a growth parameter such as dry mass
insects, and birds exhibit the limited growth is plotted against time, an S-shaped curve
pattern also known as definite or determinate commonly known as the sigmoid curve is
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growth pattern. In this pattern, growth is said obtained as in Figure 2.10.
to be limited because the organisms cease
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to grow after maturity. During this period,
there is negative growth or senescence
before death.
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Initial decrease in weight due to
respiration of stored food in the seed Final decrease in weight
or senescence
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Maturity
Dry mass (g)
U
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in
Time (weeks)
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Figure 2.10 Growth curve of an annual plant
From the graph, there is a decrease in dry to an exponential increase in dry mass,
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mass at germination because the food stored hence, exponential growth of a plant. When
in cotyledons and endosperm is oxidized the plant is fully matured, catabolism is
to produce energy that is needed by a equal to anabolism and therefore no growth
developing seedling. As the first foliage or any increase in dry mass that occurs
leaves are formed, the seedling starts to at this stage. This period is followed by
photosynthesize food, making use of some negative growth or senescence during which
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of it and storing some too. This leads to a catabolism exceeds anabolism. At this point,
gradual increase in dry mass. As growth the cell death rate is high. The decrease in
continues, the plant develops full leaves. At dry mass contributes into the dispersal of
this stage, photosynthesis is at its maximum seeds and fruits.
and anabolism exceeds catabolism, leading
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Human growth curve growth. Juvenile stage spans from age 7

The human growth curve is characterized to onset of purberty and adolescence at
by five phases as indicated in Figure 2.11. approximately 10 years for healthy girls
These phases in ascending order are infant, and 12 years for boys. A relative slow
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juvenile, adolescence, adult and senescence. growth of juveniles is from the fact that,
Infant is the first phase just after birth which most of the digested foods are spent for the
development of reproductive system and its
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is characterized by rapid growth because of
rapid cell division. Juvenile is the second structures. At this stage juveniles also are
phase, characterized by a relatively slow very active and spend most of the time in
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60
55
Adolescence Adult Senescence
50
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Growth (weight in Kg)
45
Very little growth
40
Very rapid growth Death
35
30
Infant stage
Juvenile stage
25
20
U
Slow growth
15
10
Rapid growth
5
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At birth
0 4 12 18 60
in
Time (years)
Figure 2.11 Human growth curve

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playing which consumes much energy that The fourth phase is the adult. At this stage,
would otherwise be stored in the body. The growth ceases gradually but development
third phase is adolescence which is marked continues. Senescence is the last phase,
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by the development of secondary sexual characterised by negative growth because

characteristics as a sign of sexual maturity. catabolism outweighs anabolism. The body
It is also accompanied by the period of very gradually losses strength and loss of memory
rapid growth. It is characterised by growth may also occur.
spurts because of increased fat composition
Growth pattern of arthropods
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and distribution, increased size of organs,

bones and muscles. These changes occur Arthropods such as cockroach exhibit a type
because of simultaneous release of growth of limited growth known as discontinuous
hormone and thyroid hormones which or intermittent growth pattern. Arthropods
are responsible for regulating growth and often moult periodically to grow because
metabolism respectively. their hard inelastic exoskeleton does not

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expand, to allow growth. Moulting is hormone is present in high concentration,

the process of shedding exoskeleton in larval moult occurs but if its concentration
arthropods. Two hormones known as a is low, pupal moult occurs. In the complete
juvenile (neotonin) and ecdysone hormones absence of juvenile hormone, the pupa
control this process. Ecdysone hormone also metamorphoses into an adult (imago).
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called a moulting hormone is produced by Moulting is followed by a sharp increase in
glands found in the first thoracic segment body size often before exoskeleton hardens
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called prothoracic gland. Juvenile hormone and limit growth. Thus, in arthropods growth
is produced in the region behind the brain occurs in spurts resulting in a step-like
known as corpus allatum. If the juvenile growth curve as shown in Figure 2.12.
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5th Moult
4th Moult
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6 Adult
Length (cm)
3rd Moult
4 2nd Moult 5th instar
1st Moult
U
2
3rd instar
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0 10 20 30 40
in
Time (days)
Figure. 2.12 Growth curve of arthropods
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Indeterminate growth pattern as shown in Figure 2.13. In these plants,

This pattern of growth is also called growth occurs with respect to seasonal
unlimited or indefinite growth. An organism changes. For example, during the wet
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exhibiting this pattern continues to grow season, there is a high rate of growth but
even after maturity. This pattern of growth during the dry season, there is low growth
occurs in perennial plants such as woody rate. Other organisms with unlimited growth
plants whose growth curve consists of a include algae, most fish, most molluscs,
cumulative series of sigmoid curves. Each and reptiles.
sigmoid curve represents an annual growth
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4
Height (M)
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3 Series of sigmoid curves
2 Average growth
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1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
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Time (years)
Figure. 2.13 Growth curve of a perennial plant
Exercise 2.2 differentiation and state of complexity. In

higher plants, growth is confined to certain
1. With examples, describe allometric
U regions known as meristems with exception
and isometric growth patterns.
of young embryos where growth occurs
2. Describe one way in which the throughout the body.
growth pattern of human is different
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from that of an apple tree. The term meristem came from the Greek
word meristos, which means division.
3. Explain how moulting is controlled
in
Meristematic tissues are found mostly on

by hormones in insects. tips of roots and stems, in nodes, vascular
4. With the aid of illustration, explain cambium and cork cambium. They are also
why insects exhibit a unique growth located on the lateral side of the stem and
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curve. roots. The cells of the meristematic zone are

5. Briefly explain why human thymus capable of rapid cell division. These cells
gland grows at a high rate compared retain the ability to divide by mitosis to
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to the rest of the body parts during produce daughter cells that grow and form
infancy. the rest of the plant body. After division,
some of the cells differentiate to form
6. Differentiate between limited and
permanent tissues while others retain their
unlimited growth.
meristematic properties. The meristematic
cells are characterized by the presence of
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Growth and development in plants numerous ribosomes, mitochondria, and

Growth in plants involves an increase hence, the high rate of metabolism. They
in both cell numbers and cell size. The have thin and extensible cell walls, small
development consists of growth and vacuoles and dense cytoplasm. Their thin-
differentiation and is characterized by walled tightly packed living cells undergo
the change in size, shape, a degree of frequent divisions.

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Meristematic cells undergo cell division responsible for secondary growth that gives
and wall formation, which is followed by rise to an increase in the girth or diameter
differential cell expansion. The meristems of the plant body. Intercalary meristems on
are classified according to their position the other hand, are found at the nodes and
in the plant body into apical, lateral and leaf base of monocotyledonous plants such
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intercalary meristems. as grasses. They contribute to growth in
regions of already differentiated tissues of
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Apical meristems are found in the apex or tip
of roots and shoots as shown in Figure 2.14. plant stems such as grasses. They are also
They are responsible for primary growth, responsible for an increase in the base of
the internode and growth of damaged leaf
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which gives rise to primary plant body.
This type of growth leads to an increase in grasses. The cell division of the three
in the length of the plant body. Lateral types of meristems give rise to two major
meristems are found in the cylinder towards types of growth in plants, namely: primary
the outside of the stem and roots. They are and secondary growth.
se Apical meristems
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Intercalary meristems
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Lateral meristems
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Figure 2.14 Position of meristems in plants

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Primary and secondary growth in meristems. Most dicotyledonous plants

angiosperms exhibit secondary growth or secondary
Primary growth is the first form of growth thickening. This type of growth leads to an
to occur in plants as a result of the activity increase in the diameter or girth of the plant.
of apical meristems. In some plants such The role of apical meristems in primary
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as monocotyledonous and herbaceous growth

dicotyledonous plants, it is the only type
In plants, primary growth occurs at the
of growth, which occurs in their life
root and shoot apex. Cell division of
cycles. Secondary growth occurs when the
meristems in the apices of roots and shoots
secondary vascular tissues are added to their
causes elongation of these parts. This type
primary tissues by the activity of the lateral
of elongation is called primary growth
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and is responsible for the formation of elongate, because its cell wall is still thin
primary plant body after the differentiation and extensible. As the process of vacuolar
process. In the region of cell division, the fusion continues, the plant organs continue
meristematic cells undergo repeated mitotic to expand and elongate.
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division to produce many daughter cells. The apical meristem at the shoot apex
The vacuoles in these cells gain water, differentiates to form the primary stem,
bulge and become relatively large. In the
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leaves, and flowers. On the other hand, in
region of cell elongation, small vacuoles root apex, the meristems differentiate to
fuse to form large ones as shown in Figure produce primary root tissue. The shoot and
2.15. The result of this vacuolar fusion
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root apices have three different zones of
is the development of turgor pressure in growth which are the zone of cell division,
the cell. This pressure forces the cell to elongation, and maturation. The region
Cell wall
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Cytoplasm Nucleus
Enlarging vacuole
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in
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Small developing vacuoles Large central vacuole

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Figure 2.15 Primary growth
of cell division is composed of apical the vacuole attains its full size and almost
meristems. The region of elongation is fills the cytoplasmic region. The cell wall
positioned about a centimeter from the tip becomes secondarily thickened and hence
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of the root. Cells in this region increases unable to extend further. The whole process
several times of their original length and of development of the primary plant body
width. Vacuoles of cells are tiny and occupy requires energy, which is supplied by the
at least 90% of the volume of each cell mitochondria.
formed. In the region of cell maturation,

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The mitotic cell division of the shoot epidermis while procambium gives rise
and apical meristems results into three to vascular tissues including cambium,
meristematic areas, namely: protoderm, phloem, and xylem. The ground meristems
ground meristem and procambium. In the produce ground tissues which form cortex
and pith in dicotyledonous plants as shown
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course of development, protoderm gives
rise to the outer protective layer of the plant in Figure 2.16.
called epidermis.
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Primary growth of root
The ground meristems develop to the At the tip of the root, there are meristematic
inside of the protoderm, giving rise to the cells, which divide to produce cells,
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ground tissue, parenchyma, and cortex both inwards towards the plant body and
cells. Procambium gives rise to the solid outwards. The outwards cell division results
central cylinder in the centre of the shoot in the formation of a mass of unorganised
which is comprised of cambium, phloem, cells called root cap and a quiescent zone
and xylem.
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just behind the root cap. The root cap cover
Primary growth of shoot and protect the root apical meristem as they
grow through the soil. They also have an
The primary growth in shoot apex takes place
additional function of acting as gravity
when shoot apical cells divide mitotically
sensors. The cells in the quescent zone
to form three layers of meristematic tissues
namely protoderm, procambium, and
U serves as a reservoir to replace the damaged
cells of the apical meristems. Thus, they are
ground meristem. Protoderm gives rise to
important in organising patterns of primary
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Leaf primordium
Cell division
Apical meristem
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Primary meristerms
Protoderm
Ground meristerm
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Procambium
Cell differentiation
Primary tissues
Cell elongation
Epidermis
Ground tissue
Vascular tissue
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Figure 2.16 Primary meristems in the shoot apex
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growth in roots. Behind the root cap and extends about 10 mm behind the root tip
around the quescent zone, meristematic and its increase in length forces the roots
cells divide to form meristematic tissues down through the soil.
known as protoderm, procambium and Some cell differentiation such as the
ground meristems as shown in Figure 2.17.
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development of the phloem sieve tube
In the root, the term procambium is used elements begins in the zone of cell division.
to describe the whole central cylinder of
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Development of phloem is from the outside
a root. Like the shoot tip, the root tip is inwards and in the zone of elongation.
also subdivided into three zones namely The xylem vessels start to differentiate
zone of cell division, cell elongation,
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also from outside towards inwards. This
and maturation. The zone of cell division kind of differentiation is termed as exarch
extends 1-2 mm back from the root tip development. This differs from endarch
and overlaps slightly with the zone of cell differentiation in stem in which xylem
elongation. The zone of cell elongation develops from inside towards outwards.
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Epidermis
Endodermis
Zone of cell
differentiation
U Root hairs
Metaxylem
Pericycle
Cortex
Xylem vessel element
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Zone of cell
elongation Phloem sieve tube
Phloem sieve element
in
Procambium
Ground meristem
Zone of cell
division Protoderm
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Root cap
Quiescent zone
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Figure 2.17 Apical meristems of the root apex
Activity 2.2 Identification of meristematic Procedure

cells and their characteristics (i) Cut a thin transverse section of a
shoot apex of a young bean plant by
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Materials: Mature bean plants, young bean

seedlings, sharp razor blade, microscope, using a sharp razor blade.
microscope slides, safranin stain (or (ii) Mount it on the microscope slide,
methyl blue, Gentian violet or iodine) and stain it and then cover it with a
coverslip. coverslip.

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(iii) Place a mounted slide under a light responsible for the secondary growth of the
microscope and observe it under a low plant which results into increased diameter
magnification, then you may increase or girth of the plant.
the magnification accordingly.
The lateral meristems that produces
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(iv) Note the features shown by the cells secondary vascular tissues are of two
in this part of the plant. types, namely: vascular cambium and cork
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(v) Repeat the above steps but now use cambium. The vascular cambium is found
a thin transverse section of a mature between xylem and phloem. The activity of
stem of a bean plant. the cells in the vascular cambium leads to
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the formation of secondary vascular tissues.
(vi) Draw a diagram of the section of the The vascular cambium is anatomically
young shoot apex and mature shoot made up of two types of cells, which are
apex of a bean plant as observed referred to as fusiform and ray initials. The
under the microscope. ray initials differentiate to form parenchyma
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(vii) Compare cells observed for the cells. The fusiform initials undergo mitosis
transverse section of young and to produce axial or longitudinal systems
mature bean shoot. of the secondary phloem externally and
(viii) Relate the features of the cells in the secondary xylem internally. The second
plant apex to the role they play in
U type of lateral meristem is a cork cambium.
plant growth. This later develops to give rise to phellem
and phellodem which constitute a secondary
Results: Meristematic cells are characterised cortex. Its main role is, therefore, to maintain
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by thin and extensible cell walls, small a protective layer around the stem, which
vacuoles and dense cytoplasm unlike the is actively increasing in diameter.
in
mature part of the plant. They may also have

Secondary growth in woody
numerous ribosomes and mitochondria.
dicotyledonous stem
The role of lateral meristem in In the dicotyledonous stems, secondary
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secondary growth growth is brought about by the activity of

The lateral meristems controls the the vascular cambium which is originally
process of secondary growth in both roots located between the primary vascular tissues.
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and stems. These include the vascular Soon after primary cell differentiation
and cork cambium in woody plants. is completed, the fusiform initials in the
Monocotyledonous plants such as grasses vascular cambium divide by mitosis. Their
and herbaceous dicotyledonous plants division produces large quantities of the
which lack lateral meristems have no secondary xylem (tracheids and vessel
secondary growth. Lateral meristems are elements) to the inside and small quantities
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found parallel to the long axis of a root or of secondary phloem (sieve elements and
shoot in the pericycle region at the junction companion cells) to the outside as shown
between vascular tissue and cortex. They in Figure 2.18.
are positioned laterally as cylinders on the
sides of the plant stem and root. They are
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Primary phloem
Vascular cambium
Secondary phloem
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Pith
Primary xylem
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Secondary xylem
Primary phloem
Primary medullary ray
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Secondary medullary ray
Figure 2.18: Transverse section of the stem
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The formation of these secondary tissues and shrubs is characterised by deposition of
over the primary ones leads to an increased large quantities of secondary xylem which
diameter of the stem or plant organs. is a wood, this completely modifies the
Usually, the cells of the secondary xylem primary structure of the plant.
contain lignin, the primary component of
wood, which provides hardness and strength
U Secondary growth in the roots of
dicotyledonous plants
to the stem. The xylem together with pith
form the dicot's woody stem while the The development of secondary xylem,
ray initials produce parenchyma or rays. secondary phloem and medullary rays in
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As the diameter of the stem increases, the roots and stems is similar. A cork cambium
circumference of the cambial layer also develops from pericycle and serves the
in
increases. This leads into rupturing of the same function of replacing the ruptured
epidermis to give room for the newly formed epidermis of the expanding plant body as a
tissues. As this occurs, the cork cambium in the stem. The original cork cambium may
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develops and its meristematic activities be replaced at intervals by cork cambium

produce cells which replace the ruptured arising further inside the root. The process
epidermal layer. Secondary growth in trees of secondary growth in roots is summarised
in Figure 2.19.
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Epidermis
Endodermis
Secondary phloem
Primary phloem
Pericycle
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Cambium
Secondary xylem
Primary xylem
Cortex
Figure 2.19 A transverse section of the root

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The origin of lateral branches and usually occur near the root apex where
lateral roots there is active cell division. These roots
There are two types of branching patterns are initiated from the pericycle at the point
in plants, namely: terminal and lateral near xylem poles. In monocotyledonous
plants, lateral root initiation can be opposite
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branching. Terminal branching involves
the separation of the apical meristems into either protoxylem or phloem. In most
plant species cell division occurs in
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two. Each of these two apical meristems
continues to grow as a shoot branch. This endodermis in such a way that pericycle
mechanism is common in lower plants but and endodermis contribute to the lateral root
rare in angiosperms. tissue. On contrary, adventitious roots are
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formed primarily on stem tissues but they
Lateral branching in angiosperms occurs
have various sites of origin ranging from
mainly by the growth of axillary buds.
endogenous to exogenous from superficial
When leaf primordial are initiated, a small
tissues such as epidermis. However, in most
group of cells in their axils remains small
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monocotyledonous plants, adventitious
and non-vacuolated. These are referred
roots arise from the cell division in pericycle
to as detached meristems because they
of the stem and hence they originate from
retain the meristematic characteristics but
primary thickening meristems.
do not differentiate as the neighbouring
cells do. However, they become spatially
U Seed dormancy and viability
separated from the apical meristems. As the
Water, optimum temperature, and oxygen
shoot grows and the detached meristems
are important environmental conditions
attain a distance from the apex, they are
necessary for the seed to germinate.
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differentiated into shoot meristems that are
However, sometimes even in the presence
also associated with several leaf primordial
of these conditions, some seeds fail to
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or buds. At this point, they do not grow

germinate. The state in which seeds are
further because of apical dormancy triggered
prevented from germinating even under
by the shoot apical meristems. The growth
conditions which are favourable for
of the axillary meristems is inhibited by
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germination, is called seed dormancy. Seed

auxin hormone produced by the apical
dormancy can be caused by factors internal
meristems. In some plants, the inhibition is
or conditions external to the seed. Seeds that
temporary until the main shoot has grown
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are capable of germinating after overcoming

beyond the inhibitory range of the apex.
all causes of dormancy, are said to be viable.
In un-branched plants, the inhibition is
Viability is therefore, governed by different
permanent unless the apical meristems are
factors such as storage conditions, embryo
removed. When apical inhibition ceases, the
maturity, and enzymes.
lateral bud begins to grow as a branch shoot.
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Lateral roots are defined as branches of Types of seed dormancy

the taproot. Lateral roots are formed as a There are two types of seed dormancy,
result of the activity of cells in the main namely: primary seed dormancy and
roots. They are endogenous in nature, secondary seed dormancy. The primary seed
meaning that their origin is from a deeper dormancy is a type of dormancy in which
layer. The newly formed lateral roots seeds will not germinate immediately after
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dispersal even if the factors for germination Causes of secondary seed dormancy
are present. This is because they must The main causes of secondary seed dormancy
undergo certain internal changes, which are are external factors which make the embryo
generally described as after-ripening. These fail to germinate. Optimum temperature
changes prevent premature germination
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facilitates the proper functioning of
of the seeds and increase the chances of enzymes. Oxygen, water, and light facilitate
survival and perpetuation of the species. To
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respiration, metabolism and raise the level
achieve this, there are mechanisms which of gibberellins hormone respectively. Lack
ensure that germination is synchronized of such factors is among the causes of
with the beginning of a season favourable secondary seed dormancy.
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to the continued growth of seedlings. For
example, the mechanisms can involve the Ways of overcoming seed dormancy
action of growth inhibitors present in the There are several ways and methods used to
seed coat that can make it impermeable to overcome seed dormancy. The natural way
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water and air. Inhibitors can also prevent of breaking dormancy occurs when the seeds
rupture of the seed and hence enable growth get suitable environments such as adequate
of the embryo. moisture, oxygen and temperature. Although
sometimes the external force is used to
The secondary seed dormancy is the type
break seed dormancy, methods that are
of dormancy that occurs when a seed lacks
U employed to break seed dormancy depends
either all or some of the external conditions
on the type of dormancy and its causes.
that are necessary for germination. If these
Methods of breaking dormancy include
conditions are not met then the seed fails
soaking the seeds in water to soften the seed
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to germinate and such dormancy cannot be
coat and remove inhibitors. Mechanical
broken for sometimes.
scarification is the process of weakening
in
Causes of primary dormancy hardness of the seed coat to allow entry of

Factors which causes primary seed water and gases. This can be achieved by
dormancy are mainly intrinsic to the seed. slightly striking or cutting the hard seed
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Primary dormancy caused by immaturity coat using a hammer or knife respectively.

of an embryo is one of the intrinsic factors Mechanical scarification can also be done by
which cause seed dormancy. However, in its abrasion using a sandpaper. Another method
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dormant stage, the seed remains viable while of overcoming seed dormancy is called
waiting for the embryo to mature fully. Other partial digestion. It occurs in the intestine
intrinsic factors include hardness of seed of animals such as ruminants. It naturally
testa and the presence of growth inhibitors enhances breaking of seed dormancy by
such as abscisic acid. The hardness of the softening the hard seed coat and removing
testa and presence of inhibitors collectively germination inhibitors from the seed coat
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restricts the emergence of radicle and as the seeds pass through their gut.
plumule. The hardness of the seed coat Chemical scarification method involves
hinders permeability of oxygen and water soaking the seeds in alcohol such as ethanol
to the embryo. This, in turn, prevents seed (C2H5OH) and concentrated acids such as
germination and therefore, the seed remains Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and Sulphuric
in a dormancy condition. acid (H2SO4). By soaking seeds in these

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acids or alcohol for a certain period of stored in the cotyledons and endosperm.
time the hard and impermeable seed coat Dormancy helps to keep this food which
is weakened. Usually, seeds can be treated is important in the early stages of seedling
with growth-promoting hormones or other development. Moreover, the dormant seeds
chemicals in order to stimulate germination are easily dispersed and stored.
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or to remove germination inhibition. Dry Exercise 2.3
storage of seeds immediately after maturity
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is another strategy of overcoming seed 1. Describe types of meristem based on
dormancy. This allows time for the maturity their position in a plant body.
of the embryo and development. 2. Explain the mechanism of secondary
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Cold and fire stratification is another method growth in plants.
of breaking seed dormancy. It involves 3. Discuss the main features of
mimicking the exact natural conditions meristematic cells.
for seed germination. Cold stratification 4. Briefly explain how lateral branches
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involves placing the seeds close together and lateral roots are formed in plants.
in moist sand. Fire stratification, on the
5. What is seed dormancy? Explain the
other hand, involves placing the seeds
causes of seed dormancy.
close together under a thin film of sand
and setting fire on top of the laid sand.
U 6. State two types of seed dormancy
and explain ways of overcoming
This is done to mimic dry and frequent
fire conditions, which are natural in areas each type of dormancy.
such as wooded grasslands. Most species
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in wooded grassland are adapted to fire and Seed viability
some require fire to break dormancy. Lastly, Seed viability refers to the ability of the seed
to germinate under favourable conditions.
in
the supply of appropriate light conditions,

which are necessary to raise the level of The viable seed is one, which is capable
gibberellins, in some seeds is also important of germinating under suitable conditions.
on breaking dormancy. Viable seeds are capable of germinating
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once supplied with conditions necessary

Significance of the seed dormancy for germination or once all the causes of
Seed dormancy allows seeds to survive dormancy have been eliminated.
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periods of unfavourable conditions to

prevent germination when conditions are Factors governing seed viability
not friendly for its continued growth. This Various factors govern seed viability. These
ensures that germination is synchronized include embryo maturity, enzymes, time of
with favourable conditions for growth. seed storage, and absence of diseases. A seed
During a period of suspended growth, with immature or underdeveloped embryo
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seed has high chances of developing after is unviable. Likewise, a diseased seed is
ripening changes. This prevents premature likely to lose its viability. Additionally, when
germination that might lead to the death of enzymes in the seed are inactive, the seed
the germinant. In the process of germination, becomes unviable. This is because enzymes
the developing seedling utilizes energy control the physiological processes of seed
which comes from the oxidation of food germination.
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The length of the period during which 7. With the aid of an illustration, describe
seeds remain stored also determines their the growth pattern of humans and give
viability. Most seeds lose their viability in a reasons to justify the observed growth
period of one year following their dispersal pattern.
while some seeds may remain viable for
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8. Explain the roles of vascular cambium
a number of years. The loss of viability and cork cambium in secondary growth
results into total dormancy and hence, the
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of plants.
death of the seed.
9. Discuss the ways in which mitosis
Revision questions in plant cells differ from mitosis in
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animal cells.
1. A viable seed was sown under optimum 10. Briefly explain how you would identify
germination conditions. However, it a cell undergoing metaphase during
did not germinate. Suggest the possible mitosis based on the appearance of
causes and ways to overcome such
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its nucleus.
seed dormancy.
11. (a) What are secondary roots?
2. With the aid of diagrams, describe the
(b) Differentiate secondary roots
events that take place during mitosis
from shoots based on their origin.
stages in a plant cell.
12. (a) Briefly explain the concept of
3. Annual plants such as bean and maize,
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seed viability.
exhibit a sigmoid growth pattern.
Explain why their growth curve is (b) Discuss factors governing seed
S-shaped. viability.
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4. Differentiate between primary and
secondary growth in plants.
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5. Explain the role of lateral meristems

in plant growth.
6. Outline the role of apical meristems
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in primary growth of plants.

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Chapter
Three
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Reproduction
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Introduction
Reproduction is one of the fundamental characteristics of living organisms. It is an
important process for the existence of all living things. It is a process which leads to
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an increase in the number of individuals of a species in a given population. Without a
mechanism for reproduction, life would come to an end. In this chapter, you will learn
about meiosis, reproduction in animals and plants as well as development of fruits,
and seeds. You will also learn about generalized life cycles of selected plants including
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bryophytes, pteridophytes and angiosperms as well as life cycles of selected animals
including housefly, cockroach, toad, and mouse.
Meiosis Like in mitosis, meiosis also involves
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This is the process of nuclear division DNA replication during the interphase
in which a diploid cell (2n) gives rise to stage. However, meiosis involves two
consecutive cycles of nuclear and cell
in
haploid cells (n) in the sexually reproducing

organisms. However, in some cases, this type divisions known as Meiosis I (the first
of cell division may be from hexaploid cell meiotic division) and meiosis II (the second
to triploid cells such as in wheat. In animals, meiotic division). Meiosis I involves the
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the haploid cells which are produced through separation of homologous chromosomes
meiosis during gametogenesis are sperms while meiosis II involves the separation of
and eggs. When a sperm and an egg fuse sister chromatids. Usually, meiosis reduces
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during fertilisation, their two haploid sets of the number of chromosomes from diploid
chromosomes recombine to form a zygote to haploid state, and it is, therefore, known
with a complete diploid set of chromosomes. as a reduction division. Literally, the term
This diploid set of chromosomes will be meiosis means “to reduce”.
the genetic material (genome) of a new Mechanism of meiosis
individual. This recombination is the basis
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The process of meiosis is accomplished

for variations in sexually reproducing
in two cycles or phases, namely: meiosis
organisms. In plants, meiosis occurs during
I and meiosis II. Both cycles are preceded
spore formation in the process known as
by a non-dividing phase called interphase.
sporogenesis. The process of meiosis does
For a single cell, the first meiotic division
not apply to lower organisms that reproduce
(meiosis I) produces two haploid cells
asexually like bacteria.
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while the second meiotic division (meiosis Prophase I

II) produces a total of four haploid cells at
This is the longest phase of meiosis which
the end.
is divided into five sub-phases that are
Meiosis I leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene
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This is the first cycle of the two consecutive and diakinesis.
meiotic nuclear divisions. Its principal role In leptotene sub-phase, DNA replication
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is to reduce the number of chromosomes is completed and sister chromatids remain
to half before meiosis II. thin and closely associated. Moreover,
Stages of meiosis I chromosomes begin to shorten and hence
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they become visible as indicated in Figure
The mechanism of meiosis I involves four 3.1.
stages, namely: prophase I, metaphase I,
anaphase I, and telophase I.
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Paternal
chromosomes
(from father)
Nuclear
membrane
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Nucleolus
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in
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Maternal
chromosomes
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(from mother)
Figure 3.1 Leptotene stage
During zygotene sub-phase, paternal and shown in Figure 3.2. The pairing process is
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maternal homologous chromosomes lie called synapsis, and the paired homologous
side by side. The centromeres from each chromosomes form a bivalent.
chromosome lie in the same position as

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Reproduction
A pair of homologous
chromosomes
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Centromeres
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Bivalents
Figure 3.2 Zygotene stage
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In pachytene sub-phase, chromosomes Figure 3.3. The process is known as crossing
repel each other and separate partially. over and the point of attachment is known
Each chromosome is composed of two as a chiasma which literally means a cross.
chromatids. Repulsion of chromosomes The chiasma appears in several points of the
causes each chromatid to move away from
U chromosome. These points are referred to
the sister chromatids and the non-sister as chiasmata. They are important sites for
chromatids cross each other as shown in the exchange of genetic materials between
chromatids.
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in
A pair of sister
chromatids
A a a
A
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Chiasma
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b b
B B
A pair of sister
chromatids
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c
C C c
Figure 3.3 Pachytene stage
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In diplotene sub-phase, the chiasmata bivalents assume a particular shape

become visible and the sister chromatids depending on the number of chiasmata as
continue to repel from each other and shown in Figure 3.4.
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Rotation
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Figure 3.4 Diplotene stage
In diakinesis, the centrioles migrate to the The spindle fibres start to develop and
opposite poles, the nucleoli and nuclear each sister chromatid moves apart to a
membrane disappear as shown in Figure 3.5.
U great extent.
Developing spindle fibres

e
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Nuclear membrane
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Homologous chromosomes
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Figure 3.5 Diakinesis stage
Metaphase I
The homologous chromosomes (bivalents) the spindle and the two homologous
attached by their centromeres become chromosome pairs are captured by spindle
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arranged on the metaphase plate and are fibres from the opposite poles. Thus, during
attached to the fully formed meiotic spindles metaphase I, homologous chromosome pairs
around the equator. Meiotic spindles are (rather than individual chromosomes) and
also known as spindle fibres or spindle line up at the metaphase plate under tension
microtubules. Each chromosome attaches from opposite spindle poles as shown in
to spindle fibres from just one pole of Figure 3.6.

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Spindle fibres
A bivalent showing
crossing over in two
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points
Nuclear
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membrane
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Figure 3.6 Metaphase I
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Anaphase I
During anaphase I, two chromosomes the chiasmata allowing the homologous
in each bivalent separate and migrate chromosomes to move apart to the opposite
towards opposite poles of the spindles
U ends of the cell. It is important to note that,
with centromeres pulled first as seen in the cohesive proteins at the centromere are
Figure 3.7. This process begins when the not destroyed, so the sister chromatids of
two chromosomes of each bivalent (tetrad) each homologue remain attached to each
e
separate and start moving towards opposite other. This is a key difference between
poles due to the contraction of the spindle mitosis and meiosis I whereas in meiosis
fibres. They contract as a result of the I, the sister chromatids remain joined after
in
damage of cohesive proteins covering the metaphase while in mitosis, the sister
arms of sister chromatids. This step breaks chromatids separate.
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Chromosomes
move to
opposite poles
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Figure 3.7 Anaphase I
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Telophase I Meiosis II
In this stage, the homologous chromosomes Cells move from meiosis I to meiosis II
arrive at the poles, nuclear envelopes form without replicating their DNA. Meiosis
around them and the chromosomes condense II is a shorter and simpler process than
y
as shown in Figure 3.8. In many plants, meiosis I. It is similar to mitosis because
this step is skipped and the cell passes the produced daughter cells have the same
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from anaphase I to prophase II directly. number of chromosomes as the parent
Cytokinesis, which refers to cytoplasmic cells. The produced daughter cells are
cleavage, usually occurs during this stage. haploid (have one chromosome from each
homologous pair), but their chromosomes
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In animal cells, it involves the formation of
cleavage furrow by folding of the plasma still consist of two sister chromatids. These
membrane inward. In plants, cytokinesis is sister chromatids tend to separate, producing
accomplished by the cell plate formed at the four haploid cells whose chromosomes have
equator of the old cell that will soon be two just one chromatid each.
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separate cells. The cell plate is the future cell Stages of meiosis II
wall that separates the two cells by dividing
the cytoplasm. The chromosomes in these The second meiotic division consists of
cells still have two sister chromatids each, four main stages which are prophase II,
but the chromatids are no longer identical
U metaphase II, anaphase II and telophase II.
due to crossing over. Spindle fibres also Prophase II
disappear at this stage. In animals, interphase II usually precedes
the prophase II stage, but it does not involve
e
DNA replication. The nuclear membrane
breaks down and the spindle apparatus
in
forms and centrioles duplicate as shown in

Figure 3.9. This occurs by the separation
of the two members of the pair, followed
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Cleavage furrow by the formation of a daughter centriole

perpendicular to each original centriole. The
two pairs of centrioles separate and migrate
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to the opposite poles. The chromatids shrink

and spindle fibres start to develop.
Figure 3.8 Telophase I

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Chromosomes
Centriole line-up on the
equator
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Two Spindle
haploid fibres
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cells
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Figure 3.10 Metaphase II
U Anaphase II
Figure 3.9 Prophase II During this stage, the centromeres divide
leading to the separation of chromosomes
into sister chromatids. The spindle fibres
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Metaphase II
During metaphase II, each of the daughter pull the chromatids to the opposite poles
with the centromere being pulled first as
in
cells completes the formation of spindle

fibres. The chromosomes line-up on the shown in Figure 3.11. Separation of sister
equator of the spindles and the spindle chromatids occurs when the cohesive
fibres attach to each chromosome at their proteins that hold the chromatids together
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centromeres as seen in Figure 3.10. This are destroyed. The separated chromatids are
is in contrast to metaphase I whereby now called chromosomes. Furthermore, the
homologous pairs of chromosomes align cleavage furrow starts to develop on each
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at the metaphase plate. of the two cells.

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Cleavage furrow in the parent cell is 46. Thus, after meiosis

during gametogenesis, the number of
chromosomes in each of the four haploid
daughter cells will be 23.
y
Note that, only two pairs of chromosomes,
that means four chromosomes were used in
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the illustrations to demonstrate the stages
of meiosis in the previous sections.
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Sister Nuclear
chromatids Cell membrane membrane
move to
opposite
poles
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Centriole
Nucleolus
U Chromosomes
Figure 3.11 Anaphase II Formation of four haploid cells (tetrad)

Telophase II
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Figure 3.12 Telophase II
During this phase, the chromatids reach
their destination in the opposite poles of
in
the spindles. The chromosomes become

Activity 3.1 Observation of meiotic
stages of cells
very distinct as they lengthen and uncoil.
The spindle fibres disappear and centrioles Materials: Prepared slides showing stages
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replicate. The nuclear membrane emerges of meiosis and a light microscope.

around each group of chromosomes Procedure
containing half the number of the original (i) Place a light microscope on a table
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chromosomes. The nucleolus reappears, and set it ready for observing the
followed by the completion of cytokinesis mounted specimen.
or cleavage of the cell to give four haploid (ii) Place the prepared slides under the
daughter cells as shown in Figure 3.12. light microscope.
These are collectively termed as tetrad. In
(iii) Observe each prepared slide under
plants cells, cleavage is brought about by
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the microscope one after another.

the formation of the cell plate which finally
differentiates to form a cell wall. (iv) Draw and label the diagrams of
what you have observed under
Usually, meiosis process produces four
the microscope for each prepared
daughter cells each with half of the number
slide and name the stage of meiosis
of chromosomes present in the parent cell. In
represented in each slide.
a human being, the number of chromosomes

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Generally, stages of meiosis in plant and animal cells are characterized by more or less
same events in most stages as detailed in the previous sections. However, some differences
are evident at some stages as summarized in Table 3.1.
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Table 3.1 Comparison between meiosis in plant and animal cells
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Event Plants Animals
Time of It occurs during spores It takes place during
occurrence formation in the processes gametes formation in the
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of megasporogenesis and processes of oogenesis and
microsporogenesis. spermatogenesis.
Site of It takes place in the anther of It takes place in the testis of male
occurrence male and ovary of a female part and ovary of the female animal.
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of a flower.
Daughter cells It produces spores that develop It produces male and female
produced into haploid gametophytes, which gametes (sperm and ovum).
later produce male and female
gametes, that is two male nuclei
and an ovum or egg.
U
Size of the The produced cells such as The produced cells e.g. sperms
cells produced spores and pollen grains are relatively smaller and
are relatively large and inconspicuous.
e
conspicuous.
Telophase I There is neither telophase I, cell There is telophase I, where
in
wall formation nor interphase in chromatids uncoil and a nuclear

most of the plant species. The cell membrane re-appears after
passes straight from anaphase I to cleavage at each pole, then nucleus
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prophase II. passes to interphase.

Telophase II Cytokinesis occurs by fusion of Cytokinesis occurs by infolding
Golgi vesicles to form a cell plate of the plasma membrane of the
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that extends to the periphery cell towards the spindle equator.

as a primary cell wall which This forms a furrow in the cell
separates the two cells. surface membrane that fuses later
and separates the two units into
new cells.
Fo
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Significance of meiosis in sexually father and half the chromosomes from the
reproducing organisms mother. In human beings, this is equivalent
The process of meiosis results into to 23 chromosomes from the mother and
producing haploid cells thereby preventing 23 chromosomes from the father making a
total of 46 chromosomes. During meiosis I,
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the duplication of chromosomes during
fertilisation, and hence maintaining the the homologous pairs will separate to form
two equal groups, but it is not usually the
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chromosome number of the species.
case that, all the paternal chromosomes
Meiosis is also a source of genetic variation.
will go into one group and all the maternal
The gametes produced in meiosis are not
chromosomes into the other. Therefore,
O
genetically identical to the parent cell and to
meiosis and fertilisation are key events that
each other. The diversity of possible gametes
generate new combinations of gene variants
is caused by two factors; crossing over and
or alleles. Meiosis can rearrange the existing
independent assortment of chromosomes
alleles to make new combinations.
during anaphase of meiosis I. The points
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where homologous chromosomes cross Comparison of mitosis and meiosis
over and exchange genetic materials, occur Meiosis and mitosis processes share some
more or less randomly. As a result, these similarities. Both processes pass through
points will be different in each cell that four stages, namely: prophase, metaphase,
undergoes meiosis. This process produces a
U anaphase and telophase. However, the
wide variety of recombinant chromosomes process of nuclear division is longer
having fragments of DNA exchanged in meiosis than in mitosis. They are
between homologous chromosomes. The preceded by interphase, during which DNA
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more the crossing over the greater the extent replication occurs (except in interphase II).
of variations. Moreover, in both cases, the parental cells
in
Random orientation of pair of homologous at the beginning of the process are diploid
chromosomes during metaphase of meiosis in number where there is movement and
I is another important source of gamete rearrangement of chromosomes. Apart from
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variation. The bivalent, which is defined as the similarities, the two processes differ in
a pair of homologous chromosomes, consist some ways as summarized in Table 3.2.
of half the chromosome number from the
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Table 3.2 Differences between mitosis and meiosis

Events Mitosis Meiosis
Site of occurrence Occurs in all somatic Occurs only in germ cells
and germ cells that can that can be either diploid
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be haploid, diploid or or polyploidy cells. It takes
polyploidy cells. It takes place during the formation
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place during the formation of gametes or spores.
of somatic (body cells) and
some spores.
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Cycles of cell It involves one cycle It involves two cycles of cell
division and single division of division and double division
the chromosomes and the of the nucleus.
nucleus.
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Prophase Chromosomes shorten In prophase I, homologous
and thicken but do not chromosomes pair up to form
associate, hence there is bivalents. There is crossing
no crossing over. over or chiasmata formation.
Metaphase
U
Pairs of chromatids form a Pairs of homologous
single row on the equator of chromosomes form a double
the spindle. row on the equator of the
spindle in metaphase I.
e
Anaphase Each centromere splits Centromere does not split
into two and identical in anaphase I, hence, whole
in
chromatids separate. chromosomes that may

be non-identical separate.
Centromere splits in
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anaphase II.
Telophase Two daughter cells are Four daughter cells are formed
formed with equal number (although in females only one
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of chromosomes as the is usually functional) with half

parent cell. the number of chromosomes
as that of the parent cell.
Cytokinesis Follow immediately after It may or may not occur

nuclear division. at the end of first nuclear
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division.
Resemblance of Daughter cells are identical Daughter cells are

daughter cells to parental cells (in the genetically different from
with parental cells absence of mutation) the parental cells.
(variation)
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Exercise 3.1 Gametogenesis in animals

The process of gamete formation in animals
1. Describe the events that occur is divided into two subprocesses, which are
during prophase I of meiosis in a spermatogenesis in males and oogenesis
reproductive cell.
y
in females.
2. Explain the importance of the
Spermatogenesis
nl
following in the process of meiosis:
(a) Chiasmata The process of spermatogenesis in males
(b) Centromere. involves three phases: multiplication,
3. Briefly discuss the mechanisms by growth, and maturation phases. In the
O
which genetic variation is produced multiplication phase, diploid germinal
epithelial cells or primordial germ cells
by the process of meiosis.
in the outer layer of seminiferous tubules
4. Differentiate the key features of undergo repeated mitotic division to
se
the anaphase I of meiosis and the produce diploid cells called spermatogonia
anaphase of mitosis process. (spermatogonium–singular).
5. Meiosis is basically a reduction
During the growth phase, each spermatogonium
division. Briefly justify this statement. increases in size and develops into primary
6. Draw diagrams showing what happens
U spermatocytes.
during each phase of meiosis and label
During the maturation phase, the primary
your diagrams using the following
spermatocytes undergo meiosis I to produce
terms: secondary spermatocytes, which in turn divide
e
Centrioles, maternal and partenal by meiosis II, to produce spermatids as seen
c h r o m o s o m e s c r o s s i n g o v e r, in Figure 3.13.
in
nuclear membrane, tetrad, nucleolus

homologous chromosomes, spindle
fibres, bivalents, sister chromatids,
nl
centromere, chiasma, and cleavage

furrow.
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Reproduction
2n Spermatogonium
Mitosis
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2n 2n Spermatogonia
produced during
nl
multiplication stage
Mitosis
2n 2n
O
Growth stage
2n Primary spermatocyte
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Meiosis I
n n U Secondary spermatocyte
Meiosis II
Maturation
n n n n Spermatids
phase
e
in
Sperms
nl
Figure 3.13 Spermatogenesis process in human

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The spermatids are immature male gametes, with oxygen, nutrients, and exchange of
which are finally transformed into mature metabolic wastes. This is done by the blood
spermatozoa or sperms in a process called vessel going through sertoli cells. The cells
spermiogenesis. During the entire period secrete fluids carrying sperms via tubules.
of development and after maturity, the The formed sperm is extremely small and
spermatozoa are supported and nourished it contains head with a haploid nucleus, a
Fo
by the sertoli cells. short neck region with a pair of centrioles

The sertoli cells are responsible for microtubules that develops axial filaments/
remoulding spermatids to develop sperms. flagellum of the sperm tail. The middle
These cells are important in nourishing piece contains mitochondria which liberate
the developing sperm by providing it energy in form of ATP which is used in the
beating of the flagellum. The beating of
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the flagellum enables the sperms to swim stimulates gonads, in this case, the testis.
from the vagina where they are deposited The gonadotrophins hormones are follicle
to the secondary oocyte in the fallopian stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing
tube in which one of them penetrates the hormone (LH). FSH stimulates sertoli cells
secondary oocyte. to mould and nourish spermatids to produce
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Spermatogenesis is controlled by both spermatozoa as shown in Figure 3.14. LH
is an interstitial cell-stimulating hormone
nl
the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary
gland working together. The hypothalamus (ICSH), hence it stimulates the synthesis
secretes gonadotrophin-releasing hormone of testosterone by interstitial cells (Leydig
cells) of the testis. Once released, this
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(GnRH) which travels in small veins to the
pituitary gland. This hormone stimulates hormone triggers growth and development
the anterior pituitary gland to secrete two of spermatogonia into sperms.
hormones called gonadotrophins that
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Redundant
nuclear
Acrosome membrane Axial filament
Nucleus Centriole Mitochondria

Nuclear vacuole
UTerminal disc
e
Head Middle piece Tail piece End piece
in
Figure 3.14 Structure of a mature spermatozoan or sperm
Oogenesis of nutrients. The primary oocyte remains

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The process of ovum or egg development at prophase I throughout the childhood.

is called oogenesis. Like spermatogenesis, The onset of puberty causes continued
the oogenesis process involves three development of the arrested primary
oocytes, to secondary oocyte during
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phases, which are multiplication, growth,

and maturation as summarised in Figure female’s fertile years. Thus, every month,
3.15. Multiplication as the initial stage one primary oocyte completes meiosis
of oogenesis starts during embryonic or I to produce two haploid cells. One of
foetal development (before birth). During the two cells receives a large proportion
this phase, the diploid primordial germ of cytoplasm and becomes a functional
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cells undergo repeated mitotic divisions secondary oocyte. The second cell receives
to produce many oogonia. a very small proportion of cytoplasm and
becomes a non-functional unit called the
In the second phase called growth, each first polar body. The secondary oocyte then
oogonium, grows and develops into a starts meiosis II which stops at metaphase II.
primary oocyte due to the accumulation

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Reproduction
2n Oogonium from germinal

epithelial cell
Mitosis
Oogonia produced during
y
2n 2n
multiplication stage
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Mitosis
2n 2n
O
Growth stage
2n Primary oocyte
se
Meiosis I
1st polar body (n)

n Secondary oocyte
U Maturation phase
Meiosis II
2nd polar body

n
Ovum
e
in
Figure 3.15 Oogenesis process in human
In some cases, the first polar body may also the process does not go beyond this stage.
nl
undergo meiosis II to produce secondary However, if it meets the male gamete, the
polar bodies. This stage is followed by secondary oocyte becomes stimulated
ovulation during which the secondary to complete meiosis II that produces a
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oocyte is released when the mature ovarian functional ootid and a second non-functional
follicle ruptures. polar body. In maturation, the ootid is
The changes in the released secondary transformed into an ovum and the polar
oocyte depend on whether the oocyte is bodies degenerate as shown in Figure 3.16.
fertilised with spermatozoan or not. Thus,
if it does not unite with the male gamete,
Fo
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Nucleus
Cytoplasma
y
Cortical
granules
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Corona radiata
(follicular cells)
O
Zona pellucida
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(jelly coat)
Figure 3.16 Diagram of a mature ovum

U
Gametogenesis in flowering plants are the male parts of a flower. Young anthers
In flowering plants, the formation and usually contain four lobes or chambers
maturation of gametes are preceded covered by epidermal tissue. The cells of
e
by the formation of spores, embryo the epidermal tissue divide mitotically to
sacs (megaspores) and pollen grains form pollen sacs and hypodermis. Further
in
(microspores). The process by which mitotic division of the hypodermis results

flowering plants produce spores is called into the formation of diploid microspore
sporogenesis. This is divided into two sub- mother cells that are found in the pollen
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processes, which are microsporogenesis and sacs. In this process, the microspore mother
megasporogenesis. The microsporogesis cell or pollen mother cell undergoes meiosis
leads to the formation of male spores or I to produce two haploid cells also called
dyad. The cells then undergo meiosis II
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microspores while the megasporogesis

leads to the formation of female spores or to produce a tetrad of four haploid cells,
megaspores. Usually, the microspores are which are called microspores. The four cells
smaller in size than the megaspores. Thus, separate and undergo some changes which
flowering plants are said to be heterosporous include the development of an additional
because they produce two types of spores. wall. At this stage, each cell develops two
Fo
walls, the inner wall or intine and outer

Microsporogenesis wall or exine. The outer wall is made
This process involves the formation of male up of a hard long lasting and waterproof
gametes or microspores or pollen grains in material called sporopollenin that increases
flowering plants. It occurs in the pollen sacs chances of survival of the microspore. In
that are found in the lobes of anthers, which each of the four cells, the nucleus divides

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Reproduction
by mitosis to produce two nuclei; a pollen Megasporogenesis

tube nucleus and a generative nucleus as This is the formation of female gametes
seen in Figure 3.17. At this point, the mature (egg) from the megaspore mother cells. This
pollen grain and its contents are referred to process occurs in ovules (megasporangia)
as the male gametophyte. The generative found in the ovary of an angiosperm flower.
y
nucleus later divides mitotically to form Each ovule has an outer sheath called
two male gametes (sperms). When a pollen
nl
integuments that encloses a nutritive tissue
grain lands on a stigma, the tube nucleus called nucellus. The development of female
divides mitotically to form a pollen tube that gametophytes starts as a swelling of the
extends from the stigma to the micropyle. nucellus. This tissue divides mitotically
O
The function of the pollen tube is to carry to form two layers called integuments that
two sperm nuclei to the female gametophyte encloses the megaspore mother cell. During
for fertilization because the two sperms are megasporogenesis, a megaspore mother cell
not flagellated. This tendency reduces water divides by meiosis to produce four haploid
se
dependence for fertilization in angiosperms. cells. Three cells, which are found at an
outer layer, degenerate and one inner cell
U grows and enlarges to form the embryo sac.
Meiosis I Meiosis II Development of walls
Pollen grains
Microspore mother Dyad of two Tetrad of four
cell (diploid) haploid haploid pollen
e
pollen cells cells
Mitosis
in
Generative nucleus
(divides later to form 2
male gametes)
Exine (thick outer wall)
Pit
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Intine (thin inner wall)
Pollen tube nucleus

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Mature pollen grain (male gametophyte)
Figure 3.17 Formation of pollen grains in flowering plants
This occurs due to nutrients supplied by the the embryo sac. Two nuclei migrate to the
nucellus. The nucleus of the embryo sac centre to form polar nuclei. Three nuclei
divides mitotically three times to produce migrate to the chalaza end/upper end of
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eight nuclei. At this stage, the embryo sac embryo sac, these are called antipodals.
and its contents are referred to as a female The remaining three nuclei migrate towards
gametophyte. This is because one of its the micropylar end/bottom end of embryo
nuclei is a female gamete as seen in Figure sac near the micropyle pore. They are then
3.18. There is rearrangement of nuclei in organized into a three - celled egg apparatus.
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One cell grows Growth Mitosis
Meiosis
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Three cells degenerate
Mitosis
Megaspore
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mother cell Four haploid
cells Three nuclei
(antipodals) Mitosis
Two polar nuclei
O
Ovum (egg)
Two synergids
Embryo sac
se
Figure 3.18 Formation of female gametes in flowering plants
This group of cells has two small cells therefore, have microsporangia that produce
known as synergids and one relatively large
cell called an ovum or an egg, that is the
U microspores and megasporangia that
produce megaspores. The equivalent of
female gamete. these cells in male animals are sperm mother
cells (spermatocytes) and egg mother cells
Relationship between meiosis and
e
(oocytes) in female animals. These two
gametogenesis in animals and plants
types of gametes are produced in structures
Gametogenesis is a term that refers to called gonads which are testes and ovaries
in
the process of gamete formation. The in males and females respectively.

gametes produced are sperms and egg for
male and female individuals respectively. Unlike their mother cells, the spores, sperms,
nl
The gamete forming process, which leads and eggs are all haploid cells. In order to
to the production of sperms, is called reduce the parental chromosome number
spermatogenesis while the egg or ovum from diploid to haploid, meiosis process is
very crucial. In plants, the spore mother cells
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forming process is termed oogenesis.

Gametes are produced from specialized in sporangia undergo meiosis to produce
cells called mother cells. These cells in haploid tetrad called spores. In animals,
plants are called spore mother cells because on the other hand, meiosis takes place in
ultimately they produce spores. The spore the spermatogonia and oogonia which are
mother cells are found in structures called sperm and egg mother cells respectively.
Fo
sporangia. In plants that produce two types In human beings, gametogenesis in males,
of spores or heterosporous plants, the cells begins at puberty with repeated mitosis of
which produce spores are called microspore the germinal cells to form spermatogonia.
mother cells and megaspore mother cells However, in females, the process starts at
for production of male and female spores the early stages of development before birth
respectively. The heterosporous plants, to form oogonia.

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Exercise 3.2 new Marchantia plant.

1. Briefly describe the events that occur Some relatives of division Filicinophyta
during megasporogenesis. can reproduce asexually by using special
2. With the help of well labelled structures called bulbils located on the
y
diagrams, explain the processes of axils of their leaves. Each is capable of
spermatogenesis and oogenesis. developing into a new plant once it lands
nl
on favourable conditions.
3. Explain how pituitary gland is
involved in sperm formation. In higher plants such as angiosperms,
asexual reproduction is through vegetative
4. D e s c r i b e t h e m e c h a n i s m o f
O
propagation in which a part of a plant organ
microsporogenesis in angiosperms and
can develop into a new individual plant.
explain why the formed microspore is
Some examples of plant organs used in
called the male gametophyte.
asexual reproduction and their respective
5. Compare megasporogenesis in
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plants include stem as in Manihot esculenta
angiosperms and oogenesis in (cassava); root as in Ipomoea batatas (sweet
mammals. potatoes); suckers as in Agave sisalana
(sisal) and Musa acuminata (banana); leaf
as in Kalanchoe pinnata (Cathedral bells)
Reproduction in plants
U and Bryophyllum daigremontianum (Devil’s
Plants like animals reproduce sexually but backbone) species; rhizome as in Zingiber
they also have various ways in which they officinale (ginger) and corms as in Colocasia
can reproduce asexually. Normally, sexual esculenta (Taro). This is advantageous to
e
reproduction is accomplished by production some plants because the produced new
of male and female gametes, which plants are genetically identical to parental
in
are spermatozoa/sperms and egg/ovum plants.

respectively.
Usually, asexual reproduction proceeds
Asexual reproduction in plants occur in more rapidly than sexual reproduction. This
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various ways depending on the group/ kind of reproduction results into individuals
division of the plant. For example, members that are genetically identical to their parents.
of division bryophyta such as Marchantia This is because it does not involve fusion of
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species may reproduce asexually by gametes and hence, low genetic diversity.
fragmentation. In this way, a fragment The new individuals, therefore, may fail to
of bryophyte detached from a mother adapt to a new environment or changes in
plant can grow to form a new plant under the environment.
favourable conditions. The Marchantia
species produce special cup-like structures Sexual reproduction in plants is preceded by
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called gemmae cups on their surface that the formation of male and female gametes.
bears small greenish ball-like structures In plants as explained in previous section,
called gemmae. The gemmae can be gametogenesis comes after sporulation
splashed off the gemmae cups by rain drops. because male and female gametophytes
Each gemma once landed on conducive develop from the spores. In bryophytes
environment can germinate to produce a and ferns, the spores germinate to form
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gametophyte generation from which male gametophyte bearing both male and female
and female gametes are produced. In reproductive structures under favourable
angiosperms, the gametophyte is the pollen conditions. The male reproductive structures
grain and an ovule that are found in flower. are antheridia while the female reproductive
The pollen grain is the male gametophyte structures are archegonia. A gametophyte
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which produces sperms, while the ovule is plant refers to a gamete forming plant body.
the female gametophyte, which produces All bryophytes and majority of fern species
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an egg or ovum. In both lower and higher are homosporous.
plants, sexual reproduction involves the The spores in bryophytes are produced in
union of the male gamete (sperm) and
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special structures called sporangia found
female gamete (egg) to form a zygote in inside a club-like structure called a capsule.
the process called fertilisation. In ferns, spores are produced by sporangia
Fertilisation in plants but these are located inside structures
called sori (sorus-singular) located on the
se
Fertilisation is a crucial process in sexual lower side of the fern leaf called frond.
reproduction through which nuclei of the In both homosporous and heterosporous
reproductive cells, which are genetically plants, spores are produced by meiosis
different, unite to produce offspring. The which occurs in the spore mother cell
resulting offspring are genetically different
from each other and from each of their two
U located in sporangia. Each spore mother
cell produces four haploid cells after
parents. Sexual reproduction increases meiosis. Each of these four cells is a spore,
genetic diversity, which help plants to adapt which is very light and can be dispersed to
better to a new environment or withstand
e
distant areas by the wind. Upon landing on
environmental changes. In plants, this type favourable conditions, spores germinate
of reproduction may result in the formation
in
to form a haploid gametophyte generation

of seeds, which are important to disperse through mitosis and cell division. A mature
plant species and reduce competition among gametophyte develops a small club like
species. The formation and maturation structure called antheridium and a flask like
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of gametes come after spore formation. structure called archegonium on its surface.
The process of spore formation is called
sporulation or sporogenesis. A spore is a Matured antheridium raptures to release
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unicellular haploid cell which is capable flagellated sperms while archegonium

of germinating to form a new plant body. raptures to expose egg located at the base.
The rapturing of antheridium to release
Events leading to fertilisation in plants sperms is triggered by the presence of water
Generally, there are two groups of plants in the environment, for example when it
based on the types of spores they produce; rains. This is important to synchronize
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homosporous and heterosporous plants. The sperms release and fertilisation because
homosporous plants produce only one type water is a medium through which flagellated
of spores that are of the same size and shape sperms swim to fertilize the egg in the
and cannot be differentiated into male and archegonium. Special chemical attractants
female spores. In homosporous plants, each produced by the archegonia attract sperm to
of these spores can germinate to produce a swim towards the egg in which fertilisation

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Reproduction
occurs. After fertilisation, a zygote is to germinate and causes the intine wall
formed and remains protected inside the to grow through the exine via one of its
archegonium. In bryophytes, the zygote apertures as a pollen tube. There are two
later grows as a result of mitosis and cell types of apertures in the exine of pollen
division to form a capsule. In some species grain, namely pore and fissure or colpi. The
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of bryophytes, the zygote develops first into growth of the tube is a result of a mitotic
a stalk called seta on top of which a capsule division of the pollen tube nucleus, which is
nl
bearing sporangia develops. controlled by auxins secreted by the stylar
tissues. The tube grows rapidly down the
On the contrary, in heterosporous ferns,
stylar tissues towards the ovule.
O
megaspores germinate to produce female
gametophytes bearing archegonia which The chemicals which are secreted by
produce eggs. The microspores germinate to the synergids in the embryo sacs, direct
form male gametophytes bearing antheridia the growth of the pollen tube towards
which produce sperms. In the presence of the micropyle. This is an example of
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water, flagellated sperms from the antheridia chemotactic growth. As the pollen tube
swim and fertilize the egg in the archegonia grows, the generative nucleus in the pollen
to form a zygote. This develops into an grain divides through mitosis to produce
embryo and later a young sporophyte that two haploid male gametes. The pollen tube
grows into a mature sporophyte generation
U enters the ovule through the micropyle.
with sori bearing sporangia, which are As this happens, the pollen tube nucleus
capable of producing spores. degenerates and the tip of the pollen tube
bursts open to release the two haploid male
Double fertilisation in higher plants
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gametes into the embryo sac.
In angiosperms, fertilisation occurs after
pollination. This is a process of transferring The entry of the sperms into the embryo
in
pollen grains from the anthers to a stigma sac or ovule is followed by fertilisation.
of a flower within the same plant or in a Flowering plants unlike bryophytes, ferns,
different plant but of the same species. and gymnosperms, exhibit a unique type of
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Some flowers can be pollinated by their fertilisation called double fertilisation which
own pollens while others get pollinated by literally means two fertilisation events in
pollen grains from other individual plants each ovule. Double fertilisation in flowering
plants is a result of multi-nucleate nature
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of the same species. The former is termed

self-pollination while the latter is called of pollen grain and ovule in which there
cross-pollination. Pollination is mainly by are two sperm nuclei in the pollen grain
wind, insects, birds, and mammals. These and an ovule containing an egg and diploid
together are called pollinators. polar nuclei. The first fertilisation event
involves fusion of one of the two sperm
Fo
The arrival of pollen grains on the stigma of nuclei with an egg to form a zygote. The
a compatible species stimulates the secretion second fertilisation event involves the fusion
of sugary solution including sucrose from of the second sperm nucleus with the two
the stylar tissues. As the pollen grain absorbs polar nuclei as shown in Figure 3.19. You
these solutions and get nourished, it starts will recall that, these two polar nuclei are
bulging. This stimulates the pollen grain haploid and are fused into one entity thus
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making them diploid. Once these two polar Fruit and seed development
nuclei (2n) fuse with the second sperm (n) Immediately after fertilisation, several
the result is a triploid (3n) nutritive tissue physiological and morphological changes
called endosperm. The predominant food occur in a flower. Such changes are observed
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storage is carbohydrate in the form of starch in the zygote, endosperm, and the ovary.
and sugar, the latter changes to starch as Externally, structures of the flower such as
the seed grow. Lipids and proteins are also
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calyx, corolla and androecium, which are no
other types of stored food in the endosperm longer required in the fertilisation process
of seeds such as sunflower and nuts. change significantly. Although some of the
floral parts change rapidly after fertilisation,
O
it is interesting to note that even dead pollens
Germinating pollen grain

Stigma
se
U Style
Pollen tube
Ovary wall
Nucellus
e
Ovule
Integuments
in
Antipodals
Polar nuclei
Embryo sac
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Synergids
Ovum
Sperm nuclei
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Micropyle Tube nucleus

Funiculus
Figure 3.19 Development of pollen tube towards ovule after pollination
are important in some cases in triggering Changes which occur in flower after
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changes subsequently to fertilisation. The fertilisation

fruit development from an ovary is one of Following the process of fertilisation,
such changes as it may require hormones various changes occur in the flower.
from dead pollens. These include disintegration of antipodals
and synergids. The zygote undergoes a
rapid repeated mitotic division forming a

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Reproduction
multicellular embryo. This embryo then, part of the fruit, and mesocarp which is a
differentiates into a young shoot called fleshy layer in between the exocarp and the
plumule, a young root called radicle and endocarp. These three layers are collectively
simple seed leaves known as cotyledons. called pericarp and are distinct in fleshy
Depending on the class of flowering plants,
y
fruits but fused in dry fruits. In order for
cotyledons may be two as in dicots or one an ovary to mature into a fruit, a certain
as in monocots. The cotyledons are the food quantity of hormones from decaying pollen
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reserve tissues. The endosperm nucleus grains is required. This means that, a fruit
undergoes mitotic division to give rise to may fail to develop from an ovary even
a mass of endosperm tissue. The embryo after fertilisation if a threshold number of
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remains enclosed in the ovule for protection. pollen grains is not available. The style
Upon maturity, the fertilised ovule becomes also withers and falls off leaving its scar
a seed. Integuments of the ovules form a on the fruit.
tough protective layer called a seed coat
Events which lead to the formation of
se
or testa. The micropyle remains as a small
endospermic and non-endospermic
pore in the testa through which oxygen and
seeds
water enter during germination of the seed.
As mentioned in the previous section,
During embryo development, nucellus double fertilisation results into a triploid
disintegrates to provide nutrients for
U primary endosperm and a diploid zygote.
supporting initial growth. In the final stages The latter develops into an embryo whereas
of seed development, a drastic reduction the former may develop into endosperm in
in water content of the seed occurs. This endospermic seeds such as maize, wheat and
e
greatly reduces the potential for metabolism rice. In these seeds, the primary endosperm
which is an important step towards seed undergoes mitotic division to give rise to
dormancy.
in
a mass of endospermous tissue as seen in

The flower may remain temporarily attached Figure 3.20 (a). This tissue forms the food
to the sporophyte generation (mother plant) source to the growing embryo. In some
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after fertilisation. However, in the due other seeds, the cotyledon stores food and
time sepals, petals and stamens wither and they grow at the expense of the endosperms
fall off. The fruit develops from a mature that may disappear completely. Seeds of
ovary whose wall becomes differentiated this type are referred to as non-endospermic
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into three layers, namely: exocarp which is seeds and they include leguminous seeds
the outermost layer, endocarp on the inner such as beans as shown in Figure 3.20 (b).
Fo
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Endosperm
Pericarp (fused with
testa)
Tegmen
y
Cotyledon
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Plumule sheath Epicotyl (plumule)
(coleoptile) Hypocotyl
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Radicle
Radicle sheath
(coleorhiza)
Figure 3.20 (a) Longitudinal section of maize grain showing endospermic seed
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Testa
Plumule
U Radicle
Micropyle
e
in
Cotyledon
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Figure 3.20 (b) Longitudinal section of bean seed showing non-endospermic seed
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Exercise 3.3 4. Briefly discuss the significance of

1. Distinguish between pollination and double fertilisation in flowering plants.
fertilisation. 5. Explain differences between sexual
2. Explain the importance of fertilisation and asexual reproduction in plants.
Fo
and pollination in plants. 6. With the aid of well-labelled diagrams,

3. Elaborate how fertilisation in flowering distinguish between endospermic and
plants differs from fertilisation in non- endospermic seeds.
bryophytes. 7. Briefly explain any five changes that
occur in the flower after fertilisation.

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Reproduction
Life cycles of selected plants phase over another varies across plant
Plants have two major phases in their life divisions. A thorough understanding of
cycle; one in which they grow vegetatively the alternation of generations in various
and a second phase in which they set groups of plants is paramount in studying
flowers for sexual reproduction. These two how plants reproduce, and the conditions
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phases are common in all flowering plants under which sexual reproduction occurs.
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irrespective of their life form. Plants may Alternation of generations
be of the following forms; herbs, grasses,
shrubs, trees or whether they are annual, Alternation of generations is a biological
biannual or perennial. In lower plants such phrase which is commonly used to describe
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as bryophytes and ferns, sexual reproduction the life cycle of a plant. In the alternation
phase is common although they do not of generations, a diploid spore producing
produce flowers. This is to say that all plant body termed sporophyte alternates
plants have two alternating phases, one with a haploid gamete producing body
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in which they produce gametes for sexual called gametophyte as indicated in Figure
reproduction and a second phase in which 3.21. Literally, sporophyte is a combination
they grow vegetatively. These two phases of two terms “sporo” which means spore
alternate in which one phase is temporarily and “phyte” meaning a plant. Similarly,
gametophyte is a combination of two words,
present while the other is permanent. The
existence of alternating phases in the plants
U “gameto” referring to a gamete and “phyte”
life cycle is referred to as alternation of standing for a plant.
generations. The predominance of one
e
Sporophyte
Mitosis
in
Embryo Sporangia
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Mitosis
Sporophyte phase (2n)
Zygote Spore mother cells

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Fertilization
Meiosis
Female gamete Male gamete
Gametophyte phase (n)

Spores
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Mitosis
Mitosis
Gametophyte
Figure 3.21 A generalised life cycle of plants
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Similarly, gametophyte is a combination of presence of water, a medium through which

two words, “gameto” referring to a gamete flagellated sperms swim toward the egg. In
and “phyte” standing for a plant. higher plants, favourable conditions include
the presence of pollinators and conditions
Usually, haploid spores are produced by
triggering pollen tube development.
y
meiosis, which occurs on the special cells
The zygote develops as its cells divide
called spore mother cells. These cells are
mitotically to form an embryo that remains
nl
found in structures called sporangia borne
retained within the female gametangium.
in the sporophyte generation. The spores
The growth of an embryo later develops into
are very light and can be easily blown by
a sporophyte generation directly as in ferns
the wind to distant areas. The firm wall
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and bryophytes. However, in higher plants,
called sporopollenin found on the surface
the young sporophyte is a seed, which can
of spores makes it easy for the spores to
go through a stage called dormancy, before
be dispersed without suffering physical
it germinates to a fully grown sporophyte.
damage as they hit on different structures.
se
The mature sporophyte generation produce
Germination of spores occurs when it lands
spores and the cycle starts over again.
on favourable conditions, particularly in
a moist environment. Each haploid spore Depending on the plant division,
germinates as a result of mitotic cell gametophyte generation may be dominant
division to form a haploid gametophyte.
U while the sporophyte generation is
Depending on a plant division or species temporarily present. In bryophytes the
the gametophytes can have different sizes gametophyte is dominant over sporophyte
and shapes. Generally, there is a trend of generation. In ferns, gymnosperms, and
e
decrease in the size of gametophyte from angiosperms sporophyte is dominant over
lower plants such as bryophytes to higher gametophyte generation.
in
plants such as angiosperms.

The life cycle of bryophytes
The mature gametophyte produces sexual Bryophytes are members of division
reproductive structures, which produce Bryophyta and they include Mosses,
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male gametes (sperms) and female Liverworts and Hornworts which are
gamates (eggs). The sperms produced the simplest terrestrial plants. Among
by bryophytes and ferns are flagellated bryophytes, Mosses are more common in
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unlike those produced by angiosperms and our environment and sometimes dominate
gymnosperms. Antheridia and archegonia the terrain to the exclusion of other plants,
are reproductive structures in bryophytes particularly in moist areas.
and ferns. The antheridia produce flagellated
sperms while archegonia produce eggs. All bryophytes undergo alternation of
In higher plants, pollen grains and ovules generations, which is distinct compared
Fo
are responsible for the production of non- to other groups of plants, particularly, seed
flagellated sperms and eggs respectively. bearing plants and ferns. Alternation of
generations in these plants is characterized
In favourable conditions, fertilisation by a haploid dominant phase called the
occurs to produce a zygote. In lower gametophyte generation, which alternates
plants, favourable conditions include the with the diploid temporary phase called

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Reproduction
sporophyte generation. The gametophyte sperms off the antheridium. Most bryophyte
is relatively large and more conspicuous leafy shoots are small and become easily
than sporophyte generation. flooded with water when it rains. This makes
The sporophyte generation is attached to, it easy for the sperms to swim. The released
sperms swim towards the archegonium
y
and dependant on gametophyte generation
which is leafy and green in colour. The and fertilise the egg to form a zygote
which develops inside the archegonium.
nl
gametophyte generation, therefore,
comprises of the green leafy shoot and The chemical attractants released by the
rhizoids. The leafy shoots in mosses are archegonia direct the sperm to swim towards
it. This implies that sexual reproduction
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small and are of three types. One is female
shoot that forms archegonia on its tips from cannot occur without water. As summarised
which an egg is produced. A single female in Figure 3.22, the resulting zygote divides
shoot can have several archegonia but each mitotically to form an embryo, which later
is capable of producing only one egg. The grows to form sporophyte generation. In
se
second is a male shoot that bears antheridia erected bryophytes such as mosses, the
at their tips. In each antheridium, multiple sporophyte generation is brownish in colour
sperms are produced. The third shoot is and consists of a foot, stalk called seta
sterile and does not bear any reproductive and sporangium. In thallose bryophytes,
structure.
U the seta is missing. The foot is the tissue
which connects sporophyte generation to
In the presence of water, especially, during gametophyte generation. It is important for
the rainy season, the antheridium raptures the absorption of water and nutrients from
and the rain drops splash the flagellated the photosynthetic gametophyte.
e
Gametophyte
in
Mitosis
Protonema
Archegonium Antheridium
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Egg Flagellated sperms

Spores Gametophyte phase (n)
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Fertilization
Meiosis
Zygote
Spore mother cells
Sporophyte phase (2n) Embryo

Sporangia
Fo
Young sporophyte
Mitosis Mitosis
Sporophyte
Figure 3.22 A generalised life cycle of bryophytes
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This is important because the entire (iii) Observe clearly to see if there is
sporophyte is not capable of synthesizing its any brown stalk protruding from the
food. In other words, sporophyte is entirely leafy green mat.
dependent on gametophyte generation.
(iv) Draw and label all the observable
y
The stalk holds the sporangium containing parts of the plant to show clearly
capsule on its tip. The sporangium contains the gametophyte and sporophyte
nl
spore mother cells. At maturity, the spore generations.
mother cells undergo meiosis to produce (v) Briefly explain why moist and shaded
spores. Once this is done, a flap known as habitat is important to the survival
O
calyptra covering the capsule withers and and propagation of a moss plant.
exposes a tissue called operculum, which
seals the capsule tip. As the operculum (vi) Write short notes on asexual
dries and detaches from the capsule the reproduction in bryophytes.
latter splits open to release the spores. Once
se
Results: The sporophyte has a brownish
the spores are released, the sporophyte stalk emerging from the gametophyte which
generation degenerates but the gametophyte consists of rhizoids, leaf, and a stem-like
persists. structure.
The spores are dispersed to distant areas
because they are very small and light. The
U Life cycle of pteridophytes
spore which lands on moist conditions, Pteridophytes are members of division
germinates to form a small thread-like pteridophyta also known as filicinophyta.
structure called protonema. This later This is a group of plants in which the true
e
develop rhizoids and small leafy shoots that ferns are found. Ferns show alternation of
mature to form male and female shoots. The generations in which the spore-producing
in
male and female shoots produce antheridia plant phase called sporophyte is dominant
and archegonia on their tips respectively and more conspicuous while the gamete-
from which sperms and eggs will be producing phase, the gametophyte is
nl
produced. At this point, the life cycle can temporal as summarized in Figur e
repeat over again. 3.23 (a). The sporophyte generation in fern
constitutes of fronds which are the fern’s
Activity 3.2 Observation of sporophyte
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leaves, a stem or rhizome and adventitious

and gametophyte generations of
roots originating from the rhizome. The
bryophytes
frond is made up of the midrib/rachis, small
Materials: Mosses or Liverworts, white leaflets called pinnules and relatively larger
tile or watch glass, and hand lens. units named pinnae. The frond is attached
Procedure to the rhizome at the base by a stalk.
Fo
(i) Collect mosses or liverworts from a The fern plants do not produce flowers as
damp or shaded area. reproductive structures instead they rely on
(ii) Place the specimens on a white tile spores. These are found on the lower side
and use a hand lens to observe the of the leaf where they exist in structures
structure of Mosses and Liverworts. called sporangia. The sporangia on the lower
side of the frond are clustered in circular

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Reproduction
structures called sori. They appear as an The archegonium open the neck canal by
aggregation of brown dots spread on the autolysis and releases chemical attractants,
pinnule margins. The sori are protected by a which direct the swimming sperms to
tissue called indusium while the sporangia fertilise the egg located at the base of
in it, are protected by a layer of tissue called
y
archegonium. Once the egg is fertilised,
annulus. The spore mother cells in the a zygote is formed and develops through
sporangium undergo meiosis to produce
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mitotic division to form sporophyte. Only
haploid spores. The mature sorus bursts one zygote will develop to the sporophyte
and exposes the sporangia housed beneath from each gametophyte regardless of the
it as its indusium shrinks. The exposure of number of eggs that may be fertilised.
O
the annulus of the sporangium to moisture The young sporophyte divides mitotically
results into abrupt rapturing and sudden to develop horizontal shoot that becomes
ejection of spores out of sporangium, a a rhizome. Later the rhizoids develop on
process called catapulting. The majority the underside of the rhizome while vertical
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of ferns are homosporous producing one shoots develop into highly coiled structures
type of spore while a few are heterosporous called croziers or circinate leaves.These
producing microspores (small male spore) leaves later unwind to form fronds. The
and megaspores (large female spores). gametophyte withers off and degenerates.
On landing to the favourable conditions such
U Upon maturity, the sori bearing sporangia
develop on the lower side of the frond to
as moist environment, spores germinate to
produce a small green heart-shaped structure produce spores. At this stage, the life cycle
known as prothallus, which is a young is completed and it can start over again.
e
gametophyte. The prothallus continues to The life cycle of fern, therefore, is
grow through mitotic division to produce characterised by more or less similar events
in
rhizoids on its lower surface at the centre. as in bryophytes. However, the gametophyte
Additionally, the antheridia and archegonia generation in bryophytes is relatively
which are reproductive structures, develop larger, dominant and more conspicuous,
on the lower surface between the rhizoids while in ferns it is the opposite in the sense
nl
as shown in Figure 3.23 (b). In the presence that its gametophyte is reduced in size,
of water, mature antheridium releases less conspicuous and temporary while the
flagellated sperms. sporophyte generation is dominant.
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Fo
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Sporophyte
y
Young sporophyte Sori
nl
Embryo
Sporangia
O
Zygote Sporophyte phase (2n)
Spore mother cells
Fertilization
Meiosis
se
Flagellated sperms (n) Egg (n) Spores (n)
Gametophyte phase (n)

U
Antheridium Archegonium Prothallus
Gametophyte
e
Figure 3.23 (a) A generalized life cycle of pteridophytes
in
Growing point
Apical notch
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Archegonia
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Lateral margin
Posterior margin
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Antheridia
Rhizoids
Figure. 3.23 (b) The structure of prothalus

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Reproduction
Activity 3.3 Observation of sporophytes and gametophyte generations as shown in

generation in ferns Figure 3.24. The sporophyte of angiosperms
Materials: Mature fern plants, plastic bags, consists of the roots, stem, branches and
and hand lens. leaves. These are the plant parts which
y
are dominant as they are present in a plant
Procedure throughout the year. On the contrary, the
(i) Collect specimens of mature fern gametophyte generation is temporarily
nl
from moist and damp places. present. It is borne from the gynoecium and
(ii) After collection keep the specimens androecium of the female and male parts
in the plastic bag to avoid desiccation of the flowers respectively.
O
(drying).
The gametophyte generation is attached to
(iii) Using a hand lens observe the the sporophyte generation, hence dependent
underside of the frond and notice the on sporophyte generation for nutrition as
rusty dot-like structures concentrated it develops.
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on the margins of frond pinnules.
The flower produces two types of spores, the
(iv) Draw the structure of frond to large spores or megasporocytes; and small
display the sori.
spores or microsporocytes which develop to
(v) Describe the role of sorus in the life female and male gametophytes respectively.
cycle of ferns.
U Depending on a plant species, megaspores
(vi) Draw the structure of the entire fern and microspores can develop from the same
plant to display rhizome, rhizoids, flower as in perfect flowers, which have both
fronds and rachis. female and male reproductive structures.
e
However, in imperfect flowers, megaspores
Results: Circular brown dots appear to be
and microspores are borne from flowers of
in
spread along the pinnule margins.

different individuals of the same species.
Anthers of the flower contain pollen
Life cycle of angiosperms grains in which microsporangia mother
nl
Angiosperms are the flowering plants cells are found. Meiosis takes place in the
belonging to division angiospermatophyta. microsporangia mother cell to produce
They are the most advanced and successful haploid microspores which develop
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plants in terrestrial and aquatic environments. mitotically to form two sperm cells and a
The angiosperms are better adapted to both tube nuclei.
terrestrial and aquatic environments and
These three nuclei constitute male
they are distinct from all other groups
gametophyte or macrogametophyte,
of plants due to possession of flowers.
which is highly reduced compared to
Literally, flowers are modified leaves of
Fo
gametophytes of bryophytes and ferns (refer

a plant that play an important role in the
to microsporogenesis section). As explained
reproduction and life cycle of angiosperms.
earlier in megasporogenesis section, the
The life cycle of angiosperms as in other megagametophyte develops inside the
groups of plants is characterized by two ovule leading to the formation of an egg,
alternating phases, namely: the sporophyte two synergids, two polar nuclei, and three
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antipodals. These eight nuclei constitute The entire process of fertilisation is

megagametophyte or female gametophyte, therefore, described as double fertilisation
which again is highly reduced, compared because it occurs twice. The whole process
to bryophytes’ and ferns’ gametophytes. of fertilisation in angiosperms resembles that
of gymnosperms although, the gymnosperm
y
During pollination, pollens are transferred
to the stigma and each develops a tube. do not have double fertilisation.
nl
This tube is important in carrying the two The fertilised ovules develop into a seed
non-flagellated sperms contained in it as and the ovary matures into a fruit. The
it grows down to the ovule via micropyle. produced seed contains an embryo, which
O
Fertilisation in angiosperms, therefore, does is a young future sporophyte in resting
not require water medium. One of the two condition. Under favourable conditions, the
sperms fertilises the egg to form a zygote, seed germinates and the embryo initially
which later develops to an embryo through develops at the expense of food stored in
mitotic cell division. The second sperm the endosperm. This later develops into a
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fertilises the two polar nuclei leading to a fully-grown plant which can bear flowers
triploid tissue called endosperm. with reproductive structures. This completes
the life cycle of the angiosperm and the
cycle can start over again.
U
Diploid sporophyte Haploid gametophyte
generation generation
e
in
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Fo
Figure 3.24 Life cycle of angiosperm plant

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Reproduction
Activity 3.4 Observation of reproductive Exercise 3.4

structures of an angiosperm flower
1. Briefly explain the term alternation
Materials: Herbaceous plants, plastic bags of generations as applied to plants.
and razor blades/ sharp knife.
2. Compare the life cycles of mosses
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Procedure and ferns.
(i) Collect different herbaceous plants
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3. Explain why most bryophytes colonize
together with their flowers in the moist habitats.
field.
4. Briefly explain four ways in which
(ii) Carefully place the collected plants
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sexual reproduction in fern is
in a plastic bag to avoid desiccation. different from sexual reproduction
(iii) In the laboratory, carefully observe in angiosperms.
all parts of each of the collected 5. With respect to their life cycles,
plants from the root to the shoot
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why do you think bryophytes are
systems. primitive compared to angiosperms?
(iv) Draw the flower structure and label 6. Describe the life cycle of angiosperms.
all parts you have seen.
(v) Dissect the flower into two equal
U Reproduction in animals
halves using a sharp knife or razor Reproduction in animals is accompanied by
blade to display its longitudinal a series of reproductive cycles. These events
section. occur in females and they involve cyclic
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changes that occur simultaneously in the
(vi) Draw and label the observed parts of
uterus and the ovaries. These reproductive
the dissected flower.
cycles start at the onset of sexual maturity
in
(vii) Name structures which represent the throughout the entire fertile period in the life
female and male gametophytes. cycle and when the animal is not pregnant.
(viii) Draw the whole plant specimen and The two types of reproductive cycles are
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indicate the parts which represent menstrual and oestrus cycles. Both cycles
sporophyte and gametophyte are controlled by hormones.
generations, that is, microspores,
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and megaspores. Menstruation cycle

Menstrual cycle is a monthly recurring
Results: The male reproductive parts cycle of hormone-induced physiological
of an angiosperm flower are stamens, changes in the uterus, ovaries and in other
that is, anthers and filaments, which sexual structures, which occur in order to
technically constitute androecium. The develop an egg cell in the ovary. The cycle
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female reproductive parts are represented also prepares the uterus for implantation and
by the pistil, which is made up of an ovary, feeding of a zygote. Moreover, the cycle is
a style, and stigma. These female parts characterized by the breaking of the uterus
together form a gynoecium. wall and the shedding of blood through a
vaginal canal during menstrual flow. This
cycle occurs in human beings and other
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primate mammals such as monkeys and and small amounts of oestrogen. These two
chimpanzees and prepares the uterus for hormones work synergistically to maintain
implantation of a fertilized egg. The events the structure of the mucus membrane called
of the menstrual cycle involve changes in the endometrium and to inhibit the secretion of
ovaries (ovarian cycle) and uterus (uterine FSH and LH from anterior pituitary gland.
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cycle). These changes are regulated by If pregnancy occurs after mating, the
hormones secreted by ovaries, which are in
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structure of the corpus luteum is maintained
turn regulated by pituitary gonadotrophins. for the first three months called first trimester
(a) Ovarian cycle of pregnancy, after which its function is
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The ovarian cycle involves follicular, taken over by the placenta. This explains
ovulation and luteal phases. In adult why a surgical removal of ovaries during
female primates, this cycle starts with the the first three months of pregnancy will lead
development of primary ovarian follicles to a miscarriage. However, if mating is not
(follicular phase). This process is influenced successful, the corpus luteum disintegrates
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by follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and leaves a scar called corpus albicans. The
secreted by the anterior pituitary gland regression of the corpus luteum leads into
which also secretes lutenizing hormone the fall in the levels of progesterone and
(LH). The role of LH in the follicular phase oestrogen in the blood as shown in Figure
is to induce the secretion of oestrogen from
U 3.25. This allows the secretion of FSH and
the follicular cells and stimulate continued LH as they are no longer inhibited.
growth and development of ovarian (b) Uterine cycle
follicle into mature Graafian follicles. The
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The female sex hormones which are called
secretion of oestrogen in this phase inhibits oestrogen and progesterone affect the
the release of FSH and therefore its level endometrium of the uterus causing a series
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decreases in the blood. However, this has of events in the uterus structure. The cycle
no effect on the level of LH. As ovulation has three phases which are menstruation,
approaches, the level of oestrogen reaches proliferative and secretory phases.
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the maximum and at this point, it induces

the release of both LH and FSH. Under the Menstruation is the first phase of the
influence of LH, the fully-grown ovarian uterine cycle. During this phase, female
follicle called Graafian follicle bursts to sex hormones are at a lower level in the
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release the secondary oocyte. The process blood causing the disintegration of the
of releasing the secondary oocyte is called endometrium and rupturing of blood vessels.
ovulation. Following ovulation, the amount The flow of blood, mucus and degenerating
of FSH in the blood falls to follicular level. endometrium through the vagina during
Meanwhile, in the presence of luteotrophic menstruation period is called a menstrual
flow. The discharged substances during
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hormone (LTH), and lutenizing hormone

(LH), the cells of the ruptured follicle this period are collectively called menses
change into a yellow body called corpus and normally takes 3 to 5 days. The flow
luteum during luteal phase. The corpus of menses is normally regarded as a sign
luteum is endocrine in nature, and therefore, that a woman is not pregnant. However,
it secretes large quantities of progesterone this cannot be taken as a guaranteed sign

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Reproduction
because in some cases, a woman can get for ovulation that occurs in the 14th day of
slight bleeding which takes place for 6 to a normal cycle.
12 days after conception. This is called The secretory is the final phase of the uterine
implantation bleeding or spotting and it is cycle that corresponds to the luteal phase of
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one of the early signs of pregnancy. the ovarian cycle. It occurs during 15th to
The proliferative is the second phase of the 28th days. It is characterised by an increased
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uterine cycle, which occurs between day production of progesterone by corpus
6 to13. The secretion of oestrogen from luteum that plays a vital role in making the
mature ovarian follicles causes the lining endometrium receptive for the implantation
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of the uterus to grow or proliferate. The of the blastocyst, and hence, supportive to
oestrogen initiates the formation of a new the early pregnancy. Progesterone hormone,
layer of endometrium in the uterus, which is therefore, stimulates the secretion of mucus
histologically identified as the proliferative from peritubular glands. It also increases
endometrium. The oestrogen also stimulates blood flow into the uterine walls and reduces
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crypts in the cervix to produce fertile the contraction capacity of the smooth
cervical mucus. This prepares the uterus muscles in the uterus.
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Ovarian
cycle
Growing follicle Ovulation Corpus luteum Corpus albicans

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Anterior temperature
37� C
Body
36� C
in
hormones
Lutenizing hormone
pituitary
Follicle stimulating
hormone
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Oestrogen Progesterone
Ovarian
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Uterine cycle
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Menses Follicular Luteal phase Menses

phase
O day 14 days ovulation 28 days
Figure 3.25 Changes occurring during menstrual cycle
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Oestrus cycle and the vaginal smear shows a large number

Oestrus cycle is the reproductive cycle found of non-cornifield nucleated epithelial cells.
in most mammalian females except primates In the oestrus phase, the mammalian female
such as human beings and monkeys. It becomes sexually receptive. The ovarian
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involves recurring periods when the female follicles mature and release secondary
is sexually receptive known as oestrus or oocytes, the process that is regulated
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heat period. Oestrus is usually interrupted by gonadotrophic hormones. Oestrogen
by periods when the female is not sexually secretions exert their biggest influence at
receptive known as anoestrus. It is a chain this stage and in some species, the labia
of physiological events that began at one
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are reddened and ovulation may occur
oestrus and end at the next oestrus. During spontaneously. The female exhibits sexual
heat period, there are distinctive pattern receptive behaviour, a situation that may be
of behaviours, which indicate that the signalled by visible physiological changes.
mammal is around the time for ovulation. The signal characteristic of oestrus is the
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It comprises of the physiological changes lordosis reflex. This is a naturally occurring
that are induced by reproductive hormones body posture for sexual receptivity to
in most female mammals. Oestrus cycles copulation present in most none primate
start after sexual maturity in females and mammals such as cats, dogs, and elephants.
are interrupted by anoestrous phases or
U It is thought that, this increased sexual
pregnancies. Typically, oestrus cycles receptivity and a functional design enables
continue until death. Some animals may the female to find mates with superior
display vaginal bloody discharge, often genetic quality.
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mistaken for menstruation period.
The metestrus phase is the second stage
Phases of oestrus cycle of oestrus cycle that is characterized by
in
The oestrus cycle has four phases, which are the activity of the corpus luteum, which
pro-oestrus, oestrus, metestrus and dioestrus. produces progesterone. The signs of
Pro-oestrus is the first phase, which occurs oestrogen stimulation drop or cease in this
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when one or several follicles of the ovary phase. The corpus luteum starts to develop
start to grow depending on the type of the and the uterine lining begins to appear.
species. It can last for a short period such Dioestrus phase is a period of sexual
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as one day or for a long period such as three inactivity between recurrent periods of
weeks. Under the influence of oestrogen, the oestrus. During this phase, if pregnancy
lining in the uterus (endometrium) starts to fails, this phase ends with the dispose of
develop. In some animals, bloody vaginal the corpus luteum. The lining in the uterus
secretions may occur. The female is not yet is not discarded instead it is reorganized for
sexually receptive. The old corpus luteum the next cycle.
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degenerates, the uterus and the vagina

expand, become contractile and secrete a The anoestrus phase occurs when the
thick mucus. The vaginal epithelium grows sexual cycle rests. It is typically a seasonal
event, which is controlled by light exposure

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Reproduction
through the pineal gland that releases females are generally sexually active only
melatonin. This may limit the stimulation during the oestrus phase of their cycle. The
of reproduction in long-day breeders animal at this phase is said to be in a heat
and stimulate reproduction in short-day period. In contrast, female’s species that
breeders. The melatonin acts by regulating menstruate can be sexually active at any
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the hypothalamic pulse activity of the time in their cycle even when they do not
gonadotrophin-releasing hormone. The ovulate. Humans have menstrual cycles
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phase is induced by several factors such rather than oestrous cycles.
as significant illness, chronic energy deficit
and possibly age. After the completion or Fertilisation and zygote development
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abortion of pregnancy, some species have in mammals
postpartum oestrus, which is the ovulation Fertilisation is a process whereby a haploid
and corpus luteum production that occurs nucleus of a male gamete fuses with
immediately following the birth of the the haploid nucleus of a female gamete
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young. For example, the mouse has fertile to form a diploid zygote. In mammals,
postpartum oestrus, which takes place 14- fertilisation is internal and it is preceded
24 hours following parturition. by a series of events, which includes
preparation of spermatozoa before it
Difference between menstrual and
oestrus cycles
U penetrates and fertilises the egg. In order
for a species to reproduce and perpetuate
Mammals share the same physiological its generation, fertilisation is important.
control of their reproductive systems. For It is also important in combining parental
example, the regulatory hypothalamic traits, which is a major source of variation.
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system that releases gonadotrophin releasing After fertilisation, zygote undergoes some
hormones, the pituitary gland that secretes changes as it advances to an embryo. The
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follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing developmental changes which take place
hormone, and the ovary itself that releases in a zygote as it develops to embryo are
sex hormones which are oestrogens and referred to as embryogenesis.
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progesterone. However, despite these

similarities, the two cycles differ in a Mechanism of fertilisation
number of ways. In mammals, fertilisation is internal as it
takes place within the female’s body in the
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Firstly, FSH controls the oestrus cycles

while the LH controls the menstrual fallopian tube. In this case, the male gametes
cycle. Secondly, animals that exhibit are deposited into the female’s body during
oestrous cycles reabsorb the endometrium copulation or sexual intercourse. During
if the conception does not occur while the fertilisation process, the spermatozoan
animals that have menstrual cycles shed undergoes capacitation within the female’s
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the endometrium through menstruation. reproductive system before it fertilises

Another difference is shown in sexual the secondary oocyte. Capacitation is the
activity. In species with oestrous cycles, change in properties of spermatozoan
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that makes it capable of fertilising the breaks through the egg cell membrane and
egg when it reaches the fallopian tube. enters into its cytoplasm.
This process takes about seven hours Immediately after the spermatozoan
during which glycoprotein and plasma has entered the secondary oocyte, the
proteins layer from the outer surface of the
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lysosomes, which are called cortical
acrosome is removed. The glycoprotein granules found just beneath the cell surface
is originally deposited by the epididymis
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membrane, become activated and release
and the plasma proteins from the seminal their enzymes that catalyse the formation
fluid. This reaction takes place within the of a barrier. This barrier prevents multiple
female genital tract because enzymes from
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fertilisation of the secondary oocyte. This is
uterus are responsible for the removal of called a block to polyspermy. The enzymes
the two acrosomal layers. After the removal released by the cortical granules catalyse
of the layers, the membrane becomes the formation of a fertilisation membrane
more permeable to calcium ions, which by hardening the zona pellucida. They also
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increase the beating activity of the sperm destroy the spermatozoa receptor sites on the
tail, and the sperm swim to the fallopian zona pellucida so that the other incoming
tube. When the spermatozoan reaches the spermatozoan cannot bind to the secondary
secondary oocyte in the fallopian tube, the oocyte. The changes that take place in the
membrane of the sperm head and that of the
acrosome rupture. This enables the release
U cortical granules and the action of their
enzymes are known as cortical reactions.
of hyaluronidase and protease (acrosin)
enzymes that are stored in the acrosome. You will recall that the nucleus of the
The changes which take place in the sperm secondary oocyte is usually remaining
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head enables the release of the acrosomal at metaphase II until the spermatozoan
enzymes. These changes and the actions of enters the secondary oocyte. Therefore,
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acrosome enzymes collectively constitute the male gamete triggers the completion
the acrosomal reactions. of meiosis II in the secondary oocyte. This
produces an ootid and the second polar
The hyaluronidase enzyme digests tough
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body. The ootid matures into an ovum

corona radiata, the remains of Graafian and the second polar body immediately
follicles, which are found at the surface degenerates. At the same time, the tail of the
of the secondary oocyte. The continuous spermatozoan is lost within the cytoplasm of
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movement of the spermatozoan pushes it the ovum. During this stage, the chromatin
towards the outer layer of the egg cell called in the nucleus of the spermatozoa becomes
a zona pellucida. This is a thick layer that loose and this results into bulging of the
surrounds the secondary oocyte. This layer nucleus. The swollen nucleus is called a
is digested by protease enzymes from the pronucleus. The nucleus of the ovum also
acrosome when it comes in contact with
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becomes a pronucleus. In this process of

the spermatozoa. The digestion of the fertilisation, the two pronuclei fuse to form
zona pellucida allows the spermatozoan’s a diploid zygotic nucleus. Figure 3.26 is a
cell surface membrane to fuse with the simplified diagram illustrating the process
microvilli that surround the secondary and mechanisms of fertilisation in animals.
oocyte. As this occurs, the spermatozoan

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Chromatin of second
meiotic division
(a) Corona radiata (b)
Fertilization
Zona pellucida membrane
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Cortical granules
Surface
Secondary oocyte membrane
Spermatozoan
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Periviteline
space
Maternal chromosome
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Second polar body
Spindle fibres
Female pronucleus
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Male pronucleus Paternal
(c) (d) chromosome
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Figure 3.26 Mechanism of fertilisation and zygote development in mammals
The importance of fertilisation Developmental changes which take

place in a zygote up to gastrula stage
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Fertilisation brings together male and
female gametes prior to the formation of After fertilisation, the zygote passes down
new individuals. This is important as it the oviduct and begins to divide. This
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helps to restore the usual diploid number process is called cleavage and it takes
of chromosomes in a given species. This place within the zona pellucida. During
is because, during gametogenesis, meiosis this time, mitotic division occurs but the
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reduces the number of chromosomes size of the resulting cells does not increase.
to a half. Fertilisation also combines The cells which are formed are called
the characters of two parents thereby blastomeres and they form a ball of cells
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introducing variations, which make the called a morula. While cleavage is taking
offspring better equipped to struggle for place, the morula is in the oviduct moving
existence. Moreover, fertilisation marks the slowly towards the uterus by the action of
beginning of a life in sexually reproducing cilia in the oviduct. The cells in the centre
organisms. Following fertilisation, the of the morula migrate and accumulate at
zygote develops into an embryo, foetus, and one end where they form an inner cell mass
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lastly a complete new organism. The result as indicated in Figure 3.27. The result of
of the fertilisation process is the increase this cellular migration is the formation of
in number of organisms in the population. a central fluid-filled cavity, which is called
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a blastocoel. The whole structure now is peeled off by the enzymes in the uterus and
called a blastocyst or a blastula, which is disappears in two days. The disappearance
a hollow ball of cells made up of a single of zona pellucida allows the cells of the
layer of cells enclosing a central cavity and trophoblast to come into contact with the
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the inner cell mass. The process by which endometrial cells. The trophoblast starts
the morula is transformed into a blastula to invade the uterine wall from where its
is called blastulation. The outer layer of cells are nourished, and then multiply.
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the blastula is known as the trophoblast The blastocyst finally sinks into a pit
and it is made up of trophoblastic cells. formed in the endometrium where it gets
Among other functions of trophoblastic completely embedded the process known
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cells, is to form an endocrine apparatus as implantation.
that secretes a hormone called Human After implantation, the trophoblastic cells
chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG). This differentiate into outer and inner layers
hormone helps to maintain the structure called chorion and amnion respectively.
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of corpus luteum to ensure a continuous The chorion develops finger-like structures
secretion of progesterone and oestrogen called chorionic villi, which grow into
for the maintenance of the endometrium endometrium. The areas of the endometrium
of the uterus. between these villi form interconnecting
When the blastula arrives in the uterus, its
U spaces that give a spongy appearance to
portion called embryonic knob implants this region of the uterine wall. Hydrolytic
itself to endometrium wall of uterus. This enzymes secreted by the trophoblast cause
happens when the hard zona pellucida is the arteries and veins in the endometrium
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to break down.
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Trophoblast
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Blastocoel
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Inner cell mass
Figure 3.27 Development of a blastocyst or blastula

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Reproduction
The blood released from these vessels is the formation of two germ layers, the
is used to fill the spaces. In the early outer layer called ectoderm and the inner
developmental stages of the blastocyst, the layer called endoderm. The blastocoel
passage of nutrients, oxygen, and excretory becomes an archenteron, which is the
future digestive tract. The blastopore is
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materials between the cells of blastula and
maternal blood occurs through the chorionic the future anus. Finally, the third layer, the
villi. Later on, this function is taken over mesoderm forms between the ectoderm and
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by the placenta. endoderm forming a three-layered embryo
as summarised in Figure 3.28. The cells
Continuous development of the blastula
forming a particular germ layer determine
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transforms it into a gastrula. This process
its fate as the embryo continues to develop.
is called gastrulation and involves the
The ectoderm develops into nervous system,
rearrangement of the blastula cells into
sense organs, epidermis of the skin and its
a three-layer embryo called a gastrula.
associated structures such as hairs, nails,
During this process, cells on the one side
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and glands. The mesoderm gives rise to
of the embryo invaginate forming a small
bones, muscles, excretory, circulatory and
pore, which is called a blastopore. Through
reproductive systems. The endoderm forms
this pore, about half of the cells from the
parts such the liver, pancreas, glands and
outside move to the inside of the embryo.
At this point, the embryo is said to turn on
U digestive as well as respiratory systems.
itself. The result of this cellular movement
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Blastomeres
Mitosis Mitosis
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Zygote
2 cell stage
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(Fertilized egg) 4 cell stage

8 cell stage
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Ectoderm
Morula
Mesoderm
Blastula Blastocoel
Endoderm Early gastrula
Gastrula
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Blastopore
Figure 3.28 Zygote development
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Embryonic membranes and their roles a separate yolk forming a structure that
In the process of embryo development, four absorbs food from the yolk to the embryo.
membranes are formed. These membranes The fourth layer called allantois develops
are made up of cells and are relatively from the embryonic hindgut and it extends
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thin compared to membrane surrounding outward where it comes into contact with
cells. The first membrane is chorion, which chorion. At this stage, the allantois develops
develops to form chorionic villi, the finger-
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into a structure containing numerous blood
like projections that grow into endometrium. vessels than chorionic villi. This structure
This layer is important in nourishing the is called allanto-chorion, which later
embryo and removing excretory wastes
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develops into the placenta. The allantois
from the embryo. also contributes to the formation of the
The second membrane is amnion, which umbilical cord.
together with the third layer called yolk The placenta is a relatively large structure
sac develop as cavities from the inner cell
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linking the mother and the foetus. In
membrane lining the embryo. The amnion human being, it weighs about 0.6 Kg and
appears superficially like an umbrella measures 13 to15 cm in diameter when
covering the developing embryo as shown fully developed. The placenta is found in
in Figure 3.29. The fluid called amniotic mammals only and it is the only organ with
fluid found in this layer has a protective
U cells derived from both the foetus and the
function because it absorbs shock, and mother, which in principle are two different
hence, buffers the embryo against physical organisms. The chorionic villi are supplied
damage. The yolk sac, on the other hand, by umbilical vein and umbilical artery of
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has a significant role in birds and reptiles the foetus, which form a capillary network
but not in mammals. The major function inside the villi. These blood vessels run
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of the yolk sac is to link the embryo with from the foetus to the uterus.
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Chorion
Amnion
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Embryo
Umbilical cord
Omniotic fluid
Foetal portion
of placenta Allantois
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Maternal portion
of placenta Chorionic villi
Figure 3.29 Human embryo and embryonic membranes

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Reproduction
The placenta develops 12 weeks after toxins. However, some pathogens such as
conception and has large surface area Treponema pallidum, which cause syphilis,
created by chorionic villi for absorption. It can penetrate the placenta. Chemical drugs
is a temporary organ connecting the mother such as nicotine, morphine, and alcohol
and the foetus but it plays fundamental roles (chemical tetarogens), can also pass across
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during pregnancy. Across the placenta, water the placenta and affect the developing
and nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, foetus. The placenta also functions as an
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lipids, mineral salts and vitamins from the endocrine gland as it secretes hormones
maternal blood, diffuse into the foetal blood. such as oestrogen, progesterone and human
placental lactogen (HPL) which stimulates
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The placenta acts as a site for gaseous
exchange allowing the passage of respiratory growth and development of breasts in
gases between the maternal and foetal the preparation for lactation and human
blood. Oxygen from the mother diffuses chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG).
into the foetus and its movement is based
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Birth
on two important facts. The first one is
that maternal oxygen concentration is Birth or parturition is a process whereby a
higher in the mother's blood than in the fully developed foetus is expelled out of the
foetal’s blood. The second factor is that, mother’s womb following the completion
the foetal haemoglobin has a higher affinity
U of a gestation period. This process goes
through three major stages and is greatly
for oxygen than that of the mother. These
two facts enable carbon dioxide as a waste controlled by hormones. The first stage is
product of aerobic respiration to diffuse in cervical dilation. It starts when true labour
begins, that is, when uterine contaracts
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the opposite direction. This means carbon
dioxide will always be diffusing from the causing the dilation of the cervix up to
10 cm wide. The second stage of parturition
in
foetus into the mother.

is the actual delivery of the baby. It begins
The excretory structures of the foetus, when the cervix is dilated completely and it
including kidneys, are non-functional and ends with the birth of the baby. The third and
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therefore, the excretory wastes such as the last stage is the expulsion of the placenta
urea that are formed in the foetus, diffuse and associated membranes out of the womb.
from the foetal blood to the maternal blood In some cases, two or more babies are born
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across the placenta. Additionally, the mother from the same pregnancy in human beings.
enhances the immune system of the foetus. However, this is common in other mammals
Thus, across the placenta, antibodies from such as dog, cat, and pig. The causes for
the mother pass to the foetus. This helps to multiple births in human beings include
protect the foetus against the same diseases release of more than one secondary oocytes
as those of the mother. In the same way of during ovulation, cleavage of a zygote, and
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protecting the foetus against the diseases, the age of the mother.
placenta acts as a protective barrier against
entry into the foetus, of most pathogens and
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Events that lead into birth cervix is blocked by a plug of a sticky

Birth is greatly controlled by hormones, and pinkish mucus that comes out of the birth
therefore, as the gestation period approaches canal only during this period. At some
the end, the sensitivity of the uterine wall stages during this phase, the amnion bursts
releasing the amniotic fluid that flows out of
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to oxytocin hormone increases. During
this stage, the hypothalamus of the fully the vaginal canal. The first stage of labour,
which can last between 6 to 12 hours, can
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developed foetus is stimulated to release the
adrenal corticotrophic-releasing hormone be associated with pains and accompanied
(ACTRH), which in turn stimulates the by increased contractions, as the production
foetal pituitary gland to release adrenal of oxytocin hormone also increases. The
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corticotrophic hormone (ACTH). The increased contraction of the uterus leads to
released foetal ACTH stimulates the foetal increased stimulation of stretch receptors
adrenal gland to secrete corticosteroids that in the uterus and cervix. The contractions
enter the mother’s circulatory system across spread down the uterus and get strong from
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the placenta. The entry of corticosteroids top to bottom, thus, pushing the body of the
into the mother’s blood has two effects; baby downwards until it enters the pelvis.
the first one is causing a decrease in Due to further contractions, its head gets into
progesterone production, and hence, the cervix where it causes irritations, and
lowering the level of progesterone in the
blood. The second effect is increasing the
U hence, increased power of contraction. The
first stage of labour ends when the diameter
secretion of prostaglandins by the uterus. of the cervix equals that of the foetal head.
The decrease in the levels of progesterone The second stage of labour is a delivery of
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causes an increase of the contraction of the the baby, which is marked by the passage
uterine wall. This is because the inhibitory of the head and its entire body through the
effect of progesterone on myometrium
in
vagina. Once the baby is out of the mother’s

contractions is removed. At this point, the womb, the umbilical cord is ligatured at two
pituitary gland is also allowed to release points and a cut is made between the two
oxytocin and prostaglandins hormones. ligatures to give the baby its physiological
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Oxytocin hormone causes the contraction independence.

of the uterine wall while prostaglandins
hormone increases the power of contraction The third stage of labour involves the
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in order to expel the foetus out of the uterus. delivery of the “after birth” in which there
These contractions of the myometrium sum is the expulsion of the placenta and the
up to labour pains. associated embryonic membranes out of
the womb. The process occurs between
The process of parturition goes through 10 to 15 minutes after the delivery of the
three stages. During the first stage, there is baby. This is important because if the
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a full cervical dilation to about 10 cm wide. placenta remains in the body for a long
This process is influenced by the hormone time, its decomposition can lead to blood
called relaxin. The intervals between poisoning that may ultimately cause death
contractions decrease with time until they of the mother.
become regular between 10 to15 minutes.
Throughout the period of pregnancy, the

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Reproduction
Multiple births The fraternal twins are implanted separately

Multiple births are cases in which more than and therefore each of them develops its
one baby are born from the same mother own placenta and embryonic membranes.
and from the same pregnancy. In mammals Causes of multiple births
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such as cats, rabbits, dogs, and pigs, multiple
The cases of multiple births may result
births are common cases because several
if there is ovulation of more than one
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oocytes are released at their ovulation and
secondary oocytes at once (hyperovulation).
each of them is fertilized by a separate
Each may be fertilized by a spermatozoan
spermatozoan. Humans are commonly
and may result into multiple pregnancies,
singletons; in other words, they give birth
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and hence, multiple births. The offspring, in
to only one young individual. However, in
this case, are said to be dizygotic twins since
some cases, multiple births are experienced
they develop from two different zygotes.
where two individuals called twins or three
individuals called triplets or even four Hyperovulation is triggered by a gene
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individuals called tetrads are born. called “twin gene” which causes a woman
to release more than one secondary oocytes
The twins are two young individuals that
in a single reproduction cycle. Hyper
are born from the same mother and from
ovulation may also be induced artificially
the same pregnancy. There are two types of
twins, namely: monozygotic and dizygotic
U in women who use fertility medication
to cause superovulation. An example of
twins. The monozygotic twins are identical
fertility drugs is clomiphene citrate whose
twins. These twins result from cleavage
users have 5 to 12% of bearing twins.
of the same zygote. Following the first
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cleavage of the zygote, each blastomere Moreover, after fertilisation, the zygote
develops into an individual embryo. These cleaves into two blastomeres. If the two
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twins are genetically identical and are of cells separate completely such that each
the same sex. They may share the same of them develops into an embryo, the
placenta but they are enclosed in different resulting offspring are called monozygotic
twins. Multiple births may be caused by
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gestational sacs as shown in Figure 3.30 (a).

the age of the mother. It has been observed
The second type of twins is fraternal twins, that the frequency of twins increases with
which occurs when two different egg cells the maternal age. This is associated with
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are fertilized by two different sperm cells the fact that as the mother ages there is an
forming two different zygotes as indicated accumulation of FSH in her blood, however,
in Figure 3.30 (b). The twins in this category her ovaries respond slowly to this hormone.
are dizygotic or non-identical and they are Consequently, multiple ovulation may result
genetically different and not necessarily to multiple births.
of the same sex. They may look different
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though may resemble family members.
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1 egg 2 eggs
1 sperm 2 sperms
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Separate
Same placentas
placenta
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Separate
amniotic sacs
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(a) Identical twins (b) Fraternal twins
Figure 3.30 Multiple pregnancies
Exercise 3.5
U Life cycles of selected animals
1. Describe the mechanisms by which Embryo development after fertilisation is
polyspermy is prevented. similar in most groups of animals. However,
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other groups of animals have distinct
2. Explain the events which take place
embryo development. Embryogenesis in
in the uterus during the menstrual
mammal starts internally after fertilisation
in
cycle of a mammal.
and gradually an embryo develops into a
3. Discuss the process of fertilisation foetus. This then acquires all features of
in mammals. an adult individual as time goes. After the
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4. Name the embryonic membranes gestation period, the foetus is expelled out
and explain the roles of each. from the mother as a baby by a process
5. (a) Define multiple births and explain that is largely controlled by hormones. The
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their causes. baby grows until he/she attains a full adult

size without undergoing a transformation
(b) Write down the differences
in structure. On the contrary, other groups
between monozygotic and dizygotic
of animals such as insects, crustaceans,
twins.
and amphibians transform from immature
6. Explain roles played by the mammalian to adult after hatching through a series of
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placenta in the following: stages in which abrupt and conspicuous

(a) Gaseous exchange. changes in body structure and feeding habit
(b) Excretion. are evident. These transformation processes
(c) Endocrine secretion. are termed as metamorphosis.
(d) Protection against infections.

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Reproduction
Metamorphosis is controlled by two hormones, the ecdysone

This is a biological process whereby insects, (moulting hormone) and neotonin (juvenile
amphibians, crustaceans, some fishes hormone). Ecdysone hormone is produced
such as bonyfish, starfish and jawless fish by a prothoracic gland and is required
in all insects for moulting. Neotonin is
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transform from immature to adult form
after hatching. It involves a conspicuous produced from the corpus allatum region of
the insect’s brain. The release of these two
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and relatively abrupt change in the animal’s
body structure as a result of cell growth and hormones are controlled by neurosecretory
differentiation. Metamorphosis involves two cells in the brain.
or more stages and is often accompanied
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High concentration of the juvenile
by a change of food source or feeding hormone promotes the existence of insect
behaviour. in its larval stage. Hence, there will be
A number of factors influence the process no transformation of larva to pupa in the
of metamorphosis. These factors include presence of this hormone. In other words,
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hormones, temperature and nutrients. this hormone prevents the development of
Hormones such as thyroxine plays an adult characteristics during ecdysis. On the
important role in growth and development. contrary, if the juvenile hormone is present
For example, if the thyroid gland is removed in low concentration larva transformation
from a tadpole, growth continues but the
U into pupa occurs. When juvenile hormone
tadpole will not undergo metamorphosis is lacking, the pupa metamorphoses into
to an adult frog. Environmental changes imago or adult.
such as temperature also influence Complete metamorphosis
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metamorphosis. At optimal temperature, (holometabolous)
the rate of metamorphosis is high while at
Complete metamorphosis is a mode of
in
low temperatures metamorphosis rate is low.

development in insects such as houseflies
The levels of nutrients and mineral salts and butterflies. It is characterised by four
such as protein, fats, and iodine in food life cycle stages, namely: egg, larvae
nl
also influence metamorphosis. Excess (caterpillar), pupa and adult. The larva
fats decelerate metamorphosis whereas emerges immediately after hatching and it
foods rich in protein accelerate it. Iodine differs from an adult individual in the mode
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accelerates metamorphosis because it is of feeding, feeding structures, and digestive

an integral part of the thyroxine hormone. enzymes. For example, the larvae in some
For example, amphibian larvae can not insects such as butterflies have mandibles
metamorphose in water with an insufficient adapted for biting the edges of leaves. The
supply of iodine. adults have proboscis for sucking nectar
from flowers. The larvae/caterpillars secrete
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Metamorphosis in insects
protease, lipase, sucrase, maltase and
Metamorphosis in insects can be amylase enzymes, unlike the adult which
categorized into two types. These are produces sucrase only. In some species,
complete metamorphosis or holometabolous the holometabolous life cycle prevents
and incomplete metamorphosis or the larvae from competing with adults
hemimetabolous. Metamorphosis in insects because they inhabit different ecological
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niches. Additionally, adults have wings hours to hatch and embryos in these eggs
while caterpillar have no wings although develop into young forms called larvae or
they are motile. maggots. The larvae look like small worms
but differs from adults. During this stage,
The larva undergoes moulting repeatedly
the larvae spends its time feeding, growing
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and changes in appearance as it transforms
and stores food for future use. After four to
into a dormant stage called pupa. As the
seven days, larva stops feeding and encloses
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larva transforms into a pupa, it secretes a
itself in the protein case called cocoon that
thick protein that forms a hard case called
marks the onset of the pupal stage. This stage
cocoon around the entire body. At this stage,
is, therefore, a non-feeding and non-motile
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the insect becomes immotile and does not
stage. Finally, the pupa metamorphoses into
feed at all. The energy reserved from the
an adult and leaves the cocoon. In order to get
larval stage is spent during this stage. The
out of the hard casing, the housefly expands a
imago or adult stage follows the pupal stage
fluid-filled pouch on top of its head to break
and it involves considerable reorganisation
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the shell. The adult housefly then gets out of
of the pupal tissues.
the cocoon between 10 to 20 days with its
Life cycle of an insect with complete wings fully developed. After some minutes,
metamorphosis the insect flies away. This process is illustrated
Adult insects with a complete metamorphosis
are such as houseflies that lay eggs on organic
U in Figure 3.31.
debris. The eggs may take between 8 to 24

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Larvae
in
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Eggs
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Pupa
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Adult
Figure 3.31 Life cycle of a housefly

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Reproduction
Incomplete metamorphosis multiple stages of development (moults)

(hemimetabolous) which are called instars. The final ecdysis
Incomplete metamorphosis is the mode of the immature instars results in an imago
of development in certain insects such that is an adult insect. This marks the last
stage, which an insect attains during its
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as cockroaches and grasshoppers. It
involves three distinct stages, including metamorphosis. At this stage, the insect
attains maturity.
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the egg, nymph and adult. Unlike complete
metamorphosis, the larval and pupal stages The main difference between complete
are missing and are replaced by a nymph and incomplete metamorphoses is based
stage. Hence, the life cycle of these insects
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on the number and characteristic features
consist of three instead of four stages. The of stages which an insect go through as it
nymph closely resembles the adult insect transforms to adult after hatching. Generally,
but lacks wings, functional reproductive in a complete metamorphosis, the life cycle
organs and it is relatively smaller in size. has four stages with two active forms, that
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The first stage in this type of metamorphosis are the larva and adult. There is no nymph
involves hatching of the eggs containing the stage in complete metamorphosis. On
embryo into a nymph. The latter undergoes contrary, there are three stages only, with
gradual changes before transforming into nymph in an incomplete metamorphosis.
an adult stage. Unlike a typical larva,
U There are no larval and pupal stages and
the nymph closely resembles an adult as the intermediate stage or nymph closely
shown in Figure 3.32. Nymphs undergo resembles the adult insect.
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Egg
in
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Adult
Nymphs
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Figure 3.32 Life cycle of a cockroach
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Metamorphosis in amphibians structural changes, several biochemical

Metamorphosis in amphibians occurs changes take place including the synthesis
in five stages, namely: the egg, tadpole, of a new visual pigment in the eyes and a
tadpole with legs, a young frog, and an new oxygen-binding protein in the blood.
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adult frog. Toads, for example, lay their The front legs then emerge in a young frog.
eggs in freshwater where the young hatch In the last stages of metamorphosis, the
nl
into tadpoles. The young tadpole as a tail body absorbs the tail as shown in Figure
for swimming and gills, hence becomes 3.33. However, in a more gradual form of
well adapted to aquatic life. They feed metamorphosis, the young frogs eventually
on algae attached to rocks and other
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become adults that are terrestrial life. That
surfaces. Metamorphosis begins with the is, they live on land, breathe with lungs
development of the hind legs in a tadpole. and through their skin when in the water.
The lungs develop and the tadpole begins They feed on terrestrial insects and other
to swim to the surface of the water to invertebrates. However, the toad-like
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breath. Intestines shorten to accommodate amphibians must return to the water for
the carnivorous diet and the eyes migrate reproduction purposes.
rostrally and dorsally. Besides these U
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Egg mass
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Young tadpole
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Adult
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Mature tadpole with legs
Young frog
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Figure 3.33 The life cycle of a frog/toad

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Reproduction
Exercise 3.6 normally develop a copulation plug that

1. With the aid of well-labelled diagrams, prevents further copulation. The plug is
not necessary for pregnancy initiation, as
describe the process of metamorphosis
this will also occur without the plug. This
in insects.
plug stays in place for some 24 hours. The
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2. In what ways does complete gestation period is about 19 to 21 days and
metamorphosis differ from incomplete they give birth to a litter of 3 to14 young’s
nl
metamorphosis? (average six to eight). One female can
3. Explain the life cycle of a frog/toad. have 5 to 10 litters per year. This means,
4. List the hormones involved in the mouse population can increase very
O
metamorphosis of insects and briefly fast. Breeding occurs throughout the year.
explain the role of each. The pups are born blind and without fur or
ears. The ears are fully developed by the
5. With examples, explain the importance
fourth day, fur begins to appear at about
of metamorphosis in animals.
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six days and the eyes open around 13 days
after birth. The pups are weaned at around
Life cycle of a mouse 21 days after birth. Females reach sexual
Like in all other mammals, the life cycle maturity at about six weeks of age and
of a mouse starts with the formation of a
zygote as indicated in Figure 3.34. In this
U males at about eight weeks but both can
copulate as early as five weeks.
mammal, mating occurs during the oestrus
period, which lasts between four to six
days. Following copulation, female mice
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in
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Weaning
Figure 3.34 Life cycle of a mouse
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Revision Questions 10. Explain the importance of water in the

life cycle of bryophytes.
1. With the aid of diagrams, explain the
major events that occur during the 11. In bryophytes, the sporophyte generation
following meiotic stages in animal exhibits a “parasitic” disposition to
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reproductive cell: (a) Metaphase I the gametophyte generation. Clearly
(b) Prophase II and (c) Telophase II. explain how this behaviour differs from
nl
the usual definition of parasitism.
2. Differentiate meiosis I and mitosis
processes. 12. Give the reasons why megaspores are
generally larger than microspores.
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3. Briefly explain how gametogenesis
is related to meiosis. 13. Using illustrations describe the
hormonal control of the menstrual
4. Discuss how gametogenesis in cycle in human beings.
animals differ from gametogenesis
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in plants. 14. Discuss how parturition is brought
about in mammals.
5. Briefly explain the mechanism of
chiasmata formation during meiosis 15. Distinguish between oestrous and
process. menstrual cycles and briefly describe
U main phases of an oestrous cycle.
6. With the aid of illustrations describe life
cycles of bryophytes, pteridophytes, 16. Explain the processes involved in the
and angiospermophytes. growth of the pollen tube.
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7. Explain the reproductive adaptations of 17. Discuss the development of an embryo
pteridophytes and angiospermophytes. sac and briefly show how the embryo
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is formed in angiosperms.
8. With the aid of well-labelled diagrams,
describe the meiotic stages in animal 18. Describe the processes and events that
cell. lead to the development of an early
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human embryo.
9. Describe the life cycle of mammals
using the mouse as an example.
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Chapter
Four
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Genetics
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Introduction
Genetics refer to the study of heredity and variations or simply the science of genes.
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All the characteristics or traits of an organism, including behaviours, reproductive, and
physical structures are governed by genes. They are transmitted from one generation to
another through the process of reproduction. The ability of organisms to transmit their
traits from one generation to the next is referred to as heredity. The process of meiosis
initiates genetic variations in sexually reproducing organisms such as flowering plants
U
and higher animals. In this chapter, you will learn about hereditary materials, types
of genetic materials, the genetic code, and the process of protein synthesis. You will
also learn about the Mendelian Principles of Inheritance, non-Mendelian inheritance,
mutation, and genetic engineering.
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Hereditary material in a special region called nucleoid. In
in
Hereditary material or genetic material eukaryotic cells, there are several events
is the chemical structure or unit in the that show genetic material is found in the
chromosome, which is responsible for nucleus. For example, during fertilisation,
nl
the passage of genetic information from the nucleus of a male gamete fuses with
one generation to another. There are two that of a female gamete to form a zygote.
types of genetic material in the cell. These This undergoes several physiological and
morphological changes and finally develops
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are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and

ribonucleic acid (RNA). They contain into an individual organism with various
different chemical components, and hence characteristics that are derived from both
different properties. The hereditary material parents. This shows that the fused nuclei
contained in an organism is usually encoded have hereditary material in them obtained
in the DNA or RNA sequence. from the parents. Moreover, in sexually
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reproducing organisms, the formation

Location of hereditary material in the of gametes involves meiosis. One of the
cell significance of meiosis is to bring about
In eukaryotic cells, the genetic material genetic variations. This implies that, it is
is mostly located in the nucleus while in the manipulation of genetic material in the
prokaryotic cells, it is found in the cytoplasm nucleus during meiosis, which brings about
genetic variations.
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The nucleus is the centre of all life processes it is the DNA portion of the chromosome,
in the cell. Heredity is among the life which is involved in heredity. Thus, DNA
processes controlled by the genetic material is the hereditary material contained in the
in the nucleus. Thus, nucleus is the part of nucleus of the cell.
a cell, which contains hereditary material.
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Properties of genetic materials
The part of the nucleus, which contains
genetic material is called a chromosome. The genetic materials have various
nl
In other words, chromosomes are the properties. Among them, include the
carriers of hereditary material. There are following:
various evidences that support the location (i) They contain hereditary information
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of genetic material in the chromosomes. in the coded form in their specific
For example, if the chromosomes are structures called genes.
exposed to mutagenic agents, the changes (ii) The structural elements of the genetic
that occur affect the genetic material in the material are ubiquitous in their
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chromosomes. During fertilisation process, distribution, that means, they are
if a sperm carrying an X chromosome fuses found everywhere in life forms.
with an egg carrying an X chromosome, the
resulting zygote will ultimately develop (iii) They have the ability to replicate or
form their own copies.
into a female offspring with XX sex
chromosomes. On the contrary, if a sperm
U (iv) They are in the same quantity and
carrying a Y chromosome fuses with an egg quality in all the somatic cells of a
carrying an X chromosome, the resulting healthy individual.
zygote will develop into a male offspring
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(v) They are stable both chemically and
with XY sex chromosomes. Since sex is physically.
a genetically determined characteristic,
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then the fused gametes are carring genetic (vi) They undergo occasional changes
material on their chromosomes. or mutations in the structure and
functioning of their genes which are of
Meiotic nuclear division is another process
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permanent nature and inheritable. This

which shows that hereditary material tendency is important for evolution
is found in the chromosomes. During and adaptability of organisms.
diplotene of prophase I, there is a crossing
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Chemical composition of the genetic

over or chiasmata formation. During this
material
event, there is breaking and re-union of
chromatids of homologous chromosomes. The genetic material is composed of subunits
The consequence of this, is genetic variation called nucleotides. These nucleotides join
among organisms. This implies that the together to form unbranched chains called
exchanged parts of chromatids contain polynucleotides. Each nucleotide of the
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hereditary material, and therefore, variations genetic material is composed of three basic
stem out of new gene combination in the components which are the sugar, phosphate
re-united chromatids. The analysis of the group and nitrogenous bases.
chemical composition of the chromosome
reveals the presence of protein and DNA.
However, experiments have proved that,

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Genetics
Sugar: This is a five-carbon compound with O

Phosphate group
a ring structure and exists in two forms, O P O
that are ribose and deoxyribose. The sugar,
O
which appears in the form of ribose, builds
the RNA molecule and the one that appears CH2
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O
in the form of deoxyribose builds the DNA. 4 1
The key difference between deoxyribose and
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3 2
ribose sugars is that the deoxyribose lacks OH

O
oxygen atom on carbon 2 of the sugar ring phosphodiester
while ribose has a hydroxyl group on carbon bond
O
O P O
2 of the sugar ring as shown in Figure 4.1.
O
5
H2C5
O
4 1
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4 1 3 2
OH OH
3 2
Figure 4.2 Structure of phosphate group and

linkage to pentose sugar
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(a) Nitrogenous bases: These are simply
nitrogen-containing organic molecules,
which have the same chemical properties as
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5
bases. They are the building blocks of DNA
and RNA, thus they are called nucleobases.
4
in
1
They are divided into two classes, namely:
purines (double ring structures) and
3 2
pyrimidines (single ring structures). The
purines are comprised of Adenine (A), and
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Guanine (G) bases while pyrimidines are

comprised of Cytosine (C), Thymine (T),
and Uracil (U) bases. The base Uracil (U)
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(b)
is only found in RNA and Thymine (T)
Figure 4.1 Structure of (a) deoxyribose and is only found in DNA. Each pyrimidine
(b) ribose sugar is a single ring structure made up of one
Phosphate group: This is derived from heterocyclic organic molecule. Purines, on
phosphoric acid, and it is this group that the other hand, consists of a pyrimidine
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makes DNA and RNA to be acidic in nature. ring joined together with an imidazole
It is linked to the 5 carbon of the pentose ring to form a double ring structure. Both
sugar by a phosphodiester bond as seen in pyrimidines and purines resemble in that
Figure 4.2. The phosphate group is also they are made up of a pyridine molecule,
responsible for the strong negative charge they are non-polar and are planar molecules
of both nucleotides and nucleic acids. as seen in Figure 4.3.
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They have similar functions, for example, in the production of proteins, starches,
they act as a form of energy to the cells regulation of enzyme activities, and cell
and plays an important role in DNA and signalling. These bases are extremely
RNA production. They are also involved important because their sequencing in either
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Class Chemical structure
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Purines
Pyrimidine ring
Imidazole ring
O
6
6 7
1 7
5 5
1
8
8
2
4 2 4
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9 9
3 3
Adenine U Guanine
Pyrimidines
4
4
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3 5
3 5
2
in
6 2 6
1 1
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Cytosine Thymine
4
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3 5
2 6
1
Fo
Uracil
Figure 4.3 Chemical structures of purines and pyrimidines

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Genetics
DNA or RNA determines the way genetic carbon 5. Hydroxyl groups are attached to
information is stored in an organism. carbon 2 and 3. The phosphate group of the
The general and chemical structure of DNA next nucleotide in the sequence is linked
and RNA is determined by two types of to the hydroxyl group on carbon 3 of the
preceeding nucleotide. This arrangement
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bonds, which are hydrogen bonds that hold
together complimentary base pairs in DNA repeats itself several times to make RNA
a long structure. It has to be noted that,
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and RNA and phosphodiester bonds that
hold the nucleotides together. the positioning of the hydroxyl group in
carbon 2 of the sugar gives the molecule an
Exercise 4.1 electrostatic negative charge. It is because
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of this charge that, the (-OH) group repels
1. Briefly explain the evidence to support negatively with the negatively charged
the idea of hereditary material being phosphate group attached to the carbon 1
located in the nucleus. of the ribose sugar. This chemical structure
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2. Explain the properties of genetic makes RNA a long uncoiled molecule as it
material. appears in the Figure 4.4.
3. Describe the chemical structures of
purines and pyrimidines.
4. Write short notes on the chemical
U Adenine
composition of genetic material.
5. Draw the structures of adenine and
cytosine.
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Cytosine
Types of genetic material
in
There are two types of genetic material

found in the body of living organism. These
are Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and
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Ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA is the genetic Guanine

material in most of the organisms including
the higher-level ones while RNA serves as
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the genetic material in some viruses. This

is because RNA is chemically less stable
than DNA, short-lived and incapable of Cytosine
replication in most organisms.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

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RNA is a single-stranded polynucleotide.

There are four types of nitrogenous bases in Uracil
the structure of RNA, which are adenine (A),
guanine (G), cytosine (C) and uracil (U).
The nitrogenous base is attached to carbon Figure 4.4 The structure of RNA
1, while the phosphate group is attached to
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Furthermore, the presence of reactive the polypeptide chain for which it codes.
hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to carbon The mRNA is less than 5% of the total
2 of its sugar makes the whole RNA cellular RNA. It carries genetic information
molecule prone to hydrolysis. This is the from the nucleus to the cytoplasm of a
reason why RNA is unstable, and hence, cell for assembling into proteins. Thus the
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unsuitable for storing genetic information. mRNA is particularly important in carrying
Its structure is weak and it can easily fold instructions stored in the sequence of DNA
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into conformations with 3D structures, nucleotides into protein molecules. This
unlike the DNA. The hydroxyl group is because the genetic information stored
discussed here is completely absent in in the DNA cannot be decoded directly
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the deoxyribose sugar backbone of DNA, into proteins. The mRNA transcribes the
hence, the latter does not undergo hydrolysis genetic code from DNA into a form that
easily making it a suitable genetic material. can be decoded in the process of making
There are three types of ribonucleic acids proteins. It is primarily composed of
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(RNA), namely: messenger RNA (mRNA), coding sequences that carry the genetic
ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA information for the amino acid sequence
(tRNA). of a protein to the ribosome where that
particular protein is synthesised. In addition,
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Messenger RNA is produced in the nucleus
U each mRNA molecule contains non-coding
or untranslated sequences that may carry
on a single DNA strand by a process known
instructions for ending translation or
as transcription. The base sequence of
termination of protein synthesis. The
mRNA is a complimentary copy of one of
diagrammatic representation of mRNA is
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the DNA strands that is being copied and
shown in Figure 4.5.
varies in length according to the length of
in
Uracil
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Figure 4.5 The structure of messenger RNA

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is composed of complex molecules in
two sections, the large subunit (LSU) and
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This type of RNA is found in the cytoplasm

where, in association with protein the small subunit (SSU). These subunits
molecules, they form ribosomes. It is the are made up of one or more RNA strands
major structural component of ribosome, and some varieties of ribosomal proteins.
which is the cell’s machinery for protein Ribosomal RNA makes approximately
synthesis. More than half of the the mass 80% of the total RNA of the cell. The
of the ribosome is made up of rRNA. It ribosomal RNAs are synthesised by genes

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Genetics
present on the DNA in the nucleolus mRNA into amino acids, and hence, protein
region called nucleolar organiser. The synthesis. Its three-dimensional shape gives
diagrammatic representation of rRNA is ribosomes their structure, essential for
shown in Figure 4.6.The sequence of bases protein synthesis. During protein synthesis,
of rRNA is similar in all organisms from rRNA are also responsible for binding in
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simple prokaryotes to complex multicellular the mRNA and catalysing the formation of
eukaryotes. The role of rRNA is to direct the peptide bonds between two amino acids.
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translation of information contained in the
Ribosome
O
se
Ribosomal large subunit
U
Ribosomal small subunit
e
Ribosomal RNA
in
Figure 4.6 The structure of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

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Transfer RNA (tRNA) bonds. The tRNA molecule has four active
This is a small molecule with about 80 or recognition sites. The upper site (3’end)
nucleotides and constitutes about 15% of recognises the amino acid whereas the lower
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the total RNA of the cell. The tRNA as anti-codon site recognises the mRNA. The
illustrated in the Figure 4.7 is manufactured T-loop recognises the ribosome whereas
by nuclear DNA. Structurally, all tRNA the D-loop recognises an enzyme called
molecules have very similar secondary amino acyl-tRNA synthetase. This enzyme
structure in which a single-stranded chain catalyses the binding of tRNA to a specific
is folded in a “clover-leaf” structure with amino acid. This catalytic process produces
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three hairpins and an acceptor stem with an amino acid tRNA complex called amino
base sequence CCA. This is a 3’end and acyl-tRNA. The role of tRNA is to carry the
it is at this point where an amino acid is activated amino acids from various parts of
covalently attached. The looping of the the cytoplasm to the ribosomes whenever
chain results into the pairing of the organic code words on mRNA call for them to be
bases and hence the formation of hydrogen assembled during protein synthesis.
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It also helps the ribosomes to insert the into protein by living cells. Compared to
brought amino acids into a growing protein RNA, DNA is a very stable molecule both
chain. chemically and physically, hence suitable
Point of attachment of amino acid for storing genetic information.
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The structure of DNA
3’
A DNA is a double-stranded helix molecule
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C
C that contains a polymer of nucleotide and
5’ has two strands running anti-parallel to
G Acceptor stem each other. Each chain is a polymer of
O
subunits called nucleotides, hence, the
Hydrogen bonds
Ribosome site name polynucleotide. Individual nucleotide
T-loop consists of three parts, namely: phosphate
Enzyme site
group, pentose sugar (deoxyribose) and
se
D-loop organic base (nitrogenous base). There are
T four types of nitrogenous bases in DNA
D structure. These are adenine (A), guanine
(G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T). Each
V strand has a backbone that is made up of
U
(deoxyribose) sugar molecules that are
Variable loop linked together by phosphate groups.
A The 3’carbon of a sugar molecule is
e
connected through a phosphate group to the
C A U 5’ carbon of the next sugar. This linkage is
also called 3’- 5’ phosphodiester linkage.
in
Anticodon
All DNA strands are read from the 5’ to
Figure 4.7 Transfer RNA (tRNA) the 3’ end where the 5’ end terminates
in a phosphate group and the 3’ end
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Deoxyribonucleic acid terminates in a sugar molecule as seen

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a double- in Figure 4.8. Unlike the ribose sugar of
stranded helix structure that contains a RNA, deoxyribose sugar of DNA lacks
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polymer of nucleotides. This structure an oxygen atom on carbon 2 in its ring.

is different from RNA by being double- Hence, it uses the prefix ‘deoxy’ to denote
stranded molecule and possess Thymine that the molecule contains less oxygen
as a pyrimidine nitrogenous base instead in its structure than its closely related
of Uracil found in RNA. Mechanism of compound, that is, RNA. As a result of this,
there is no electrostatic negative charge to
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DNA replication is the key to biological

inheritance. The information in DNA repel the negatively charged phosphate.
structure is encoded sequentially. The Consequently, the DNA molecule is twisted
coded information in DNA is translated to form a double helix structure.

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5ʼ 3ʼ
One nucleotide
One nucleotide
A T
y
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O
G C
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T A
U
e
C G
3ʼ 5ʼ
in
Sugar phosphate Complementary base pairs Sugar phosphate

backbone backbone
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One polynucleotide chain H-bonds One polynucleotide chain

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A Adenine
Phosphate Two rings wide
G Guanine
T Thymine
One ring wide
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Deoxyribose C Cytosine
Hydrogen bond
’
Figure 4.8 Straightened strands of DNA showing 5 and 3 ends ’
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Each sugar molecule is covalently linked part, the two DNA strands are 2nm apart
to one of four possible nitrogenous bases as indicated in Figure 4.9.
(Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Thymine). The bases are oriented perpendicular to
Adenine (A) and Guanine (G) are double- the helix axis. They are hydrophobic in the
y
ringed larger molecules known as purines direction perpendicular to the plane of the
while Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T) are bases, as a result they cannot form hydrogen
single-ringed smaller molecules called
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bonds with water. The interaction energy
pyrimidines. between the two bases in a double- helical
In the double-stranded DNA, the two strands structure is, therefore, a combination of
O
run in the opposite directions and the bases hydrogen bonding between complementary
pair up such that Adenine always pairs with bases and hydrophobic interactions between
Thymine (A-T or T-A) and Guanine always the neighbouring stacks of base-pairs. In a
pairs with Cytosine (G-C or C-G). The A-T single-stranded state, the bases prefer to be
base-pair has 2 hydrogen bonds and the G-C stacked like the steps of a spiral staircase if
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base-pair has 3 hydrogen bonds. The G-C the bases are identical and can have regions
interaction is, therefore, stronger by about of helical conformation. The configuration
30% than A-T. Thus, the A-T rich regions of of DNA structure is very stable to allow
DNA are more prone to thermal fluctuations any of its strands to act as a template for
than the G-C rich regions. Along the axis
U the replication of new strands as well as
of the molecule, the base pairs are 0.34 nm for transcription of messenger RNA during
apart. That is there is a gap of 0.34 nm from protein synthesis. A specific segment of
one base pair to another. A complete turn of DNA which codes for the synthesis of a
e
the double helix comprises of 10 base pairs specific protein is called a gene.
with a length of 3.4 nm. At the unwound
in
Sugar phosphate
backbone A T
C G
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C G
0.34 nm
A T
A T Bases
C G
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G C
T A
C G
3.4 nm G C
T A
T A
A
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C G
Hydrogen bonds
C
G
between bases
T A
2 nm
2.0 nm
Figure 4.9 The Structure of DNA molecule

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DNA replication direction away from the replication fork

This is the process by which DNA makes is called the lagging strand. The enzyme
a copy of itself by producing two identical DNA polymerase III can work only in a 5’
replicas from one original DNA molecule. to 3’ direction.
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This biological process occurs in all living (b) Replication of each of the parental
organisms and is the basis for biological strands to form two strands
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inheritance. The process of DNA replication
As a result of their different orientations or
takes place during an interphase stage in the
anti-parallelism, the two DNA strands are
nuclear division. For a cell to divide, it must
replicated differently as follows:
first replicate its DNA so that each daughter
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cell receives an exact copy of DNA. (i) Replication of the leading strand
A short piece of RNA known as a
Mechanism of DNA replication primer that is produced by an RNA
The mechanism of DNA replication as polymerase enzyme called primase,
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summarised in Figure 4.10 involves a comes along and binds to the end of
number of steps described as follows: the leading strand. This is necessary
(a) Unwinding or unzipping of the two because the enzyme DNA polymerase
intertwined anti-parallel strands of III cannot initiate the synthesis of
the DNA
U new DNA strands without a primer.
The primer acts as a starting point
DNA replication starts with the unwinding
or unzipping of the two intertwined anti- for a new DNA strand synthesis.
parallel strands of DNA by the enzyme The enzyme DNA polymerase III,
then binds to the leading strand and
e
called DNA helicase. This enzyme untwists
the helices at locations known as replication moves along it while adding new
complimentary nucleotide bases.
in
origins and breaks the weak hydrogen bonds

that hold the two strands of DNA together. Adding of nucleotide is done to the
The separation of the two single strands new strand of DNA in the 5’ - 3’
of DNA creates a “Y” shaped structure direction and the DNA strand must
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called a replication fork. Each of the two be read in the 3’- 5’ direction. This
separated strands acts as a template to process is straight forward for the
which complimentary sets of nucleotides leading strand and the DNA synthesis
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would attach by base pairing for making can proceed in an uninterrupted

the new strands of DNA. A single strand manner along the entire length of the
binding protein (SSB) stabilizes each of leading strand. Hence, it is called a
the unwound parental DNA strands. This continuous replication.
prevents the winding up or the zipping up (ii) Replication of the lagging strand
of the two strands before the replication of On the lagging strand, DNA synthesis
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new strands is complete. Because the two is interrupted because the DNA
strands of DNA are always anti-parallel, polymerase must as well move in the
then one of the strands is oriented in the 3’ 5’→ 3’ direction and away from the
to 5’ direction towards the replication fork. replication fork. Since the enzyme
The 3’ to 5’ is the leading strand whereas polymerase moves away from the
the other strand oriented in the 5’ to 3’ fork and the fork is uncovering the
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new DNA, then the DNA synthesis the Okazaki fragments will need to
on the lagging strand is discontinuous. be joined together later.
Discontinuous replication occurs in
(c) Removal of the primers and filling
short sections and produces short
of the gaps previously occupied by
fragments or chunks of about100-200
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the primers
nucleotides in length of DNA called
Okazaki fragments. Thus, numerous Once all the bases are matched up
nl
RNA primers are made by the primase (A with T and C with G), an enzyme
enzyme and bind at various points called DNA polymerase I, strips away
along the lagging strand. Each of the primers and fills the gaps which
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these primers becomes the starting were occupied by the primers. The
point for each Okazaki fragment. As gaps are filled with complementary
each individual segment is replicated nucleotides.
away from the replication fork, each (d) Proofreading and correcting or
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subsequent Okazaki fragment is repairing in case of any mistake
replicated more closely to the receding The enzymes, DNA polymerase III
replication fork than the fragment and DNA polymerase I proofread the
before it. This type of replication is newly synthesised strand to make sure
called discontinuous replication as
U there are no mistakes in the new DNA
Single strand binding Synthesis of a

proteins leading strand 3ʼ
e
DNA polymerase
5ʼ
Helicase
in
enzyme
Replication fork
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RNA primer
Okazaki
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fragments
5ʼ DNA
polymerase
3ʼ
Parental 3ʼ
DNA
5ʼ
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DNA ligase joins

Okazaki fragment to the
growing strand DNA ligase
Overall direction of replication
Figure 4.10 Main steps of DNA replication

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sequence. They also correct and repair base pairs of DNA strands. Each of the
any incorrect base pairing. constructed DNA molecules has one
old strand and one new strand.
(e) Ligation of Okazaki fragments and
zipping up of both pairs of the DNA This sort of DNA synthesis is called a
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strands semi-conservative replication.
At the end of the DNA replication This concept of semi-conservative
nl
process, the enzyme called DNA ligase replication captures the idea that, in each
joins or stiches the sugar-phosphate time DNA replicates itself, it produces
backbones of the Okazaki fragments hybrid double molecules, one old
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to create a continuous strand of DNA. strand and the other newly synthesised
It also seals up the sequence of DNA strand.Table 4.1 summarises different
into two continuous double strands by enzymes that are involved in the
catalysing the construction of hydrogen replication process and their roles.
bonds between the complimentary
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Table 4.1 The roles of enzymes in DNA replication process
U
Enzymes Function in replication process
DNA helicase Also known as helix destabilising enzyme. Unwinds the

DNA double helix at the replication fork.
e
DNA polymerase Builds a new double strand of DNA by adding nucleotides
in the 5’ to 3’ direction. It also performs proof-reading and
in
error correction. There are many different types of DNA

polymerase, each of which performs different functions
in different types of cells.
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Topoisomerase Relaxes the DNA from its super-coiled nature.

DNA Ligase Reanneals the semi-conservative strands and joins Okazaki
fragments of the lagging strand.
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Primase Provides an RNA primer for DNA polymerase to begin

synthesis of the new DNA strand.
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Significance of DNA replication found in the cells. The base sequence coded
Since it occurs in interphase prior to nuclear on the DNA determines the types of protein
division, DNA replication ensures that to be produced. Each protein can be made
each daughter cell receives the correct from only twenty amino acids and each
amino acid has its own code on the DNA.
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number of chromosomes. In this way, an
equal distribution of genetic material in The twenty amino acids are manufactured
out of sixty four codes formed by what is
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all daughter cells is ensured. Despite the
fact that cells have the mechanisms of called the triplet codes. Each triplet code is
minimising errors during DNA replication, known as a codon and encodes information
occasionally, mistakes occur which result for a single amino acid. The full set of
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into mutations. These are the sources of codons is known as a genetic code.
genetic variations. The knowledge about the genetic code is
very important in understanding how the
Exercise 4.2 genes function. The genetic code is a set
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1. Differentiate between mRNA and of rules by which information encoded in
rRNA molecules. genetic material (DNA or RNA sequences)
is translated into proteins in living cells.
2. Briefly explain why DNA is the most
Proteins are made up of amino acids
favourable genetic material.
3. Compare and contrast DNA and
U organised to form linear chains then folded
into globular shapes.
RNA molecules.
Since DNA molecule contains only four
4. Describe the chemical composition bases, George Gamow (1953) suggested
e
and structure of nucleic acids. that the code for each amino acid could
5. Describe the process of DNA replication be specified by only three bases. This is
in
and explain its importance. because, if the code for each amino acid
6. Discuss the structural and functional was made up of only one base, only four
relationship between DNA and RNA amino acids could be specified by the
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7. Briefly explain the role of tRNA. genetic code. If the code for each amino
acid constitute two bases, only 4 x 4 or 16
different amino acids could be specified by
Genetic code
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the genetic code. But if the code for each

In living organisms, each cell contains all the amino acid constitute three bases, 4x4x4 or
information determining the characteristics 64 different amino acids could be specified
of that organism. James Watson and Francis by the genetic code. Hence, a triplet code
Crick (1953) suggested that, genetic (three bases) provides more than enough
materials are stored in DNA molecules. The codes for all the 20 different amino acids
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DNA of each species differs from the other used in cells. Therefore, one amino acid
by the sequence of nitrogenous base pairs can be specified by more than one codon.
along the DNA length and not by chemicals

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Characteristics of genetic code do not code for any of the amino acids
The features which characterize the genetic and for this reason they are termed as
code include the following: non-sense codons. They specify where
polymerisation of amino acids into
(a) The genetic code is triplet: The protein molecule should stop.
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group of bases specifying one amino
acid is called a codon or code word. (c) The genetic code is non-overlapping:
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The codons are formed using the bases The genetic code is sequentially
which are available in the mRNA. The read in groups of threes without
four nucleotide bases (A, G, C and overlapping except in some viruses.
For example, mRNA with base
O
U) in the mRNA are used to produce
three base codons (43=64 three base sequence AUGUCUCCA can be read
groups). The 64 codons include the as AUG/UCU/CCA and not AUG/
sense codons which are the codons GUC/ CUC/CCA. A nucleotide that
that specify an amino acid and the forms part of a triplet never forms part
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nonsense codons that do not specify of the next triplet. Each triplet is read
any amino acid. Therefore, there are from 5’ → 3’ direction, so the first base
64 codons, which code for the 20 is 5’ base followed by the middle base
amino acids and since each codon then the last base which is 3’ base.
codes for only one amino acid, this
means that, one amino acid can be
U (d) The genetic code can degenerate:
coded by more than one codon. All amino acids except methionine
(AUG) and tryptophan (UGG) are
(b) The code is punctuated: Genetic coded by several codons, that means
e
code is punctuated, that means, it has some codons are synonyms. This fact
the start and stop signals as shown in is called degeneracy of the genetic
Table 4.2. The genetic code system code. For example, Threonine is coded
in
has a codon that acts as a signal by four codons ACU, ACC, ACA and
for the initiation of the synthesis of ACG. Thus, for many amino acids,
polypeptide chain. It also has full only the first two letters appear to be
significant.
nl
stop signals, which determine the

end of polypeptide chain synthesis as
indicated in Table 4.2. The codon AUG (e) The genetic code is universal: The
(Methionine) acts as a start signal for genetic code is largely universal for
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the initiation of polypeptide chains and all living organisms and viruses.
the codons UAG, UAA and UGA are However, a few exceptions are found
polypeptide chain terminating codons. in mitochondria. For example, UGA
Hence, they act as full stop signals is one of the termination codons,
during the formation of polypeptide which code for tryptophan in yeast
chain. These chain termination codons mitochondria.
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Table 4.2 Triplet codes and amino acids for which they code
2nd Letter
A G C U
y
A AAA Lys AGA Arg ACA AUA Ile A
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AAG AGG ACG
ACC AUG Meth G
ACU Thr (start)
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AAC Asn AGC Ser AUC Ile C
AAU AGU AUU U
G GAA Glu GGA GCA GUA Val A
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1st GAG GGG GCG GUG
G
letter GCC Ala GUC 3rd
GAC Asp GGC Gly C
GAU GGU GCU GUU U letter
C CAA Gln CGA
U CCA CUA Leu A
CAG CGG CCG CUG G
CAC His CGC Arg CCC Pro CUC C
U
e
CAU CGU CCU CUU
U UAA Stop UGA Stop UCA UUA Leu A
in
UAG Stop UGG Trp UCG UUG G

UAC UGC Cys UCC Ser UUC Phe C
UAU Tyr UGU UUU U
UCU
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Protein synthesis nucleus and cytoplasm in the manufacturing

of proteins. This link is by a specific type
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DNA controls many cell activities including

synthesis of proteins. Proteins are also of RNA called messenger RNA (mRNA).
used to produce enzymes which are also Protein synthesis is a process by which
protein in nature. The DNA determines individual amino acids are joined together
characteristics of the organism by specifying by peptide bonds and in a specific order.
the type of proteins to be produced. The This is in accordance with the instructions
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instruction to manufacture enzymes and in the mRNA coded from DNA to form a
proteins is located in the DNA. However, polypeptide chain. The two main steps of
it is in the ribosomes in the cytoplasm protein synthesis include transcription of
where the actual synthesis of proteins DNA into mRNA, and translation of the
occur. There must be a link to connect the information contained in the mRNA as
flow of genetic information between the shown in Figure 4.11.

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Cell membrane
Cytoplasm
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tRNA / amino acids
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DNA mRNA Ribosome
Transcription
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Translation
Nucleus
Nuclear membrane Polypeptide
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Figure 4.11 Summary of the main steps of protein synthesis
Transcription in producing a molecule of mRNA from

In the transcription stage, a complementary DNA. The molecule of mRNA is then
mRNA copy or strand is made on a
U synthesised by joining the nucleotides
specific region of the DNA and codes for a together under the influence of the enzyme
polypeptide chain. Transcription is a process called RNA polymerase. The synthesised
by which the base sequence in a section of mRNA then leaves the nucleus through
e
DNA representing a gene is converted into the nuclear pore carrying the genetic code
a complementary base sequence of mRNA with it to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
Along the mRNA strand, is a sequence of
in
as seen in Figure 4.12.

triplet codes, which has been determined by
During this process, the histone proteins the DNA. When enough mRNA has been
that protect the DNA double helix are synthesized, the RNA polymerase leaves the
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removed to expose the polynucleotide DNA and the two strands of DNA zip-up
sequence of the DNA molecule. The double again reforming the double helix.
helix then unwinds by breaking down the
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relatively weak hydrogen bonds between the Translation

complementary base pairs. This process is The actual protein synthesis is accomplished
controlled by the enzyme known as helicase through the process of translation.
and exposes the bases of the DNA strands. Translation is the means by which a
One of the two strands acts as a template specific sequence of amino acids is formed
for the synthesis of mRNA. Thus, each of in accordance with the codons on the
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the exposed bases on the transcribing strand mRNA. This involves the triplet base
attracts a free nucleotide in the cytoplasm sequence of the mRNA molecule, which
according to the rules that govern the base is converted into a sequence of amino
pairing between DNA and RNA. The base acids in a polypeptide chain. The process
pairing rules are such that, Adenine pairs of translation occurs on the ribosomes in
with Uracil and Guanine pairs with Cytosine the cytoplasm. The ribosome is, therefore,
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DNA double helix

Non-transcribing strand
Transcribing strand
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Direction of transcription
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A
C U
A
G
RNA polymerase C
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Free nucleotides
A T
C G
mRNA transcribed
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G C
U A
C G DNA
U A
A T
Transcribing and non-

U transcribing DNA strands
rejoin
Figure 4.12 Diagrammatic representation of transcription

e
the rRNA-protein complex that serves as acyl-tRNA synthetase. The formed
in
the site for translation phase of protein products are called amino acid – tRNA
synthesis. Many ribosomes attached to complexes.
mRNA, form a structure called polysome.
(c) Polypeptide chain initiation
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The process of translation involves the

following general steps: The amino acid-tRNA complexes so
formed are then carried to the mRNA
(a) Binding the mRNA to the ribosomes on the ribosomes. The first codon on
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The mRNA from the nucleus attaches the mRNA to be read by the ribosome
itself on the small subunit of the and where the chain initiation step
ribosome in the presence of Mg2+ ions. occurs is usually AUG (Methionine).
This is a codon signalling the “start”
(b) Amino acid activation and its of translation. The second codon also
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attachment to the tRNA attracts another amino-tRNA molecule

showing the complementary anticodon.
The amino acids in the cytoplasm
These amino acids are then joined
become activated by the energy from
together by the peptide bonds as shown
ATP. The activated amino acids are then
in Figure 4.13.
held by their specific tRNA under the
influence of the enzyme called amino

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H N
N Large subunit of ribosome
Growing 1 Amino acid
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Peptide bond
polypeptide
chain 2
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8
3
4
tRNA leaves 7
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mRNA 5
6 tRNA
C G A
Anticodon
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UUU
AUA
GAA C CC
Direction of
translation
U A A A C U U G G G U A U G C U A
5ʼ
U 3ʼ
mRNA Codon Position of ribosome

e
Small subunit
in
Figure 4.13 Diagrammatic representation of translation
(d) Polypeptide chain elongation peptide chain, the ribosome moves

nl
along the mRNA to enclose a new

Elongation of the chain begins when
codon. The polypeptide chain continues
the ribosome moves and “read” the
to grow with every amino acid molecule
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next codon on the mRNA molecule.

addition as shown in Figure 4.14. The
Consequently this movement attracts
functions of the ribosome are thus to
another amino acid-tRNA molecule by
“read” and “translate” the mRNA and to
the guide of complementary anticodon.
hold the mRNA in position. The tRNA
This newly brought amino acid is also
and the associated enzymes control
joined to the previous amino acid by
the process until peptide bond forms
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a peptide bond. The tRNA that was

between the adjacent amino acids.
carrying the previous amino acid now
is released and returns to the cytoplasm (e) Polypeptide chain termination
to pick up another amino acid. This
process repeats in a manner that, once The sequence of ribosomeʼs reading
an amino acid is added to the growing and translating the codes on the mRNA
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Amino acids are

bonded together Amino acid released
Polypeptide chain by peptide bond from tRNA
grows out of
ribosome AA tRNA
AA
6 7
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AA AA
6 12
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UUU
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Ribosome
C UU
C U GU
U A
AUG GAA GAA CAU AAA UAA
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Start codon Stop codon
(Methionine) Ribosome mRNA (Non-sense codon)
Figure 4.14 Diagrammatic representation of polypeptide chain elongation
continues until it comes to a nonsense

U ribosome and completes the translation.
terminator codon. The stop codons are The released protein molecule is in
UAG, UGA and UAA as indicated in its primary structure, which is then
e
Figure 4.15. These are called non-sense manipulated into secondary, tertiary
codons because they do not code for any or quaternary structures according to
of the amino acids. They specify where the needs of the cell. After the mRNA
in
the polymerisation of amino acids into is translated, it is degraded by the cell

a protein molecule is to stop. At this itself.
point, the polypeptide chain leaves the
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Release Free
factor polypeptide
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5ʼ
3ʼ
3ʼ
5ʼ 5ʼ ATP 3ʼ
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Stop codon ADP + Pi

(UAG, UAA, or UGA )
1 Ribosome reaches a stop 2 Release factor promotes 3 Ribosomal subunits

codon on mRNA hydrolysis and other components
dissociate
Figure 4.15 Diagrammatic representation of polypeptide chain termination

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Exercise 4.3 theory of inheritance that existed during

1. Replication of DNA is said to be semi- that time stated that, the offspring’s trait
is an average of his parents’ traits. This
conservative. Justify this statement.
means the progeny inherits any trait as
2. Describe the process of protein synthesis.
y
the average of the parents’ values of that
3. Explain the features of the genetic trait. This theory was known as blending
code. theory. Mendel’s findings marked the end
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4. What differentiates the genetic makeup of the popularity of the blending theory of
of one species from another? inheritance.
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5. Discuss the ways in which the However, the success of Gregory Mendel
process of DNA replication differs was partly by design and partly by luck. He
from transcription. made a suitable choice of characteristics
6. What do you understand by the start to study. He isolated pea plants that were
pure-breeding. This means that when they
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and stop codons?
were crossed with each other they produced
consistently the same characteristics over
Mendelian Principles of Inheritance many generations. These characteristics
Gregory Mendel (1822-1884) was a were referred to as traits. The main traits
teacher and an Austrian monk. He studied
U used by Mendel in his experiments were
the process of heredity using selected flower colour which were either purple or
features of the garden pea plants, Pisum white, flower position which were either
sativum. Mendel was not the first scientist axial or terminal and stem length which were
to study heredity, but he was the first to
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either long or short. Other traits used by
carry out numerous scientific experiments Mendel were seed shape which were either
and collected sufficiently, accurate, and
in
round or wrinkled, seed colour which were

detailed data upon which genuine scientific either yellow or green, pod shape which
conclusions could be based. While Mendel’s were either inflated or constricted, and pod
inheritance studies were with plants, the colour which were either yellow or green.
nl
basic laws of heredity that he developed

are applied to people and other animals The pea plant used by Mendel had the
because the mechanisms are essentially following characteristics:
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the same. Through selective breeding of (a) The species of Pisum sativum
common pea plants (Pisum sativum) over had several varieties with distinct
many generations, Mendel observed that characteristics
traits show up in offspring without any (b) The garden pea plant normally
blending of parent traits. For instance, he undergoes self-pollination due to
cross-pollinated pea flowers, which were its reproductive structures being
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purple and white only and he didn’t find completely enclosed by the petals.
any intermediate colors in the offspring. The result of self-pollination is the
This Mendel’s observation was an important production of the same characteristics
generation after generation, a
finding as it was contrary to the famous
phenomenon known as pure breeding.
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(c) The plants used (pea plant) were have revealed that most traits in humans
easy to cultivate. are controlled by multiple genes as well
(d) In case of artificial cross-breeding as environmental influences. They do not
between Pisum sativum varieties, the necessarily exhibit a simple Mendelian
pattern of inheritance.
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produced hybrids were completely
fertile.
Types of Mendelian inheritance
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Mendel succeeded in many of his experiments
There are two types of Mendelian
while others had failed. The secret behind his
inheritance, namely: monohybrid and
success was based on the following:
dihybrid inheritance.
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(a) He carried out several preliminary
investigations to familiarise himself Monohybrid inheritance and the basic
with experimental organisms. monohybrid ratio
(b) He carried out his experiments very Monohybrid inheritance is a pattern of
carefully so that attention was focused inheritance, which involves two individuals,
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on one variable at a time. This helped that show contrasting characteristics of only
him to make clear observations. one variation. Mendel’s monohybrid crosses
(c) He was very careful when carrying out involved flower colour, flower position,
the techniques and this helped him to stem length, seed shape, seed colour, pod
avoid the introduction of contaminating
U shape, and pod colour. It is generally an
variables. inheritance of a single character only.
(d) He accurately recorded all experiments The monohybrid ratio is the ratio of dominant
and the results obtained. phenotypes to recessive phenotypes which
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(e) He gave himself enough time to collect is 3:1. For example, a cross involving one
sufficient data that were statistically trait in plants such as height, that is, tall or
significant.
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short plants will result in a 3:1 phenotypic

Mendel studied and introduced a new theory ratio in F2 generation.
of inheritance based on his experimental Mendel’s experiment
nl
work with pea plants in the 1860’s. He

discovered that heredity is the result of In one of his experiments involving
discrete units of inheritance and that monohybrid crosses, Mendel crossed a
every single unit (or gene) is independent red flowered pea plant from a pure line to
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in its actions in an individual’s genome. a white flowered plant also from a pure
The genome is the complete set of genes line. All the products of the first filial (F1)
or genetic material present in a cell or generation had red flowers. However, when
organism. Mendel revealed that for any the members of this generation were selfed,
given trait, an individual inherits one gene the resulting members of the second filial
generation (F2) were a mixture of red and
Fo
from each parent, so that the individual has

a pairing of two genes. white flowered plants in an approximate
ratio of 3:1. This is the basic monohybrid
Based on his pea plant studies, Mendel ratio which is obtained from a cross
proposed that traits are always controlled involving two heterozygous parents.
by single genes. However, modern studies

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Assumptions are together, only the effects of R will

(a) Let R represent a factor for red colour be expressed externally.
and r a factor for white colour. (d) Let each characteristic be represented
(b) Let r represent recessive allele for by a pair of factors, which segregates
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white colour during gametes formation.
(c) Let R represent dominant allele for red These assumptions are summarised in the
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colour, so that when these two traits genetic diagrams in Figure 4.16.
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(i) The cross between a red flowered male plant and a white flowered female plant,
produces red flowered plants in FI generation. See the following diagram:
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♂ ♀
P1 Phenotypes: Red flowered plant × White flowered plant
P1 Genotypes (2n) RR
U rr
Meiosis
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Gametes (n) R R r r
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Random fertilization
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F1 genotypes (2n) Rr Rr Rr Rr
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F1 Phenotypes: All red flowered plants

Fo
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(ii) Selfing of the FI members renders the following results in F2 generation:
♂ ♀
P2 Phenotypes: Red flowered plant × Red flowered plant
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P2 Genotypes (2n) Rr Rr
Meiosis
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Gametes (n) R r R r
O
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F2 genotypes (2n) RR Rr Rr rr
F2 Phenotypes: 3 Red flowered plants 1 White flowered plant
Genotypic ratio is 1:2:1

U
Phenotypic ratio is 3:1
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Figure 4.16 Mendel’s explanation of monohybrid crosses
Thus, from figure 4.16, the F2 phenotypic ratio

in
remained unaltered. For example, the red

is 3 Red: 1 White, and the genotypic ratio is and white colours remained constant from
1RR:2Rr:1 rr. From this experiment, Mendel the first parental generation (P1) to the
observed that the factor for red flowers second filial generation F2. That is, there
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was able to express itself in the first filial were no intermediate colours. Lastly,
generation (F1), where the factor for white Mendel found out that, each characteristic
flowers failed. He thus, referred to the factor is controlled by internal factors that occur
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which expressed itself, red colour in this in pairs and that these factors do segregate
case, as a dominant factor. The factor for during gametes formation.
white colour whose effect was not expressed These observations lead to Mendel’s
in the F1 generation because of the presence formulation of his first law of inheritance
of a dominant factor was termed a recessive or the law of segregation of factors. This
factor. Therefore, he concluded that the
Fo
law states that, “The characteristics of

factor for white colour was present in the an organism are controlled by internal
F1 generation though it failed to express factors which occur in pairs. Only one of
itself externally. He further observed that a pair of these factors can be present in a
the characteristics of the parental organisms single gamete”. Thus, on the basis of his

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results, Mendel had effectively predicted chromosome pairs separate from one
the existence of genes and meiosis which another, as a result, each haploid gamete
produce gametes with only one of each pair receives half of the number of chromosomes
of factors. In the light of this prediction, present in parental cell. The alleles also
Mendel’s first law can be stated as, “The
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occur in pairs, each allele being located on
characteristics of an organism are controlled one of the two homologous chromosomes.
by alleles that occur in pairs. Only one of
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Thus, when the chromosomes separate,
a pair of these alleles can be present in a
they take their alleles with them and
single gamete”.
therefore each gamete receives only one
Meiotic explanation of Mendel’s first law
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of the alleles in a pair in a similar way as it
Although Mendel knew nothing about receives only one chromosome. Thus, there
meiosis process, his first law can be is a similarity between the segregation of
explained by behaviour and movement homologous chromosomes during meiosis
of chromosomes during meiosis. During and that of Mendelian factors as indicated
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meiosis I, at anaphase I, homologous in Figure 4.17.
U W
Separation of chromatids
W W
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W
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W W w w
Separation of homologous
chromosomes
w
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w w
Homologous
chromosomes each Separation of chromatids
carrying alleles W and w
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in their chromatids w
Four haploid cells each

containing one allele
of the original pair
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Figure 4.17 Mendel’s principle of segregation of factors (alleles) W and w described in terms of
homologous chromosomes which occur during meiosis
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Worked example to illustrate monohybrid Solution

inheritance Since all the F1 mice have brown coloured
If a pure strain of mice with brown coloured fur, then the gene for brown colour is
fur are allowed to breed with a pure strain of dominant to the gene for grey colour.
mice with grey coloured fur, they produce Therefore, the allele for the dominant gene
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offspring with brown coloured fur. If the F1 is represented by B and that for a recessive
mice are allowed to interbreed, they produce gene is represented by b.
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offspring with fur colour in the proportion Let brown homozygous alleles be
of three brown-coloured to one grey in F2 represented by BB, the brown heterozygous
generation. alleles represented by Bb and the grey
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(a) Use genetic crosses to explain these recessive alleles represented by bb.
results fully.
(b) What would be the result of mating a
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brown coloured heterozygote from the
F1 generation with the original grey
coloured parent?
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(i) The results of a cross between a brown coloured male mouse and a grey coloured
female mouse will be as follows:
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♂ ♀
P1 Phenotypes: Brown coloured mouse × Grey coloured mouse
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P1 Genotypes (2n) BB bb
Meiosis
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Gametes (n) B B b b
rO
F1 genotypes (2n) Bb Bb Bb Bb
Fo
F1 Phenotypes: All brown coloured mice
Thus, all offspring in F1 generation will have brown coloured fur.

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(ii) The selfing of individuals of F1 generation results into a phenotypic ratio of 3:1,
indicating that, the brown colour is dominant over grey colour. See the following
diagram.
♂ ♀
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P2 Phenotypes: Brown coloured mouse × Brown coloured mouse
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P2 Genotypes (2n) Bb Bb
Meiosis
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Gametes (n) B b B b
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F2 genotypes (2n) BB Bb Bb bb
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F2 Phenotypes: 3 Brown coloured mice 1 Grey coloured mouse
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Genotypic ratio is 1:2:1
Phenotypic ratio is 3:1
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Thus, about 3/4 or 75% of the offspring in F2 generation will have brown coloured
fur because brown colour is dominant over grey colour. The rest 25% of the offspring
nl
will have grey coloured fur.

(iii) A cross between a heterozygous brown coloured male mouse and a grey coloured
female mouse from F2 generation produces the following progeny in F3 generation
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as shown in Figure 4.18.

Fo
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♂ ♀
P3 Phenotypes: Brown coloured mouse × Grey coloured mouse
P3 Genotypes (2n) Bb bb
Meiosis
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Gametes (n) B b b b
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O
F3 genotypes (2n) Bb Bb bb bb
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F3 Phenotypes: 2 Brown coloured mice 2 Grey coloured mice
Genotypic and phenotypic ratio is 2:2 or 1:1

U
Figure 4.18 Illustration of monohybrid inheritance based on Mendel’s first law
Thus, from figure 4.18, when a heterozygous there is allele R in its genotype. Therefore,
brown male mouse mate with a recessive the genotype can be represented as R-,
grey female mouse, then 50% of the where a dash (-) represents either R or r. If
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offspring in FI generation will be brown the genotype of this plant is to be determined
coloured mouse and the rest 50% will be accurately, it should be test crossed with
in
grey coloured mouse. a homozygous recessive, white flowered

Test cross in monohybrid inheritance plant of the genotype rr. The results of this
cross will provide the required information
In genetics, usually, one organism that
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as indicated in Figure 4.19.

exhibits a dominant character can have
two possible genotypes. To determine the (a) If the entire test cross progeny
genotype of that organism, a test cross is come out red flowered, then the
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used. A test cross can be defined as a genetic experimental red flowered plant is
cross between a homozygous recessive genotypically RR.
individual with an individual exhibiting Since the entire test cross progenies have
a dominant trait. This is done in order red flowers, the experimental red flowered
to determine whether that individual is plant (R-) is genotypically homozygous red
homozygous or heterozygous for that trait. flowered (RR).
Fo
For example, a plant producing red flowers (b) If the test cross progenies are a mixture
could either be homozygous dominant (RR) of red and white flowered plants in
or heterozygous (Rr). The appearance of the approximate ratio of 1:1, then the
the flowers is identical in both cases and experimental red flowered plant is
therefore, what can be said for sure about genotypically Rr.
the plant is that the flowers are red and that

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♂ ♀
P1 Genotypes (2n) Rr rr
y
Meiosis
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Gametes (n) R r r r
O
se
F1 genotypes (2n) Rr Rr rr rr
F1 Phenotypes: 2 Red flowered plants 2 White flowered plants
Genotypic and phenotypic ratio is 2:2 or 1:1

U
Figure 4.19 Determination of the genotype of an organism using test cross
Since the test cross progenies are a mixture dihybrid inheritance, Mendel investigated
of red and white flowered plants in the ratio
e
the inheritance of seed shape and seed
of 1:1, the experimental red flowered plant colour at the same time. He crossed pure
(R-) is genotypically heterozygous red breeding (homozygous) pea plants having
in
flowered (Rr). This is because the ratio round yellow seeds with pure breeding
1:1 is obtained from a cross involving plants having winkled green seeds. All the
a heterozygous dominant organism and F1 generation seeds were round yellow.
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homozygous recessive in a monohybrid From his previous monohybrid experiments,

cross. Mendel knew that these two characteristics
Dihybrid inheritance and the basic (round and yellow) were dominant. The
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dihybrid ratio members of the F1 generation were selfed

and 555 seeds were collected in the F2
Dihybrid inheritance refers to the generation, which showed the following
simultaneous inheritance of two characters. phenotypic proportions:
It is the inheritance of two pairs of
contrasting characteristics. For example, 312 round yellow seeds.
Fo
if a tall plant with red flowers is crossed 102 wrinkled yellow seeds.
with a short plant with white flowers, the two 110 round green seeds.
characteristics considered here are the height
of the plants stem and colour of its flowers. 31 wrinkled green seeds.
In one of his experiments to illustrate the
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These proportions of each phenotype of an allelic pair, may combine randomly

approximated to a ratio of 9:3:3:1. This is with either of another pair”.
known as the basic dihybrid ratio. From
Meiotic explanation of Mendel’s second
these observations, two general conclusions
law
were drawn:
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Mendel’s second law is explained by
(a) Two new combinations of characteristics meiosis as follows:
nl
had appeared in the F2 generation;
wrinkled yellow and round green. During gamete formation, the distribution of
each allele in the homologous chromosome
(b) In the dihybrid cross, each characteristic pair is entirely independent of the
O
behaves independently of the other. Thus, distribution of alleles of another pair.
if each characteristic is to be considered
It is therefore random alignment on the
separately, the following results will be
obtained: equator in metaphase I and their subsequent
separation in anaphase II, which leads to a
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Seed shape variety of alleles in the gamete cells.
Round Wrinkled Example: Consider a pea plant with
312+110 102+31 wrinkled green seeds of the genotype
WwGg. This means that there are two pairs
U of homologous chromosomes, one pair
bearing alleles for seed colour and another
one bearing alleles for seed shape. Thus, the
Seed colour chromosomes bearing alleles for seed colour
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Yellow Green are homologous to one another as those for
seed shape as shown in Figure 4.20.
312+102 110+31
in
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W w
A binomial expansion of the two monohybrid
ratios produces the dihybrid ratio that is,
g
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(3:1) (3:1) = 9:3:3:1. Based on those results, G

Mendel concluded that the two pairs of
characteristics (seed shape and colour)
when combined in the F1 generation, they
tend to separate and behave independently
from one another in subsequent generations. Figure 4.20 A cell showing two pairs of
Fo
This forms the basis of Mendel’s second homologous chromosomes

law or the law of independent assortment In figure 4.20, the positions of two
which states that, “Any one of a pair of different gene loci are indicated by shaded
characteristics may combine with any one circles. In this example, two gene loci are
of another pair”. In a more modern way, the situated on different pairs of homologous
law can be stated as follows “Each member chromosomes and each gene is presented

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as two alleles. In Meiosis, the homologous independently of one another as shown in

chromosomes come together (assort), but Figure 4.21. They arrange themselves in
they arrange themselves on the spindle fibres one of the following ways:
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W W
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(a) G G
W W w w
w w
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g g
G G g g
W Ww w
G G g g
Subsequent nuclear divisions give rise to four types of gametes
W W
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W W w w g g
During Prophase I, two

g g G G
pairs of homologous
chromosomes become w w
short and visible bearing (b) G G
alleles W,w, G and g. This
process is called synapsis.
U
During metaphase I,
homologous chromosomes
may line up on the equatorial
spindle either as shown
in (a) or in (b). This is an
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independent assortment.
in
Figure 4.21 Mendel’s principle of independent assortment of factors or alleles described in terms of
the separation of homologous chromosomes which occurs during meiosis
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Genetic representation of the dihybrid cross

Mendel’s experiment to explain dihybrid inheritance used round and yellow seeds and
wrinkled green seeds as fully explained in Figure 4.22.
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Let: R represent allele for round seeds.

r represent allele for wrinkled seeds.
Y represent allele for yellow seeds.
y represent allele for green seeds.
Fo
(a) The cross between a homozygous round yellow seeded male plant and a recessive
wrinkled green seeded female plant, produces all round yellow seeded plants in F1
generation.
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♂ ♀
P1 Phenotypes: Round yellow seeded plant × Wrinkled green seeded plant
P1 Genotypes (2n) RRYY rryy
y
Meiosis
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Gametes (n) RY ry
O
se
F1 genotypes (2n)
RrYy
F1 Phenotypes: All plants with round yellow seeds

U
(b) When selfing members of the F1 generation renders the following:
e
♂ ♀
P2 Phenotypes: Plant with round yellow seeds × Plant with round yellow seeds
in
P2 Genotypes (2n) RrYy RrYy

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Meiosis
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Gametes (n) RY Ry rY ry × RY Ry rY ry
(c) Since the plants are self-pollinated, the male and female gametes are of the same
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types. The offspring of this cross may be represented in a Punnett square.

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♂ Gametes
♀ Gametes RY Ry rY ry
y
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RY RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy
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Ry RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy
rY RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy
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ry RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy
U
Figure 4.22 Genetic representation of the dihybrid cross to show a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio in F2
generation using a Punnet square
Random fertilisation of ♂ (male) and ♀ produced from a cross between pure breed,
e
(female) gametes to produce F2 offspring short black-haired and pure breed, long
will be as shown in the Punnet square. white-haired parents, had short black hair.
in
The above figure 4.22 is an example of a (a) Which alleles are dominant? Give
dihybrid cross because two characteristics reasons for your answer.
are considered at a time. The Punnett square
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(b) Use a cross diagram to show both, F1

was used to show all possible combinations and F2 results.
of gametes to form F2 genotypes. From the
Punnett square, the phenotypic proportions Solution
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are: (a) The dominant alleles are those for

9 round yellow seeds. short hair and black hair. This is
because short-black hair appeared in
3 round green seeds. the F1 phenotypes as shown in Figure
3 wrinkled yellow seeds. 4.23.
Fo
1 wrinkled green seeds. (b) Let: B represent black hair.

Worked example b represent white hair.
In the guinea pig (Cavia sp.), there are two S represent short hair.
alleles for hair colour, black and white and s represent long hair.
two alleles for hair length, short and long. In
a breeding experiment all the F1 phenotypes
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♂ ♀
P1 Phenotypes: Short black haired guinea pig × Long white haired guinea pig
P1 Genotypes (2n) SSBB ssbb
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Meiosis
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Gametes (n) SB sb
O
se
F1 Genotypes (2n) SsBb
F1 Phenotypes: All short black haired guinea pigs

U
♂ ♀
e
P2 Phenotypes: Short black haired parent × Short black haired parent
in
P2 Genotypes (2n) SsBb SsBb

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Meiosis
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Gametes (n) SB Sb sB sb × SB Sb sB sb
Fo

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The Punnett square showing the fusion of gametes by random fertilisation:
♂ Gametes
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♀ Gametes SB Sb sB sb
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SB SSBB SSBb SsBB SsBb
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Sb SSBb SSbb SsBb Ssbb
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sB SsBB SsBb ssBB ssBb
sb SsBb
USsbb ssBb ssbb
Figure 4.23 Worked example to elaborate the inheritance of dominant alleles using Punnett square
e
The results of F2 phenotypes are: 2. Using examples, explain the concept
9 short black hair guinea pigs. of dominance and recessive traits.
in
3 short white hair guinea pigs. 3. A tall plant of unknown genotype

was test-crossed with a recessive
3 long black hair guinea pigs.
dwarf plant. Among the offspring
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1 long white hair guinea pigs. produced, 869 were dwarf and 912
were tall.
Exercise 4.4
(a) What was the genotype of the
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1. (a) State the first Mendelian law of unknown parent?

inheritance. (b) Show the cross to prove your
(b) Describe in detail an answer.
experiment you would conduct 4. In Guinea pigs, rough coat (R) is
to test the first Mendelian law dominant over smooth coat (r) and
Fo
of inheritance. a black coat (B) is dominant over

(c) State precautions you will white coat colour (b). R and B are
take in order to arrive at independent genes. When a rough
valid conclusions in the black guinea pig was mated with a
experiment mentioned above. rough white guinea pig, the following
offspring were obtained:
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28 rough black coated pigs. Incomplete dominance

31 rough white coated pigs. Incomplete dominance applies where the
10 smooth black coated pigs. effect of the recessive gene is not completely
11 smooth white coated pigs. hidden or suppressed by the dominant
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gene. The results of a cross between two
(a) What was the genotype of the parents who are incomplete dominant show
original parents?
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intermediate character of heterozygous
(b) Confirm your answer by offspring. Results obtained by Mendel
showing relevant crosses. enabled him to establish the principle of
5. A tall plant with red flowers from dominance. However, since the time of
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a true breeding line was crossed Mendel, a few cases have been discovered
with a homozygous short plant with which do not follow the dominance-
white flowers. One of the resulting F1 recessiveness principle. Such cases produce
plants was crossed with a short red a hybrid, which is intermediate between
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the parents in appearance. This pattern
flowered plant of unknown parents.
of inheritance is called intermediate
This cross gave the following results:
inheritance or incomplete dominance.
109 short white flowered plants. Incomplete dominance can be defined as
29 tall white flowered plants.
U a pattern of intermediate inheritance in
which one allele for a specific trait is not
100 short red flowered plants.
completely expressed over its paired allele.
36 tall red flowered plants. This leads to a new or third phenotype
(a) Interpret these results.
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in which the expressed physical trait is
(b) What was the genotype of the a combination of the phenotypes of both
plants produced by the first alleles. For example, consider an inheritance
in
cross? of flower colour in snapdragon plants. Two

common varieties of snapdragon differ in
Non-Mendelian inheritance flower colour: one is pure-breeding red
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Although Gregory Mendel did great work RR and the other is pure-breeding white
in genetics and honoured as the father of WW. Surprisingly, when these varieties are
genetics, his work was later challenged by crossed, the F1 flowers, which correspond to
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various genetic studies carried out after the genotype RW, are all pink. In this case,
him. Such challenges came from crosses the red allele R fails to be fully expressed
which resulted in incomplete dominance over the white allele W.
and co-dominance, gene interactions and Self-pollination of F1 generation gives rise
multiple allele inheritance, all of which to an F2 generation in which the results of
deviated from the basic Mendelian ratios.
Fo
Mendelian segregation are clearly seen.

Hence, non-Mendelian inheritance entails Because each gamete contains only a
any pattern of inheritance in which traits do single allele from any pair, the chance of
not segregate in accordance with Mendel’s a combination of F1 gametes results in the
laws of dominance and recessiveness. offspring of F2 generation having plants
with red flowers, pink flowers, and white
flowers. The ratio obtained in the incomplete

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dominance is 1:2:1, which is deviating The hybrid of F1 does not resemble either of
from monohybrid Mendelian cross ratio the original parents and instead, they have
of 3:1. Incomplete dominance shows a an intermediate character. This is common
failure of one allelomorphic character to in both plants and animals as shown in
y
dominate the other in the F1 generation. Figure 4.24.
(a) When a red flowered plant is crossed with a white flowered plant, all offspring in FI
nl
generation will inherit a different trait from that of both parents.
♂ ♀
O
P1 Genotypes (2n) RR WW
Meiosis
Gametes (n) R R W W
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Random fertilization U
F1 genotypes (2n) RW RW RW RW
F1 Phenotypes: All pink flowered plants

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(b) Selfing the F1 offspring, which in this case, pink flowered plants will produce
the following progeny in F2 generation:
in
♂ ♀
P2 Phenotypes: Pink flowered plant × Pink flowered plant
P2 Genotypes (2n) RW RW
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Meiosis
Gametes (n) R W R W
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Fo
F2 genotypes (2n) RR RW RW WW
F2 Phenotypes: 1 red flowered 2 pink flowered 1 white flowered

plant plants plant
Genotypic and phenotypic ratio is 1:2:1

Figure 4.24 The 1:2:1 ratio produced in F2 phenotypes and genotypes as a result of incomplete dominance
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Co-dominance white flowered plant is crossed with a

Unlike incomplete dominance, in the homozygous red flowered plant, the F1
co-dominance pattern, one allele does offspring produced will have flowers with
not dominate or mask the other alleles red and white spots. Self-pollination of the
y
but both alleles have an equal chance of F1 plants produces the F2 generation plants
being expressed in their offspring. The with a mixture of red, spotted and white
flowered phenotypes in the ratio of 1:2:1
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heterozygous condition in co-dominance
produces a different phenotype from which is the same as that of an incomplete
the homozygous state of either allele. dominance. If R represents an allele for
In this case, neither allele is dominant. red colour and W represents an allele for
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For example, co-dominance is shown by white colour, then RW will mean red and
certain plants such as Camellia japonica white spotted flower as the crosses reveal
whereby some have white flowers and others in Figure 4.25.
have red flowers. When a homozygous
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(a) When red flowered plant is crossed with white flowered plant, the resulting offspring
in F1 generation will all posses red and white spotted flowers.
♂
U ♀
P1 Genotypes (2n) RR WW
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Meiosis
in
Gametes (n) R R W W
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rO
F1 genotypes (2n) RW RW RW RW
F1 Phenotypes: All red and white spotted flowered plants

Fo

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(b) Selfing the F1 offspring will produce the following progeny in F2 generation:
♂ ♀
P2 Phenotypes: Pink flowered plant × Pink flowered plant
y
P2 Genotypes (2n) RW RW
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Meiosis
Gametes (n) R W R W
O
se
F2 genotypes (2n) RR RW RW WW
F2 Phenotypes: 1 Red 2 Red and 1 White

U
flowered plant white spotted
flowered
flowered plant
plants
Genotypic and phenotypic ratio is 1:2:1
e
Figure 4.25 The 1:2:1 phenotypic and genotypic ratio produced in F2 generation as a result of
co-dominance
in
Note that, the heterozygous condition phenotype is known as erminette.

produces a different phenotype from the (a) What are the genotypes
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homozygous state of either allele.Thus, the for black, white, and erminette
F2 phenotypic ratio is 1 red: 2 spotted: 1 chicken?
white. However, a mixture of red and white (b) If two erminette chicken were
spot flowers shows that, both alleles for red crossed, what is the probability
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that:
and white colours have an equal chance of
(i) They would have a black
being expressed in F2 generation. chick?
(ii) They would have a white
Exercise 4.5
chick?
1. Discuss the concepts of incomplete 3. In a certain strain of plants, flower
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dominance and co-dominance. colour is controlled by one gene with

2. In certain species of chicken, feather two alleles. The dominant alleles RR
colour is controlled by co-dominant produces red flowers, heterozygous
genes. The allele for white is W and alleles Rr produces pink flowers and
for black is B. The heterozygous
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recessive alleles rr produces white Gene interactions

flowers. Gene interaction refers to the situation
(a) Is this kind of trait inheritance whereby alleles of more than one gene
an incomplete dominance or control one trait in an organism. For
example, in some of the dihybrid crosses,
y
co-dominance?
two or more genes interact to produce
(b) What are the expected a single phenotype. Such an interaction
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genotypic and phenotypic may modify the basic ratios and results
ratios of red, pink, and of Mendel’s principles of inheritance.
white flowers in a cross Examples of genes interaction include,
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involving two plants with complimentary genes interaction, epistasis,
pink flowers? Use crosses to collaboration, and multiple gene interaction.
confirm your work.
Complementary genes interaction
4. A cross between ducks with frizzled Complementary genes are two mutually
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and plain feathers produced ducks dependent genes that are present on separate
with “slightly frizzled” feathers. loci and interact together to produce a
(a) Is this kind of inheritance an dominant phenotypic trait. In this case,
incomplete dominance or neither of the two genes can exert its
phenotypic effect in the absence of the
co-dominance?
U other. Example of complementary genes
(b) Use crosses to show the is seen in the control of flower colours in
genotypic and phenotypic ratios sweet pea plants (Lathyrus odoratus). The
for a cross between a slightly colour of the flowers is either purple or
e
frizzled rooster and plain white. Purple colour is produced only when
feathered duck. a dominant allele C is complemented by
in
(c) Cross a slightly frizzled rooster a dominant allele P. This means that the
with a frizzled duck. Show your purple colour of the flowers is determined
work and ratios. by two dominant genes C and P. One gene,
C controls the production of raw materials
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5. Explain the results obtained in F1 and that are necessary for the formation of purple
F2 filial generations in incomplete colour while the other gene P, controls the
dominance when crossing pure conversion of the raw materials into a purple
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breeds of red and white flowered pigment. Thus, having either P or C alone,
plants. is not enough to produce a purple pigment.
6. In certain species of cattle, the red However, in the absence of either of these
coat colour is co-dominant over the genes, the flowers are white. Therefore, a
white coat colour. The heterozygous plant of the genotype ccPP, ccPp, CCpp or
Ccpp has white flowers. The purple flowers
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condition is roan (both red and white

hairs are produced). Show a cross are formed in plants with the genotype
between two roans coloured cattle. CCPP, CCPp, CcPP or CcPp as shown
Indicate the genetic ratios. in Figure 4.26.

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Consider a dihybrid cross between two strains of white flowered sweet peas.
The plants in the first filial generation, all have purple coloured flowers as follows:
♂ ♀
P1 Phenotypes: White flowered plant × White flowered plant
y
P1 Genotypes (2n) CCpp PPcc
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Meiosis
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Gametes (n) Cp Pc
se
F1 Genotypes (2n)
U CcPp
F1 Phenotypes: All Purple flowered plants
The selfing of F1 generation plants produces the following progeny in F2 generation:

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♂ ♀
in
P2 Phenotypes: Puple flowered plant × Puple flowered plant
P2 Genotypes (2n) CcPp CcPp

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Meiosis
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Gametes (n) CP Cp cP cp × CP Cp cP cp
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The Punnett square showing random fertilisation in F2 generation:
♂ Gametes
y
♀ Gametes CP Cp cP cp
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CP CCPP CCPp CcPP CcPp
O
Cp CCPp CCpp CcPp Ccpp
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cP CcPP CcPp ccPP ccPp
cp CcPp
U Ccpp ccPp ccpp
Figure 4.26 Illustration of the 9:7 phenotypic ratio produced in F2 generation as a result of complementary genes
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interaction
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From the Punnet square in figure 4.26, the genes are also known as inhibiting genes
F2 phenotypic ratio is 9 (purple) :7 (white) because of their ability to mask the effect
or simply 9:7 phenotypic ratio instead of of other genes. One example of epistasis
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the normal basic dihybrid phenotypic ratio is that of fur colour inheritance in mice. In
of 9:3:3:1. these animals, the wild fur colour is known
as agouti, which is greyish in nature and is
Epistasis
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controlled by gene A, which is hypostatic

This is a situation where the phenotypic to a recessive allele c. The dominant allele
expression of one gene is masked by C in the presence of allele a gives black
the presence of another gene. When two coloured mice. In the presence of the
different genes contribute to a single dominant allele C, allele A gives rise to
phenotype and their effects are not merely agouti. Thus, the genotype CCaa will be
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additive, those genes are said to be epistatic. coloured and ccAA will be albino. When
Usually, the gene suppressing the other is black coloured mice CCaa are crossed with
called “Epistatic,” while the one masked and albino ccAA, agouti mice CcAa appear in
suppressed is called “hypostatic”. Epistatic F1 generation. The gene cc masks the effect

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of AA and is therefore, epistatic. Consequently, ccAA is albino and the basic dihybrid
ratio of 9:3:3:1 is modified to 9:3:4 as revealed in Figure 4.27.
(a) When the black coloured mouse is crossed with an albino mouse will result into the
following progeny:
y
♂ ♀
P1 Phenotypes: Black coloured mouse × Albino mouse
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P1 Genotypes (2n) CCaa ccAA
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Meiosis
Gametes (n) Ca cA
se
U
F1 Genotypes (2n) CcAa
F1 Phenotypes: All agouti mice

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(b) When agouti mouse is crossed with another one of the same trait, the resulting
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offspring in F2 generation will be:
♂ ♀
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P2 Phenotypes: Agouti mouse × Agouti mouse
P2 Genotypes (2n) CcAa CcAa

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Meiosis
Fo
Gametes (n) CA Ca cA ca × CA Ca cA ca
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The following diagram shows a Punnet square elaborating random fertilisation in F2

generation.
♂ Gametes
y
♀ Gametes CA Ca cA ca
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CA CCAA CCAa CcAA CcAa
O
Ca CCAa CCaa CcAa Ccaa
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cA CcAA CcAa ccAA ccAa
ca CcAa
U Ccaa ccAa ccaa
Figure 4.27 Illustration of 9:3:4 phenotypic ratio produced in F2 generation as a result of epistatic gene
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interaction
From the Punnett square, the following masks the effects of yellow colour gene (Y).
in
deduction is made. The c locus is epistatic Thus, yellow colour is formed only when the
to the A locus and the results show that the dominant epistatic gene is represented by
F2 phenotype ratio is 9 (agouti): 3 (black): its recessive allele (w). When the hypostatic
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4 (albino). The normal F2 basic dihybrid gene is also recessive (y), the colour of the
ratio of 9:3:3:1 has been modified to 9:3:4. fruit is green as shown in Figure 4.28.
However, it should be noted that in some Hence:
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cases a dominant allele of one gene may White fruit: W-Y- or W-y-
hide the effect of a dominant allele of
Yellow fruit: wwY-
another gene. Examples are A masks C or C
masks A. This is called dominant epistasis Green fruit: wwyy.
and produces a phenotypic ratio of 12:3:1. In this regard, a cross between a pure
Fo
An example of this type of epistasis is seen breeding white summer squash (WWYY),
in summer squash where there are three with a pure breeding green summer squash
types of fruit colours, which are yellow, (wwyy), yields white coloured fruits in the
green and white. White colour is dominant F1 generation and when the F1 progeny are
over other colours while yellow is dominant selfed, the F2 phenotypes are 12 white,
over green. A gene for white colour (W) 3 yellow and 1 green fruits.

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♂ ♀
P1 Phenotypes: White summer squash plant × Green summer squash plant
P1 Genotypes (2n) WWYY wwyy
y
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Meiosis
Gametes (n) WY wy
O
se
F1 Genotypes (2n) WwYy
F1 Phenotypes: All white summer squash plants

U
When white summer squash plant is crossed with another plant of the same trait, the
resulting offsspring in F2 generation will be:
♂ ♀
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P2 Phenotypes: White summer squash plant × White summer squash plant
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P2 Genotypes (2n) WwYy WwYy
Meiosis
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Gametes (n) WY Wy wY wy × WY Wy wY wy
Fo
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The Punnet square to show the fusion of gametes in F2 generation:
♂ Gametes
y
♀ Gametes WY Wy wY wy
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WY WWYY WWYy WwYY WwYy
O
Wy WWYy WWyy WwYy Wwyy
se
wY WwYY WwYy wwYY wwYy
wy WwYy Wwyy wwYy wwyy

U
Figure 4.28 Illustration of 12:3:1 phenotypic ratio produced in F2 generation as a result
of dominant epistatic genes interaction
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From the Punnet square, the results can be summarised as shown in Table 4.3.
in
Table 4.3 The genotypic and phenotypic ratios resulting from dominant epistasis
Genotype Phenotype Ratio

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W-Y- White 9/16

W-yy White 3/16
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wwY- Yellow 3/16

wwyy Green 1/16
Thus, W is epistatic to Y and it is clear that the F2 phenotype ratio is 12 white: 3 yellow:
1 green. This is the modification of the basic dihybrid ratio of 9:3:3:1.
Fo
Collaborative genes interaction either of the two genes alone. This sort of
The collaborative genes interaction gene interaction is called collaboration and
occurs when two genes influencing one is illustrated in the control of a comb form
characteristic interact to produce a new in chicken.
phenotype that could not be produced by

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In this case, one gene R produces a rose comb whereas its recessive allele r produces a
single comb. Another gene P produces a pea comb and its recessive allele p produces a
single comb. When P and R interact, they collaborate to produce a walnut comb, which
neither of the two genes could produce alone as shown in Figure 4.29.
y
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O
Rose Walnut
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Pea Single
Figure 4.29 Comb shapes in chicken

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The phenotypes of comb shapes in chicken have the following possible genotypes as shown
in Table 4.4.
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Table 4.4 The possible phenotypes and genotypes of comb shapes
Phenotype Possible genotype
in
Rose comb R-pp

Pea comb rrP-
Single comb rrpp
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Walnut comb R-P-
Let: Genotype for walnut shaped comb be RRPP or RrPp.

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Genotype for single shaped comb be rrpp.

Genotype for rose shaped comb be RRpp or Rrpp.
Genotype for pea shaped comb be rrPP or rrPp.
A cross between a pure walnut combed hen and a single combed cock gives the following
results in F1 generation:
Fo
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♀ ♂
P1 Phenotypes: Pure walnut combed hen × Single combed cock
P1 Genotypes (2n) RRPP rrpp
y
Meiosis
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Gametes (n) RP rp
O
se
F1 Genotypes (2n) RrPp
F1 Phenotypes: All walnut combed chicken

U
If the F progenies are selfed, the products in F2 generation will appear as shown in
1
Figure 4.30.
e
in
♀ ♂
P2 Phenotypes: Walnut combed hen × Walnut combed cock
P2 Genotypes (2n)
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RrPp RrPp
Meiosis
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Gametes (n) RP Rp rP rp × RP Rp rP rp
Fo

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The Punnett square to show random fusion of gametes in F2 generation:
♂ Gametes
y
♀ Gametes RP Rp rP rp
nl
RP RRPP RRPp RrPP RrPp
O
Rp RRPp RRpp RrPp Rrpp
se
rP RrPP RrPp rrPP rrPp
rp RrPp Rrpp rrPp rrpp

U
Figure 4.30 The 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio produced in F2 generation as a result of collaborative genes
interaction
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From the Punnett square, the genotypic and phenotypic ratios can be summarised as
in
shown in Table 4.5.

Table 4.5 The genotypic and phenotypic ratios in F2 generation as a result of
collaborative genes interaction
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Genotype Phenotype Ratio

R-P- Walnut comb 9/16
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R-pp Rose comb 3/16

rrP- Pea comb 3/16
rrpp Single comb 1/16
From the table above, the F2 phenotypic phenotypes such as rose and pea comb forms
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ratio is 9:3:3:1. Likewise the genotypic which are neither seen in the P1 generation
ratio is the same. This shows that, the F2 nor in the F1 generation.
phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1 is not altered
Polygenic inheritance
in this case. The only modification of
Mendelian genetics is that in the F 2 Polygenic inheritance is a type of gene
generation there is an emergence of new interaction, which occurs when one
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characteristic is controlled by the combined Exercise 4.6

effects of many different genes. It is also 1. With the aid of appropriate crosses,
termed as multiple gene interaction or explain the following:
multiple factor inheritance. It is the additive (a) Complementary genes.
effect of several genes in a single phenotypic
y
(b) Collaborative genes.
characteristic. These genes form a special (c) Epistatic genes.
gene complex known as a polygenic system.
nl
2. In white Leghorn fowl, plumage colour
Often, the genes are large in quantity but is controlled by two sets of genes,
small in effect. In other words, the effect of including the following:
each gene alone is too small to make any
O
significant impression on the phenotype, White (W) is dominant over other
colours (w), Black (B) is dominant over
but their combined effects will make the
brown (b).
phenotype more conspicuous. Examples
The heterozygous F1 genotype WwBb
of human polygenic inheritance are height,
is white. Account for this type of gene
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skin and eye colours.
interaction and show the genotypic ratio
Consider a hypothetical example using of F2 generation.
skin colour with the assumption that it is 3. In guinea pigs, the gene for the
controlled by three genes that are inherited production of melanin is epistatic to the
separately. The alleles A, B, and C influence
U gene for the deposition of melanin. The
melanin production with equal effects while dominant allele M causes the production
the alleles a, b, and c contribute nothing to of melanin, mm individuals cannot
the melanin production. Thus, the intensity produce the pigment. The dominant
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of skin colour will be determined by the allele B causes the deposition of large
amount of melanin produced. This means amount of pigment and produces a black
guinea pig with alleles BB, whereas only
in
that, the intensity of skin colour will increase

in the order of AaBbCc < AaBbCC < a small amount of pigment is laid down
AaBBCC < AABBCC. This implies that in animals with bb alleles, producing a
individuals with genotype AABBCC will light brown colour. Without an M allele,
nl
have the highest intensity of skin colour no pigment is produced so the allele
while individuals with the genotype B has no effect and the guinea pig is
AaBbCc will have the lowest intensity of white. A homozygous black guinea pig
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skin colour. This means that the intensity is crossed with homozygous recessive
white: MMBB × mmbb. Give the
of skin colour will depend on a number of
phenotypes of the F1 and F2 generations.
capital letters (dominant alleles) present in
the genotype. 4. A certain kind of flower is red because
of a red pigment that requires two
different genes. Gene A encodes an
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enzyme which catalyses the conversion

of colourless molecule X into a second
colourless molecule Y. The enzyme
encoded by gene B catalyses conversion
of molecule Y into a red pigment
molecule Z. Both enzymes must be

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working in order to make the red pigment as shown in the following diagram:
Gene A Gene B
y
nl
Enzyme A Enzyme B
O
se
Molecule X Molecule Y Molecule Z
(White) (White) (Red)
A pure-breeding white-flowered plant that produces no functional enzyme A or B

U
is crossed with a pure breeding red-flowered plant. Predict the phenotypes and the
ratios of the F2 offspring.
5. (a) What is meant by epistasis?
e
(b) How does epistasis differ from the Principles of Mendelian inheritance?
in
Lethal genes case, wild mice have grey coloured fur, a

The survival of an organism is largely condition called “agouti”. Some mice have
determined by its genetic makeup. However, yellow fur. A cross between yellow mice
nl
in some cases organisms fail to survive produces offspring in the phenotypic ratio
and therefore they die because of having of 2 yellow fur: 1 agouti fur. These results
certain type of genes in their genotypes. The are explained on the basis that yellow is
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genes that cause the death of an organism dominant to agouti and that all the yellow
which carry them are called lethal genes. coat mice are heterozygous. This implies
Depending on the type of lethal gene, that, homozygous yellow mice do not
death may occur as soon as these genes exist. They die in their early embryonic
are inherited or after some years. In other development since they inherit lethal genes
as revealed in Figure 4.31.
Fo
words, the lethal genes can cause death of an

organism before birth or any time after birth. Let: Y represent yellow fur (dominant)
An example of the lethal gene is illustrated and y represent agouti fur (recessive).
by inheritance of fur colour in mice. In this
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♂ ♀
P1 Phenotypes: Yellow coat fur mouse × Yellow coat fur mouse
P1 Genotypes (2n) Yy Yy
y
Meiosis
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Gametes (n) Y y Y y
O
F1 genotypes (2n) YY Yy Yy yy
se
F1 Phenotypes: 1 Yellow fur mouse 2 Yellow 1 Agouti
(dies before birth) fur mice (grey fur) mouse
The observed phenotypic ratio is 2:1

The expected phenotypic ratio was 3:1
U
Figure 4.31 Inheritance of lethal gene for fur colour in mice
From figure 4.31, the homozygous yellow They include XY, XX or XO, ZW, UV
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mouse (YY) dies in the prenatal stages due and haplodiploidy. Sex chromosomes differ
to the inheritance of a lethal gene. Thus, the from body chromosomes or autosomes in
in
basic monohybrid Mendelian ratio of 3:1 terms of shape, size and functions.
is modified to 2:1. Although a number of sex determination
Sex determination systems exist, but the XY system is exhibited
nl
Sex determination is a genetical system by most mammals and plant species. In this
that determines development of sexual system, the female provides ova with X sex
characteristics in organisms. In many species chromosomes while males provide sperms
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of plants and animals including human with both X and Y sex chromosomes. Note
beings, sex of the offspring is determined that, X and Y are just symbols that have been
by sex chromosomes carrying corresponding proposed by scientists to represent the sex
gene alleles in the male and female gametes. chromosomes in this system. Human beings
Thus, male and female organisms have are a good example of organisms with XY
different alleles that define their sexual sex determination. Human being have 23
Fo
morphology. In some rare cases, sex of pairs of chromosomes out of which only one
the resulting offspring is determined by pair is the sex chromosome. The remaining
environmental factors. For example, in some 22 pairs are called autosomes. Females have
reptiles, temperature of the nest determines identical X sex chromosomes while males
the sex of the embryo. There are several sex have both X and Y sex chromosomes.
determination systems among organisms.

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The X chromosome resembles autosomes egg is fertilised by a sperm carrying X

or body chromosomes with long and short chromosome, the resulting embryo is a
arm-like structures, while its Y counterpart female with XX sex chromosome. Eggs
has one long arm and a very short second that are fertilised by a sperm carrying Y
arm. chromosome results into a male embryo
y
At meiosis, male XY chromosomes separate with XY sex chromosomes. In this case,
therefore, it is the male organism, which
nl
to form X and Y gametes (sperms). The half
of gametes formed contains X chromosomes determines the sex of the resulting offspring
and the other half contains Y chromosomes. and not the female. This means in most
species, sex of the resulting offspring is
O
Females, on the other hand, have two X
chromosomes. This means all female eggs determined at the time of fertilisation. The
are identical carrying X sex chromosomes. path to maleness or femaleness starts at the
Hence, in most mammals including human, moment of meiosis when a sex cell divides
males are heterogametic while females are to produce gametes with half number of
se
homogametic. In mating, when the female chromosomes as seen in Figure 4.32.
♂ ♀
Phenotypes: Male parent × Female parent
Genotypes (2n) XY XX
U
Meiosis
Gametes (n) X Y X X
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in
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Genotypes (2n) XX XX XY XY
Phenotypes:
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2 Female offspring 2 Male offspring
Phenotypic ratio is 2:2 or 1:1
Figure 4.32 The XY sex determination system
Many insects such as Drosophila Sex of the resulting embryo is determined

Fo
melanogaster (fruit flies) experience an by the ratio of X sex chromosomes to

XO/XX system. Like humans, these flies autosomes or the ratio of the number of X
have both X and Y sex chromosomes. sex chromosomes to the number of sets of
However, the Y sex chromosome in autosomes (X:A ratio). In some cases, each
drosophila does not carry maleness instead it cell of the resulting drosophila fly decides
encodes genes necessary for making sperms. whether to be male or female independently
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of others resulting into gynandromorphy Sex linkage

case. Hence, it is the balance between female When two or more genes are inherited
determining factors encoded in the X sex together because they are located close to
chromosomes and the male determining each other on the same chromosome, they
factors encoded in the autosomes that
y
are said to be linked. Sex linkage, therefore,
determine which sex will be initiated. refers to the carrying of genes on the sex
nl
In summary XX, XXY and XXYY chromosomes. These genes determine
drosophila flies will be females while those body characters and have nothing to do
with XO and XY will be males. with sex. The X chromosome has many
such genes. The Y chromosome has very
O
Sex determination in most birds is again
a different process. Birds have a ZW sex few. In the case of heterogametic sex,
determination system. Letters Z and W there is a portion of the X chromosome
are used just to distinguish this system where there is no homologous region on
from other systems such as XO and XY. the Y chromosome as shown in Figure
se
Hence, in contrast to XY and XO systems 4.33. Therefore, characteristics that are
where it is the sperm from males which determined by the genes carried on the non-
determine the sex of the resulting offspring, homologous portion of the X chromosome
in birds it is the ovum from a female which appear in males even if they are recessive.
actually determines the sex of the resulting
U This special form of linkage explains the
offspring. ZW system is also found in some inheritance of sex-linked traits.
fish, crustaceans, and some insects such as
butterflies and moths.
e
X Y
in
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Homologous portion
of the sex chromosomes
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Non-homologous portion
of the X- chromosome
Fo
Figure 4.33 Homologous and non-homologous regions of sex chromosomes

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Genetics
In humans, two well-known sex-linked Red-green colour-blindness

characteristics include haemophilia and This is the failure to distinguish red from
red-green colour blindness. Both are linked green. In this case, normal sight is dominant
to the X chromosome and are caused by over red-green colour blindness. Thus, if B
recessive genes. These defects are more
y
represents the allele for normal sight and b
frequent in males than in females. In order represents the allele for colour blindness.
for this condition to arise in a female,
nl
Since this gene is sex-linked, then its alleles
it requires a double recessive state. The are represented as XB and Xb respectively.
recessive allele is relatively rare in the Females are homogametic (XX) and males
population, therefore, this condition is are heterogametic (XY) and their genotypes
O
unlikely to occur frequently. In females, may be represented as follows:
the recessive allele is normally masked by
the dominant allele, which occurs on the XBXB - Normal-sighted female.
second X chromosome. The heterozygous XBXb - Normal-sighted carrier
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females are not affected themselves, but are female.
capable of passing the recessive allele to XbXb - Colour blind female.
their offspring. For this reason, such females
are termed as carriers. On the contrary, XBY - Normal-sighted male.
XbY - Colour blind male.
when the recessive allele occurs in males, it
expresses itself because the Y chromosome
U
A cross between a normal-sighted carrier
cannot carry any corresponding allele for female and a normal male produces all
sex-linked traits. normal-sighted daughters, one normal
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son and one colour blind son as shown in
Figure 4.34.
♀ ♂
in
P1 Phenotypes: Normal-sighted carrier female × Normal sighted male

B b
P1 Genotypes (2n) XX XBY
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Meiosis
Gametes (n) XB Xb XB Y
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Fo
F1 Genotypes (2n) XBXB XBY XBXb XbY
F1 Phenotypes: 3 Normal sighted offspring 1 Colour blind offspring

(male)
Figure 4.34 Mechanism of inheritance of the sex-linked allele for red-green colour blindness
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The proportions of the F 1 generation Haemophilia is an X-chromosome linked

phenotypes and genotypes are as follows: disorder and for this reason, males are
25% Normal sighted daughters (XBXB). commonly affected while females are
usually carriers of the trait. Although
25% Normal sighted sons (XBY).
females can be phenotypically normal,
y
25% Normal sighted carrier daughters their gametes carry half of the recessive
(XBXb). genes. Because of this, even if a normal
nl
25% Colour blind sons (XbY). male marries a carrier haemophiliac female,
there is a probability of up to 50% of their
Haemophilia sons to be haemophiliac.
O
This is a sex- linked genetic disorder in This sex-linked defect is caused by a recessive
which the blood either delays or fails to allele h carried on the X-chromosome, and
clot. There are two types of haemophilia, it is inherited in a similar way as red-green
these are: haemophilia A and haemophilia colour blindness. The normal dominant
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B. Both types result from the lack of allele is H, and the possible genotypes,
sufficient blood clotting proteins or clotting therefore, are as follows:
factors anti-haemophiliac globulins (AHG).
Haemophilia A, also known as classic XHXH - Normal female.
haemophilia, is caused by the deficiency of
blood clotting factor VIII while haemophilia
U XHXh - Normal carrier female.
B, also known as Christmas disease, is XhXh - Haemophiliac female.
caused by the deficiency of blood clotting
XHY - Normal male.
e
factor IX. In the general population,
the occurrence of haemophilia is rare X hY - Haemophiliac male.
and when it happens, haemophilia A is
in
more common than haemophilia B. Both Consider a cross between a normal carrier
conditions have similar symptoms but are female and a normal male. About 25% of
caused by different sex-linked genes. The the resulting offspring in F1 generation
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haemophiliac people experience prolonged will express the haemophiliac trait (males)
bleeding during injury, surgery or tooth while about 25% of them will be normal
uproot. In severe cases, haemophilia carrier females. The remaining 50% of the
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may result in bleeding of internal organs FI generation offspring (males and females)
including brain, joints, and muscles. In will be normal without expressing any
mild form, spontaneous bleeding is rare haemophiliac trait as indicated in Figure
and the condition becomes evident only 4.35.
after a serious injury or surgery.
Fo

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♀ ♂
P1 Phenotypes: Normal haemophiliac female × Normal male
H h
P1 Genotypes (2n) X X X HY
Meiosis
y
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Gametes (n) XH Xh XH Y
O
F1 Genotypes (2n) X HX H X HY X HX h XhY
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F1 Phenotypes: 3 normal offspring 1 haemophiliac offspring
(male)
Figure 4.35 Mechanism of inheritance of the sex linked allele for haemophilia
U
The passage of haemophilia among members parents by vertical lines.
of a given family can be summarized in a
The genetic chart or pedigree is a good
pedigree or a genetic chart or family tree.
e
method of tracing the inheritance of sex-
Thus, the pedigree is referred to as a family
linked genes by tracing crosses of the trait
tree or genetic chart which shows the
within a family. The parental generation
in
inheritance of a given genetic trait from

shows a mating between an affected male
one generation to another. Figure 4.36 is
(haemophiliac) and a normal female. It
an example of a pedigree summarising
indicates that, all males produced in the
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the transmission of haemophilia in a

first generation were normal, while most
hypothetical family. In the pedigree, circles
females were carriers of the haemophiliac
represent females and squares represent
trait. The mating of one of the carrier
males The figures coloured red indicates
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females with a normal male produced 25%

phenotypic expression of the haemophilia
of the haemophiliac sons and 25% of the
while those coloured blue indicate a normal
carrier daughters in the second generation.
phenotype. The individuals of one parental
On the other hand, 50% of the children in
generation are interconnected by horizontal
the second generation were normal.
lines while the offspring are connected to
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Parental generation:
y
1
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O
2
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Key:
Normal male (XHY) Normal female (XHXH)
Affected male (haemophiliac)

U Carrier female (XHXh)
(XhY)
Figure 4.36 Transmission of haemophilia in a hypothetical family

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Multiple alleles represented by the symbols A, B and O.
in
Multiple allelism is a term used to describe The alleles A and B are equally dominant
a gene that has more than two possible and O is recessive to both. The presence
alleles. Multiple alleles, therefore, are three of a single dominant allele in the genotype
makes the blood produce a substance called
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or more alternative forms of a gene (alleles)

that can occupy the same locus. However, agglutinin, which acts as an antibody. For
only two of the alleles can be presented in example, the genotype IBIO would give
a single organism. For example, the ABO rise to agglutinogen B on the red blood cell
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system of blood groups is controlled by membrane and this has a corresponding

three alleles, only two of which are present anti-B or β agglutinin in the plasma. The
in an individual. blood group would be B. Thus, it is the
antigen or agglutinogen on the surface of
Inheritance of blood groups the red blood cells, which determines the
An autosomal gene controls the blood group. phenotype of the blood group of a given
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The gene locus is represented by the symbol person. Consider the following case as
I (which stands for isohaemagglutinogen) shown in Table 4.6.
and there are three alleles which are

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Genetics
Table 4.6 The phenotypes and genotypes in blood groups

Blood group (phenotype) Gene alleles (genotype)
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IAIA or IAIO
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B
IBIB or IBIO
AB
O
I A IB
O
IOIO
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The genetic attributes show that two alleles as shown in Figure 4.37, a mating between
are responsible for determining one blood two individuals who are both in blood group
group. This makes no difference in their O must result in a child who is also blood
transmission from Mendel’s work. Thus, group O.
♂
U ♀
P1 Phenotypes: A male with blood group O × A female with blood group O
P1 Genotypes (2n) IOIO IO IO
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Meiosis
in
Gametes (n) IO IO IO IO
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F1 Genotypes (2n) IO IO IOIO IO I O IO IO
F1 Phenotypes: All offspring have blood group O
Figure 4.37 Inheritance of a blood group O when two individuals with blood group O mate
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However, the result of the mating between as shown in Figure 4.38 (a). If one of the
an individual of group A and that of group parents is heterozygous IAIO and the other
O will depend on the genotype of group A parent is homozygous IOIO, then children
parent. If the parents are homozygous IAIA will be in blood groups A and O as shown
and IOIO, all children will be in group A in Figure 4.38 (b).
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(a) If parents are homozygous IAIA and IOIO, then the resulting offspring in F1 generation
will be:
♂ ♀
P1 Phenotypes: A male with blood group A × A female with blood group O
y
P1 Genotypes (2n) IAIA IOIO
Meiosis
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Gametes (n) IA IA IO IO
O
se
F1 Genotypes (2n) IAIO IAIO IAIO IAIO
F1 Phenotypes: All offspring have blood group A
Figure 4.38 (a) Possible childrenʼs blood groups when parents of homozygous blood groups A and O mate
U
(b) If one of the parents is heterozygous IAIO and the other is homozygous IOIO, then the
result offspring in F1 generation will be:
♂ ♀
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P1 Phenotypes: A male with blood group A × A female with blood group O
in
P1 Genotypes (2n) I A IO I O IO
Meiosis
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Gametes (n) IA IO IO IO
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F1 Genotypes (2n) IA IO IA IO IO IO IO IO
Fo
F1 Phenotypes: 2 offspring with 2 offspring with

blood group A blood group O
Figure 4.38 (b) Possible children’s blood groups when a parent of heterozygous blood group A mate with a
parent of blood group O

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Genetics
From figure 4.38 (b), the resulting offspring crossed with that of group O. The children
in F 1 generation, 50% will have the will either be in group A or B, no any child
possibility of inheriting blood group A will be in the same group as the parents.
trait while the rest 50% will inherit blood A similar situation is seen, when mating
group O trait from their parents.
y
takes place between individuals with blood
groups A and B, both being heterozygous
An interesting aspect of multiple alleles is for their blood groups. The children will
nl
that, it can result in the offspring that differs be in any of the four groups as shown in
from both parents. This is seen for example, Figures 4.39 (a) and 4.39 (b).
when an individual of blood group AB is
O
(a) In the first case, when an individual with blood group AB mate with an individual
of blood group O then, their F1 offspring will be:
♂ ♀
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P1 Phenotypes: A male with blood group AB × A female with blood group O
P1 Genotypes (2n) IA IB IO IO
Meiosis U
Gametes (n) IA IB IO IO
e
in
F1 Genotypes (2n) IA IO IA IO IBIO IBIO

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F1 Phenotypes: 2 Blood group A offspring 2 Blood group B offspring
Figure 4.39 (a) Possible childrenʼs blood groups when parents of blood groups AB and O mate
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From figure 4.39 (a), the resulting offspring in FI generation will have the possibility
of inheriting alleles IA , IB and IO from their parents, and hence, 50% of them will have
blood group A and the rest 50% will have blood group B.
(b) If two individuals who are heterozygous for their blood groups A and B
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mate, their F1 progenies will be:
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♂ ♀
P1 Phenotypes: A male with blood group A × A female with blood group B
A O
P1 Genotypes (2n) I I IBIO
Meiosis
y
nl
Gametes (n) IA IO IB IO
O
F1 Genotypes (2n) IA IB IA IO IBIO I O IO
se
F1 Phenotypes: 1 Blood 1 Blood 1 Blood 1 Blood
group AB group A group B group O offspring
Figure 4.39 (b) Possible children’s blood groups when parents of heterozygous blood groups A and B mate
U
From figure 4.39 (b), the resulting offspring 2. Amina has a child of blood type A.
in FI generation will have blood groups A, Suppose Amina has been identified
B, AB and O because their parents were
e
to have blood type O, what is the
heterozygous for blood groups A and B. likely blood type of the childʼs
father? Show this diagrammatically.
in
In line with some other evidences, multiple

allelism has been used to solve paternity 3. Suppose a father of blood type B
cases (genetics and the law). For example, and his wife of blood type O have
it is obvious that a couple of blood group O a child of blood type O. Carry out
nl
cannot have a child of either blood group crosses to show the chances that
A or B. Likewise, a couple of blood group their next child will be of blood type
AB cannot have a child of blood group O. O, A, B and AB.
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4. A man sued his wife on the ground

Exercise 4.7 of infidelity. This man and his
1. Yellow guinea pigs when crossed wife have normal vision, but their
with their white counterparts always daughter is a red-green colour blind.
produce cream coloured offsprings. The ruling was given in favour of
Fo
Two cream coloured offsprings when the wife. Based on your knowledge
crossed produce yellow, cream, and on genetics explain whether the
white offsprings in the ratio of 1: 2: ruling was fair or not.
1 respectively. Briefly describe this 5. (a) Discuss haemophilia as a sex-
kind of inheritance and show how linked genetic disorder.
these colours are inherited.

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(b) Explain the characteristics of an In rare cases, mistakes that happen during
individual having this disorder. DNA replication result in mutations.
(c) Using a pedigree show Although cells have double checking
the possibility of inheritance of mechanisms during DNA replication, errors
that lead to mutations can still occur.
y
haemophilia disorder in a
couple where the female is The results of mutations to living organisms
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normal carrier of haemophilia may be beneficial or detrimental. For
trait and the male is normal. example, mutations lead to genetic variation,
which is necessary for organisms to adapt
O
Mutation to the constantly changing environment.
Hence, mutations can be a means of
Changes in the genetic make-up of organism evolution. Such mutations are beneficial
can arise as a result of changes in the and they are naturally retained within the
structure, arrangement or amount of DNA population. On the other hand, there are
se
of that organism. This is called mutation harmful mutations, which result in the death
and can be defined as a sudden change of of organisms. In humans, such deleterious
genetic makeup of an individual. Mutation or lethal mutations are exemplified by sickle
produces a change in the genotype which cell anaemia and cancer.
may be inherited by cells derived by
mitosis or meiosis from the mutant cells.
U Types of mutation
The mutations that occur in somatic (body) Mutation can result from a change in the
cells are not passed from one generation amount or the arrangement of DNA or a
to the next. The mutations which occur in change in the structure of DNA at a single
e
the formation of gametes can be inherited. locus. This forms the basis of classifying
These mutations produce sudden and mutations into two categories. These are
in
distinct differences between individuals. gene and chromosome mutations.

Hence, the basis of genetic variation.
Gene mutation
Causes and effects of mutations
nl
A change in the structure of DNA that

Mutations occur randomly and spontaneously, occurs at a single locus on a chromosome
this means that any gene can undergo is called gene mutation or point mutation.
mutation at any time. The substances that
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In the DNA, there is a genetic code,

cause mutations are called mutagens or which determines the characteristics of an
mutagenic agents. They affect either the organism. This genetic code is made up of
chemical structure of genes or a gross a specific sequence of nucleotides on the
structure of chromosomes. The mutagens DNA molecule. A change to any of the
include energetic radiations such as x-rays nucleotides or any rearrangement of the
and ultraviolet lights, high energy particles
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sequence may produce a wrong sequence

such as α-particles, β-particles and cosmic of amino acids in the synthesised protein.
particles. Mutation rates are also increased The enzyme which is often a protein, may
by chemical substances such as mustard gas, have a different molecular shape, and hence,
caffeine, formaldehyde, some constituents unable to catalyse its reaction. This means
of tobacco, drugs, food preservatives, that the expected end product of that reaction
cosmetics and pesticides.
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may not be formed and this may have a Sickle cell anaemia
serious effect on the organism. This is a disease caused by gene mutation
For example, a gene mutation may result in as a result of base substitution. In this case,
a failure of melanin formation, and hence substitution of a thymine (T) with adenine
y
albinism. (A) in the second position of the triplet
codon, replaces an amino acid glutamine
There are various forms of gene mutation,
nl
with valine. Thus, CTC (glutamine) is
which include the following:
changed to CAC (valine) of β-haemoglobin.
1. Deletion: Where a portion of the This change results in the formation of
nucleotide sequence is left out. abnormal haemoglobin denoted as HbS,
O
2. Insertion (addition): Where a new which makes a red blood cell to assume
nucleotide is inserted in the DNA a crescent shape. If this gene is in its
sequence. homozygous state, HbSHbS, an individual
3. Duplication: In this case, a portion develops a clinical condition called sickle
se
of the nucleotide chain becomes cell anaemia. This disease is characterised
repeated. by fatigue and anaemia, pain crises, swelling
4. Inversion: A nucleotide sequence and inflammation of the hands and feet,
becomes separated from the chain. lungs and heart injury, sudden pooling of
It re-joins in its original position
being inverted. The nucleotide
U blood in the spleen, liver congestion and
leg ulcers.
sequence of this portion is The heterozygous individual HbS HbA is
therefore reversed. called a sickle cell trait (carrier). This person
e
5. Substitution: This occurs when has a normal phenotype and is resistant
one of the nucleotides is replaced to malaria. Thus, in areas where malaria
by another which has a different
in
is a selection pressure, this person has a

organic base. Such a substitution selective advantage as he/she survives the
could change a codon to one that selection pressure. In genetics, this is called
encodes a different amino acid and a heterozygous advantage.
nl
cause a change in the structure of

When two parents with sickle cell anaemia
the protein produced. For example,
traits (carriers) mate, 25% of the resulting
sickle cell anaemia is caused by a
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offspring in FI generation will inherit the

substitution in the β- haemoglobin
sickle cell anaemia disorder and dies in
gene, which alters a single amino
the early stages of life as elaborated in
acid in the polypeptide chain.
Figure 4.40.
Another effect which is caused by
base substitution is albinism.
Fo

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♂ ♀
P1 Phenotypes: Normal carrier male × Normal carrier female
P1 Genotypes (2n) HbSHbA HbSHbA
Meiosis
y
nl
Gametes (n) HbS HbA HbS HbA
O
F1 Genotypes (2n) HbSHbS HbSHbA HbSHbA HbAHbA
se
F1 Phenotypes: 1 Sickle cell 2 Sickle cell 1 Normal
anaemic child carriers child
(dies early in (resistant to (susceptible
life) malaria) to malaria)
U
Figure 4.40 The possible sickle celled children from two parents who have sickle cell traits
Albinism caused by sunburn. This genetic disease is

e
Albinism is an autosomal defect that also associated with vision problems such
is caused by a recessive gene, which as crossed eyes, photophobia, involuntary
in
is transmitted in a normal Mendelian rapid eye movements, impaired vision or

fashion. The gene for albinism is a mutant blindness and astigmatism.
one, resulting from the substitution of The allele for albinism is denoted as a, and
nl
nucleotides. An individual with albinism therefore, homozygous aa is an albino. On

fails to develop an enzyme tyrosinase, the other hand, the allele for normal skin
which is responsible for the conversion of is A, and therefore, the genotypes AA and
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amino acid tyrosine into melanin. Thus, Aa means the normal skinned person. A
albinism is characterised by a lack of cross between two heterozygous normal
melanin, which affects the skin, hair and skinned parents produces normal and albino
eye colour. Due to lack of this pigment, an offspring in the ratio of 3:1 as shown in
albino has high risks of skin cancer that is Figure 4.41.
Fo
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♂ ♀
P1 Phenotypes: Normal skinned male × Normal skinned female
P1 Genotypes (2n) Aa Aa
Meiosis
y
nl
Gametes (n) A a A a
O
F1 Genotypes (2n) AA Aa Aa aa
se
F1 Phenotypes: 3 Normal skinned offspring 1 Albino offspring
Figure 4.41 The possible inheritance of albinism in F1 offspring as a result of a cross

U
between heterozygous normal skinned parents
Chromosome mutations taking all its genes with it. The

Chromosome mutation is the one that results two ends then join up giving a
shorter chromosome with a junk
e
from a change in the number and structure of
chromosomes. This type of mutation, which missing in the middle. Since this
involves a loss of genes, it can have
in
is also known as chromosome aberration

produces effects that are easily noticed in a significant effect on the organism’s
mutant organisms. Chromosome mutation development, and it is often lethal.
may result from either of the following: (ii) Inversion: This occurs if the region
nl
(a) Changes in chromosome structure of a chromosome breaks off and

rotates through 180º before it
Normally pairs of homologous
re-joins the chromosome. The
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chromosomes form chiasmata during

sequence of genes on this portion
meiosis I. It is at these points where
is therefore reversed and may
chromatids break and re-join with the
alter the phenotype. This indicates
corresponding portion of chromatid
that the sequence of genes on the
on its homologous partner. During
chromosome is important. This
this process, mistakes arise though not
Fo
phenomenon is known as position

frequently. The mistakes may be due
effect.
to one of the following processes as
summarised in Figure 4.42. (iii) Translocation: This occurs when a
(i) Deletion: In this case, a chromosome portion of the chromosome becomes
deleted and re-joins at a different
may break at two points and the
point on the same chromosome or
section between may drop out

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with a different chromosome. This resulting in the repetition of a

type of chromosome aberration may gene sequence. This mutation
also produce position effect in the results from unequal crossing over
phenotype. between misaligned homologous
y
(iv) Duplication: In this case, a portion chromosomes during meiosis.
of the chromosome is doubled,
nl
A A A A A
B B B B
O
B
C C C F
D D D E
E E E D
F F C
A
G G G
G 1 B
H H H
H 2 C
3 D
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M 4 E M M
M
N F F N N
N
O 5 O O
O
P 6 M M P P
P
Q C 7 N N Q Q
Q
R D 8 O O R R
R
S E 9 P P S S
S
T F T 0
U Q Q T T
Deletion Translocation Duplication Inversion
Figure 4.42 Illustration of four types of chromosome mutations

e
(b) Changes in the chromosome number of this is the movement of both sets
of chromosomes to the same pole of
in
Changes in the number of chromosomes

are usually the result of errors occurring the cell. The separation of homologous
during meiosis, but they can also chromosomes during anaphase II may lead
occur during mitosis. These changes to the formation of gametic cells containing
nl
may involve a loss or gain of single either more or less than the normal number
chromosomes, a condition called of chromosomes. This condition is known
aneuploidy or an increase of the as non-disjunction. The fusion of either of
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entire haploid sets of chromosomes, a these gametes with a normal haploid gamete
condition called euploidy or polyploidy. produces a zygote with an odd number of
chromosomes. If the number is less than
Aneuploidy the diploid chromosomes, the zygote may
This is a condition in which half of the not develop. However, those with extra
daughter cells produced have an extra chromosomes may develop although the
Fo
chromosome, for example, n + 1 or 2n + organisms resulting from these zygotes have

1 and the other half have a chromosome a number of abnormalities. In human beings,
missing, n - 1 or 2n - 1. Aneuploidy can the genetic disorders found in such zygotes
arise from the failure of a pair or pairs of include Down’s syndrome, Klinefelter’s
homologous chromosomes to separate syndrome and Turner’s syndrome.
during anaphase I of meiosis. The result
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Down’s syndrome The Klinefelter’s syndrome victim is

Down’s syndrome or mongolism is a genetic phenotypically a male, but the presence
disorder that occurs when chromosome of an extra X chromosome may result
21 fails to segregate during cell division, in the development of feminine features.
Generally, the person is sterile, sperms are
y
thus the gamete produced possesses 24
chromosomes. The fusion of this gamete never produced although he can erect and
ejaculate. He is taller than average, breasts
nl
with a normal one having 23 chromosomes,
results in the offspring having 47 (2n+1) may develop, testes are very small and has
chromosomes. The 21 st chromosome little facial hair. Other features include a
is relatively small and the offspring is, high-pitched voice, smooth skin texture,
O
therefore, able to survive. and low intelligence.
Down’s syndrome children have disabilities Turner’s syndrome
of varying magnitude. They have a flat, This genetic disorder is due to a missing X
broad face, severe mental retardation, short
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chromosome in females. The genotype is,
stature and relatively small skull due to poor therefore, XO instead of the normal XX and
skeletal development, protruding tongue, the number of chromosomes is 45 (2n-1)
poor immune system and hence high risks instead of 46 (2n). Turner’s syndrome can
of infection. They have low intelligent arise as a result of non-disjunction during
quotient (IQ) and short life expectancy. Non-
U meiosis. The sufferers of this disorder
disjunction in the case of Down’s syndrome have short stature, averaging 1.5 m, small
seems to occur during the production of ova uterus, infertile with no ovaries and they
rather than sperm. Its incidence is related lack secondary sexual features.
e
to the age of the mother and therefore, the
chances of having Down’s syndrome child Exercise 4.8
in
increase as the mother’s age increases. At

teen age, the chances are only one in many 1. (a) What are lethal genes?
thousands, at the age of 40 years, the chance (b) Referring to the inheritance
is one in a hundred and at the age of 45 the of fur colour in mice, show how
nl
risk is three times greater. The age of the the Mendelian 3:1 ratio is
father has no effect. modified to 2:1.
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Klinefelter’s syndrome 2. Mr. Mkulima had a task of breeding

This is a non-disjunction of the sex rats for his research on plague disease.
chromosomes, which may occur in meiosis He had two varieties, black and
during spermatogenesis in male parents or red coloured rats whose genes are
oogenesis in female parents. This genetic independent. In his first cross, a
disorder is due to an extra X chromosome homozygous black solid rat was
Fo
and the genotype is XXY instead of normal crossed with homozygous red spotted
XY. The number of chromosomes is, one. In the second cross, one of the F1
therefore, 47 (2n+1) instead of 46 (2n). progenies was crossed with a red solid
rat of unknown percentage and the
F2 phenotypes were in the following
proportions:

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Genetics
48 black solid rats. Genetic engineering (GE)

49 red solid rats. Genetic engineering or genetic modification
24 black spotted rats. is a deliberate alteration of the characteristics
25 red spotted rats. of an organism by manipulating its genetic
y
(a) Give the interpretation of these materials in order to reduce undesirable
results. characteristics or to produce desirable new
nl
(b) Identify the genotypes of the ones. It is the biological technique in which
animals that gave rise to F1 and genes of interest are isolated, modified, and
F2 generations. inserted into an organism for the purpose of
(c) What modification to Mendel’s producing desirable traits. This technique
O
work has been shown by is made possible by a recombinant DNA
Mr. Mkulima’s experiment? technology. When gene transfer occurs, the
Explain it. resulting organism is called a transgenic
organism or a genetically modified organism
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3. Mzalendo is a form four student with (GMO).
blood group A. She recently had a
Recombinant DNA technology is the
baby whose father, according to her
procedure by which DNA from different
was her school’s chief cook called
species can be isolated, cut, and connected
Mchuuzi. The latter denied paternity.
The case was taken to court where
U together. Thereafter, a new recombinant
DNA is multiplied in quantity in the
the following facts were established:
populations of rapidly dividing cells such
Mzalendo has blood type A, the child
as bacteria. The recombinant DNA is,
e
has blood type O, and Mchuuzi has
therefore, a combination of DNA from
blood type B. Based on this evidence
different organisms or different locations
only, explain whether the law will
in
in a given genome that would not normally

incriminate or exonerate Mchuuzi.
be found in nature. The terms gene cloning,
4. Write short notes on mutation based recombinant DNA technology and genetic
nl
on the following guidelines: engineering may seem similar but they are
(a) Causes and effects. different techniques and are interrelated
in biotechnology. An example of genetic
(b) Types of mutation.
engineering and gene cloning is shown in
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5. Hitimu and her brother Chaguzi Figure 4.43.

have their elder brother who is
haemophiliac. Hitimu and Chaguzi Gene cloning
and their parents appear normal but The process of gene cloning involves
the two children are worried about various steps as follows:
having haemophiliac children in (i) The target gene is isolated and cut
Fo
future. If they approach you for help, out using a restriction enzyme.
what would you advise them? (ii) The bacteria plasmid is cut open
6. Briefly describe the effect of using the same enzyme.
mutagenic agents to the hereditary
(iii) DNA ligase binds the target gene
materials.
into the plasmid.
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(iv) The resulting plasmid is known growth reactor, which provides the
as a recombinant plasmid. This optimal growth condition allowing
is inserted into the bacteria by a them to replicate many times.
process known as transformation. Finally, the bacteria are cut open;
y
(v) The bacteria are then placed in a and the plasmid is extracted.
nl
DNA Restriction enzyme
O
Gene
1
Cell
se
3
U Bacterium
DNA
Plasmid Restriction enzyme
4
2
e
Bacterium Plasmid
in
Figure 4.43 Diagram of genetic engineering and gene cloning
The process of genetic engineering has also helps in the production of vaccines
nl
been applied in various fields. Examples and antibiotics. For example, Hepatitis B
of such fields include agriculture, food vaccine, and penicillin are produced by
industries, medical products and treatment genetic engineering. In the agricultural
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of environmental wastes. In connection fields, genetic engineering improves plants’

with its application, genetic engineering resistance to pests, improves the quality of
has a number of advantages. For example, food, and increases the yield of food crops.
it is used to synthesize hormones such as Plants can be made resistant to herbicides
human growth hormones, and insulin, which and tolerant to environmental stress such as
is used to help diabetic patients to control drought. Animal products such as meat, milk
Fo
sugar level in the blood. Other hormones and eggs may have their qualities improved
synthesised include erythropoietin, which by the use of genetic engineering.
control the production of red blood cells, Despite its advantages, genetic engineering
and calcitonin, which regulates the level has a number of disadvantages. Firstly, it
of calcium in the blood. This process

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Genetics
may make organisms more resistant to This is against some people who believe
antibiotics. The vectors, which are used in that, the ability to influence anything on
transforming plant cells, contain genes for earth is upon God only.
antibiotic resistance. These genes enter the Thirdly, modification of naturally selected
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transformed plant with the desired gene. food crops may disturb the delicate balance
Genetically modified tomatoes contain of the naturally existing biodiversity.
one of these antibiotic resistance genes.
nl
Moreover, genetic engineering may lead to
The concern is that, when the tomato is disappearance of local varieties of crops.
eaten, the gene may pass from the tomato This is because, highly resistant genetically
to the Escherichia coli bacteria in the gut
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modified plants and animals have the
making them resistant to antibiotics. The potential of replacing local varieties.
gene may spread to other potentially harmful This will in the end affect the economy
bacteria in the environment, and if they of people depending on these valuable
infect humans, they would be difficult to products. Lastly, genetic engineering may be
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treat. Secondly, genetic engineering can misused in producing genetically modified
compromise issues on ethics and morality, microorganisms for use as biological
particularly, in religion. This is because weapons.
human beings now have the ability to
influence the course and law of nature.
U
Revision questions given sequence of bases in the
DNA strand.
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1. Explain diagrammatically how cross-
(iii) Describe how the mRNA strand
breeding of an individual that presents
in (i) above, is formed from the
a dominant phenotype with another that
in
given DNA strand.

presents a recessive phenotype (for the
same trait) can determine whether the 4. Write brief notes on each of the
dominant individual is homozygous or following terms:
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heterozygous. (a) Okazaki fragments.

2. Explain the concept of genetic (b) Replication fork.
engineering, its applications, advantages (c) DNA ligase.
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and disadvantages. (d) RNA primer.

3. (a) Define the term transcription. 5. Explain the role of each of the following
in protein synthesis:
(b) If the base sequence in one of the DNA
strands is AGCTAAGACTTCCAACT: (a) DNA template.
(b) RNA.
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(i) What will be the base sequence in

(c) Ribosomes.
the complementary mRNA strand
formed from this DNA strand? (d) Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase.
(ii) State the number of amino acid 6. A geneticist who was verifying
molecules that are defined by the Mendel’s laws crossed 20 homozygous
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white Andalusian fowls with 20 black the white kernels (c). In a particular
Andalusian fowls. The results of F1 cross of corn plants, the probability of
was 450 fowls, all with blue plumage an offspring being tall is 0.5 and the
colour. He then selfed the 450 F1 fowls probability of kernel being coloured is
and obtained the F2 offspring with the 0.75. Work out the parental genotypes.
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following phenotypes: Show how you derive your answer.
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1292 white coloured fowl. 10. Describe the set-up of Mendel’s
2570 mixed blue and black dihybrid experiment which led him
coloured fowl. to successfully formulate his second
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(a) Illustrate using symbols, the law of inheritance.
crosses which were made and 11. Use genetic crosses to show how
the results obtained in the complementary genes interaction
crosses described above.
differ from dominant epistatic gene
(b) What is the name given to the
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interactions.
mode of inheritance described
in this experiment? 12. Discuss the sex determination process
(c) How do the above observations in (a) Humans and (b) Birds.
differ from the result of Mendel
work, which led him to formulate
U 13. Polydactylism is the condition of
having an extra finger on each hand.
his laws of inheritance?
(d) Briefly describe a genetic test In humans, this condition is dominant
that you would carry out to prove to the typical 5-finger arrangement.
Tongue rolling, on the other hand, is
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whether or not the appearance of
the blue coloured feathers in this dominant to not being able to roll one’s
experiment is a true deviation from tongue. A man who is homozygous
in
Mendel’s principles of inheritance. for 5-fingers and who cannot roll his
7. Why is it not possible to use a tongue has children with a woman who
homozygous dominant organism such is heterozygous for polydactylism and
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as RR in a test cross experiment to tongue rolling.

determine the genotype of an organism (a) Draw a Punnett square that
showing dominant phenotype? represents the cross.
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Illustrate your answer using appropriate

genetic symbols. (b) What is the probability that the
couple will produce a polydactyl
8. With the aid of a cross in each case, baby who cannot roll his/her
explain the following genetic disorders: tongue?
(a) Sickle cell anaemia. 14. What is polygenic inheritance? Using
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(b) Albinism. a Punnett square show how it operates

9. In corn, the trait for tall plants (T) in the inherritance of skin colour in
is dominant to the trait of the dwarf human.
plant (t) and the trait of the coloured 15. Skin colour in humans is determined
kernels (C) is dominant to the trait of by a polygenic inheritance fashion,

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Genetics
involving as many as 9 different genes. skin coloration possess, and

For the purpose of this question, let us state the theoretical fraction of
consider the influence of 3 genes: A, the children that will have this
B and C, where the dominant allele coloration.
darkens skin colour. Suppose a woman
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16. A small part of a DNA molecule
who is AABbCc mates with a man contains the sequence of nucleotides
who is AaBbcc.
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GAA GTA CCA on one of the strands.
(a) List all of the possible genotypes of (a) Sketch this part of the DNA
the gametes that could be produced molecule showing both strands.
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by each of the parents.
(b) What would be the mRNA
(b) Draw a Punnett square to nucleotide sequence formed from
show the possible genotypes this strand?
and number each genotype (c) What are the amino acids coded
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from lightest to darkest skin for by this small part of DNA?
coloration. 17. Differentiate between epistatic and
(c) How many dominant alleles collaborative gene interactions.
will children with the darkest
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in
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Chapter
Five
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Evolution
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Introduction
Evolution is defined as a process of gradual changes in the heritable characteristics of
biological populations over successive generations. Studying about evolution helps one
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to understand the origin of life, changes over time, and mechanisms which resulted into
these changes. In this chapter, you will learn about theories of origin of life and theories of
the organic evolution. You will also learn about evidences of organic evolution, including
comparative morphology, anatomy, biochemistry, and biogeoraphy. Furthermore, you
U
will learn about the processes of selective breeding, and speciation as well as their
contribution in evolution of species.
Theories of origin of life created heavens and the earth in six distinct
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Several attempts have been made from periods and Adam from a sounding clay”.
time to time to explain the origin of life Special creation theory holds that there were
in
on earth. As a result, there are several no significant changes on the earth since
theories that give an explanation on the its creation and that, species once created,
possible mechanism of the origin of life. remained unchanged.
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The following are some of these theories. Strengths and weaknesses of the special
Special creation theory creation theory
This theory states that, the earth and all The theory opened up the minds of scientists
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organisms living on it were created by to speculate on the origin of life on earth.

God. This belief is found in scriptures of However, since the process of special
most of the major religions in the world creation occurred only once, therefore, it
and it is also the most widely accepted cannot be observed. This is sufficient to
theory. For example, Hinduism mythology put the concept of special creation out of
the framework of scientific investigation.
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states that, “The God of Creation, created

the living world in accordance with his Science concerns itself only with observable
wish”. In Christianity, it is believed that, phenomena and as such, it will never be
“God created this universe, plants, animals able to prove or disprove special creation
and human beings in six natural days”. In theory. Moreover, it is not true that, species
Islamic studies, it has been stated that,“God were created in the form in which they
exist today and that, they are not capable

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Evolution
of undergoing any change. Species never favourable conditions. The active principles
remain unchanged, they rather change from were in fertilized eggs, seeds, sunlight,
time to time and in accordance with the wheat, decaying meat and mud.
environment in which they live. On top of The idea of spontaneous generation was
that, the special creation theory disobeys the
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popular almost till the seventeenth century.
law of biogenesis as it stresses that, life can Many scientists such as Descartes, Galileo,
arise from a word or from nothing provided
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and Helmont supported this idea. In fact,
that there is God’s will. According to the Von Helmont went to the extent of designing
law of biogenesis, life originates from the an experiment that gave rise to mice in three
existing life.
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weeks. In his experiment, he put a dirty
Spontaneous generation theory cloth in dark cupboard with a handful of
This theory assumes that, living things wheat grains. He believed that the active
arose from non-living materials on principle was human sweat.
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a number of distinct occasions by a The theory of spontaneous generation was
process of spontaneous generation. Most disproved in the course of time following the
scientists tentatively accepted the theory of experiments conducted by Fransesco Redi
spontaneous generation in which life was (1668), Lazzaro Spallanzani (1765) and later
believed to evolve from lifeless matter. The Louis Pasteur (1860) in his famous Swan
main idea in this theory is that, life comes
U neck experiment. A series of experiments
from lifeless in favourable conditions and which were conducted by these scientists,
that no causal agent such as a parent is proved that, no life could emerge from a
needed. Such a hypothetical process by non–living matter. They came out with
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which life routinely emerges from non- the theory of biogenesis, which states that,
living matter over specific periods of time “Living things only come from other living
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is known as abiogenesis, which means life things through reproduction”.

comes from non-living things.
Strengths and weaknesses of the
The Greek philosopher Aristotle believed spontaneous generation theory
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that, dead leaves falling from a tree into The theory is scientific since it can be
a pond would transform into fishes and subjected to experimental proof and
those falling on the soil would transform scientific research. It also offers the
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into worms and insects. He also held that, mechanisms to argue on how life arose on
some insects developed from morning dew the earth. However, by assuming that life
and rotting manure. Egyptians, on the other arose from non-living matter, the theory of
hand, believed that, mud of the Nile river spontaneous generation violates the law of
could spontaneously give rise to many biogenesis. According to this law, life arises
forms of life. from the pre-existing life.
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Aristotle postulated that certain particles of

matter contained active principles, which
co uld produce living organisms under
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Activity 5.1 An investigation of the origin particles from some unknown parts of the
of life based on the theory of spontaneous universe. It came with the Cosmic dust and
generation subsequently evolved into various forms of
life. In 1884, Helmholz speculated that life
Materials: Two test tubes, test tube rack,
in some forms reached the earth with falling
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pieces of fresh meat, cotton wool, tap water,
meteorites. Arrhenius (1908) postulated
source of heat, 1000 ml or 500 ml beaker.
the panspermia theory, which states that
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Procedure organisms existed throughout the universe
(i) Boil 500 ml of water in a beaker. and their spores could freely travel through
(ii) Sterilize one test tube by bathing it space from one star to the others.
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in boiling water.
Some observations have been used to show
(iii) Label two test tubes. One of the test how life could have arrived on the earth
tubes should be the one you have from elsewhere. For example, repeated
sterilized in step (ii) above. sightings of unidentified flying objects
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(iv) In each test tube place a piece of (UFOs), cave drawings of rocket like objects
fresh meat. and “spacemen” and reports of encounters
(v) Plug tightly the sterilised test tube with aliens, provide evidence of the arrival
using cotton wool. Leave the of life on the earth from elsewhere. In 1996,
second test tube unplugged.
U NASA scientists in the USA identified what
they thought could be the remains of bacteria
(vi) Place both test tubes on a test tube like organisms in a rock from Mars.
rack for five days.
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(vii) Record your observations daily.
cosmozoic theory
Results: After 5 days, white maggots According to this theory, life is truly
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which are the larva of houseflies will start supported on earth. However, the claim
to emerge from the unplugged test tube. that life crossed the space before reaching
Question: Based on your results, are the the earth may not be true because the living
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assumptions of the spontaneous generation matter cannot survive the extreme cold,
theory correct? Explain. dryness and ultraviolet radiations of the sun.
Moreover, the theory does not tell the origin
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Cosmozoic theory of life, and therefore, it does not deserve

to be called the theory of the origin of life.
According to this theory, life could have
Furthermore, the theory does not clearly
arisen once or several times in various
explain the mechanism through which life
parts of the universe. This means that life
was brought onto to the earth. Lastly, the
did not originate on the earth, rather, it
theory cannot be tested experimentally or
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originated somewhere in the galaxy and it

scientifically.
was brought on the earth planet as a ready-
made material. This theory was proposed Steady-state theory
by Ritcher (1865) who came out with the According to the steady-state theory, the
assumption that life reached the earth in earth had no origin. It has always been
the form of spores, germs or other simple able to support life and it has undergone

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Evolution
remarkable slight changes. The theory of the assumptions of this theory, have been
also asserts that life had no origin and it carried out. For example, when a mixture
is supported on the earth. Thus, the living of methane, ammonia, hydrogen and water
organisms had no origin, they always change vapour is heated at very high temperature
their numbers by increasing or decreasing or and pressure, chemical constituents react
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they become extinct. The theory is against to produce amino acids, fatty acids,
the evidence from fossil studies that the nitrogenous bases, that is purines and
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presence or the absence of dead remains pyrimidines.
can indicate the origin or the extinction of A Russian scientist, Alexander Oparin
the species.
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(1923) suggested that, the atmosphere of the
Strengths and weaknesses of the steady- primitive earth was different from the one
state theory we have today. According to Oparin, life
The argument that the origin of species must have come into existence as a result
of chemical evolution which took place
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cannot be assumed through fossil records is
true. It is also true that the earth undergoes on the primordial earth under favourable
slight changes through which it supports conditions of temperature and pressure.
life. However, the assumption that life had The earth is said to have originated as a
no origin is not true. This is against the hot gaseous mass some five billion years
law of biogenesis, which indicates that life
U ago. The atmosphere of the early earth
arises from already existed life. Lastly, if the contained hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
species had no origin as this theory claims, and carbon elements. Since the early earth
then the origin of life on earth cannot be was very hot (4000 to 9000 oC), the high
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tested experimentally. temperature did not allow the formation of
chemical bonds between those elements, and
Biochemical evolution or naturalistic therefore, they existed as atoms. When the
in
theory earth started cooling, the chemical bonds

The modern concept about the origin of were formed between the atoms and the
life on the earth is called a physiochemical molecules were formed. Hydrogen being
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or materialistic theory. This theory state active and abundant, readily combined
that, “Life arose on the earth according to with other atoms to form compounds like
physical and chemical laws”. This means methane (CH4), water (H2O), ammonia
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that, the cooling of the primordial earth (NH3) and hydrogen cyanide (HCN). In
favoured the reactions among the gaseous the early atmosphere, there was no free
constituents of the early atmosphere such molecular oxygen, and therefore, the earth
as carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. had a reduced atmosphere.
The reactions then gave rise to the formation As the temperature of the earth cooled
of simple organic compounds such as amino
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down further, water vapour condensed into

acids and sugars. Later, the nucleotides and liquid and very heavy rains, which were
nucleic acids that are the main components accompanied by violent bursts of lighting
of all living cells, were formed. This began. This resulted in the formation of
marked the beginning of life. Assuming lakes, rivers and great oceans on the earth’s
the conditions and components of the early, surface. The rain water dissolved some
primitive atmosphere, experimental proof
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of the atmospheric compounds such as cell would have been transformed into a
methane, ammonia, and carbon dioxide. The primitive self-replicating heterotrophic
running water contained dissolved mineral organism feeding on organic substances that
salts of rocks. There were high energy are found in its medium such as water body.
ultraviolet radiations from the sun, radiating
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heat from the earth’s centre and frequent
biochemical evolution theory
electrical charges in the form of lighting.
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Thus, the availability of simple compounds, Biochemical evolution theory is scientific
reduced atmosphere, sterile environment, and therefore, it can be experimentally
water and energy were responsible for the tested. The theory also recognises the role
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formation of simple organic compounds of amino acids and proteins in forming the
on the primordial earth. basis of life. Lastly, this theory encourages
critical thinking and thus enhances the
The earliest organic compounds that were development of inquisitive mind. However,
formed were sugars, fatty acids, glycerol,
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biochemical evolution theory fails to
formaldehyde, amino acids, purines, explain the transition from complex organic
and pyrimidines. The simple organic molecules to living organisms.
compounds underwent various reactions
to form complex organic compounds Exercise 5.1
such as lipids, polysaccharides, proteins,
U 1. What do you understand by the
nucleotides, and nucleic acids. The formed
protein molecules were crucial to the following terms:
transformation of inanimate to animate. (a) Cosmology.
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Because of the zwitterionic nature of protein (b) Abiogenesis.
molecules, they were able to form colloidal 2. Account for the concept, strengths
and weaknesses of the following
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hydrophilic complexes. As a result, these

complexes became surrounded by thin theories of the origin of life on the
layers of water molecules. These bodies earth:
may separate from the body of the liquid in (a) Special creation theory.
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which they are suspended and form a type (b) Spontaneous generation theory.
of emulsion. These structures, then joined 3. Explain why the cosmozoic theory
together to produce a separation of colloids does not deserve to be termed as a
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from their aqueous phase. This process is theory of the origin of life on the
called coacervation. The formed colloid-rich earth.
coacervates may have undergone various 4. (a) State the steady-state theory.
chemical reactions and, by absorbing metal (b) How do you link the theory of
ions, enzymes were formed. Thus, different steady-state to fossil studies?
processes such as incorporation of the
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5. (a) State biochemical theory of the

pre-existing molecule, which are capable origin of life.
of self-replication into the coacervate, and (b) Discuss the main ideas in
internal rearrangement of the lipid-coated biochemical evolution theory.
coacervate may have produced a primitive
type of cell. Through a series of physical
and physiological processes, the primitive

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Evolution
Theories of organic evolution According to Lamarck, the environment

Regardless of the means by which they come creates the need that may lead to a changed
into existence, scientists have observed that, pattern of behaviour of an organism. This
organisms undergo gradual changes in their change can lead to either use or disuse of
body structures, functions and efficiency. certain body parts or structures. The more
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How these changes occur, the causes and the body part is used, the stronger and the
more efficient it becomes and vice versa.
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effects of these changes on the genetic
makeup of living organisms have been the That is, if the body part is less or not used,
subject of interest to scientists. Different it gradually degenerates and disappears.
scientists have offered explanations on The new traits acquired as a result of the
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the causes, mechanisms and effects of the constant use of the body parts become
gradual changes in the form and functions part of heredity and can be transmitted
of the bodies of living organisms. to the next generation. This concept of
inheritance of acquired characters states
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The concept of organic evolution that,“Characteristics that individuals acquire
Organic evolution is the gradual change during their lifetime as they adapt to their
in structure and physiology of living environment, become part of their genetic
organisms over a long period of time. It makeup and are thus handled down from
is a slow change in genetic composition
of organisms in a population through
U one generation to another”. In an attempt to
illustrate his theory, Lamarck gave several
successive generations, leading to the examples, as elaborated in the following
formation of new species from the pre- subsections.
existing ones. Generally, organic evolution
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(a) Development of long neck and legs of
is characterised by a gradual change of
modern giraffe
organisms from simple or primitive to
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complex or advanced forms. This occurs According to Lamarck, ancestral giraffes

in order to enable organisms to adapt to the had short necks and front legs. They lived
changing environment as directed by the in plains and fed on grasses. When the
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environmental needs. environmental conditions changed, grasses

were not available (environmental need).
There are different theories that explain This forced giraffes to feed on the leaves of
the mechanism by which organic evolution tall trees. Thus, for the animals to reach the
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operates. These include Lamarck’s theory, leaves, they had to stretch the muscles of
Darwin’s theory and the modern theory or their necks and front legs. The continuous
Neo-Darwinian theory. stretching of front legs and neck muscles
Lamarck’s theory of evolution resulted in slightly longer necks and legs in
each generation until the size of the present
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck was a french
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day giraffe was reached. This means that, the

biologist who lived between 1744 to 1829
acquired new length of the two organs, neck
years. In 1809, he proposed a theory to
and legs was inherited from one generation
account for the mechanism of evolution
to another until the modern giraffe emerged
based on two conditions, which were the
as shown in Figure 5.1.
use and disuse of organismʼs parts and
the inheritance of acquired characters.
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Figure 5.1 Demonstration of Lamarckism on inheritance of acquired characteristics
(b) Development of webbed feet in and became flat shaped for maximum and
ducks or aquatic birds
U efficient swimming in deep waters.
According to Lamarck, the constant Strengths and weaknesses of Lamarck’s
spreading of the toe bones and the skin theory
between them in order to swim in search
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Lamarck’s work stimulated and opened up
for food or escape predators, gave rise
the minds of scientists to think, study and
to the webbed feet in aquatic birds. This
debate on the causes and effects of organic
in
occured when food became scarse on the

evolution. Furthermore, in his theory,
land, so ducks were forced to search food
Lamarck recognised the role of environment
in the water. The ducks tried to stretch their
in evolution. For example, the environment
toes to achieve maximum and efficient
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plays an important role in producing a

swimming. As a result the skin between their
phenotypic change of an organism as in case
toes became stretched to form webbed feet.
of body building exercises, which increase
This acquired characteristic was inherited
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the size and strength of the body muscles.

throughout generations. This means that,
Despite these achievements, Lamarck’s
originally ducks had their feet adapted for
theory had various weaknesses.
walking and looking for food on the land.
First, it is not true that the use or disuse of
(c) Development of flat shaped fish the body parts or structures can determine
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Lamarck believed that, previously fish had their existence or atrophy. Second, the
a variety of shapes for enabling them to acquired traits only affect the phenotype
lie on shallow waters. When food became and therefore, are non- genetic. Since they
scarce in shallow waters, fish were forced have no influence on the genotype, they
to start searching food in deep waters. cannot be inherited from one generation to
As a result, their body started to change another. To demonstrate this, Weismann cut

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Evolution
off the tails of mice over many successive by the name of Darwin-Wallace theory. This
generations. According to Lamarck, the is known as the theory of Natural selection.
enforced disuse of tails would lead to
progeny with small tails. This was not the Natural selection
case, and therefore, Weismann postulated Natural selection is a mechanism by which
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that somatic (body) acquired characteristics organisms that are better adapted to their
(resulting in phenotypic changes) did not environment survive and breed, while the
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directly affect the germ (gamete) cells. less adapted fail to survive. The better-
Thus, they could not be passed on to the adapted organisms are more likely to pass
next generation or inherited. their characteristics to the succeeding
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generations. Thus, species tend to change
Darwin’s theory of evolution from one generation to the next as they adapt
Charles Darwin developed the theory of to a new environment. Darwin and Wallace,
evolution based on the concept of natural therefore, proposed natural selection as a
selection. In 1831, he accepted an unpaid
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mechanism by which new species arise
post on the survey ship called HMS Beagle, from the pre-existing species. The Darwin-
which spent five years at sea charting the Wallace theory of natural selection is based
east coast of south America. During his five- on three observations and two deductions
year voyage, he made several observations (conclusions) which are summarised as
and collected various specimens of plants
U follows:-
and animals. More importantly, he stayed
five weeks on the Galapagoʼs Islands where Observation 1: Overproduction of the
he was struck by the similarities shown by offspring or enormous fertility power
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the plants and animals of the Islands and Darwin and Wallace observed that
mainland. In particular, he was interested individuals within a population tend to
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in the characteristics and distribution of reproduce more than the environment can
species of tortoises and finches. Darwin support. On average, they reproduce more
collected enough biological data about offspring than they are needed to replace
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variations between organisms. Through them.

these data, Darwin was convinced that
Observation 2: Constancy in the population
species always change through time in order
size of each natural species
to adapt their environment. On his return
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home, his work on selective breeding of Despite the high rate of reproduction among
different domestic animals opened up his the members of the species, the number
mind to the concept of artificial selection. of individuals in each population tends to
He continued to organise his work based remain fairly constant.
on these data, specimens and experience Deduction 1: There is struggle for existence
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gained during the trip. In November 1859,

Darwin published his theory in the form Darwin and Wallace concluded that, over
of a booklet entitled “Origin of Species reproduction results in a severe competition
by Means of Natural Selection”. Similar among the newly produced organisms
observations were made by Alfred Russel for the limited resources, such as food,
Wallace, hence, a new theory was published shelter, space and mates. The competition
can be either interspecific or intraspecific.
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The interspecific competition is a form means well adapted to the environment.

of competition in which individuals of As noted earlier, the favourable traits are
different species compete for the same inherited by the next generation, whereas
resources while intraspecific is the one unfavourable ones are selected out or
in which members of the same species “selected against” as their presence confer a
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compete for limited available resources. “selective disadvantage” on that organism.
During the struggle, many organisms
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In this way, natural selection leads to
fail to either reproduce or die before increased vigour within the species and
reaching the reproductive age. This explains ensures the survival of that species. This
why the population size tends to remain
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is because species gain adaptive features
approximately constant. as they struggle to exist. These adaptations
Observation 3: Variations exist within all are preserved and accumulated in the
populations individuals of the species and ultimately
lead to the origin of species. As natural
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As organisms struggle for existence,
they try to become better adapted to their selection continues, the differences become
environment so that they successfully more pronounced to mark off the successive
survive. For this reason, variations start to generations as separate species. Thus,
arise in the organisms. new species of organisms arise by natural
U selection over many generations during
Deduction 2: Natural selection or survival which the offspring become markedly
of the fittest distinct from their ancestors.
In the course of struggle for existence, only Darwin’s theory of natural selection can
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those organism with favourable adaptive be used to explain the Lamarck’s long
variations have a reproductive advantage necked giraffes. According to Darwin, both
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and high survival chances. Those with forms of giraffes existed, in other words,
unfavourable variations have limited chance those with long and short necks as well
in the struggle for existence, and therefore, as those with long and short limbs. When
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they perish. Thus, Darwin concluded grasses were scarce on the land (selection
that, nature selects only those organisms pressure), giraffes had to eat the leaves of
which carry favourable traits. Organisms tall trees (struggle for existence). Naturally,
selected in this way are better adapted to
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the giraffe with long necks and legs had a

their environment and can transmit their selective advantage over those with short
traits to their offspring. The key factor in necks and legs. They could get food more
determining survival is adaptation to the easily on higher branches of tall trees and
environment. Any physical, behavioural had better chances of survival (survival
or physiological variations, giving one of the fittest). Thus, the long-necked
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organism an advantage over another giraffe won in their struggle for existence,
organism will act as a selective advantage in reproduced and became abundant. On the
the struggle for existence. The advantaged contrary, the short-necked giraffes failed in
organisms, therefore, survive the struggle the struggle, starved and gradually became
whereas the disadvantaged ones perish extinct.
away. Hebert Spencer called this concept
“survival of the fittest”. The term “fit”

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Evolution
Types of natural selection the distribution are selected against the

In a population, there can be a range of values at the other end. The result is that,
individuals with respect to a certain trait. A the population’s trait distribution values shift
change in the environmental condition can towards other extreme. Thus, the distribution
values and its mean move towards one
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exert selection pressure on the species in a
population causing it to change in order to direction. This means that, in a directional
natural selection, a single extreme phenotype
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adapt to the new condition. The continuous
variation among the individuals in the is favoured. For example, the long neck in
population forms a normal distribution giraffes is said to have evolved in this
curve, with a mean, which represents the way, where the selection pressure operated
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optimum condition for the trait. There are against short necks. Since the animals
three types of natural selection, namely: with short neck could not reach as many
directional, stabilising and disruptive leaves as possible on tall trees, they died
selection. of starvation. Consequently, the distribution
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of neck length shifted to favour individuals
(a) Directional selection with long necks as shown in Figure 5.2.
This is the type of natural selection in
which the values of a trait at one end of
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Selection against an extreme trait
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Frequency
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Population after selection
Original population
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Trait expression
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Figure 5.2 The effect of directional selection on trait distribution
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(b) Stabilising selection selection pressures will operate to select the

In this case, the extremes of a trait are extremes (too short and too tall plants) and
selected against and the mean value of the maintain plants of medium (intermediate)
trait remains the same. Thus, when selection height. Therefore, the number of plants
of medium height will increase while the
y
pressure operates against the two extremes
of a trait, the population experiences numbers of too short and too tall plants will
decrease and finally disappear as shown
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stabilising selection. For example in a
population of maize, plants that are short in Figure 5.3. This means that, the plants
compete with tall plants for sunlight. of intermediate phenotypes are fitter than
Extremely tall plants may also be more plants of the other phenotypes.
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susceptible to wind damage. Therefore, the
Selection against extreme traits
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Frequency
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in
Original population
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Trait expression
Figure 5.3 Effect of stabilising selection on trait distribution
(c) Disruptive selection distribution as indicated in Figure 5.4. This

This is also known as diversifying occurs when fluctuating environmental
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natural selection, which occurs when conditions favour the presence of two
extreme values for a trait is favoured over different phenotypes. Continued separation
the intermediate ones. This causes the of phenotypic variants causes the division of
phenotypic distribution to deviate from the population into two distinct species. The
the centre resulting in a bimodal spread or different beak sizes of Darwinian finches

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Evolution
of the Galapagos Islands are said to have medium sized beaks. This means that the
evolved in this way. Due to the force of median is not the favourable trait in this
disruptive selection, intermediate beak sizes case. Instead, both extremes are favoured
have been selected against for generations. for survival. However, this is the rarest type
The resulting population has almost no
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of natural selection in a population.
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Selection against the intermediate traits
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Frequency
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U Original population
Trait expression
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Figure 5.4 The effect of disruptive selection on trait distribution
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Strengths and weaknesses of However, Darwin’s theory has a number

Darwinism of drawbacks. Firstly, the theory does not
Darwin’s theory of evolution had a number explain how variations are passed from
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of strengths. First, the theory puts more parents to offspring. That is, it does not
emphasis on the role of environment in recognise the role of genetics in evolution.
evolution. Second, the theory explains Consequently, the theory does not explain
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clearly the concept of the struggle for the causes of variation such as mutation
existence of organisms as they compete and genetic recombination. Secondly, it
for the limited resources. It lays out the does not clearly show how the fit traits are
existence of variation among organisms. naturally created and maintained, although,
Lastly, according to Darwin, new species the theory explains the survival of the fittest
arise from the pre-existing species by and the elimination of the unfit. Lastly, the
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means of natural selection. The species do theory does not explain how life originated
not remain fixed they rather change from on earth, instead, it focuses on how new
simple to complex forms. This idea stops species might arise from the pre-existing
the debate on the special creation theory species.
which believed that species once created
remained fixed.
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Neo-Darwinism are best adapted to their environment.

The modern way of explaining evolution Nature tends to favour their existence with
is known as Neo-Darwinism (Neo- means gene frequency multiplying generation after
new or addition of something to the notion generation.
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of). The theory of organic evolution as (b) Genetic drift or Sewell Wright effect
explained by Darwin and Wallace has been The term genetic drift refers to the
modified and explained more scientifically
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elimination of genes of certain traits when
using evidences derived from genetics, a section of the population migrates or dies
molecular biology, ecology, palaeontology due to natural calamity. Thus, genetic drift
and ethology. Neo-Darwinism, therefore, is defined as the change or variation in the
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is the theory of organic evolution by gene frequency as a matter of chance. The
natural selection of genetically determined chances of genetic drift are higher in small
characteristics. According to this theory, populations than in larger populations.
the origin of species by natural selection Sewell Wright (1931) was the first scientist
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is brought about by changes in the gene to recognise that genetic drift could cause
frequency or genotypes in large populations. changes in the gene frequency and hence
As a result, some of the genotypes tend evolution.
to be naturally selected for and others are
(c) Natural selection
selected against, and hence, eliminated from
the populations. The naturally favoured
U The role of natural selection is to ensure
organisms tend to reproduce giving rise that favourable genes are maintained and
to new offspring. The different aspects of unfit ones are eliminated. The following
e
Neo-Darwinism are supported by a number examples illustrate how natural selection
of current pieces of evidence that include works.
the following:
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(i) Industrial melanism in peppered

(a) Genetic recombination moths
In all sexually reproducing populations, Industrial melanism in Biston betularia
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gametes are formed as a result of meiosis. (peppered moths) is one of the best evidence
During prophase I of meiosis, the exchange for natural selection. This instance was
of genetic materials between non-sister recorded by a scientist called H.B Kettlewell
chromatids of homologous chromosomes in 1959. There are two varieties of Biston
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occurs. This exchange of genetic materials betularia, the light and the black coloured
provides a new combination of genes, insects as shown in Figure 5.5. In the early
which brings about new characteristics in 19th century, the light coloured moths were
the offspring. In recombination, traits of dominant in England. They inhabited the
different organisms are combined to give lichens that grew on tree trunks. The light
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one trait. The resulting mixture of traits coloured moths, having been resting upon
may be good for the organism to adapt to light coloured lichens, were practically
its environment. This is then passed to the invisible to the predator birds. Later, there
next generation which may be even better was a steady rise of industrialisation. The
adapted. In this way, organisms that are industrial pollution not only killed the
formed as a result of genetic recombination, lichens that were growing on the trees, but

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Evolution
it also made the tree trunks turn black with ones. However, in areas that were not
the deposition of soot. Consequently, the affected by industrial pollution, the light
light coloured moths became vulnerable to coloured moths were still dominant. Thus,
predators and their population, therefore, in the polluted area, the environmental
started declining. The light coloured moths factor (selection pressure) which selected
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were soon replaced by the black ones. the dark varieties against the light form is
The latter, having been resting on dark bird predation. The natural selection has
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tree trunks were not easily visible to the operated in the direction of eliminating the
predators, and therefore, they had better gene for light colour and a gradual increase
chances of survival than the light coloured of the gene for dark colour.
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se
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Figure 5.5 Dark and light coloured Biston betularia moths
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(ii) Pesticides resistance in insects insecticide ineffective. In this case, DDT
Remarkable evidence of natural selection acted as a selection pressure to eliminate the
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has come from the work involving the mosquitoes that lacked the resistant genes. It
use of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane favoured an increase of the population size
(DDT) to kill mosquitoes and other insects. of mosquitoes with the resistant genes. The
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When DDT was initially spread, nearly process where a new species of organisms
all the mosquitoes were killed. However, emerges especially the micro-organisms
there were few mosquitoes that remained and insects is called evolution in action.
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unaffected. This is because of their genetic Strengths and weakness of the Neo-
make-up. They had a unique quality of Darwinism theory
resistance to such an insecticide. Thus, Neo-Darwinism is recognised for embracing
the resistant mosquitoes, which were the role of genetics in natural selection.
originally present in small numbers, got Further, the theory demonstrates evolution
a chance of multiplying rapidly. Later on, in progress, especially at the micro level.
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more resistant types of mosquitoes had However, Neo-Darwinism could not

emerged in the locality where this chemical explain the origin of species or organisms
was used. Therefore, DDT became less of distinctive form and behaviour. In
effective against mosquitoes as the years addition, the theory partially explains
passed on. Eventually, a population of DDT adaptation or micro-evolution as a means
resistant mosquitoes emerged, making the of species creation. For example, this
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theory assumes that there is random Palaeontology

genetic variations followed by selection. Studies of organisms that existed during
However, modern genetics demonstrates the past life have generated substantial
the role of directed mutation in adaptive evidence to support organic evolution.
response. Genes are said to respond to
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Evidence that supports evolution has been
environmental circumstances by random generated by studying the fossil records of
adaptive mutations that in turn result in the
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the previous organisms. This is done by
creation of new species. specifically studying their structures and
deduce their functions. Palaeontology is
Exercise 5.2 the study of the remains of past life called
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fossils. Palaeontology links biology with
1. Discuss the contributions made by
geology and is supported by archaeology
Charles Darwin and Jean de Baptiste
which involves digging up of fossils down
Lamarck in evolution.
the rocks. When plants and animals die, their
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2. Based on theories of organic evolution, remains are either decomposed by bacteria
describe the development of the or preserved as fossils. Fossils are therefore,
following: defined as remains, traces, or imprints of
(a) Loss of legs in snakes. life that have been preserved at sometime
(b) Lateral flattening in some fish.
(c) Webbed toes in ducks.
U in the geological past. They prove that
varieties of animals and plants existed in
3. Show how the modern view of natural various geological ages of the earth.
selection modifies the theory put forward The process of fossils formation is known
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by Charles Darwin. as fossilisation. However, not all organisms
4. Explain the evolution of Plasmodia that die become fossils. This is because
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which are resistant to certain anti- most of them rapidly decompose after
malarial drugs such as chloroquine. death. The best place for fossilisation is the
5. Briefly explain the following terms: ocean because salt water checks the decay
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(a) Adaptive mutations. of organisms. In most cases, soft parts of

(b) Micro-evolution. the body are not preserved, hard parts such
(c) Selection pressure. as bones, teeth, shells and woody parts
(d) Genetic drift. of plants are preserved. Fossils are found
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mostly in the sedimentary rocks, which are

formed due to slow settling down of silt,
Evidence of evolution mud or volcanic ash in rivers, lakes and
Substantial evidence exists to support the sea. The particles settle forming different
mechanism of organic evolution. One line layers. Each layer is called a stratum. The
of evidence shows that adaptation is an lowest stratum, which was deposited first,
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agent of evolution. Another line supports contains the fossils of the primitive forms
a common ancestral origin of different of life, whereas the upper strata contain
organisms and speciation as a driver of fossils of more complex and advanced
evolution. This means new species that arise plants and animals.
from the pre-existing ones, change from
time to time to adapt to their environment.

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Evolution
Types of fossils was discovered by Dr. Mary Leakey in

The types of fossils, their formation and 1976. Her study was based on the analysis
examples include the following: of the foot fall impressions and it provides
evidence for the theory of bipedalism in
(a) Entire organism Pliocene hominids.
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In this type of fossils, the entire organism (e) Imprints
is preserved. The preserving materials can
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be ice, amber, tar, or oil seeps. Examples These are fossils in the form of footprints,
include insects trapped in tree resin (amber) trails, tracks and tunnels of different
and woolly mammoth found in Siberia. organisms in mud that are baked and filled
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with sand and covered by further sediments.
(b) Hard skeletal materials A good example is footprints of dinosaurs.
These fossils are formed when hard skeletal (f) Compressed and carbonized plant
parts such as teeth, bones and shells are fossils
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trapped by sedimentary sands and clay;
which in turn form sedimentary rocks. These are fossils which are formed when
oils in the plant cells are leached out and the
(c) Petrified fossils remaining matter is reduced to the carbon
This kind of fossil is formed when minerals film. The plants have an inner structure of
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such as silica, pyrites, and calcium carbonate rigid organic walls, which may be preserved
gradually replace the organic materials in a in this manner, revealing the framework
body of the buried organism and eventually of the original cells. The plants are often
fill the space left as the organism decays. fossilised through carbonization. A good
e
Petrification is exemplified in the way silica example is a coal.
replaced Micraster, which is an extinct form (g) Coprolites
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of echinoderm.
These are faecal pellets that are prevented
(d) Moulds and casts from decomposing and later get compressed
Organisms buried in sediments slowly in sedimentary rocks. They often contain
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decompose and dissolve away leaving some evidence of the food eaten. The
a cavity or mould that contains an exact example for this is cenozoic mammalian
imprint of the organism’s shape and size. faecal remains.
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When this hollow space is filled with

Fossils as evidence of organic evolution
sediments, it takes the shape of the mould
forming a cast. Although the fossil may The fossil records suggest that, the complex
show the characteristic of the original and advanced forms of plants and animals
organism or part of the body of an organism, evolved from the simple and primitive
normally no organic material remains in the forms of life. For example, research on
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cast. Moulds and casts are three dimensional fossils has shown that the earliest fossils
and they preserve the surface contours of were monera, followed by protoctista and
the organisms. Examples are the pith cast then fungi. Plants and animals appeared
of the calamities located in West Virginia later. The oldest fossils of animals are those
and the casts of footprints in Laetoli site of fishes followed by amphibians and the
near Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, which latest are mammals.
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Furthermore, the study of fossils shows the animal adapted to the changes in the
that species of organisms did not remain environment. According to the history, the
unchanged, rather they were changing in development of a horse was gradual, from
the course of time from simple to complex. simple, primitive Hyracotherium of the
For example, the history of the horse from
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Eocene times to complex, advanced Equus
fossil records found in the North American of the Pleistocene times. As shown in Figure
sedimentary rocks is used as one of the best 5.6, changes in the structure of the horse’s
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examples of evolutionary changes. These body enabled it to cope with the changing
occurred through various generations as environment around it through the process
of adaptation.
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Equus
Adapted to life
in dry grasslands.
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Pliohippus Increased
reliance
on speed.
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in
Reduction of
Merychippus digits two and
four.
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Mesohippus Third digit much

enlarged.
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Hyracotherium
Figure 5.6 Evolution of horse from simple primitive form to complex form

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Evolution
Fossil records also shows that evolutionary change induced by these new conditions
life of a plant or animal can be reconstructed. is less likely to affect fossilisation. Lastly,
That is, by studying fossils, the mode of life most fossils convey information about
exhibited by fossilised animals such as external forms, but little about how the
mode of feeding can be assumed. organisms function, change in the cause
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of time from simple to complex.
Weaknesses of fossils evidence
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Generally, the fossil records are useful Comparative morphology and anatomy
sources for tracing the evolutionary Organic evolution is also evident in the
history of organisms. However, the lack similarities and differences in the basic
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of records on the continuity of fossils is a structures of different organisms. Anatomy
major limitation in tracing the descent of is the study of structure and form of
biological groups. These gaps in the fossil organs in the body of living organisms.
records are termed as “missing links”. Comparative study of the anatomy of
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There are various reasons for the incompleteness groups of animals and plants reveals a great
of fossil records or missing links. Firstly, the similarity in certain structural features. This
chances that organisms become fossilised is explained based on the following aspects:
are very low because they are soft-bodied (a) Basic structures
and die in conditions that are not favourable
for fossilisation. Secondly, many fossils
U When the anatomy of various groups of
have been destroyed through erosion and organisms is compared, it can be found that
tectonic movements. Thirdly, most fossils certain basic structures are shared among the
groups or within the groups of organisms.
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are fragmentary, they consists of the physical
fragments or small disconnected items. Fouthly, The basic structure of flowers, for example, is
some evolutionary changes occur in population the same in all angiospermophytes. There is
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at the limits or edges of the ecological range also a similarity across mouth parts of insects
of a species. The population of organisms as indicated in Figure 5.7. These similarities in
at the edges is likely to be small, thus the morphological and anatomical characteristics
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chances of fossilisation are low. In addition, among organisms suggest a common ancestral
when environmental conditions change, origin. Their structural modification is due to
the population of a species could be greatly environmental changes.
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reduced. This means that, any evolutionary

Fo
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Sucking, for example, in butterfly, Licking and biting, for example, in

mandibles lost, labium reduced, and honeybee, labium is long to tap up
maxillae become long forming tube. nectar, whereas mandibles chew pollen
and mould wax.
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nl
Primitive state: biting and chewing.
Insects such as grasshopper use
strong mandibles and maximillae for
manipulating food.
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Piercing and sucking as it occurs in
female mosquito, where labrum and
maxillae form tube. Mandibles form
piercing stylets, labium grooved to
hold other parts.
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Figure 5.7 Adaptation of insect mouth parts
(b) Homologous structures and divergent structures are said to have the same origin.
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evolution For example, limbs in all vertebrates are
Homologous structures are body parts or built on the same basic pattern called the
pentadactyl pattern. However, due to the
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organs of different species that share similar

basic form or construction, but perform adaptive radiation, similar parts adapted
different roles as shown in Figure 5.8. Such to perform different roles. In this case,
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Bat (flying)
Seal
(swimming) Horse (running)
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Human
(manipulating)
Mole (digging)
Figure 5.8 Adaptive radiation of fore limb of chordates

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Evolution
limbs have apparently evolved as different birds, eyes of vertebrate, squids and
structures from the basic ones. Such octopus, jointed legs of insects and those
organs can also be exemplified by flippers of vertebrates. Analogous structures only
in whales for swimming, wings in birds bear superficial similarities, and therefore,
for flying and fore limbs in monkeys for support convergent evolution as indicated
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walking. Homologous structures suggest in Figure 5.9. This may be explained in
common ancestry, but they also suggest terms of the environment acting through
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the existence of divergent evolution. The the agency of natural selection, favouring
latter is defined as a relative phenomenon in these variations, which confer increased
which initial similar populations accumulate survival and reproductive potential on those
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differences over evolutionary time and organisms possessing them. Convergent
become increasingly distinct. evolution is thus a kind of evolution
whereby organisms evolve structures that
(c) Analogous structures and convergent
have similar functions but have unrelated
evolution
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evolutionary ancestry. In this process,
Analogous structures are body parts or unrelated or distantly related organisms
organs of different species, which have evolve similar body forms, colourations,
different construction and origin but perform organs and adaptations. It describes the
similar roles. Examples of analogous
structures include wings of insects and
U acquisition of the same biological trait in
unrelated lineages.
Bat wing Butterfly wing

e
in
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Figure 5.9 Analogous structures, butterfly and bat wings
(d) Vestigial structures vestigial organs can be explained in terms

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These are homologous structures in some of changes in the environment or modes

species with no apparent function. They of life of the species. Such organs were
are smaller and simpler in structure than typically functional in the ancestral species
the corresponding functional parts in but are now non-functional or have changed
the ancestral species. The existence of functions. Examples of vestigial organs
include an appendix in humans, which is
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functional in the digestion of cellulose in their common ancestor is. The development
herbivores. Others include halters (hind of an embryo from fertilisation until it
wings) of houseflies and leaves of some becomes a foetus is called embryology.
xerophytes such as Cactus plants. The The development of embryos of vertebrates
existence of vestigial structures suggests
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in the early stages is very similar. They all
a common ancestor from which they were possess the same features as shown in Figure
inherited.
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5.10. They have external brachial grooves
(e) Comparative embryology (visceral clefts) in the pharyngeal region
It is the comparison of embryo development and a series of internal paired gill pouches.
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across the species. This is the branch of In fishes, these pouches join to form gill slits
embryology that compares and contrasts for gaseous exchange. In other organisms,
embryos of different species in vertebrates the perforation develop and become an
to show how animals are related. The greater eustachian tube and the auditory canal
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the similarity of structure, the more closely involved in hearing.
related the species are and the more recent
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1
e
in
2
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3
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Salamander Fish Tortoise Chick Hog Calf Rabit Human
Figure 5.10 Vertebrate embryos showing stages of embryological development

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Evolution
In addition, both have segmental myotomes common pattern or features of bones suggest
(muscle blocks) which are evident in the tail an evolutionary relationship between
like structure retained in some vertebrates organisms.
like rabbits.
Comparative biochemistry
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Furthermore, they develop a single
circulatory system which includes a two Evidence to support organic evolution
has also been generated by comparing the
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chambered heart showing no separation
of the right and left halves. This situation chemical composition and physiological
is only retained in fishes. These embryo processes among groups of organisms. The
occurrences of similar chemical molecules
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similarities signify that vertebrates have a
common ancestor. in a complete range of organisms suggest
the existence of biochemical homology.
Activity 5.2 An examination of bones The evidence is derived from the following
in mammalian limbs sources:
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Materials: The limb bones or limb diagrams (a) Basic cellular component
of horse, cow, bat, rat and whale or dolphin. Basic cellular components are known
Procedure to occur within groups of organisms in
(i) Look at the drawings of limb bones large numbers. For example, cytochrome
U
or actual limb bones of the forelimbs C is identical in almost all aerobically
of horse, cow, bat, rat and whale or respiring organisms, as it is for human and
dolphin. chimpanzee. The haemoglobin of humans,
(ii) List the features of each bone such gorillas, and chimpanzees is almost the
e
as the number, size, shape and same and the chemistry of chlorophyll is
strength of the bone. the same in all chlorophyllous organisms.
in
(iii) Now carefully look at the pattern Furthermore, the chemistry of nucleic acids
of bones in each limb and note any is the same and the genetic code is universal
differences and similarities. in all organisms. This similarity in cellular
components suggests a common stem of
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(iv) Write down what you think this

pattern is and compare your organisms. Thus, since the similarities can
responses with your fellow students. be traced back to bacterial cells, then there
(v) How has the bone pattern been is an evolutionary relationship between
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modified as an adaptation to flight prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

in the bat? (b) Basic physiology
(vi) How has the bone pattern been Various groups of organisms share similar
modified as an adaptation for physiological processes. For example,
swimming in whales? hormones in chordate have similar roles.
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Results: Homologous mammalian limbs Insulin hormone extracted from cattle and
demonstrate a pattern in the bones, which pigs is chemically and structurally similar
has become adapted for different functions, to human insulin, therefore, it is used to
for example, wings of a bat for flying and treat diabetes. Another example involves
legs of a horse for walking. However, a the action of thyroxine hormone.
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If the thyroid gland is removed from a (a) Continental distribution of organisms

tadpole lava of a frog, the immature chordate Biologists have discovered many amazing
will not metamorphose into an adult frog. facts about the presence of certain species
However, if it is injected with thyroxine on various continents and islands. All
hormone extracted from human, cattle, goat organisms are adapted to their environment
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and the like, metamorphosis is ensured and to greater extents. If both biotic and abiotic
the lava grows into an adult animal. factors within the habitat are capable of
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Another hormone of reference is prolactin. supporting a particular species in one
This stimulates synthesis and production of geographical area, then one might expect
the same species would be found in
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milk in mammals. However, the hormones,
which are similar to prolactin, occur in similar habitat in different geographical
various vertebrates where these hormones areas, for example, in Africa and in South
perform different functions. For example America. However, this is not the case,
in bony fish, the hormone stimulates the plant and animal species are discontinuously
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secretion of skin mucus and increases urine distributed throughout the world. For
production. In amphibians, it stimulates example, animals in the African continent
the secretion of egg jelly and increases and those in South America are very
skin permeability to water. Thus, similar different. Africa has short-tailed monkeys,
physiology among chordates suggests a
U elephants, lions, antelopes and giraffes,
whereas South America has long tailed
common ancestor.
monkeys, congers, jaguars, and ilamas.
Biogeography
Even greater differences can be found
Biogeography is the study of the
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if Australia is taken into consideration.
distribution of species within ecosystems Although it occupies the same latitude
in a geographical space over geological
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as South America and Africa, Marsupials

time. It is a field of inquiry that unites such as Kangaroo are found in Australia,
concepts and information from other fields and totally absent in Africa. Marsupials are
like geology, ecology, evolution, biology only represented by the opossum in South
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and physical geography. Geographical America and North America. Furthermore,

distribution of plants and animals provides the echidna and platypus which are the only
another evidence for evolution. It is believed living representatives of primitive egg-
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that species originated in a given area and laying mammals (monotremes) are found
dispersed outwards from that point. The only in Australia and are completely absent
extent of dispersal depends on the success in the rest of the world. On the other hand,
of the organisms, efficiency of dispersal Australia has very few placental mammals
mechanisms and the existence of natural except those which have been introduced
barriers such as oceans, mountain ranges by human beings.
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and deserts. The evidence which support

that distribution of organisms in different This geographical distribution of Animals
continents and oceanic islands as evidence is explained by the theory of descent with
for organic evolution are discussed in the modification. According to this theory,
next subsections. the main groups of modern mammals

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Evolution
arose in the Northern hemisphere and parts of the world. With time progressive
subsequently, at a time of low sea level changes within the camelidae occurred
when the intercontinental land bridges were during the migration to produce two genera
exposed, migrated in three major directions. known as Camelus in which camels belong
Firstly, they migrated to South America, via
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and Lama which is the genus for Ilama.
two land bridges, one connecting Asia with
Therefore, camels and their relatives, the
North America and another one (the Isthmus
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Ilamas, are found in two continents with
of Panama), connecting North America with
true camels in Asia and Africa, and Ilamas
South America. A large number of families
in South America. There are no camels
of South American, marsupials, became
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in North America. Based on the theory
extinct as a result of competition with
of descent with modification, it would be
counterparts in the Northern Hemisphere.
expected that, the camels once existed in
Secondly, they migrated to Africa via the
North America but became extinct. Indeed,
land bridge connecting Europe and Africa
there was a discovery of large fossils of
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in the today’s Gibraltar.
camels in North America. This perspective,
The third direction was to Australia via the therefore, suggests that camels started in
South East Asia peninsula and the Islands, North America, from which they migrated
which at a time of low sea level, formed across the Bering Strait into Asia and
a continuous land bridge extending to
U hence to Africa and through the Isthmus of
Australia. The shallowness of the Bering Panama into South America. Once isolated,
Strait today means that the lowering they evolved along with their own lines,
of the sea level in the past would have producing the modern Camels in Asia and
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readily exposed the land bridge between Africa, the Ilamas in South America and
two northern continents. This permitted a becoming extinct in North America.
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relatively easy passage of animals between

(c) Continental drift
the two continents. Such a perspective
offers a ready explanation of the present The same kind of fossils are found in
day similarity of the animals of Eurasia areas that were once adjacent in the
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and North America. However, once they past. However, through the process of
got down into the Southern continents, they continental drift based on the concept
presumably became isolated from each other of plate tectonics, areas are now in the
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by various types of barriers. For example, widely divergent geographical locations.

the submergence of Isthmus of Panama For example, fossils of the same types of
isolates the South America animals and the ancient amphibians, arthropods and ferns
Mediterranean Sea and the North African are found in South America, Africa, India,
desert isolate the Africa animals. Australia and Antarctica that can be dated
to the Palaeozoic era. During this era, these
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(b) Evidence for migration and isolation regions were united as a single landmass
Continental biogeography revealed that, called Gondwana land. Sometimes, the
camels and Ilamas arose from a common descendants of these organisms can be
ancestor which belonged to the family identified and show clear similarity to
camelidae. The ancestor originated from each other although they inhabit different
Northern America and spread in various geographical regions with different climatic
conditions.
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(d) Oceanic island distribution of findings support the theory of descent with
organisms modification, which holds that, the present
There are two types of islands known as distribution of flora and fauna are related
the coastal and oceanic islands. Coastal to their common origins.
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islands always contain indigenous species Selective breeding
that are closely related to the one found Selective breeding or artificial selection
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on the coast but they are not identical. It is is a process of choosing a few organisms,
believed that, all the species in the coastal plants, or animals to serve as parents for
island crossed the short distance of water the next generation. It is a method in which
between the island and the mainland by
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humans use plant and animal breeding to
flying, swimming and floating. This means selectively develop particular phenotypic
that, the observed differences between the traits. This is done by choosing animals
animals on the coast and the islands arose or plants with superior characteristics that
due to their adaptation to their environment. will sexually reproduce and have offspring.
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Geological evidence indicates that the The organisms that are selected to act as
oceanic islands such as Hawaii and parents show a favourable variation such
Galapagos were formed by oceanic volcanic as increased size or improved flavour.
activity which pushed them up above the These are then artificially bred by selective
sea level, so that they have never had any
U mating, selective propagation or selective
direct geographical link with any land pollination with the aim of perpetuating the
mass. Plant species must have arrived on desired characteristics. By using genetic
the Islands as air borne spores or seeds by knowledge, humans through selective
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wind dispersal or water dispersal as floating breeding, are preserving those animal or
seeds and masses of vegetation. Aquatic plant genes, which are considered desirable
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and semi aquatic organisms are believed to and eliminating those which are undesirable.
have been carried there by ocean currents The process of selective breeding or
while terrestrial organism may have been artificial selection may occur through one
carried clinging to logs or floating masses
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of the three methods or types namely; line

of vegetation or may have been brought breeding, inbreeding, and outbreeding or
by human settlers in boats. Birds, bats, and outcrossing.
flying insects flew to these Islands.
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Line breeding is a process of breeding

Darwin studied the animals of Galapagos animals or plants that are closely related
Island and noticed that they were similar to so as to fix or set desirable traits. For
the animals on South American mainland example, if a cattle has some qualities that
but they were very different from animals the breeder likes, then a cow will be bred
on the other islands that had a similar with a relative bull in order to reinforce the
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environmental condition. Therefore, he desirable traits through a gene pool. The

concluded that animals on the Galapagos idea is that, if one animal has desirable
Island had migrated from South American qualities, mating it with a genetically related
mainland and after a long period of time animal will increase the desirable traits. In
they became new species as the population human terms, line breeding is like mating
adapted to its new environment. These two close, but one-step removed relatives

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Evolution
like first cousins, uncle and niece or half- Since new characteristics and hence new
brother and half-sister for the purpose of species are produced through selective
perpetuating desirable characters. breeding, then this is the evidence that
Inbreeding involves the mating of very species arise naturally from the pre-existing
species.
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closely related animals or plants in the
hope of retaining the desired traits in the Exercise 5.3
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next generation. The method of inbreeding
is similar to line breeding only that in 1. Explain how the following pieces of
inbreeding, the crossed plants or animals evidence support the theory of organic
should be as close as parents and offspring. evolution:
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Inbreeding has some serious flaws because a) Comparative anatomy.
while it may intensify the desired traits, b) Comparative biochemistry.
it is also likely to intensify any faults in c) Geographical distribution of
the parents. The line breeding is a little organisms.
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better because the parents are one step d) Palaeontology.
removed. However, the two methods may e) Selective breeding.
have one common genetic drawback of 2. Describe the ways in which the
passing undesirable recessive genes through following concepts account for the
successive generations and thus, if they are
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continuously practiced, weak generations the organisms in the world is not by
may occur. ecological factors only:
In the outcrossing, plants or animals that a) Adaptive radiation.
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bred are purely unrelated. This means that b) Human interventions.
the crossed parents do not have any related 3. Compare selective breeding with
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ancestors in their pedigree for four or more natural selection.

generations. This method of breeding 4. Analogous and homologous structures
introduces new traits that are missing in the depict antagonistic ways of evolution
gene pool. It can also dilute the effects of
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of organisms. Explain.
inbreeding by reducing the concentration
5. Explain the statement that “adaptation
of undesirable genes. Therefore, breeders
and mutation are agents of evolution”.
prefer outcrossing to the line and inbreeding
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6. The occurrence and distribution of

methods.
organisms in oceanic islands and
Artificial selection or selective breeding continents support organic evolution.
describes intentional breeding for a certain With examples, discuss this statement.
trait or combination of traits. The term was
utilised by Charles Darwin in contrast to Speciation
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natural selection in which the differential

reproduction of organisms with certain Speciation is the formation of new and
traits is attributed to improved survival distinct species in the course of evolution. It
or reproductive ability. Thus, continuous involves the splitting of a single evolutionary
breeding of plants and animals produce lineage into two or more genetically
varieties that give rise to new species. independent lineages as indicated in Figure
5.11.
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Speciation, therefore, is the changing of individuals within a population such that they are
no longer part of the same species. This most often results from geographical isolation
or reproductive isolation of individuals within the population. As the species evolve
and branch off, they cannot interbreed with members of the original species any longer.
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Year 10
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Two new
Year 9 populations
Year 8
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Year 7
Year 6
Year 5
Year 4
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Year 3
Year 2
Year 1
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Ancestral population
Figure 5.11 Speciation process

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Types of speciation The geographical barriers create spatial
separation that prevents mating and hence
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There are three types of speciation that can

occur in a population based on geographic gene flow between members of two
isolation, reproductive isolation and separated populations. Adaptation to new
conditions or random genetic drift in a small
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environmental factors. The stated factors

lead to three modes of speciation, namely: population leads to a change in the allele
allopatric, sympatric, and parapatric and genotype frequencies. The prolonged
speciation respectively, as shown in Figure separation of populations may result into
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5.12. genetic isolation even if they are brought

together after a long time. In this way, new
(a) Allopatric speciation species may arise. A famous example of
The word allopatric derives its meaning allopatric speciation is the use of Darwinian
from two terms “allo” which means “other” finches of the Galapagos Islands, which
and “patria” which means “native place”. are considered to have been speciated
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Allopatric speciation occurs when the allopatrically because of volcanic eruptions

barriers such as mountain ranges, sea, rivers that divided the population.
or forests, geographically isolate group of
organisms that evolve to be separate species
into different locations.

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Evolution
(b) Sympatric speciation and rest together in one large assemblage.

This is the type of speciation that occurs Such a condition substantially reduces the
among individuals in the same geographical chance of allopatry from being the cause of
location. Sympatric speciation does speciation. However, it may result in groups
of females within a population that develop
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not involve geographical separation of
populations as a cause of genetic isolation. a strong affinity for males with different
It rather requires the development of extreme phenotypic traits such as scale
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some form of reproductive isolating markings, and limbs that differ in size from
mechanisms, which arise by selection within the average individuals. Hence, sympatric
a geographically confined area. These may speciation is one in which reproductive
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be structural, physiological, behavioural or isolation occurs within a population without
genetic mechanisms. Sympatric speciation geographical isolation.
might thus result from a combination of (c) Parapatric speciation
sexual selection and ecological factors.
This is a mode of speciation in which a
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Studies of cichlid fishes from Lake Nyasa
and other lakes in the East African Rift smaller population is isolated usually at
Valley reveals how species flocks may have the periphery of a larger population and
arisen from the ecologically uniform lakes. becomes isolated to the extent of becoming
Species flocks are defined as individuals a new species. This type of speciation is not
of the same species that live, feed, walk
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Original population Initial step of speciation Evolution of reproductive

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isolation
ALLOPATRIC
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Barrier formation In isolation

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PARAPATRIC
New niche entered In adjacent niche

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SYMPATRIC
Genetic polymorphism Within the population
Figure 5.12 Types of speciation
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It occurs when members of a population Pre-zygotic mechanisms

are separated not by geographical barriers These are isolating mechanisms that
like water body or mountain ranges but due interfere with the reproduction process
to an extreme change in habitat. This can before the formation of the zygotes. They
cause a population in the area to interbreed
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include the following:
with their geographical neighbours than the
individuals within the population. (a) Ecological isolation
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In this case, species do not meet
Therefore, divergence may occur which because they are in different habitat
can lead to the development of distinct preference. Hence, no mating can
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characteristics and life style due to reduced take place.
gene flow and various selection pressure
(b) Behavioural isolation
across the population. This kind of
This occurs when animals exhibit
speciation is somehow similar to allopatric
different courtship patterns, which
in that populations are prevented from
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do not stimulate or are not accepted
interbreeding.
by the opposite sex. For example,
Exercise 5.4 sexual songs of birds or calls of frogs
must be exact if they are to elicit the
1. What do you understand by the term appropriate breeding response from
speciation?
U the opposite sex.
2. Giving examples, describe three
(c) Incompatibility
modes of speciation.
Incompatibility or mechanical isolation
3. Explain differences between allopatric
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occurs in two ways:
and sympatric speciation.
(i) Physical incompatibility, which
4. Explain various mechanisms that
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is caused by differences in the

contribute to the creation of new
genitalia that prevent successful
species.
copulation.
5. Explain how geographical barriers
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(ii) Physiological incompatibility,

such as mountains and rivers
which is a result of physiological
contribute to the formation of new
changes that prevent fertilisation.
species.
These changes take place in
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the female reproductive system

Reproductive isolation
where the gametes may be
Reproductive isolation could be defined prevented from meeting or the
as a condition that occurs when actively sperm may fail to survive due to the
reproductive members of a given population presence of natural spermicides in
fail to interbreed. According to Theodosius the female reproductive system. In
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Dobzhansky (1937), the factors that plants, the pollen tube may fail to
prevent interbreeding are called isolating grow on a stigma.
mechanisms. It is these mechanisms,
which bring about speciation and they are
categorised as pre-zygotic and post-zygotic
mechanisms.

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Evolution
(d) Seasonal isolation (Temporal isolation) Post-zygotic mechanisms

Seasonal isolation or seasonal barriers These are mechanisms which interfere with
involve the timing of courtship behaviour reproduction process after fertilisation has
and gamete production in organisms. If taken place. They include the following:
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the breeding seasons of the two groups of
organisms do not coincide, that is, if they (a) Hybrid inviability, this happens
where hybrids are produced but
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become reproductively mature at different
times of the year or in different years, they fail to survive to maturity.
cannot breed. For example, flowering times (b) Hybrid sterility whereby the
in plants may hinder cross-pollination.
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hybrid fails to produce
(e) Spatial isolation functional gametes. For example,
This is the most obvious form of reproductive a cross between a horse ( 2n = 60 )
isolation which involves separation in space. and a donkey ( 2n = 66 ) produces
a mule ( 2n = 63 ) which is sterile.
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It occurs in populations that are separated
by great distances, sometimes it occur in A mule cannot produce a mule.
populations inhabiting different parts of (c) Hybrid breakdown whereby
the same area. In plants this is portrayed the F1 hybrids are fertile but
in fruit trees such as walnuts, pistachio and members of the F2 generation and
papaya where some plants are exclusively
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males and others are exclusively females. parental stocks fail to develop
This condition is known as dioecy. In or are infertile. Examples are the
animals and papaya, most individuals are hybrids formed between species
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hermaphrodite. of cotton.
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Revision questions (c) Analogous structures.

(d) Convergent evolution.
1. The theory of spontaneous generation
(e) Palaeontology.
was disproved by Francesco Redi in
1688. What do you consider was 7. Explain how adaptation contributed
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Redi’s basic assumptions? to the evolution of black peppered
moth in England.
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2. Considering the components of
the early atmosphere, physical 8. (a) Differentiate between natural
and chemical changes that might selection and artificial
selection.
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have taken place, explain how
cosmozoic theory accounts for the (b) Give any four points
origin of life on earth. of contrast between natural
3. The concept of use and disuse and artificial selection.
as envisaged by Jean Baptiste (c) Using a graphical illustration,
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Lamarck in his theory of organic explain different types of
evolution may be true for an natural selection.
individual organism but not from 9. Fossils and fossil records have
one generation to another. Explain been facing some challenges as the
this view using a human being as
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an example. an elaboration on these challenges.
4. Briefly describe different types of 10. Discuss ways in which behavioural
fossils. isolation mechanism between
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5. One major criticism of using fossil species may evolve.
evidence to support evolutionary 11. Explain how hybridisation contributes
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theory is the lack of continuous to the process of speciation.

fossil records. What are the possible 12. Briefly, describe the concept of
causes of this lack of records? reproductive isolation and how it
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6. Explain the following terms as contributes to evolution.

applied in evolution:
(a) Homologous structures.
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(b) Divergent evolution.

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Chapter
Six
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Ecology
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Introduction
The term ecology refers to the study of the relationships between organisms and their
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physical environment. Organisms need to share limited natural resources such as air,
minerals, space, and the environment. Lack of ecological knowledge may led to deprivation
of natural resources, leading to scarcity as well as exploitation and competition of the
natural resources. In this chapter, you will learn about the ecosystem, components of the
ecosystem, energy flow, nutrient circulation, and ecological niche. You will also learn
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about ecological pyramids, methods of studying ecology, population dynamics, types
of communities, population growth patterns, and ecological successions.
The ecosystem whose physical environment such as soil,

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The part of the earth’s surface where life is air, water, wind, sunlight, and mineral
supported is called a biosphere. This layer nutrients constitute abiotic components,
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has several small units called ecosystems. whereas, plants, animals, fungi and bacteria
Each unit is a more or less self-contained are biotic components. The ecosystems
in terms of energy and matter. Ecosystems are either terrestrial for example forest,
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are exemplified by fresh water ponds, grassland and woodland or aquatic, for
lakes, oceans, and forests. Each ecosystem example, lakes, rivers, and estuaries. They
has its own plant community to capture are distinct functional units with none or
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solar energy and supply organic nutrients. less identifiable boundaries. However,
In addition, inorganic nutrients such as different kinds of ecosystem may overlap
nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur are making boundaries between them arbitrary,
recycled within members of an ecosystem. as there may not be sharp boundaries. The
An ecosystem is therefore, defined as ecosystem also gradually changes to adapt
a self-sustaining and self-regulating to variations in temperature, seasonality and
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biological unit consisting of both biotic soil conditions of the habitat. As a result,
and abiotic components interacting in a the characteristics of the new ecosystem
particular area. The components of the often vary increasingly from the pre-
ecosystem interact in a definite pattern to existing ecosystem. Although most of the
ensure energy flow and nutrient circulation. ecosystems are natural, there are also man-
For example, the forest is an ecosystem made ecosystems such as planted forests,
ponds, and dams.
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Components of the ecosystem as well. The producers are ecologically

The ecosystem is made up of biotic and important because they serve as a source of
abiotic components. The biotic components food for all organisms in ecosystems. When
encompasses living organisms whereas the producers are consumed by heterotrophs,
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abiotic components include the non-living the energy stored in their food molecules
components of the ecosystem.
is made available to heterotrophs through
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Biotic component of the ecosystem respiration. Producers are important in
The biotic component of an ecosystem maintaining the balance of oxygen and
consists of living organisms such as plants, carbon dioxide gases in the ecosystem.
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animals, fungi, and bacteria. Based on the Moreover, producers play a vital role in
flow of energy within the ecosystem, living
carbon sequestration, a process through
organisms in the ecosystem can be grouped
into three categories, namely: producers, which atmospheric carbon is fixed by green
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consumers, and decomposers. plants and become incorporated into their
tissues. The carbon fixed by autotrophs
(a) Producers (autotrophs)
from the atmosphere is an integral part of
These are organisms such as plants, algae
carbohydrates, proteins and fats synthesised
and chemosynthetic bacteria, which are
capable of manufacturing their own food
U and stored in plants with other carbon
molecules. By utilising carbon dioxide,
from simple inorganic substances such as
autotrophs act as carbon sink, hence, they
water and carbon dioxide. Food synthesis
contribute significantly to reduce carbon
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requires light or chemical energy. The
dioxide from the atmosphere. By reducing
photosynthetic organisms also called
concentration of carbon dioxide, which is
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photoautotrophs because they have the

a greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, the
ability to convert sunlight energy into
producers contribute largely in controlling
chemical energy during photosynthesis.
global warming and climate change. In
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This energy is subsequently stored in

addition, producers ensure availability of
the synthesised organic matter such as
energy in the ecosystem as they are able
carbohydrates. Photosynthetic organisms
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to convert sunlight energy into a useful

are the only species that can trap and
chemical energy. Lastly, organisms in
convert sunlight energy into chemical
aerobic respiration use the oxygen gas
energy and they are collectively called
produced by producers.
primary producers. Some bacteria are
capable of synthesising their own food by (b) Consumers (heterotrophs)
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using CO2 and their own energy obtained Heterotrophs are organisms that obtain
from oxidation of inorganic molecules their food from other living organisms as
such as iron and sulphur. These bacteria are they are unable to manufacture their own
collectively called chemoautotrophs and food. They feed on ready-made organic
matter synthesised by primary producers.
are the primary producers in the ecosystem
These organisms fall into three levels

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Ecology
of consumers, which are the primary, feed on grasses as shown in Figure 6.1.
secondary and tertiary consumers. Browsers are animals such as giraffe and
The primary consumers feed directly on goats, which largely feeds on shrubs and
producers and they include herbivores that tree leaves. Some herbivores are aquatic
organisms such as herbivorous fish and
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are further categorised into grazers and
browsers. The grazers are animals such crustaceans, which feed on sea grasses and
phytoplankton.
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as buffalo, zebra and cattle, which mainly
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Figure 6.1 Primary consumers

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Secondary consumers are animals that such as seal and carnivorous fish such as
feed directly on primary consumers. The nile perch. Some tertiary consumers called
organisms in this level are commonly omnivores, for example, human being
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defined as carnivores or flesh feeders can feed on all types of consumers and
which include lion, leopard, and hyena producers. The herbivores, carnivores and
as seen in Figure 6.2. Tertiary consumers omnivores are collectively called macro-
are organisms that feed on secondary consumers. These releases carbon dioxide
consumers. These animals are capable of gas, which is required by producers for
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feeding on carnivores such as snakes, birds photosynthesis.

(eagles and vultures) and marine mammals
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Figure 6.2 Secondary consumer
(c) Decomposers and detritivores Decomposers and detritus feeders act as

Decomposers and detritivores are organisms environmental cleaners as they degrade
and decompose organic remains and animal
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that feed on decaying or organic matter
(detritus) at any feeding level ranging from excreta.
producers to consumers. In the process
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Abiotic component of the ecosystem

of feeding and decomposing, they set
Water, soil, air, temperature, light, and
free inorganic nutrients such as carbon,
nutrients are non-living components of
phosphorus and nitrogen, and recycle
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the ecosystem, which constitute the abiotic

them into the nutrients pool such as soil
component. The survival and distribution of
and water. From the pool, the nutrients are
the biotic component is largely determined
absorbed by the producers and passed to
by its interaction with the abiotic component.
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various consumer levels. The decomposers,

In order to understand the role of abiotic
which are also known as saprophytes are
component, various abiotic factors can be
ecologically important in the process
divided into climatic and edaphic factors.
of decomposition because they ensure
nutrients circulation in the ecosystem. (a) Climatic factors
These organisms include saprophytic fungi These include elements of weather
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and certain bacteria. Normally, detritivores conditions, namely: temperature, light,

digest food internally instead of externally rainfall, wind, humidity and moisture of
as decomposers such as bacteria and fungi a particular area. Temperature affects the
do. Detritivores feed on organic debris physiological process and enzymatic activity
from both animals and plants, which are in while sunlight is the driving energy of
the form of small particles and fragments. photosynthesis. Rainfall determines the type

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Ecology
of vegetation and influences plant growth organisms depending on them. The patchy
and distribution.Wind conditions determine distribution of plants is largely a result
the rate of water loss from the plants through of the patchy distribution of humus and
transpiration. Humidity, on the other hand, mineral nutrients. Water logged soils have
influences the amount of moisture in the
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poor air circulation which is detrimental
air, which in turn determines the amount to most plants except plant such as sedges
of rainfall and soil water. Humidity also which can tolerate such condition. As for
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determines the rate of transpiration in plants, the mineral content of soil, various plants
and in some animals the rate of evaporation require macro and micro nutrients. The
of water from their bodies. These factors ability of soil to supply these minerals
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taken together affect the distribution of will determine the distribution of plants
organisms. growing in a particular soil, and hence,
(b) Edaphic (soil) factors distribution of animals which depend on
them. Generally, topography, which refers to
Soil physical, chemical, and biological
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the physical appearance of land, affects the
properties constitute edaphic factors. biotic component of the ecosystem. Altitude,
They include soil pH, salinity, soil air, which is an aspect of topography affects
soil structure, soil texture, organic matter temperature of an area. Higher altitudes,
content, water, mineral content, and
topography. These factors determine the
U unlike lower altitude are associated with
low temperature, higher precipitation, and
types of fauna and flora that are found in a low pressure, which altogether affect plant
particular habitat. The size of soil particles, and animal growth and their distribution.
that is, texture and the nature of constituent
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soil particles determine the properties Interaction of components of ecosystem
of soil and the type of plants, which can The abiotic component of the ecosystem
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grow on it than any other factor. The size determines the survival of a living organism
of particles and the soil structure determine through various interactions. In the natural
water content, air and mineral content of ecosystem living organisms do not exist in
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the soil. Soil pH and organic matter are isolation, but they interact with each other
the master variables which influence an in various ways.
array of other soil properties, and hence,
One way in which the biotic components
the distribution of organisms. At high pH,
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interact is through competition. This

some minerals may not be available while
involves a struggle between organisms for
others can be available to toxic levels. Some
the limited environmental resources such
plants prefer slightly acidic or alkaline pH,
as light, food, water, mate, and space. The
while most grow well in soil with moderate
competition may be intraspecific when
or near neutral pH. Humus or organic
it occurs between organisms of the same
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matter retains water and acts as cementing

species for the same limited resources. One
materials in holding soil particles together,
example of intraspecific competition is
hence, improving soil structure. Humus also
when several cocks compete for the same
releases nutrients to the soil and makes them
hen for mating or plants such as maize
available for plant growth. This, in turn,
grown very close to each other compete for
affects the distribution of plants and other
light from the sun and nutrients from the
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soil. Competition can also occur between and increase significantly in numbers again.
organisms of different species competing The fluctuation in food occurs again and
for the same limited resources. Herbivorous the cycle repeats.
animals such as buffalo, zebra, and antelope The fourth way in which biotic components
compete for limited fodders. This type of
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interact is through symbiotic relationships.
competition involving two or more different Symbiosis is the relationship between two
species is called interspecific competition.
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or more organisms of different species
The second way in which organisms interact living together in which one organism
is through predation. This is a biological (symbiont) or both may benefit from the
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relationship in which the hunting animal relationship. There are three common
or the predator eats another animal of a types of symbiotic relationship, namely:
different species. The eaten animal is called mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.
a prey whereas the animal that eats the (i) Mutualism
prey is called a predator. In an ecosystem
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with a predator-prey relationship, the two Refers to a symbiotic association of two
populations regulate each other and result in organisms of different species living
cyclic changes in the population size. As the together in which each member benefits
predators increase in number, the population from the association. Mutualism is
of prey decreases. The shrinkage of prey
U exemplified by a relationship between
cellulose digesting bacteria that live in
population results into a stiff competition
among predators for the limited prey. This the alimentary canal of ruminants such
diminishes the population of predators as as cattle. Usually, cellulose is a valuable
food to ruminants but they cannot produce
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some of its individuals fail to obtain enough
food for growth and reproduction. The cellulose-digesting enzymes. When the
bacteria feed on cellulose contained in the
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decrease in a population of predators due

to starvation and hence deaths allows the ruminant’s diet, they help to convert it into
prey to reproduce and increase in number a simple compound that the ruminants can
again. This increase leads to an increase in digest, absorb and assimilate. The bacteria
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predators and the cyclic changes continues. benefit cellulose, which is their major food
and shelter. The ruminant on the other
The third way in which organisms interact hand benefit from digested cellulose. The
relationship between flowers and pollinators
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is through grazing, which involves

herbivores feeding on primary producers. such as bees, butterflies, and birds is another
The herbivores feed on vegetation such as example of the mutual association. The bees
grasses, shrubs, and trees. The larger the visit flowers in search of nectar, which is
number of herbivores in an area, the greater essentially used for food and for making
the possibilities of decreased food supply honey. Birds and butterflies also feed on
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which may result in starvation, death and nectar. As these move inside the flower
ultimately decline in the population of searching for nectar, pollen grains fall and
herbivores. As the herbivores population stick on their bodies’ fur, legs or feathers.
declines grasses, shrubs, and trees increase These pollen grains are transferred from one
and the food becomes available to flower to another as these insects and birds
herbivores. This enables them to reproduce visit flowers of different plants in search

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for more food. This facilitates pollination Algae, which is photoautotroph,

in species with these flowers. Pollination photosynthesize food and pass some of it
is a very important process for an effective to the fungi body which is a heterotroph. The
sexual reproduction in angiosperms. Fungi fungi, in turn provide algae with protection
also have a mutual symbiotic association against desiccation. Lichens are commonly
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with green algae, which is called lichen. found growing on the rock surfaces and tree
In this association, the fungi penetrate its barks as shown in Figure 6.3.
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hyphae deep to the algae body tissue.
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se
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e
in
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Figure 6.3 Lichens (the greenish-white thallose growths) spread on the tree stem bark
(ii) Commensalism example is seen in epiphytic orchids, mosses

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This is the symbiotic relationship in and ferns species as shown in Figure 6.4.
which one species benefits the association, They grow on other plants where they
whereas, the other species is neither harmed get support and easy access to light. As
nor does it benefit from the association. The they grow, they obtain water from the
species that benefits from the partnership moist atmosphere, nutrients from debris
is called commensal species and its and fissures on the barks of trees. In this
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counterpart is called a host. For example, association, the epiphytes obtain support,
the barnacles live on the whale and are water, nutrients, and light as they grow on
transported to various parts of the ocean the host plant. The latter is not harmed and
for feeding. In this relationship, the whales does not benefit from the relationship.
are neither affected nor benefitted. Another
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se
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Figure 6.4 Epiphytic orchids (Tridactyle teretifolia) in Geita miombo woodland
(iii) Parasitism The endoparasites live inside their hosts’

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It is another type of symbiotic relationship bodies where they obtain food and shelter.
in which one organism called a parasite Endoparasites include Plasmodium (malaria
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benefits and the other organism called a host parasites), worms such as ringworm and
is harmed. The parasite derives nutrients tapeworm. Some plant parasites such as
from its host and may also gain other Cassytha filiformis grow by strangling the
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benefits such as shelter in which it grows plant externally but later they penetrate
and reproduce. Some parasites live on the the host plant tissue using their haustoria
outer surface of the host and are called to absorb water from xylem and nutrients
ectoparasites. These are exemplified by ticks
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from phloem as seen in Figure 6.5.

and lice. In plants, ectoparasites include
aphids, nematods, and larvae of butterflies.
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(a) (b)
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(c) (d)
Figure 6.5 Cassytha filiformis showing (a) haustoria penetrating a host tree stem, [b] infested host
leaves (c) parasitized cashewnut tree and (d) dead orange tree due to high infestation by
Cassytha
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Although the parasites solely rely on their synthesized by the autotrophs, are called
hosts for food and shelter some parasites heterotrophs. The primary source of energy
called facultative parasite do not spend in all ecosystems is the sun. Photosynthetic
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their entire life inside the host. Fungi are an organisms (autotrophs) such as green
example of facultative parasites, which live plants are the only organisms capable of
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on a living host body and when the host dies, converting light energy into chemical energy
the fungi can switch to saprophytic mode during photosynthesis. This energy is then
of nutrition and feed on the decaying host. fixed in the bonds of synthesized organic
The obligate parasites such as tapeworms matter from where it is made available to
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on the contrary spend their entire life on the consumers. This energy is called Gross
host. In this case, death of the host may Primary Productivity (GPP), which is
lead to death of the parasite. utilized for respiration and photorespiration.
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The energy which remains thereafter, is

Energy flow the Net Primary Productivity (NPP). This
Living organisms use energy in the form of is stored in plant and made available to
radiant and fixed energy. The radiant energy higher trophic level (herbivores and later
is in the form of electromagnetic waves carnivores) during feeding. However, not
such as light. Fixed energy is the potential all energy and materials available in one
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chemical energy, locked in various organic trophic level are transferred to the next
substances. Organisms that can utilize as food. Some energy is lost as heat in
radiant energy and inorganic substances respiration, organic, and inorganic wastes
to produce organic molecules are called during excretion and undigested materials.
autotrophs. On the contrary, organism that These are consumed by detritivores. The
depend on energy-rich organic molecules primary consumers first feed on the primary
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producers and the energy flows from is contained in parts such as horns,
producers to the consumers. The energy then bones and hooves will remain fixed in
continues to flow through various consumer these parts as they are mostly inedible.
levels until it reaches the decomposers. This Thus, less energy is transformed at
is a one-way and non-cyclic energy flow, each feeding level, which explains
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as it never flows back to the sun which is why the number of feeding levels
the primary source of energy. also called trophic levels is always
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limited to four or five. The organisms
The amount of solar energy intercepted by in the highest tropic level, such as, the
plants depends on how plants are organised decomposers, receive a very minimum
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and extent to which their vegetation covers. amount of energy, which cannot make
This energy in some places is estimated them support another feeding level.
to be 1x10-6 kJ mol-1 per year. However,
only 5 - 6 % is absorbed and (95 - 96%) is Nutrients circulation
lost by plants and escape from plants via Nutrients cycling describes the movement
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evaporation, reflection, and re-radiation. of elements within and between the various
About 20 - 25% of stored energy is used biotic and abiotic entities. These elements
by plants to produce organic molecules. As can be extracted from their mineral or
the energy flows from one trophic level to atmospheric sources or recycled from their
the next, there is a decrease in its amount
U organic forms by converting them to ions
due to the fact that: that can be absorbed and ultimately returned
(a) Some of the energy is used to carry to the nutrients pool.
out physical and metabolic processes. In the ecosystem, the nutrients from the
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These activities include movements, pool such as soil, water and air pass into the
respiration and growth which may plants and become part of organic matter as
convert the stored energy into heat,
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they form amino acids, and hence, proteins,

and hence, lost into the atmosphere.
carbohydrates and lipids. When plants are
(b) Physiological processes such as digestion consumed by herbivores, nutrients contained
and assimilation are not 100% efficient.
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in tissues of plants pass to the primary

Thus, some of the energy remains
consumers from which they move through
interlocked in the molecules of the
undigested food remains. various consumer. Death of producers
and consumers attract decomposition by
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(c) Not all parts of the consumed organism

bacteria and saprophytes such as fungi
are edible. For example, for the fruit
plants, it is only a small portion of and detritivores such as houseflies’ larvae.
the energy, which is contained in These decomposers, release unlocked
the edible part of the fruit that will nutrients from the dead bodies of producers
be passed to the consumers, in this and consumers to the pool. Nutrients are
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case, frugivores. These are organisms, absorbed by plants from the soil pool
which feed on fruits. The remaining to support them to grow, reproduce and
amount of energy which is contained multiply in numbers, which in turn avail
in the rest parts of the plant which food to consumers. Upon death, the cycle
are not edible will not flow to the starts over again. The nutrients cycled,
frugivore. Similarly, if a carnivore in this case, are from an organic origin,
eats a herbivore, the energy which

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that is, unlocked nutrients in the bodies of which live in the root nodules of leguminous
dead organisms. Another common source plants.
of nutrient cycle is inorganic in which
The elemental or inorganic nitrogen cannot
nutrients are obtained from their mineral
be assimilated by plants. They absorp
or atmospheric sources and then fixed in
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nitrogen in the form of nitrate or ammonium
organisms such as plants, as in nitrogen
ions, for instance, Calcium ammonium
cycle as summarized in Figure 6.6.
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nitrate fertilizer, which has first to be reduced
Nitrogen cycle is a biogeochemical cycle to nitrite. This is then reduced to ammonia,
by which nitrogen is converted into the organic form of nitrogen. Ammonia
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multiple chemical forms as it circulates will then be incorporated or asssimilated
in the atmosphere, terrestrial and aquatic into protein and other organic nitrogenous
ecosystems. The conversion of nitrogen compounds such as amino acids, nucleic
can be carried out through biological acids and chlorophyll. In leguminous plants,
and physical processes. The important which have a symbiotic association with
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processes in the nitrogen cycle include Rhizobium some nitrogen is assimilated
fixation, ammonification, nitrification, directly from the nodules in the form of
and denitrification. The nitrogen cycle is ammonium ions through a process known
of particular interest to ecologists because as mineralisation or ammonification. In this
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nitrogen availability can affect the rate of process, decomposers such as bacteria and
key ecosystem processes including primary fungi convert nitrogen within the remains of
production and decomposition. Nitrogen is dead organisms back into ammonium ions.
present in the environment in the form of
During nitrification there is a conversion of
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ammonium (NH4+), nitrite (NO2-), nitrous
ammonium to nitrate by nitrifying bacteria.
oxides (N 2O), nitric oxides (NO) and
Nitrosomonas bacteria convert ammonium
nitrogen gas (N2).
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to nitrite, whereas in the next stage, the

During nitrogen fixation, the conversion Nitrobacter bacteria are responsible for the
of nitrogen gas into nitrates is carried out oxidation of nitrites into nitrates.
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through biological processes. This process

is effected by bacteria such as Rhizobium,
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Fo
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Fe
ed
Plant proteins and
ing
an
other organic dd
ige
Nitrogen sti
on
A
ss
im Am
Nitrogen fixation
ila
n
tio
latio
Animal proteins and
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other organic Nitrogen
mo
i
sim
ni fi
t as
ria
Ammonification
cati
cte
Plan
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ba
on
g
Rhizobium
in
Atmospheric Azotobacter
fy
tri
Nitrogen (N2) Clostridium
g
ni in
tn
De
gh
Li
In ab ess
Nitrates (NO3)
du er
(H roc
O
Denitrification
str -B
ial osc
Ammonia
N
itr
h
a
)
te
Oxidation by tion
r ed
duc Oxidation by
e re
uc
Nitrobacter bacteria
rit Nitrosomonas bacteria
tio
Nit Nit
n
rifi ion
cat cat
ion rifi
Nit
se
Nitrites (NO2)
Figure 6.6 Nitrogen cycle
Ecological niche abiotic and biotic factors of the environment

For a species to maintain its population, its
U to meet its needs for food, shelter, survival
individuals must survive and reproduce. and reproduction.
Certain combination of environmental There are two types of niches, namely:
conditions are necessary for individuals fundamental and realized niches. The
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of each species to survive, obtain energy fundamental niche of the species includes
and nutrients and avoid predators. The total the total range of environmental conditions
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requirements of species for all resources and that are suitable for existences without the
physical conditions determine its habitat influence of interspecific competition or
and how abundant it can be at any particular predation. In other words, it is the potential
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place within its range. These requirements niche that would prevail in the absence of
are abstractly termed as the ecological niche. competition and other factors that might
The ecological niche could be moulded as an constrain its acquisition and use of the
imaginary space with many dimensions and
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resources. The realized niche describes

where each dimension or axis represents a that part of the fundamental niche, which
range of some environmental conditions or is actually occupied by the species. This
resources that are required by the species. is the actual niche, which an organism
The niche of a plant may include a range occupies as a result of competition for its
of temperature, which it can tolerate the resources and problems in acquiring those
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intensity of light required for photosynthesis, resources. The realized niche is smaller
specific humidity and minimum quantities than the fundamental niche.
of essential soil nutrients for uptake. According to the competitive exclusion
Generally, an ecological niche is the role and principle, two species cannot have exactly
position the species has in its environment the same niche in a habitat and stably
and it encompasses how it interacts with

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co-exist. This is because species with Hence, energy decrease as it moves from
identical niches also have identical needs, lower to upper trophic levels. A trophic
which means, they would compete head level is a group of organisms with a similar
to head for the same resources such as feeding behaviour or nutritional habit, for
nesting sites or territory. In the competition,
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example, producers, primary consumers
one of the species will be superior to the and secondary consumers. The first trophic
other in utilizing the niche, and the inferior level which is also the lowest level contains
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species will disappear from the ecosystem. the producers, which include green plants,
A famous example of the competitive and photosynthesizing algae and sea grasses
exclusion principle involves two species found in aquatic ecosystems. These are
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of Paramecium, that is, P. caudatum and consumed by herbivorous or plant eaters at
P. aurelia. When raised separately in the the second trophic level. In the third trophic
laboratory, both species will thrive; but level, the primary carnivores or meat eaters
when raised in the same test tube (habitat), feed on the herbivores. The fourth trophic
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with a fixed amount of nutrients, both level constitute the secondary carnivores,
will grow more poorly and P.aurelia will which eat the primary carnivores. This
eventually out compete P. caudatum for feeding relationship can be observed in
food leading to death of P. caudatum. a linear sequence of organisms through
However, there are cases where two species
U the succession of organisms in a repeated
process of eating and being eaten. This is
partially share the niche. The two species
compete in the overlapping parts of the niche collectively called a food chain. The design
for resource, nesting sites or territory. If the of the food chain can vary in accordance
with the ecosystems. Food chains are made
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overlap is minimal, then both species can
co-exist. The competitive exclusion may up of the same basic trophic levels. The
organisms that constitute the food chain
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be avoided if one or both of the competing

species evolve to use different resources, are thus classified based on their feeding
occupy different areas of the habitat or behaviour.
feed during different times of the day. The Types of food chain
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results of this kind of evolution is that, two The classification of food chain depends on
similar species use largely non-overlapping the type of organisms that constitute the first
resources, and thus, have different niches. trophic level. On this basis two common
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This is called resource partitioning and it types namely the grazing food chain and
helps the species to co-exist because there detritus food chain are recognized.
is less direct competition between them.
In the grazing food chain, autotrophs
Relationship of trophic levels in terms which include green plants, algae and
of energy flow some bacteria are the primary producers,
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There is an existing relationship between and they constitute the first trophic level.
trophic levels and energy flow. Energy The primary producers use light energy
always flows from lower trophic level and inorganic compounds to synthesize
to the upper trophic level. During this their own food, the molecules of which
flowing of energy, some amount is lost are stored in their tissues. Heterotrophs
as metabolic heat at each trophic level. including fungi, some bacteria and animals
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obtain organic molecules containing energy eaten by herbivores, and after death and
to support their growth and reproduction. decay of the producers utilised by the
The primary producers are, therefore, the decomposers, which finally release it into
only channel through which energy enters the environment. The assimilated food by
the ecosystem. herbivores can be stored and transformed
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to more complex organic molecules. The
The energy then passes through several energy from these transformations is
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levels of consumers, that is, the primary, supplied through respiration. Similarly,
secondary and tertiary consumers, and energy in the herbivores also passes
finally ends up to decomposers. The total through three routes, that is, respiration,
amount of energy converted to organic
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decay of organic matter by microbes
compounds in a given area per unit time and consumption by the carnivores. The
is called net primary productivity. In an total energy assimilated by the secondary
ecosystem, the difference between energy consumers follows the same course and
fixed per unit time and energy utilised by its disposition into respiration, decay and
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the metabolic activities of organisms in a further consumption by other carnivores is
community is called net productivity of the entirely similar to that of the herbivores.
ecosystem. The net primary productivity
of green plants in the ecosystem is partly In the food chain, the initial link is a green
utilised by producers in respiration. Some plant or producer which produces chemical
energy is captured by herbivores. As
U energy. This energy is made available to
producers die, decomposers and detritivores consumers. For example, marsh grass is
obtain energy from producers and release consumed by grasshopper, which is in
it to the environment. Thus, the gross turn, consumed by a toad. The latter is then
energy production of green plants in the
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consumed by snake, which is a food for a
ecosystem may be oxidised in respiration, hawk as indicated in Figure 6.7.
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Grass Grasshopper Toad Snake Hawk

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Figure 6.7 Simple grazing food chain
The arrows in the chain mean, “eaten by” energy. Thus, the energy from the dead
or indicate the direction of energy flow. organic matter flows to detritivores such
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In detritus food chain, the dead organic as millipedes, dung flies, terrestrial worms
remains including metabolic wastes, and (earth worm) and burying beetles and
exudates derived from grazing food chain predators of detritivores such as black
serve as sources of energy in the ecosystem sparrow bird and ultimately to the second
for a group of organisms called detritivores. carnivore such as a hawk as indicated
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Thus, the detritus food chain starts with in Figure 6.8. Thus, the ecosystems with
organic debris from which decomposers detritus food chain depend on the energy
and detritivores obtain nutrients and derived from organic matter, which is
produced by another system.

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Leaf litter Earth worm Black sparrow bird Hawk
Figure 6.8 Detritus food chain
Food web ecosystem from plants through herbivores
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In simple grazing, food chain consisting to carnivores, omnivores, and ultimately
of grasses, grasshopper, toad, snakes, and to the detritivores and decomposers which
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hawk as explained in the previous section, unlock the nutrients and enrich the soil with
each organism is shown as having only organic matter. The food web is a mesh of
one source of food. However, in a typical interconnected food chains, representing the
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environment an organism may have more flow of energy from a group of organisms
than one source of food and may be eaten at one trophic level to another group of
by several other organisms.The grasshopper, organisms at a different level.
for example, does not feed on grass only, it In the example of the food web given in
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rather feeds on other plant leaves. Likewise, Figure 6.9, grasses, shrubs and herbs or
the toad feeds on a variety of insects. These plants represent the primary producers.
possibilities create a limitless number They are the source of energy for the
of an inter-connected set of food chains primary consumers such as antelope,
that collectively constitute a food web.
Through food webs, energy is transferred in
U zebra and buffalo. That means, each of
Decomposers
(Fungi and Bacteria)
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Lion Cheetah Leopard

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Antelope Zebra Buffalo

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Grass Shrubs Herbs

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Solar energy
Figure 6.9 Illustration of food web
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these herbivores, has three alternative plant on herbivores and the third trophic level
sources of energy. The primary consumers, consist of secondary carnivores that feed
in turn are the source of energy for the on primary carnivores. The fourth trophic
secondary consumers, which are lion, level consist of tertiary carnivores that feed
cheetah, and leopard. Likewise, each of the on secondary consumers. The ecological
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secondary consumers has three alternative pyramid consists of a number of horizontal
sources of energy, that is, antelope, zebra bars depicting specific trophic levels. The
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and buffalo. length of each bar represents the total
When organisms in the first, second and number of individuals, biomass or energy
at each tropic level in the ecosystem. There
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third trophic levels die, their bodies are
acted upon by decomposers, which apart are three types of ecological pyramids
from extracting energy, they also facilitate namely, the pyramid of numbers, biomass,
the release of the locked nutrients. The more and energy.
alternative pathways the food web has, the Pyramid of numbers
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more stable is the community. It is therefore, The pyramid of numbers represents the
advantageous to study the community using total number of individuals of different
the food webs instead of food chains. This species at each trophic level. The width of
is because the web is more informative and the bars represents the numbers using linear
indicates various sources of food for the
U or logarithmic scales. The numbers are
consumer levels in the ecosystem. taken per unit area of the terrestrial habitat
or volume for aquatic habitats. The shape
Ecological pyramids
of the pyramid of numbers depends on the
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Feeding relationships and the efficiency size of the bottom bar which represents
of energy transfer through the biotic the number of producers. The pyramid of
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components of the ecosystems have been numbers in a grassland community has a

traditionally summarised in pyramid broad base because the producers are small
diagrams called ecological pyramids. The and numerous as exemplified in Figure
first diagram of this nature was designed
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6.10 (a). Similarly, in a pond ecosystem,

in the 1920s, by Charles Elton and this the pyramid has a broad base because of
explains why the ecological pyramids are a large number of phytoplanktons, which
alternatively called Eltonian pyramids. The are the producers in this case. Thus, in both
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ecological pyramid can be defined as a the grassland and the pond ecosystems, the
graphical representation designed to depict pyramids are upright.
biomass or bio productivity, the number
of organisms and energy relationships at However, in a forest ecosystem, the pyramid
each trophic level in a given ecosystem. of numbers has a narrow base because
The ecological pyramids begin with a single tree is likely to feed numerous
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producers such as green plants, algae or herbivores. The ecological pyramid of this
phytoplanktons at the bottom and proceed type is said to be inverted. An inverted
through the various trophic levels. The first pyramid is also experienced in communities
trophic level consist of herbivores, which with parasites, in which a single host can
feed on plants. The second trophic level harbour hundreds of parasites as shown in
consist of primary carnivores that feed Figure 6.10 (b).

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(a) Tertiary carnivores
Secondary carnivores
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Primary carnivores
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Herbivores
Primary producers
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Logarithm numbers
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(b) U Primary carnivores
Herbivores
Primary producers
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Numbers
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Figure 6.10 Pyramid of numbers in (a) grassland ecosystem and (b) forest ecosystem
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Advantages and limitations of the The pyramid of numbers has a number of

pyramid of numbers constraints associated with their application
Although construction of the pyramid as follows:
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of numbers is confronted by some Firstly, the range of numbers from the

complications, its construction is relatively producers to the top carnivores may be so
easy compared to other pyramids. Data great that it becomes very difficult to draw
collection for its construction can be easily the pyramid to scale. Secondly, the pyramid
done by using simple sampling techniques considers only the number of organisms and
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without killing any organism. Additionally, ignores the size. For example, the size of
it is a good method for comparing changes producers varies, and yet one grass plant
in population numbers at different times is given the same status as a baobab tree.
of the year, for example, in wet and dry Besides that, some pyramids involving large
seasons.
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producers such as a tree feeding several determined by collecting representative

herbivous insects or parasites example samples of all organisms occupying each
ticks feeding on consumers such as cow, trophic level separately and measuring
are inverted. This explains why a true their dry weight. This overcomes the size
difference problem because the weight of
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pyramid of numbers is not often obtained.
Thirdly, the pyramid of numbers do not take all kinds of organisms at a trophic level
into account the juveniles and immature is recorded and expressed in per unit area
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forms of a given species whose nutritional such as g/cm2, kg/m2 or t/ha.
and energy requirements may differ from In most terrestrial ecosystems, the pyramid
those of the adult. Lastly, in the pyramid of
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of biomass has a large base of primary
numbers, the trophic levels of organisms producers with a smaller trophic level placed
are not easily determined with certainty. on top to produce an upright pyramid. On the
Pyramid of biomass contrary, in many aquatic ecosystems, the
The pyramid of biomass is more practical pyramid of biomass may assume an inverted
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and useful as it represents the quantitative form. This is because the producers are tiny
relationships of the standing crops because phytoplanktons that grow and reproduce
it involves recording the mass of living rapidly. Phytoplanktons are consumed by
material at a particular time in the trophic larger organisms called zooplanktons that
level. Standing crop is the total biomass
U are relatively larger compared to them.
of an ecosystem or any of its components As a result, the pyramid of biomass has a
at a given point in time. In this pyramid, narrow base and the structure of pyramid,
there is a gradual decrease in the biomass therefore, assumes inverted shape as shown
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from the producers to the higher trophic in Figure. 6.11.
levels. The pyramid of biomass is usually
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Tertiary carnivores
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First carnivores
Zooplankton
Phytoplankton
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Biomass
Figure 6.11 Pyramid of biomass for an aquatic ecosystem

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Ecology
Advantages and limitations of the Pyramid of energy

pyramid of biomass The most fundamental and ideal way of
The pyramid of biomass gives a more representing energy relationships between
accurate assessment or measure of energy organisms in different trophic levels is by
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at each trophic level since the judgment on means of the pyramid of energy. This is the
the amount of energy is based on dry mass. type of ecological pyramid which represents
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It takes into account the size difference of the relative amount of energy available
organisms, thus, overcoming limitations of in each trophic level as shown in Figure
using pyramid of numbers. 6.12. The pyramid of energy is constructed
according to the rate at which food material
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Besides its usefulness in establishing the (in the form of energy) passes through the
energy flow between groups of organisms food chain. Some organisms may have
in different trophic levels, the pyramid of small biomass but the total energy they
biomass is associated with some shortfalls: assimilate and pass on to higher trophic
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(a) The determination of dry mass is levels may be considerably greater than that
destructive since it involves killing of of organisms with much larger biomass.
organisms. The pyramid always tapers towards the apex
(b) It is impossible to measure the biomass because the energy normally decreases as
it flows from one trophic level to another.
of all individuals in a population,
and therefore, only a small sample of
U Thus, the last trophic level receives a
individuals is taken and this may not minimum amount of energy. The gradual
reflect the reality. decrease in the energy content at successive
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(c) The pyramid of biomass is more trophic levels from the producers through
laborious, and expensive in terms of the consumers results in the upright shape
time and equipment. of the pyramid of energy that is never
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(d) The time of the year, in other words, inverted. An inverted pyramid of energy is
the season, during which the biomass is an indication that the community is about
measured affects the results unless the to collapse.
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biomass measurements are recorded

during the same season.
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75 Secondary carnivores
1420 Primary carnivores
15200 Herbivores
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Primary producers
Energy
Figure 6.12 Pyramid of energy
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Advantages and limitation of the to producer level in ecological pyramids is

pyramids of energy considered misleading by some scholars.
The pyramid of energy takes into This is because non-chlorophyllous plant
consideration the rate of production, per organs such as tubers, fruits, and seeds
are plants but not primary producing
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unit area or volume unlike the pyramids
of numbers and biomass which depend on photosynthetic organs. Moreover, some
herbivores are unable to digest cellulose and
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standing states of organisms at a particular
time. others are highly selective when it comes
to eating plant parts, where some feed
It allows comparison of different ecosystems,
only on seeds, fruits, roots, or nectar. The
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for example, aquatic and terrestrial
ecological pyramids are thus not designed
ecosystem as well as comparison of relative
to accommodate these differences.
importance of different populations within
one ecosystem to be compared. The pyramid diagrams also omit the dead
organic matter, which contains about 80%
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The pyramid of energy is dynamic and
of the gross primary production. However,
therefore, it is likely to accommodate
in principle, detritivores and decomposers
changes. For example, the input of solar
utilize this energy.
energy can be added as an extra rectangle
at the base of the pyramid.
U Exercise 6.1
Despite its usefulness over other types of
1. Write short notes on food chain and
pyramids, the pyramid of energy also has its
food web.
limitations.Firstly, the method for obtaining
2. (a) What is the ecological
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energy data mainly involves destructive
precedures. This is because it involves pyramid?
killing and combustion of the representative (b) In which ways do
in
organisms in the population in order to the pyramid of numbers

obtain their energy. Energy data for the differ from the pyramid of
pyramid of energy are the most difficult biomass?
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to collect because more measurements are (c) Explain how limitations

required than for the pyramid of biomass. of the pyramid of number
Secondly, it is impossible to measure and biomass are
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the energy content of all individuals in a overcome in the pyramid

given trophic level. Therefore, in order to of energy.
overcome this challenge, a small sample of
representative organisms is usually collected 3. (a) Explain how energy
whose data may not trully represent the flows through the ecosystem,
entire population. citing the relationship between
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different trophic levels.

The most fundamental problem is that
(b) Explain why energy
it is not easy to identify the organisms’
flow from one trophic
trophic level with accuracy because many
organisms feed at various trophic levels. level to the next is not 100%
Furthermore assigning all plant materials efficient.

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4. With examples, briefly explain are arbitrary methods, which involve

how abiotic and biotic components estimation, for example, of cover using
of the ecosystem interact. a scale ranging from abundant to rare or
5. Explain the role of microbes in the using a frequency scale. The objective
methods involve direct counting methods
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recycling of nutrients within an
such as photographs, observations, quadrats,
ecosystem.
and indirect methods, which involve
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6. Write short notes on the nitrogen removal-capture-recapture methods.
cycle citing its significance in During sampling, the data can be gathered
terrestrial ecosystems. randomly, systematically or by stratifying
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the population or community. In most
Methods of studying ecology cases, methods employed in collecting
ecological data may involve more than
The aim of studying ecology is to understand
one technique. For example, a combination
the existing relationship between organisms
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of random and systematic or stratified
and how each in turn, interacts with its
and systematic sampling. In conducting
environment. In order to understand
systematic sampling, ecological data is
thoroughly this reciprocal relationship of
usually collected from a designated line
organisms and their environment, ecological
called transect within which small units
investigations or studies are inevitable.
U called plots are established at regular
Ecological studies can be quantitative or
intervals from a randomly selected point.
qualitative in nature. Quantitative data are
The actual sampling is done in these units.
the ones obtained through measurements,
The data collected are used to analyse
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and counting while qualitative data are
various ecological parameters such as
obtained through description of things. The
population size, a degree of pollution,
in
ecological study requires sound methods

species abundance and distribution.
and techniques of collecting, analysing
and presenting biotic and abiotic data. The concept of sampling
The aims and objectives of an ecological
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Sampling is the process of selecting

study will determine sampling methods representative units from a group or
and techniques to be employed. Usually, population to be used as a basis for
it is difficult to collect all attributes of a estimating the characteristics of a larger
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particular abiotic or biotic component in population. A sample may be defined as

a particular ecosystem. In order to save a small part, quantity, or group drawn
time and resources, sampling efforts are from a larger population to represent the
required in conducting an ecological study. characteristics of the entire population. In
It is important to have a representative ecological studies, a survey of the entire
portion called a sample for those attributes
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population under investigation regardless

of organisms and the environment. This of its size is too time consuming. As a
ensures the relevance and reliability of the result, it is difficult for such study to be
collected data for a sound conclusion. practical within the limited available time
Methods of collecting ecological data can and resources. It is for this reason analysis
be subjective or objective. The former of samples from a representative sub-area
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or subpopulation within a larger area is Simple random sampling

deemed necessary. In order to achieve a This is the probability sampling in which
representative sample, an investigator or each member of the population has equal
ecologist conducts a reconnaissance survey chances of being selected. It is usually
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to ascertain a representative sample stand carried out when the area under study is
from which samples will be gathered. fairly uniform, very large and there is a
The actual sampling is normally done
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limited time available. When using simple
in designated units called sample plots. random sampling technique, samples are
Sampling is advantageous in that, it taken from segments of the larger habitat.
saves time, cost and efforts required The computer-generated numbers or table
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to conduct an ecological study. These of random numbers determine the sampling
advantages combined together, make points and the samples are taken using a
sampling an effective practical method for quadrat frame. This method helps to avoid
the infinitive populations. In a larger and an introduction of any personal biasness and
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heterogeneous population, establishing it is advantageous in that, it needs only a
a representative sample is not easy to minimum knowledge of the study group of
undertake. Consequently, there are chances the population in advance. It also ensures
of committing errors if appropriate expertise a high degree of representativeness of the
is not involved to select the samples.
U population, and it is a fair way of selecting a
sample from a given population since every
Sampling techniques
member is given an equal opportunity to
Another important aspect to consider during be included in the sample. The drawbacks
sampling is to select the type of sampling
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for this sampling technique are varied and
method. The sampling method, also referred they include the fact that, the method cannot
to as a sampling technique is employed in be applied where the population units are
in
studying a fraction of the larger population. heterogeneous in nature. Additionally, it is

Sampling should be carefully done as this tedious and time consuming particularly,
affects subsequent processes such as data when dealing with large samples.
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analysis and conclusions to be drawn.

Thus, the sample plots should be selected Systematic random sampling
objectively based on probabilistic sampling Systematic random sampling is the type
procedures. The best way to implement
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of probability sampling method whereby,

objective sampling is by using systematic sample members from a larger population
and random sampling techniques. This helps are selected after a certain interval. The
to eliminate further subjectivity in locating starting point is selected randomly but each
samples once the initial sub population or piece of data is chosen at a fixed interval,
entities have been earmarked, hence, there is say after every 500 meters along the line
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no flexibility. The advantages of systematic for the inclusion in the sample.

and random sampling are combined in a
Normally the starting number is an integer,
system called stratified random sampling.
which must be less than the total number of
The three types of sampling techniques,
individuals in the population. This integer
that is, systematic, random, and stratified
corresponds to the first subject. Then, there
fall under probability sampling.
is the selection of an interval, another integer

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Ecology
that will serve as the constant difference a proportionate manner. In this way, the
between any two consecutive members method may solve problems that cannot be
in the progression. For example, if one solved by simple and systematic random
has a population total of 100 individuals sampling methods. For example, in the
and needs 12 subjects, he/she then picks systematic and random sampling techniques,
y
the starting number, say 5. If the interval the samples may not cover all areas of the
which is picked is 8, then the numbers of habitat equally. Thus, such samples may not
nl
the sample will be 5, 13, 21, 29, 37, 45, 53, be representative of the whole populations,
61, 69, 77, 85 and 93. if the sampling units of the population are
heterogeneous in nature. Therefore, in a
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A researcher may prefer to use a systematic
random sampling method because of its situation like this, the whole population is
simplicity. This property allows addition divided into certain number of subgroups
of the degree of systems or processes or strata in such a manner that, the small
into the randomly selected subjects. The groups are homogenous within themselves,
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method also ensures an even sampling of but heterogeneous between themselves.
the population. However, the process of The stratified random sampling is considered
selection can interact with a hidden periodic superior to simple random sampling
trait within the population. If the sampling because the process of stratification reduces
technique concedes with the periodicity of
U sampling errors and ensures the greater level
the trait, the sampling technique will no of representation. In the stratified random
longer be random and the representativeness sampling, an adequate representation
of the sample is compromised. In addition, of all subgroups is ensured. When there
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the technique is more biased because is homogeneity within the strata and
not all members or points have an equal heterogeneity between the strata, the
in
chance of being selected. In other words, estimates can be as precise as compared

it is less truly random than simple random with the simple random sampling.
sampling. This may cause either over or The use of stratified sampling method
under representation of a particular trait.
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is associated with some challenges. The

Stratified random sampling application of this method requires the
The name stratified sampling derives its knowledge of members of the strata and
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meaning from the term stratum (plural = ability to distinguish between strata in the
strata), which means small subdivisions. sample frame at initial stages, which in
Stratified sampling, therefore, is a probability practice, may create difficulties. In addition,
sampling method in which a population is the method takes a long time and therefore,
divided into two or more groups (strata) it becomes more expensive due to an extra
based on one or common characteristics. stage in the sampling procedure.
Fo
This method of sampling, therefore, intends The use of transects and quadrats in
to guarantee that, the sample represents sampling flora and fauna
specific subgroups or strata. The application Quadrats and transects are commonly used
of a stratified sampling method involves in ecological investigation in the process
dividing populations into subgroups and of collecting abiotic and biotic data. The
selecting subjects from each stratum in use of transects and quadrats is important
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in order to standardise the sites under In this case, coordinates of the two points,
investigation. Collection and sampling is the start and end points, are recorded by
often confined to the area of the transect GPS from the map and from the start point,
called plots. The quadrat which is usually the end point is tracked by GPS along an
a square or rectangle and sometimes a imaginary straight line. This is suitable for
y
circle frame is placed within the plots and transects covering long distances where rope
sampling is conducted. can hardly be used. The type of transect to
nl
The transect is a strip or line between be used in an ecological survey depends
two points along which an ecological on the quantitative and qualitative nature
of the investigation, the degree of accuracy
O
investigator conducts sampling. A transect
can simply be a string or a rope stretched in required, the nature of the organisms, the
a line on the ground, or a path between two size of the area to be investigated, and the
parallel running lines or ropes. The former time available.
is called the line transect, and the latter is a Line transect
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belt transect. The use of modern technology In the line transect method, a tape or a string
has made it easy to use Global Positioning is laid on the ground of the study area in
System (GPS) and topographical maps of an a straight line between the two points in
area under the investigation to set a transect. the direction of environmental gradient as
U indicated in Figure 6.13.
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in
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Figure 6.13 Ecologist collecting data along a line transect denoted by a white line laid on the ground

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Then the abiotic or biotic data along the and line transect. In this case, the quadrat
length of the line randomly or systematically is laid down alongside the line transect and
that touch or cover the line are recorded, at all species within it are recorded. It is then
regular intervals. The line transect method moved at its own length along the line and
the process is repeated. This provides the
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is particularly useful where a transition in
habitats and populations through an area record of species in a continuous belt. The
is suspected. The investigator needs to quadrat may also be used at regular intervals
nl
construct a profile of the transect to indicate for example, after every 100 meters or other
the level of change, if there is a significant suitable interval along transect.
height change along the transect. This is
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Quadrat
particularly, important where vertical height
for instance-altitude is a major factor in A quadrat is a frame of a known area which
determining the distribution of species. For is laid along a transect line during sampling
example, on a seashore habitat the height of ecological data. The quadrat is usually
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above the sea affects the duration in which made up of a collapsible wooden plastic
a particular habitat is submerged by a tide. or metal frame. The collapsibility of the
This has a considerable bearing on the quadrat frames makes it more portable for
species that can survive on the seashore carrying over long distance while sampling.
The quadrat may be a square frame of
habitat because its distribution is more
related to the vertical height on the shore
U dimensions or a pin frame also called point
rather than the horizontal distance along quadrat as depicted in Figure 6.14 (a) and
it. The height variation that are recorded (b). The size of the quadrat is not fixed as
along a line or belt transect are called it varies with the aim and objectives of
e
profile transect. the study. For example, in assessment of
lichens density a quadrat frame of 0.5 m x
in
Belt transect 0.5 m that is 0.25 m2 would be suitable. On

A belt transect is a strip of chosen width the contrary, a 1m2 quadrat (1mx1m) will
running through the habitat which is made preferably be used to sample grasses, herbs
nl
by setting up two line transects. Data and sedges. In most woodland ecosystems
collection is conducted between the lines as in Miombo woodlands relatively larger
that can be of width between 0.5 m and quadrats of 100 or 400 m2, are commonly
1m apart. The belt transect is useful in used in sampling trees and 5 m x 5 m for
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qualitative and quantitative surveys where shrubs.

it is combined with the use of quadrat frame
Fo
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(a)
10 cm
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10 cm
Metal strings
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1 meter
Wooden frame
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Small nail or rivet
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Wing nut
1 meter U
Knitting pin
(b) Holes
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Wooden or metal top bar
Wing nut
in
A grass touched by
the knitting pin
Wooden frame
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Ground
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Figure 6.14 Types of quadrats (a) A collapsible graduated frame quadrat with 100 subquadrats each
measuring 100 cm2 and (b) Pin frame quadrat
Besides the portable quadrat, permanent In floristic investigation the trees inside
quadrats are also common. These are set the quadrat or plot constitute the candidate
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by marking an area of a known size using species for study. Normally, these trees can
metal pegs, reinforced in the ground. The be marked with numbered metal tag for easy
corner pegs of the set quadrat can be reference, and to make sure that a follow
geo-referenced by GPS or delineated by up or monitoring data is taken from the
a white and red coloured tape for easy same individual species. Permanent sample
reference in the future. plots or quadrats are very useful for studies

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Ecology
involving seasonal or annual changes in a line may involve dividing the line into ten
community as in the case of succession. equal segments. Each segment is assigned
In trees, it could be growth or changes in a number and a decision on the number of
the number of epiphytes with time, fruiting sample points is made, for example, five
and flowering phenology. On the other
y
sample points. Selection of random numbers
hand, permanent quadrats can be used to may involve preparation of ten small pieces
collect data for grasses or herbs within it.
nl
of papers assigned with numbers 1-10, then
This could include the changes in species each piece of numbered paper is folded
density, number, or cover. The abiotic data into a small ball that is placed in a hat. The
such as humidity, Cation Exchange Capacity hat containing the paper balls is shaken
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(C.E.C), organic matter and moisture can be slightly, then a paper ball is drawn while
recorded seasonally within the permanent closing the eyes.
plot. A permanent line transect has two or
Once drawn from the hat, the paper ball
more permanent plots.
should be unfolded to reveal the number
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The use of quadrat in sampling flora which is then recorded. This procedure will
and fauna be repeated four times to obtain a total of
For immobile organisms such as plants, five numbers which will be the total number
or for every small and slow moving or the sampling points or plots. The quadrat
organisms, plots called quadrats may be
U frame will now be placed in the transect
used to determine the population size. Each segments corresponding to the number
quadrat marks off an area of the same size, revealed in each of the five randomly picked
typically, a square area within the habitat. paper balls. In each segment where the
e
A quadrat can be made by striking out an quadrat is placed, biotic data such as number
area with sticks or by using a frame quadrat. of species, their frequency and evenness
from the five sampling plots are recorded.
in
After setting up the quadrats, counts are

made on the number of individuals within On the other hand, a pin frame or point
its boundaries. Multiple quadrat samples quadrat is more suitable for the overgrown
nl
are performed throughout the habitat at habitats where several species such as
several random locations to ensure that, the grasses are overlapping. This type of quadrat
numbers recorded are representatives of the usually consists of an inverted ‘U’ shape
overall habitat. In the end, the collected data
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wooden frame with the top wooden frame

can be used to calculate various aspects in bearing several holes. During sampling for
relation to species distribution. example for species richness, a frame is
During sampling, a quadrat is thrown placed on top of the grassland vegetation
or laid along the line transect but in plot. A pin is inserted through the holes and
some cases it can be used without a pressed downwards. The species touched by
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line transect particularly, in a uniform the pin as it reaches the ground is recorded.
habitat, for example, on grasslands. In both The pin is withdrawn and run through the
cases placement of quadrat can be done second hole, and the species touched by it
systematically, for example, after every on the ground is recorded. This is repeated
200 meters or at random. An example of for all holes and the species are recorded.
sampling species data randomly in a transect The pin frame quadrat can be moved to
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another plot selected either randomly or A minimal sample area is noted when further
systematically, where the data is collected sampling in four or five more quadrats does
using the same procedures. At the end, all not yield any new species. Alternatively,
species touched/recorded in all plots are a minimal area can be determined by
analysed for richness and frequency or any establishing a plot of small area (1 m x1 m)
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other desired parameters. or 1 m2 and all species in this quadrat are
recorded. The plot size is doubled into 2 m2
nl
Studies have revealed that sometimes an
analysis of species within a quadrat is and additional species are recorded. This
unnecessary, particularly, in homogenous procedure of doubling plot size is repeated
and all additional species are recorded each
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habitat. This is due to the fact that, the
number of species does not increase once time a plot size is doubled. The obtained
a certain quadrat size or the number of species data is plotted against the size of
plots are sampled. The quadrat size is the sample area as seen in Figure 6.15. The
determined by calculating the minimal area. minimal area is the sample area in the graph
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The minimal area is, therefore, the smallest corresponding with the point at which the
area on which a species composition is graph starts to become horizontal after a
adequately represented. It gives an average steep increase. This in turn will give the
number of species of a community and it size of the sample area, and hence, the
works better in homogenous community
U number of quadrats corresponding to that
area is established.
where species recurrence is common.
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in
Species numbers
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Minimal sample area

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Area sampled / Number of quadrat
Figure 6.15 Species cumulative curve showing minimal sample area

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Ecology
Activity 6.1 To determine a minimal carries the same meaning as number of

sample area individuals per species. Unlike density, the
Procedure former refers more to a number estimate.
(i) Identify any grassland community During sampling of ecological data, for
y
around your school. example in flora surveys, a reconnaissance
survey is done first to give an investigator
(ii) Establish a small area such as 1m
nl
preliminary understanding of the area under
x 1m (1 m2 quadrat) and record
investigation. This can be achieved by
the number of all grass and herb
moving around the study area or using both
species.
O
aerial photographs and topographical maps
(iii) Enlarge the area of the quadrat twice to acquire a general picture of the study
and record the additional number of site. The reconnaissance survey helps the
species occurring for each enlarged investigator to decide among other things,
area separately. the sample size, equipment to be needed
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(iv) Repeat the process by doubling and sampling methods. For example, an
the quadrat area four times, eight area with strata of different vegetation types
times while counting the number of such as forest, bushland and grassland, the
species each time the quadrat size stratified random sampling can be adopted.
is doubled until the species added
U The investigator can then decide on how
to the list become very few. to sample each stratum for example by
establishing the line transects and sample
Assignment
systematically or randomly along each
e
1. Plot the number of species against transect or on each stratum.
the size of the quadrat area to obtain
species/area curve. The procedure of sampling ecological
in
data systematically or randomly is done as

2. Determine the minimal area from explained earlier. Data collection within the
the graph. plot can also be done using nested plots. In
3. Briefly explain the meaning and
nl
this sampling, a larger plot of 20 m x 20 m

significance of a minimal sample can be used to sample tree species, small
area in ecological investigations. plots of 5 m x 5 m placed inside the larger
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tree plots can be used to sample shrubs while

smaller plots of 1 m x 1 m established inside
Collection of ecological data the shrub plots can be used to sample grasses
Species quantities can be estimated using the and herbs as shown in Figure 6.16. In this
relative magnitude terms such as dominant, case plot T is the larger one for tree, plot
abundant, occasional, rare, and frequent. S nested in plot T for shrubs, and subplots
Fo
Similarly, absolute scale values such as G1, G2 and G3 nested in plot S are for
percentage cover are commonly used. sampling grasses and herbs.
Species frequency and cover are important
measures in ecological studies. Abundance
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1 meter
G1
1 meter
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5 meters
G2
nl
20 meters
S G3
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5 meters
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20 meters
U
Figure 6.16 Nested plot
Prior to collecting data in the plots, it is This data is collected using quadrats of a
important for the investigator to record known dimension or area and the number
the following information: collection date,
e
of counted individuals is expressed per total
plot number, geographical area, size of the area covered by the quadrat. The area can
plot, position including altitude, latitudes, be expressed in acre or hectare.
in
longitudes, and aspect. Other information

In collecting density data, each individual
includes community name, for example,
species is enumerated. This is very simple for
forest, woodland or grassland and general
the life forms such as trees, shrubs and tufted
nl
remarks on the plant condition. Species

or solitary grasses because demarcating one
data collection requires a knowledge of
individual from another is easy. This method
the species found in a community under
may present some challenges in sampling
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the study. This is important because it

creeping species such as stoloniferous
requires listing all species preferably by
plants like Digitaria abyssinica (African
their scientific names. The list of species
couch grass) or rhizomatous species such
generated is called a checklist. This list
as Zingiber officinale (ginger). Species of
gives an impression on species richness
this nature cannot be counted accurately
and the diversity of a particular area.
because it may be hard to establish whether
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Species density refers to the actual count two individual stems seen above ground
of individuals per unit area. Collection of originate from one stem or rhizome
density data is one of the easiest species or they are individual stems growing
analytical concept to comprehend. Collecting separately. The cover estimation in grassland
such data involves direct counting of communities is very involving, therefore
individuals per species. time consuming. Instead, density estimation

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rather than counting is commonly used for used while for shrubs and trees plots of
grasses. During sampling density data, the 25m2 (5mx5m) and 100m2 (10mx10m) can
investigator should be consistent, especially be used respectively.
in including or excluding individual species, In an example given in Tables 6.1 for tree
which fall on the quadrat boundary.
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and 6.2 for grasses and herbs, the total
The quadrat for density data collection species density, that is, density of all trees
nl
will depend on the type of vegetation is computed. Density of individual tree
under investigation. The procedure for data species can be obtained for each species
collection within the plot is as stated earlier. per plot and per the entire site, transect line
O
The size of plot may vary depending on the or sample area.
vegetation being sampled. For examples,
in grasslands, quadrats of 1 m2 are usually
Table 6.1 Number of tree species in a sampled plot
se
Plot Number of
Number Species name individuals
Mangifera indica (Mango) 5
Persea americana (Avocado)
U 3
1 Prunus persica (Peach) 7
Albizia versicolor (Albizia) 4
Psdium guajava (Guava) 6
e
in
Citrus sinensis (Orange) 3

2 Annona muricata (Soursop) 9
Persea americana (Avocado) 2
nl

Annona muricata (Soursop) 4
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Cocos nucifera (Coconut) 7
Euphorbia tirucalli (Fire stick plant) 10
3 Cedrela odorata (Cedar) 5
Bombax glabra (French peanut) 1
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Polyalthia longifolia (False ashok) 11
Azadirachta indica (Neem) 5
Dalbergia melanoxylon (African blackwood) 6
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4 Terminalia catappa (Tropical almond) 3

Cassia siamea (Cassod tree) 8
Artocarpus heterophyllus (Jackfruit) 2
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Tamarindus indica (Tamarind) 3
Adansonia digitata (Baobab) 2
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5 Ceiba pentandra (Silk cotton) 6
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Total 144
Table 6.2 Number of grasses and herbs in a sampled plot
Plot number Species name

U Number of
individuals
1 Pennisetum mezianum (Fountain grass) 9
Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda grass) 11
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Panicum maximum (Guinea grass) 20
in
Ageratum conyzoides (Ageratum) 15

Setaria homonyma 25
2 Setaria sphacelata (African bristle grass) 5
nl
Hyparrhenia rufa (Jaragua grass) 10

Hyparrhenia filipendula (Tambookie grass) 20
Ageratum conyzoides (Goat weed) 5
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Cyperus rotundus (Nut grass) 15

Cyperus distans (Slender cyperus) 30
Cyperus exaltatus (Spear of the stream) 10
Panicum trichocladum (Donkey grass) 2
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3 Paspalum vaginatum (Seashoe paspalum) 1

Digitaria ciliaris (Tropical finger grass) 1
Conyza stricta (Horseweed) 10

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Panicum repens (Torpedo grass) 15

Cynodon dactylon (Couch grass) 2
4 Launaea cornuta (Bitter lettuce) 5
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Conyza stricta (Horse weed) 6
Tridax procumbens (Coat buttons) 8
Bidens pilosa (Black jack) 12
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Commelina benghalensis (Benghal
5 6
dayflower)
Conyza stricta (Horse weed) 8
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Cyperus exaltatus (Spear of the stream) 5
Eleusine indica (Indian goosegrass) 2
Total
U 284
Species frequency number of individuals of the species present

The specie frequency is the number of times or their cover. For example, if the number
e
a species occur in a certain number of plots. of individuals of species X are 5 within a
It is expressed as a fraction of number of quadrat, its frequency is recorded as present
in
times a species appears in a certain number but not five. This method of measuring
of plots to the total number of sampled plots species quantities is thus quick, easy and
expressed in percentage. Unlike, density, it can be used in large-scale ecosystems
nl
frequency data is easily obtained because such as woodland.

it does not require counting of individual It is possible to get high species frequency
species but recording its presence or absence values even for species with very few
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in the sample plots. Frequency is, therefore, individuals spread out evenly over the
an objective assessment that provides entire sample area. On the contrary, the low
for a non-absolute measure. The species frequency values can be obtained for species
frequency is determined by the size and with many individuals or extensive cover
shape of the plot. This implies that species but limited to a small portion of the sample
frequency can vary with an increase of plot area. It is for this reason that frequency
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size. The frequency data is also affected by gives little or no indication of cover.
the distance between plant species whose
frequency is being determined. Thus, the The distribution of quadrats can be
size of the quadrat must be stated. It should conducted randomly or systematically.
be noted that, frequency of a species is A worked example on how frequency is
recorded as present without regard to the calculated is done for the data obtained for
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trees in table 6.1, for grasses and herbs in Persea americana, Albizia versicolor,
table 6.2. The frequency data are expressed Cocos nucifera and Tamarindus indica
in percentage as summarized in Tables species for trees. As for grasses and herbs,
6.3 and 6.4. In the collected data, the total data is calculated from, Cynodon dactylon,
number of plots was five for both trees,
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Panicum maximum, Eleusine indica,
grasses and herbs. The frequency data is Ageratum conyzoides and Conyza stricta. It
computed by establishing the total number should be noted that, the individual species
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of times in which a species is recorded is recorded as present once even if it is
in each of the five sample plots. For data represented by more than one individuals
collected in tables 6.1 and 6.2, the frequency in a plot.
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data is calculated for Mangifera indica,
Table 6.3 Species frequency for Trees
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S/n Species name Frequency Percentage
1 Mangifera indica 4/5×100 80
2 Persea americana 2/5×100 40
3 Albizia versicolor 5/5×100 100
4 Cocos nucifera
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3/5×100 60
5 Tamarindus indica 1/5×100 20
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Table 6.4 Species frequency for grasses and herbs
S/n Species name Frequency Percentage
in
1 Cynodon dactylon 2/5×100 40

2 Panicum maximum 4/5×100 80
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3 Eleusine indica 1/5×100 20

4 Ageratum conyzoides 5/5×100 100
5 Conyza stricta 3/5×100 60
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Species cover or species abundance particular species is obtained by adding

The specie cover is a measure of proportion individual species cover obtained in each
of ground occupied by species expressed as plot in a particular study site. In other words
a percentage of the total area. This method the cover gives an estimate of the shoot
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is commonly used to estimate the plant area occupied by species on the ground
species cover for grasses or herbs where expressed as percentage of reference area.
individuals are hard to count due to their This method also applies to trees where it
large number and the fact that some are refers to the outline of the plant near the
rhizomatous or stoloniferous as shown ground surface. This can be measured by
in Table 6.5. The total area covered by a determining the trees basal areas, which is

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Ecology
obtained by measuring circumference of individual tree. It is obtained by using a

the tree stem base immediately above the tape measure laid out on the ground from
ground and convert it to area. The total stem one side of the crown perimeter of the tree
basal area is then expressed as percentage to obtain the first reading. Another tape laid
to the reference area. Trees cover can also perpendicular to the first tape to obtain the
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be estimated from the crown diameter by second measurement. The crown cover is
measuring the crown diameter of each then calculated from the following formula:
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Where Cc = crown covered
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2
⎛ D + D2 ⎞
Cc = ⎜ 1 ⎟⎠ π
⎝ 4
D1= first measured crown diameter
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D2= second measured crown diameter
π = 3.14
Table 6. 5 Species percentage cover
Plot Species name
U Cover (%)
Pennisetum mezianum 5
Panicum maximum 20
1 Setaria homonyma 25
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Hyparrhenia rufa 10
Cyperus exaltatus 35
in
Ageratum conyzoides 25
Conyza stricta 20
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Leersia hexandra (Cutgrass) 10

2 Sporobolus pyramidalis 5
Setaria homonyma 20
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Setaria sphacelata 15
Themeda triandra (Tussock) 5
Cyperus distans 30
Tridax procumbens 10
3 Hyparrhenia rufa 15
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Launaea cornuta 5
Eleusine indica 10
Cynodon dactylon 20
Emilia javanica (Irish poet) 40
Panicum trichocladum 20
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4 Bidens pilosa 10
Commelina benghalensis 15
Leersia hexandra 10
Tagetes minuta (Marigold) 25
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5 Eleusine indica 35
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Tridax procumbens 5
Setaria homonyma 15
Commelina africana 10
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As for the density and frequency, the a quadrat of 1m2 can be used. In order
cover measurement is obtained within the to simplify the counting, the quadrat is
established plots, which can as well be subdivided into small 100 grids using ten
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randomly or systematically distributed. equal distanced (10 cm) strings as shown
To estimate cover for grasses and herbs, in Figure 6.17.
x xp k x
U k x x
k k xp x
k k k
x p
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k k
p p x
p
in
xp p p p p
p p p p
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(a) (b)
Figure 6.17 Ecologists estimating species cover using grid frame quadrat
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The crown shoot outline and the area For example, if the total number of squares
occupied by plant forms is recorded filled by Panicum maximum are 70 then its
accurately by transferring the filled squares cover would be:
from the quadrat grids to a graph paper with
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70
small 100 squares. The cover of each species K= × = 70%
is then evaluated by counting the squares 100
filled by particular species and expressed
as percentage of the total squares.

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Ecology
In the quadrat shown in figure 6.17, randomly distanced quadrats. The method
the cover for species X would be: is advantageous such that, it is accurate and
thus it allows different areas and different
10 species to be compared. Furthermore, it
X= × 100= 10%
provides an absolute measure of abundance.
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100
while the cover for species P would be: However, this method is time consuming,
and it requires individuals to be defined.
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15
P= × 100= 15% To calculate the total species density per
100 hectare for the data collected as presented
The overall species cover in this quadrat
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in tables 6.1 and 6.2, the total number
(species cover for species K, X and P) will of individuals in each plot is calculated.
then be the total number of squares occupied The total number of individuals in all
by species over the squares (100) = plots together is then calculated to get
the species density for the entire sample
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31 areas summarised in Table 6.6. In order to
× 100= 31%
100 present the total density per hectare, the
total plot area is converted into hectare
Species density
as follows:
This refers to the number of individuals of a
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given species in a given area. It is determined
by counting the number of organisms in the
Table 6.6 Summarised tree, grasses and herbs density

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Plot Treesʼ density per Grasses and herbs
100 m2 density per m2
in
1 25 80
2 26 100
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3 28 41
4 45 33
5 20 30
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Total number of 144 284

individuals species
Total number of plots = 5

Size/area of each plot = 100 m 2
Total area sampled = 100 m x 5
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= 500 m 2
Total tree density = 144 individual trees per 500 m2
The total area of 500 m2 can be converted to hectares as follows
1 hectare = 10,000 m 2
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X ha = 500 m 2
1 hectare × 500 m 2
X ha = = 0.05 ha
10,000 m 2
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Therefore, 144 individuals were found in 0.05 hectare. Thus, the total tree density will be:
144 trees
= 2,880 trees per hectare
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0.05 ha
As for the grasses and herbs, the total m2 into hectare as done for trees, the total
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species density is calculated from the total grasses and herbs density per hectare, would
area covered by total sampled quadrats be 56,800 plants per hectare.
from the data recorded in Table 6.2 and Density can be calculated for each individual
summarised in Table 6.6. In this example, tree species as well as per plot and per total
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sampling was done in the five quadrats of study area. To calculate individual species
each measuring 1 m2. Their total area is, density the total number of individuals for
therefore, 5 m 2 . The total density of all each species in all plots for data collected
grasses and herbs will be 284 plants / 5 m 2 , in tables 6.1 and 6.2 is as summarised in
which is obtained by adding number of all
individuals in each plot. By converting 5
U Table 6.7.
Table 6.7 Summarised total density of the tree in the study site
Species name Number of individuals
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Adansonia digitata 2
Albizia versicolor 15
in
Anonna muricata 13
Artocarpus heterophyllus 2
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Azadirachta indica 5
Bombax glabra 1
Cassia siamea 8
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Cedrella odorata 5
Ceiba pentandra 6
Citrus sinensis 3
Cocos nucifera 19
Dalbergia melanoxylon 6
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Euphorbia tirucalli 10
Mangifera indica 14
Persea americana 5
Polyalthia longofolia 11
Prunus persica 7

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Psdium guajava 6
Tamarindus indica 3
Terminalia catappa 3
Total 144
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An example to calculate a total density for an individual species per hectare is done for
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Albizia versicolor, within the entire transect or sampled area is summarised in Table 6.8.
Table 6.8 Individuals species density of Albizia versicolorwww
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Plot number Number of individuals
1 4
2 5
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3 3
4 1
5 2
Total 15
U
Once the total number of individual species from the size of each plot multiplied by the
in all plots obtained, the second step is to total number of plots. In this case, there
calculate the total area sampled (that is, were five plots each measuring
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number of sample plots considering area (10 m x10 m). Hence, the total sample area
of each). The total sample area is obtained will be: 10 m × 10 m × 5 plots = 500 m 2
in
The density of Albizia versicolor will be: 15 individuals

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500 m 2
This density can be converted to individuals per hectares as follows:
1 hectare = 10,000 m 2
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500 m 2 = X ha ?
1 hectare × 500m 2
X= = 0.05 hectare
10,000 m 2
Thus, there are 15 individuals of Albizia versicolor in 0.05 hectare.
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The total specie density of Albizia versicolor will be:

15 plants
= 300 plants per hectare.
0.05 ha
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Activity 6.2 How to apply random (vii) Using the randomly obtained
sampling in collecting density and numbers, locate trees tagged with
frequency data for tree species corresponding numbers in each of
You are required to randomly determine the established plot.
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species density and frequency of trees in a Assignment
community of plants species in your school 1. Identify and record each tree species
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woodlot or nearby environment. using their scientific names or
Procedure common names.
(i) Establish two plots each measuring 2. What is the total sample area in this
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20 meters by 20 meters using a investigation?
tape measure. In each plot, only 3. Determine the total species density
sample 5 individuals randomly. and frequency in hectares.
(ii) Locate about 10 trees in each plot 4. W h a t a r e t h e a d v a n t a g e a n d
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in a way that from the first tree to disadvantage of random sampling
the last one no tree is skipped in methods?
between.
5. Prepare a species checklist for the
(iii) Assign numbers 1 to 10 to the sampled area.
identified 10 trees. The number
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can be written on a hard paper or
Activity 6.3 Stratified and systematic
plastic number tags or by directly
sampling
numbering trees using a permanent
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marker pen or spraying an easily Conduct a reconnaissance in or around your
noticeable paint on the tree stem school compound to gather preliminary
or trunk. information on the vegetation community
in
types. After the survey, categorize the

(iv) Prepare small pieces of papers
vegetation into strata of plant communities
roughly measuring 4 cm x 4 cm
based on its physiognomic composition such
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and assign each paper any number

as grassland and open woodland. In each
between 1and 10.
stratum, conduct the following:
(v) Roll each piece of numbered paper
Assignment 6.3 (a)
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individually into a paper ball to (i) In the open woodland stratum,

conceal the numbers. select any starting point at random.
(vi) Place all numbered paper balls in a (ii) Using a tape measure, establish 2
hat and shake the hat vigorously to sampling plots, each measuring
mix them properly. Close your eyes 10 m x 10 m.
and draw one paper ball from the
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(iii) Place the two established plots at

hat, open it and record its number an interval of 10 m from each other.
on a separate paper. Shake the hat
(iv) Identify and record all tree species
again, close your eyes and draw the
in each of the two established plots.
second paper, open and record its
number. Repeat this procedure until (v) In each of the located point, establish
you obtain 5 numbers at random. nested plots measuring 5 m x 5 m for

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Ecology
shrubs and two small plots measuring Exercise 6.2

1 m x 1 m nested in the 5 m x 5 m 1. Explain the concept of sampling.
plot for grasses and herbs.
2. Describe systematic random and
(vi) In each nested plot identify and
stratified sampling.
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record number of individuals from
the 5 m x 5 m and 1m x 1m plots. 3. (a) Outline the use of transect and
quadrats in sampling flora and
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(vii) Determine the density of each tree,
shrub and grass/herb species. fauna.
(viii) Establish the frequency of tree and (b) What is the difference between
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shrub species. a pin frame, quadrat, and a
(ix) Prepare a species checklist for square quadrat.
all sampled plant species in this 4. Distinguish species frequency from
community. species density.
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5. Write short notes on line and belt
Assignment 6.3 (b)
transect.
(i) In the grassland community stratum,
establish any starting point at 6. Explain why reconnaissance survey
random. is important prior to data collection
(ii) Prepare a quadrat frame with an area
U in ecological studies.
of 1 m2 and partition it into 100 small
grids of 10 cm2 each. Population dynamics
Population is defined as a group of individuals
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(iii) Establish 5 quadrats placed at an
of the same species found in a particular
interval of 10 meters.
area, and isolated geographically from other
in
(iv) Place a 1 m x 1 m quadrat frame individuals of different groups. Individuals

partitioned into 10 cm grids on the of the same population can interbreed
ground and study the grass and herb to produce fertile offspring. Different
species within the whole grid area.
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populations constitute a community.

(v) Record species inside the frame An example of the plant population is
and assign percentage cover to Combretum molle of wetter miombo
each species. The percentage cover woodlands or Brachystegia spiciformis
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of each species is estimated with of drier miombo woodlands. In animals,

respect to the entire area of the this could be exemplified by populations
quadrat; that is the percentage cover of elephants in Mikumi National Park and
of each species out of 1 square meter lions in Serengeti National Park. Usually,
area. populations are temporarily and spatially
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(vi) Giving reasons, state the method of dynamic, and they change at all possible
sampling used in this activity. scales. Dynamism in population is caused
by gradual or abrupt changes in population
(vii) Prepare a species checklist for structure caused by disturbances such as
the sampled plant species in this wildfires and floods. The gradual changes
community. in the structure are wide spread, and arise
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as the population or community itself stopping the continued growth of the

modifies various environmental variables population. As the environment ultimately
such as nutrient levels and water. These becomes saturated with a particular species,
progressive modifications are also called it reaches its full carrying capacity, which
succession where the changed species is the maximum population size an
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are mostly adapted to grow, survive, and environment can support indefinitely
reproduce. This in turn, cause changes without deteriorating. At this point, natality
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in population growth pattern and the and mortality are nearly equal. The resources
community at large. In some cases, areas available to the population in a particular
become overpopulated as they contain area always determine the carrying capacity.
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organisms beyond the carrying capacity. These resources are collectively called
This is called population explosion and has limiting factors because they limit the size
various consequences to the environment of the population.
as well as other populations.
Types of communities (biomes) and
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The population is better understood by their global distribution
studying its characteristics such as the birth The community is a group of different
rates also called natality, how it grows, how population of plants or animals co-occurring
it is maintained, death rates or mortality in time and space. The co-occurrence
and how it declines. The study of how and
U of populations of different organisms in
why these changes occur in a population a particular geographical area is due to
is called population dynamics. their overlapping tolerance ranges to the
Population growth is an increase in the existing environmental conditions. In
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actual number of organisms in a population. plants, communities are exemplified by
This is also called a population size. The size subdivisions of vegetation cover such as
in
of a population is primarily determined by woodlands, and grasslands while in animals

natality, mortality, and migration which may they can be exemplified by co-occurrence of
be immigration or emigration. Population populations of herbivores such as antelopes,
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size is regulated by some factors, collectively zebra, buffalo and carnivores such as lions
regarded as environmental resistance. The and leopards. Communities of plants can be
absence of predators, competition for distinguished based on floristic composition,
and physiognomic characteristics. Floristic
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food and space, may be summed up as

an absence of environmental resistance. composition refers to different kinds of plant
Under these circumstances, the struggle for species constituting a particular community
existence is low, survival is high and species while physiognomic characteristic refers
realise their full reproductive potential. to the physical appearance of the plant
Normally, a population characterized by a community. The plant community can be
identified physiognomically as a forest,
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few individuals will grow exponentially,

doubling with time provided that shelter is woodland and grassland. Floristically, the
available and the area has no food shortage plant community is identified based on
and predators. Increased growth of the dominant species, for example, Acacia
population triggers the environmental woodland or Brachystegia-Combretum
resistance to start operating, thereby woodland.

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Ecology
Communities can change in temporal Assemblage of communities constitute

scales, in species composition, spacing, biomes that can be marine or terrestrial.
height of plants and growth form, which The biomes are, therefore, the world’s major
corresponds to spatial changes in the communities and are distinct unit with clear
environment. Changes in communities may discernible boundaries. These boundaries
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be abrupt, transitional, gradual or diffuse. occur as transitional zones called ecotone,
These changes depending on ecologist which separate the two biomes. The ecotone
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experience may be evident or non-evident contains species of both adjacent biomes
particularly, on the first inspection. The but also unique species as well. This makes
ability to recognise changes is a skill which ecotone to have more species diversity than
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can be learned and it increases with frequent the two adjacent biomes. The terrestrial
analyses, comparisons and experience. biomes are categorized globally according
Beside plants’ and animals’ communities to the dominant vegetation. They are
which are easily identified, there are also characterized by adaptations of organisms
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fungi, algae and microorganisms which are to a particular environment. The terrestrial
very important in nutrient circulation to the biomes fall into nine major types based on
entire community. dominant vegetation communities as shown
in Figure 6.18.
U
e
in
30� N
Tropic of
cancer
Equator
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Tropic of
Capricorn
30� S
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Key:
Tropical forest Polar and high-mountain ice Temperate deciduous forest
Savanna Chaparral Coniferous forest
Desert Temperate grassland Tundra (arctic and alpine)
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Figure 6.18 Global distribution of biomes
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Tundra extends from Alaska across Canada, and

Geographically, tundra extends above 60º Northern Europe through Russia. It is also
North covering parts of North America, found on mountain sides in the western
Europe, and Asia in the northern hemisphere, United States. The boreal forests climate
is characterized by annual precipitation
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just south of the ice cap. It is characterized by
an extremely cold climate. The temperature of about 650 mm and very cold winters
but relatively less severe compared to the
nl
is extremely low ranging between -34oC
and 12oC and precipitation is less than 250 tundra. The growing season is short, lasting
mm/year. The seasonal temperatures are low only from June to August. The vegetation
and the growing season is short lasting for diversity in these forests is also low having
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about sixty days. This climatic condition two tree species of Pine family. namely: the
makes the tundra biome the least productive spruce and balsam fir which bear evergreen
biome globally. The ecosystem is therefore needle-like leaves as illustrated in Figure
characterised by extensive tree-less plains 6.19. The needles which are the leaves
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and overall low biodiversity. The vegetation dominating this biome form a litter layer
is dominated by lichens, grasses, sedges and ranging between 7 and 15 cm deep on the
dwarf woody plants, for example, willows ground. They are resistant to decomposition
and birches. and contribute to a slow rate of litter
Boreal forests
U decomposition. The climatic conditions and
the acidic nature of the evergreen needles
The boreal forest biome, also known as make the soil acidic after decomposition.
the northern evergreen forest or northern The soils occur in thin layers overlying
coniferous forest biome is found immediately rocks exposed by glaciation.
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south of the tundra biome. This ecosystem
in
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Figure 6.19 Boreal forest with evergreen needle-like leaves

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Ecology
Temperate deciduous forests up the canopies. This makes such forests

This forest covers south of the evergreen to have higher species richness than tundra
forest biome. In the United States, it covers and boreal forests. High species diversity
the entire eastern part but does not extend to in this biome is largely contributed by the
deciduous characteristic of its forest species.
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southern Florida. It is also found in southern
Scandinavia, Ireland, central parts of China, This characteristic allows for the presence
of lichens, mosses, a rich variety of herbs
nl
the British Isles, central Europe, Japan and
Eastern Russia. and shrubs in the understorey layer. These
grow during the spring season and complete
The climate in this biome is characterised by their life cycle activities before the canopy
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distinct summer and winter seasons. During closes. The forest is also characterised
winter, all regions are subject to freezing by a dense canopy dominated by beach,
temperatures. Generally, the precipitation, basswood, maples, hickories, and oaks while
which is in the form of snow and rainfall, is the understorey tree species is dominated
distributed more or less evenly throughout
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by dogwood, magnolia, and ironwood as
the year and it ranges between 750 mm and shown in Figure 6.20. The deciduous tree
1500 mm. The annual temperature ranges leaves decompose more easily due to warm
between -3ºC and 30 ºC. U summer temperatures which contribute
Temperate deciduous forests biome is a to thick humus. This hastens the release
home to a wide various of animals such and recycling of mineral nutrients into the
as variety of insects, wolves, foxes, bears, upper soil layers and ultimately to plants.
deer, mountain lions, rabbits, snakes, bob This makes the temperate deciduous forest
cats, eagles and humming birds. There are soils more fertile than the tundra or boreal
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about 40 different tree species which make- forest soils.
in
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Fo
Figure 6.20 Temperate deciduous forest
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Temperate grasslands Deserts

This is found in the inland parts with too Deserts are sandy or rocky biomes that
little growth of forest trees due to low occupy regions with annual precipitation
moisture levels. In South America, this of less than 250 mm. Rainfall in deserts
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grassland occurs in Argentina while in North often occurs as cloud bursts and is sparse,
America it stretches from Mexico through infrequent and largely unpredictable.
nl
the southern, central and northern parts Diurnal temperatures variation is very high
of the United States and southern parts of with high temperatures during the day
Canada. In Europe, the temperate grasslands (41ºC) and low temperatures at night (- 4ºC)
are found on the eastern part. In Asia, they but this temperature vary with location. For
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occupy the southern part of Russia, parts example, in temperate regions, temperatures
of Syria, Turkey, Northern Iraq, large part at night may go down to -18ºC. The plants
of Iran and Pakistan, North-western parts that live in desert biomes are well adapted to
of India as well as the northern parts of live in extreme conditions such as drought.
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Mongolia and China. In Australia, the In the event of torrential rainfall, seeds of
temperate grasslands stretch from North- most plants germinate, grow rapidly and
west coast between Brome and Onslow set flowers and seeds in a few weeks’ time.
across the northern territory. It continues Desert plants such as cactus are drought
to Queensland closer to the East coast band
U resistant and have developed features
and turns southwards to New South Wales such as thick cuticle, succulent stem,
and then westwards ending at Geraldton on highly reduced leaf surface, multi-layers
the south-west coast. palisade tissue and sunken stomata to
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Annual precipitation in the temperate prevent excessive water loss. Soils are
grasslands biome is fairly low ranging coarse textured, and rich in mineral salts,
in
from 250 mm to 750 mm. The biome is but poor in organic content. Due to extreme
characterized by wide seasonal temperature aridity, the productivity of desert biomes is
variations, which are as high as 38ºC during very low and some deserts are completely
nl
summer but very low in winter where they devoid of plants. The desert biome covers
go down to -32ºC. The assemblage and about one-fifth of the earth’s surface and
spatial distribution of species in this biome is categorized into hot and cold deserts.
is determined by the aridity of the particular Animals in this biome include herbivores
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habitat. However, at larger scale the biome is such as camels, deer, pronghorn antelope,
maintained by wildfires and small quantities desert bighorn sheep, jack rabbit, and
of precipitation. The temperate grassland kangaroo. There are also bats, birds such as
plants become dormant to survive the dry owls, hawks, and road runners and insects
summer periods. Usually, during spring and such as ants, beetles, butterflies, flies, and
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early summer, the moisture is adequate to wasps. Other fauna includes reptiles such
support plant growth. During this period, the as tortoise, rattlesnakes, and lizards.
grassland plants store a sufficient amount
of food to survive periods of dormancy
during dry summer.

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(i) Hot deserts in Namibia, and Botswana respectively

This type of desert covers several parts of as indicated in Figure 6.21 represent part
the world including the United States where of Sahara desert. The hot deserts in the
they cover the southwest part. In Mexico, Middle East cover Saudi Arabia, Oman
South Yemen, southern parts of Pakistan,
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hot deserts are found in the northern and
western parts while in South America they the southern tip of Afghanistan, and Jordan.
Other hot deserts are found in several states
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cover western parts of Peru, and northern
parts of Chile. In Africa, hot deserts are the in Australia, namely: the Great Sandy Desert
Sahara in the northern part which covers in western Australia, the Great Victoria
Desert in South Australia, and the Simpson
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countries such as Chad, Algeria, Libya,
Sudan, Egypt, Niger, and Tunisia other desert in Queensland, and the Northern
hot deserts includes Namib, and Kalahari Territory.
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in
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Figure 6.21 A section of hot desert biome in North Sudan
(ii) Cold deserts Chaparral

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These occur in the temperate regions. In the This biome occurs along the southwest
United States, the cold desert occurs in the coast of the United States on the West
Great Basin stretching from Nevada State coast of Chile, in countries bordering the
through Idaho, Utah, and on to the eastern Mediterranean Sea, and along the southern
part of Washington State. In the eastern coast of Australia. The Chaparral biome is
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and central parts of Argentina, Kazakhstan, similar to desert biome by both being hot
Uzbekistan, southern Mongolia, northern and dry but it differs from desert biome by
China, and the Atacama desert in southern receiving relatively more rainfall per year.
parts of Chile. The climate in this biome is characterized
by dry summers, and high annual rainfall
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ranging from 250 mm to 430 mm during canopy is broken by fallen trees. The warm
winter. The temperature during this season temperatures and high moisture content
is -1o C but may go as high as 38oC in accelerates litter decay, and nutrients
summer. The dominant vegetation are recycling resulting in the soils with a thin
the fire resistant evergreen shrubs which litter layer. The nutrients are immediately
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re-sprout profusely in winter season as it absorbed by a vast root network, which
rains. The frequent late summer fires favours makes vegetation, a major reservoir of
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the growth of shrubs while inhibiting trees nutrients rather than soil. However, due to
growth. high rainfall, and rapid litter decay, soils are
nutrient poor. Fauna in this biome includes
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Tropical rain forests
predators such as jaguars; the herbivores
This is the oldest remaining biome on earth such as antelopes, gazelles and giraffes;
perhaps having over 60 million years of age. mammals such monkeys; amphibians such
The tropical rain forests are situated in the as frogs; insects such as butterflies and
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equatorial region. They cover the lowlands beetles, ants and ant eaters.
of the humid tropics of Africa, Central and
South America, Southeast Asia, and the Tropical savannas
Islands of Indonesia. Diurnal and seasonal The tropical savanna biome is found
temperature variations are small in the between the tropical rainforest and the desert
tropical rain forests but the annual rainfall
U biomes. Geographically, these biomes are
is high and commonly exceeds 2000 mm. located near the equator, mainly between
Usually, there is one or more relatively dry latitudes 5o and 15o North and South of
periods each year. The temperature ranges the equator. This biome is found in warm
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between 20º C and 34º C and the humidity areas, which receives an annual rainfall of
is relatively low. 1000-1500 mm as well as a pronounced dry
in
The tropical rain forests biome has the period for at least four months in a year.
highest biodiversity compared with other The savannas are generally warm annually
biomes. For example, a two-hectare area with temperatures ranging from 20 oC to
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can have over 100 species of trees, whereas 30 oC. The tropical savanna biome is
the same area in the temperate deciduous typically grassland characterized by a
forest may contain less than 25 species of continuous cover of open grasslands with
patches of scattered trees and shrubs as
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trees. The broad leaved evergreen trees

and large woody vines and climbing plants indicated in Figure 6.22. Specifically, these
are the flora of the equatorial rainforests. grasslands cover large parts of Africa;
The evergreen trees can grow to a height Tanzania, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Botswana,
of 70 meters forming a dense top canopy. South Africa, and Namibia. They are
The understorey comprises of shorter trees also found in Australia, South America,
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and vines. Trees of all heights are found especially in Venezuela, and Columbia.
beneath the upper canopy and epiphytes are The soils are porous and therefore have rapid
abundant. The closed nature of the canopy drainage of water. The humus layer, which
growth allows little light to penetrate to provides vegetation with nutrients is thin.
the forest floor. Generally, this results There are frequent natural fires originating
into sparse ground flora except where the from lighting and intentional fires set by

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Ecology
poachers during the dry season. Due to the termites, kangaroos, ostriches, and snakes.
prevalence of fires both trees and grasses The predator-prey relationship is common
in this biome are fire-resistant. There are in the savanna. Camouflage and mimicry
tall perennial grasses with an extensive root are very important to the animals of these
system that help for a quick recovery either
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biomes whereby predators often blend with
following grazing or burning. their environment in order to sneak up
on unsuspicious prey. On the other hand,
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The dominant fauna includes elephants,
giraffes, zebras, rhinoceros, buffalo, lions, the preys may use this same technique as
leopards and cheetahs. Others include defence mechanism to conceal themselves
from animals higher up on the food chain.
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baboons, crocodiles, antelopes, ants,
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U
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in
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Figure 6.22 A section of tropical savannah in Arusha Tanzania

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Activity 6.4 To identify vegetation Assignment

communities 1. Identify and classify types of plant
Take a tour across the vegetation within community encountered based
or around the school compound to on physiognomic and floristic
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observe different plant communities in characteristics.

their particular environment. Take note of 2. Giving reasons, comment on the
the species growth form or habit, spacing, observed spatial distribution (whether
the physical appearance of the entire it is uniform, random or clumped) of
community, composition of species and each population in the plant community
dominant species. types named in (1) above.
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Factors affecting population growth involve a visual display as seen in some

and distribution birds, which display their coloured breast.
Population growth and distribution are In some cases, the intruder and competitor
affected by factors both within and between individuals may fight briefly leading to
retreat of the intruder without necessarily
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species. Factors within the population which
affect population growth and distribution, causing serious harm to either species. The
are called intraspecific factors while factors neighbouring territories sometimes overlap
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between different populations are referred to if the resources such as food are not limited.
as interspecific factors. Intraspecific factors As the available resources are reduced and
usually start to operate once the population individuals increase in numbers, the ability
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has completed its growth phase, and they of territory to support many individuals and
become more evident as the number of the space partitioned to each individual
individuals or density within the population decrease. As the territory size decreases,
increases. It is for this reason, these factors some individuals within the territory may
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are also called density dependent factors. completely fail to establish their territory,
Normally, changes in population growth and hence fail to breed.
cause fluctuations or cycles, which may be Overcrowding is another density dependent
regular. On the other hand, the population factor which significantly affects populations
may continue to grow in size until some
factors such as fires, temperature, and flood
U growth in many mammals such as the natural
populations of a rat. Studies show that the
which do not necessarily depend on its size, reproductive behaviour of individuals of
cause a sudden reduction. These factors the rat population is affected significantly
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are collectively called density independent as the number of individuals increases.
factors. The increase in individuals of a population
in
Density dependent factors triggers hormonal changes which ultimately

disrupt ability of individuals to copulate
Density dependent factors involve the
and enhances infertility, cannibalism,
interactions of individuals. These factors
abortions and reduction of survival as the
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have a direct effect on population growth

young individuals leave their nests early.
as they affect natality and mortality of
Overcrowding also results in the competition
the individual species directly. These
of organisms for limited resources within
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factors include food shortage, predation,

a population.
overcrowding, dispersal and territorial
behaviour, which affect the birth rate of Dispersal timing, particularly, in some
individuals of the population. insects such as aphids, plays a vital role to
determine insects’ fitness. A delayed arrival
Territorial behaviour refers to defending of
of insects to their host plant for example,
a breeding territory from being intruded by
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may result in the mismatch between the

individuals of the same species. It is a spatial
arrival and availability of nutritionally
type of interaction exhibited by a wide
quality fodder. This may significantly
range of animals, including social insects,
reduce the growth rates of herbivorous
birds, mammals and reptiles. In defending
insects. Moreover, emigration from large
their territory, some species normally sing
aggregations of aphids can affect timing
as in birds or vocalize as in frogs, and may

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Ecology
by their natural enemies which are likely Since the prey becomes more limited,
to focus more on aggregated and most the population of predators also begin to
abundant prey. decline and the weak individuals that cannot
Adequate food or nutrients favour natality compete begin to starve, and ultimately die
of hunger.
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and facilitate the immigration of organisms
leading to population growth. On the
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contrary, insufficient food leads to a decrease
in population size, due to competition for
Prey
the limited food, emigration, low rate of Predators
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reproduction, and mortality. Competition
Population
for limited resources such as food, shelter,
light, water, and space, has a profound
effect on population growth. Individuals
that are too young, old or weak can poorly
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compete with the fully energetic ones. The Time
consequence of competition is the increase
in the population of a wining species and
Figure 6.23 The predator–prey relationship
a decrease in the population of the looser
or unsuccessful one.
U As explained earlier, the decline in predators’
number gives room for the preys’ population
Density independent factors to increase and subsequently support
These factors can change the size of the an increase in the number of predators.
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population significantly. The density This predator-prey relationship results in
independent factors are seen in various inter- the oscillations in the number of the two
specific relationships across the populations.
in
populations.
Predator-prey relationship is one of such
relationships. This is a kind of relationship Similarly, herbivory is common in plants
whereby one organism (predator) hunt and where certain insects can consume the entire
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kill another organism (prey) as a source plant population. This causes a shortage of
of food. As the predators feed on preys in food supply to other herbivores, a situation
the community, the population of preys which may results into their death.
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decrease, hence, food for predators decrease Parasitism is another form of inter-species
and their population gradually decreases relationship that affects population size in
as they compete for the limited resources. which one species depends on others for
Thus, the relationship between predators and food and other physiological processes.
preys causes cyclic variation in the sizes of Some parasites such as the Ascaris obtain
their populations as shown in Figure 6.23. their shelter and food from the mammalian
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When the predators’ population increases, intestines. This helps them to reproduce and
the population of the prey decreases. This is increase in population size. As the size of
because the predators eat the preys thereby Ascaris population increases, the host will
reducing their numbers. As the prey’s be deprived of nutrients and may die, thus
population starts to decline, the predators reducing its population size.
begin to compete for the diminishing prey.
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In an ideal environment, it is difficult to Population growth patterns and their

separate density dependent factors from interpretation
density independent factors for the reason Experimental data obtained from studies
that complex interactions between the two in the growth patterns of different groups
are sometimes inevitable. Climatic factors
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of organisms reveals two basic growth
such as water, temperature and light, for patterns. These are J-shaped or exponential
example, may be regarded as density
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growth pattern and S-shaped or Sigmoid
independent factors affecting population growth pattern, also called logistic growth
growth but they also interact with density pattern.
dependent factors.
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J – shaped growth curve
Availability of water and air plays an
important role in determining the survival This curve describes the population growth
of species. Both water and air favour high of organisms in the environment where
reproduction rate and immigration of resources such as water, food and space
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organisms, which ultimately increase the are abundant. This type of growth is
population size. characterized by a few individuals available
for reproduction in the initial establishment
The quality, quantity, and duration of stage which cause the population to grow
sunlight, have a direct influence on the
growth of plant populations as this is vital
U at a relatively slow rate. This stage of the
population growth is called a lag phase.
for photosynthesis. In the presence of As the number of potentially reproductive
adequate light, photoautotrophs synthesise individuals increases with time, there is an
enough food, reproduce enormously and increased birth rate. This stage is called an
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their population’s growth becomes high. exponential stage because the population
In an environment deprived of these growth is exponential as indicated in Figure
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conditions, natality is low, and mortality 6.24. The J-shaped curve represents an ideal
is high due to lack of enough food and situation for unicellular organisms such as
consequently, population growth rate yeast cells. In the beginning, each yeast cell
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becomes low. is capable of dividing to form two cells.

Temperature, wind, rain availability, This process continues such that for every
humidity and similar aspects also affect division, the population doubles. Ideally,
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population growth in the ecosystems. Each if nothing happens in the environment

species can survive within a certain range that interferes with the metabolism, the
of each of these factors. A species exposed population growth will continue.
to an environment near the upper and lower
limits of its tolerance range, experiences
stress which affects its health, growth and
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reproduction, as a result, the population

size goes down.

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Ecology
density will initially increase slowly in

a positive acceleration phase also called
a lag phase. At this stage, the number of
Exponential phase
reproducing individuals is still small and
Number of organisms
they are still adapting the environment.
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Lag phase
The lag phase is followed by a rapid
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increase in the population approaching an
exponential or logarithmic growth rate as
in the J-shaped curve. At this stage, there is
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no environmental resistance and individuals
are well adapted to their environment. The
natality is higher than mortality and the
Time
number of reproducing individuals is large.
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The third stage is characterised by an
Figure 6.24 J-shaped growth curve initial decline in growth rate resulting in
the deceleration or negative acceleration.
S-shaped or sigmoid growth curve This occurs as the environmental resistance
sets in, leading to increased mortality than
Under normal conditions, growth cannot
continue indefinitely because the habitat
U natality. Eventually, the growth rate reaches
can only support a limited number of a stable equilibrium phase where it levels
organisms. In the case of yeast, the material off as the mortality equals natality as shown
in Figure 6.25. This is also called a zero
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requirements for yeast growth, toxic
products of fermentation and the death of growth rate phase which leads to population
some cells can limit growth. Therefore, in stabilisation. This point is known as the
in
reality because resources are limited, the saturation value or carrying capacity of the
growth patterns of organisms is S-shaped environment for such organisms.
sigmoid curve.
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An area with plenty of resources, enough

breeding space, absence of predators, and
competition of any kind is said to have no
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environmental resistance. If few individuals

are introduced in this area, their population
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Stable equilibrium phase
Deceleration
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Population
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Exponential growth
Lag phase
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se
Time
Figure. 6.25 The Logistic curve (also known as an S- (Sigmoid) curve)
Population explosion and their population means growing needs.

consequences
The size of a population of a particular
U The biological consequences include
competition for the available resources
habitat is determined by natality, mortality, such as food and space. This is experienced
immigration, and emigration. Birth and in densely populated areas such as urban
immigration increase the size of a population areas and in areas inhabited by refugees.
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whereas death and emigration decrease These areas also experience rapid spread of
the population size. Overpopulation epidemic diseases such as cholera, and the
in
occurs when the number of species in a chances of being infected by such diseases
population exceeds the carrying capacity increase with increased overcrowding. The
of their respective environment. Depletion impacts of human population explosion
nl
of resources in some places results in the on the environment include pollution in

overcrowding in other areas where the which water, air and soil are negatively
resources are abundantly available. affected. Pollution refers to the discharge
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In human beings, population explosion is a of toxic substances or contaminants into the

global phenomenon and its consequences environment that is likely to have adverse
are evident on the biosphere. The population effects on the natural environment or life.
overgrowth emanates from increased food In the urban areas, overpopulation is tied
production and distribution, improved to the growing economic activities such
public services such as water, sanitation as industrialization. In some developed
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and improved medical technology and countries such as China, Japan and USA,
communication. However, the high growth industrial activities have contributed
rate of the global human population has significantly to emissions of pollutants into
biological and social consequences tied to the atmosphere thus causing atmospheric
the declining environmental quality in all pollution. The emissions containing nitrous
spheres of the earth because the growing and sulphur oxides to the atmosphere

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Ecology
may cause acid rain. The emission of soil parameters, and hence, soil quality in
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) to the various ways. The discharge of industrial
atmosphere contributes significantly to wastes and mining effluents into water
ozone layer depletion. This occurs as these bodies also cause water pollution.
gases react with ozone (O3), an atmospheric
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Population explosion also has an impact
blanket, which absorbs strong ultraviolet on overexploitation of natural resources
rays from the sun, making it thin and
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due to increased needs. Human activities
finally forming holes in it. The hazardous or anthropogenic practices such as
ultraviolet rays may pass through the holes infrastructure development, expansion of
and upon reaching the earth’s surface they
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settlements, large scale open pit mining,
can cause human skin cancer and death huge demand of traditional energy (fuel
of plants. On the other hand, the exhaust wood and charcoal), large scale agriculture,
emissions from combustion of fossil fuels slash and burn agriculture, and overgrazing
in cars and industries generate CO2 known have contributed significantly to wide
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as a greenhouse gas. Elevated levels of this spread deforestation. The consequences
gas in the atmosphere form a blanket, which of deforestation include increased
prevents the sun’s heat on the earth surface desertification, loss of species habitat and
from escaping back to the atmosphere. This species extinction. Other consequences
scenario is called a greenhouse effect and
is a major contributor to global warming.
U are increased endangered species and
species vulnerability which are currently
Thus, the acid rain, ozone layer depletion a global conservation concern. Plants
and greenhouse gas effect are the major assemblages such as forests are vital
drivers of global climate change. Besides
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in carbon dioxide fixation and hence,
global climate change, air pollution may also regulating the concentration of atmospheric
cause respiratory diseases such as asthma
in
carbon dioxide and oxygen gases in the

and some airborne diseases. atmosphere through photosynthesis.
Intensive agricultural activities employing Increased deforestation, therefore, results
advanced modern techniques such as into increased levels of atmospheric carbon
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intensive use of inorganic fertilizers, dioxide and its ill consequences to the
herbicides and pesticides are geared environment as stated above. The forests
towards increased yields to cope with also play an important role in enhancing
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increasing population growth. However, the quality of environment by influencing

the entry of these chemicals into the soil the ecological balance and life support
and their seepage to the water bodies can system in checking soil erosion, maintaining
tremendously cause soil and water pollution. soil fertility, conserving water, regulating
This can significantly affect biodiversity nutrients cycle, water cycles and floods.
in aquatic and marine ecosystems. In the Therefore, their removal will naturally
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soil, entry of chemicals may severely disrupt these provisions.

impact microbial activities, leading to The human population growth has social
disruption of nutrient cycles which can impacts such as poverty, malnutrition and
impair plant growth. Inorganic fertilizers famine because people have to spend a large
may significantly change the soil pH, a portion of their resources for betterment
master variable which changes various
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of their families. This may result into less lay up to seven eggs which have high
saving and low rate of capital formation. In chances of hatching into young ones due
some cases, improvement in the production to high degree of parental protection. These
technique becomes impossible due to birds multiplied rapidly and spread to Dar
poverty which may result into famine and es Salaam city and recently to Tanga and
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malnutrition. Lindi regions. In Dar es Salaam, the C.
splendens population in 2010 was estimated
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Migration of people from rural to urban
areas seeking for employment causes to be approximately 1.5 million. In recent
overcrowding in town and city areas years, the relevant city authorities have
been struggling to control the population
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leading to high competition for resources
and spaces. Overcrowded areas are mostly of these birds. Besides feeding on garbage,
unhygienic and are associated with relatively the C. splendens feeds on cereals, young
high frequency of communicable diseases. maize, cashewnuts, fruits and can reduce
the potential for agriculture. They also eat
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In the wild population of fauna, eggs of chicken and other native birds,
overpopulation of prey often causes chicks of chicken, ducks and birds. The
growth of predators’ populations. The C. splendens carries and may potentially
predator-prey relationship controls the spread diseases. It is for this reason,
prey population and ensures its evolution
in favour of genetic trait which decreases
U C. splendens are considered invasive and a
concern to the environment and populations
its vulnerability to predation. The prey of native birds. The city has put up a project
population normally increases, in the to reduce population of these invasive birds
absence of the predators and its growth is by using traps, poison and direct killing
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bound by the resources available in their using stones and poles. This has resulted
environment. Abundant supply of resources into eradication of over 900,000 individuals
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may produce a population boom followed of C. splendens birds.

by a population crash.
Some species such as rodents, experience
The introduction of exotic species has large natural cyclic variations experienced
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often caused ecological disturbance as the by farmers as plagues. Studies conducted

introduced species struggle and successfully to establish rodent damage to growing
adapt to the new environment. In Zanzibar, crops in tropical and subtropical regions
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Tanzania, Corvus splendens, the Indian revealed that rodents are animal pests
black house crow were introduced from and economic losses caused by them are
India and South East Asia in limited number widely distributed and quite severe in some
to supplement methods of managing countries. Invasion of rats in agricultural
disposed domestic wastes which have areas of Western Kenya in 1962 damaged
been a challenge in the Islands. These food several maize, wheat and barley plantations.
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wastes are among the sole food sources of In the previous years, population explosion
these birds. During that time nobody ever of rodents was considered a plague in
thought that these garbage in the town and some regions of Tanzania. In 1989 farmers
the aggressive behaviour of these exotic were forced to harvest their crops unripe
bird species would lead to a dramatic in Muheza district, Tanga region due to
explosion of their population. These birds rodent epizootics.

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Ecology
In 1989, Lindi, Mtwara, and Coast regions areas and open patches in the forest edges
also experienced large rodent population in the forests of Amani nature reserve. It
explosion, which caused alarming losses is perceived as a potential threat to the
of agricultural products during the major diversity of the native tree species including
farming season. the endemic tree species. The ecological
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Populations that exceed their historic impacts of this species include poor growth
of under canopy shrubs and herbs, alteration
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carrying capacity can cause widespread
problems. Large populations of herbivorous of the canopy density, soil parameters
species such as caterpillars and locusts can including pH and water retention capacity.
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overgraze the plants in their community, Another population explosion in the plant
leaving little food for other herbivorous species was evident in the Lake Victoria’s
species. These large animal populations wide spread weeds, the water hyacinth,
also have direct effects on humans. Eichronia grassipes. This weed species
The overgrowth of plant species such as
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originated from Rwanda through River
Parthenium hysterophorus (carrot weed), Kagera in 1980s. It then spread prolifically
which is now an invasive weed species as it took advantage of lack of its natural
in some parts of the northern Tanzania is predators, optimal temperature for its
posing significant problems in agriculture growth, large space availability in the lake
and pastureland. This species produces
U unlike in the river and hence abundant
a copious number of seeds within short nutrients availability. The latter was also
growing cycles and they grow at detriment contributed by nutrient enrichment from
of other native plant species including the industrial, domestic and agricultural
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crops fodder, livestock and wild herbivores. activities around the lake. These conditions
Additionally, Maesopsis eminii is a tree lead to the rapid population increase of
in
species which was introduced in Amani hyacinth between 1992-1998 as shown in

Natural Reserve, in Muheza Tanga as part Figure 6.26. During that time, its bloom was
of afforestation efforts. This tree species considered a problem to the lake ecosystem
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has high competitive ability due to its fast and water vessels navigation. In 2001,
growth rates, prolific seed production and the population of hyacinth was reduced
efficient dispersal. As a result in the recent significantly through direct interventions
years its successful invasion has made its and its proliferation has been decreasing.
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population very conspicuous in disturbed

Fo
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Figure 6.26 Water hyacinth in Lake Victoria
Ecological succession
U of one biotic community by another,
Ecologists have a strong interest in until a dynamically stable community or
understanding how communities form and equilibrium is established.
change overtime. This involves long term In plant communities, succession is evident
e
investigation on how complex communities when a bare land is colonized by a variety
such as forests arise from a bare land or of species. The species will later on modify
in
rocks and vegetation regrowth following one or more environmental factors, for
volcanic eruptions, glacier retreats, wildfires example, by organic matter in the soil,
and anthropogenic influence. Studies have reducing erosion and improving water
nl
revealed gradual processes of change holding capacity of the underlying soil.

in ecological communities with time. These modifications of the environment,
In many cases, a community arising in in turn, favour the establishment of more
a disturbed area, goes through a series
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species.
of changes in species composition and
structure, often over the course of many The ecological succession is characterised
years due to changes in the environment. by six important phases. The initial phase
These series of progressive directional called nudation involves the initiation of
and accumulative changes through which succession process after a major disturbance
in the environment. The disturbance
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the structure of a biological community

evolves over time is referred to as ecological could be emanating from fires, volcanic
succession. During this process, there is a eruption or landslide. The second phase is
series of gradual and orderly replacement migration marked by the arrival of plant

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Ecology
species collectively called migrules. These such as volcanic eruption, massive land
species start growing and occupy the bare slide and glacier retreats.
environment. The migrules upon maturity
Primary succession
set spores or seeds, which germinate, grow
and result into their establishment. The third Primary succession clearly illustrates the
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phase is called excesis and is followed process of succession. It involves initial
by a fourth phase called competition in development of plant species in areas where
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which the established species struggle for no soil originally existed. Ecologically,
scarce resources such as nutrients, water, all communities evolved from simple
and light. The competition may result populations which gradually became
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into stronger species replacing the weaker complex. The primary succession starts in
ones. The presence of plant species in this hostile conditions such as on barren areas
environment may bring about changes like sandy beaches, bare rocks or sand
in the environment. The changes such as dunes. The first stage in primary succession
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increased organic matter, improved soil is colonisation and establishment of primary
structure, nutrients, optimum pH level, coloniser or pioneers which are autotrophic
reduced erosion and reduced evaporation species. Lichens, mosses and fern species
will allow new species to enter and inhabit are examples of primary colonizers which
the area. This is the fifth phase termed as inhabit rock surfaces and release chemicals
a reaction at which these species induce
U that enhance disintegration of rocks
changes in the environment. The sixth or into smaller particles. This marks the
ultimate phase called stabilisation or climax beginning of weathering, and hence, soil
is achieved when the plant community attain formation. As some of these species die
e
an equilibrium where no more changes and decompose, organic matter is formed
are expected unless subjected to a major and accumulates in small depressions and
in
disturbance, which may start the process cracks in the rocks. This forms a good source
afresh. The individual successions are called of food for decomposers. The products of
seres while the developmental phases are decomposition mix with rock particles to
form the first soil.
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called seral stages. At each stage in this

gradual evolution, a dominant species can The second stage in primary succession
be recognised. is characterized by arrival of increasingly
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Types of ecological succession demanding plants called early colonizers.

These plants characteristically have good
There are two types of succession. The mechanisms of seed dispersal and can
first type is called primary succession, tolerate wide range of environmental
which occurs in areas that have never been stress. Thus, they are called generalists or
inhabited by vegetation. The second type opportunists. Example of plant species in
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is called secondary succession. This occurs this stage are short and tall grasses as well
in an environment which was formerly as simple leguminous plants which can
inhabited by vegetation but later disturbed fix nitrogen. These species continue the
significantly. As a result, its vegetation is disintegration of the rocks and increase
wiped off due to overgrazing, intensive organic matter as they decay. This builds-
cultivation, fires or by catastrophic events up a thicker layer of soil and creates a
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relatively more conducive environment for lived trees ultimately establish themselves.
more competitive and resource demanding This marks the late succession in which a
species but with narrow tolerance range to climax community characterised by a more
environmental conditions such as shallow or less stable community is established as
and later deep rooted shrubs. At this shown in Figure 6.27.
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stage, a succession is at mid-level and the During successional process interaction
environment becomes more modified and
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among the biotic components is established
biotic interactions increases. The increasing at all trophic levels from decomposers to
number of plants means more nutrients all forms of consumers and it intensifies as
locked in their tissues, hence detritivores
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climax community is realised. The climax
and decomposers are crucial in unlocking community is usually characterised by one
and recycling nutrients once these plants dominant species or several co-dominant
die. As changes in the environmental species. A good example of the climax
conditions continue such as soil depth, community is the tropical rainforest which
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organic matter and soil moisture, small has established itself for a very long time.
trees set in and progressively tall and long
U
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in
Bare Colonisers Early Mid Late succession

ground succession succession Small trees Tall long-lived trees
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Figure 6.27 Primary ecological succession
Secondary succession fire event. Since the disturbed area already

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Secondary succession is a process of has nutrients rich soil, it is recolonised

repairing a damaged plant community. A much more quickly than a bare rock as in
classic example of secondary succession is primary succession.
seen in a forest cleared by rampant fires. The Due to fire, most trees do not sprout back
fire is destructive because of its potential immediately. The first plants to grow back
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to kill the above ground vegetation, seeds during secondary succession usually are
and spores housed in the soil. It also burns annual plants. Within a few years, an influx
and kills animals that are unable to flee the of the quickly growing and spreading
area. The nutrients which are contained in grasses occurs. The growth of grasses and
the dead organisms, however are returned similar species over many years causes
to the ground in the form of ash after the environmental changes that favour the

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Ecology
growth of shrubs. Later tall trees emerge composition as shown in Figure 6.28. The
and gradually increase in number. This secondary succession often takes not less
eventually, limits further disturbances in the than 150 years for the woodland forests as
community and pave a way for more trees to in Miombo woodland. Unlike the primary
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grow forming a dense canopy dominated by succession that may take up to 400 years
tall trees. At this stage, the community starts or more to reach the climax, secondary
to assume its previous state and with time succession may take up to 50 years to reach
nl
it will re-gain its original pre-fire species the stable climax.
O
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Fire Fast Grasses and Grasses, shrubs Tall trees Mature trees
growing shrubs and small trees emerging and with dense
grasses increasing in canopy
number
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Figure 6.28 Secondary ecological succession
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Fo
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Revision questions 7. With the aid of illustrations,

describe the following:
1. Explain edaphic factors that
affect living organisms in the (a) Exponential population
growth.
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ecosystem.
2. Write short notes on each of the (b) Logistic population
growth.
nl
following concepts:
(a) Primary ecological 8. Using examples, briefly explain the
succession. meaning, causes and consequences
of population explosion in plants
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(b) Secondary ecological
succession. and animals.
(c) Trophic level. 9. (a) What is an ecological pyramid?
(d) Ecological niche. (b) With the aid of illustrations
(e) Biome. describe how ecological
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3. Explain the process of energy pyramids are constructed.
flow and nutrient circulation in (c) Explain the advantages of
terrestrial ecosystem. the following ecological
4. Using a well-labelled diagram pyramids:
explain the feeding relationship
between sea grasses or algae and
U (i) Pyramid of numbers.
(ii) Pyramid of biomass.
other trophic levels in any aquatic
ecosystem. (iii) Pyramid of energy.
5. Briefly explain the following: 10. Briefly explain why populations
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do not continue to grow at
(a) Gross primary production unlimited rates.
(GPP).
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11. Discuss limitations of each type

(b) Respiratory loss. of ecological pyramids.
(c) Net primary production 12. Citing examples, give an account
(NPP). on how economic development
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(d) Climax community. activities can alter ecosystems.

6. (a) Briefly explain how 13. With the aid of a sketch map
a combination of simple, random examine the characteristics of any
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and stratified sampling techniques two biomes found in Tanzania.

can be used in investigation of
species density and frequency in a
woodland vegetation with extensive
patches of grasslands traversed by a
riparian vegetation.
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(b) Explain the advantages and

limitations of simple,
systematic and random
sampling techniques.

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Glossary
Abiogenesis The theory of origin of life which states that life arises from
non-living things in favourable conditions
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Abiotic component The non-living part of an ecosystem
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Adaptive radiation The development of several divergent structures from a
primitive and unspecialised ancestor
Allantois A membrane of the amniotic egg that functions in respiration
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and excretion in birds and reptiles, and plays an important
role in the development of placenta in most mammals
Allele One of two or more alternative states of a gene or a variant
of a specific gene
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Allometric growth Growth that occurs when an organ grows at a different rate
from the rest of the body
Allopatric speciation A speciation that occur when two populations of the same
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species become isolated as a result of geographic changes
Ammonification The process by which decomposers convert nitrogen within
the remains of dead organisms back into ammonium ions
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Amnion The inner most membrane of the extraembryonic membranes.
It forms a fluid filled sac around the embryo in amniotic eggs
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Analogous structures Body parts of different organisms with similar function but
different evolutionary origin
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Androecium Collective term for stamens in a flower

Anticodon A nucleotide triplet at the end of transfer RNA molecule that
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is complementary to a codon on messenger RNA molecule

Apical Pertaining to tip or apex position of root or shoot
Apical meristem The undifferentiated young tissue at the root and shoot apices,
responsible for primary growth
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Apoplast The space outside the cell plasma membrane, which enables
free diffusion of materials
Apoplast pathways The movement of water, which occur exclusively through the
cell wall without crossing any membrane
Student's Book Form Six 295

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Autecology Study of relationships between individual species and

environment. It also refers to species ecology
Autosome A body chromosome in eukaryotic cell
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Bark Part of woody stem outside secondary xylem
Biogenesis The theory of thorigin of life which states that living things
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originates from other living things
Biogeochemical cycle The process by which nitrogen is converted into multiple
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chemical forms
Biomass The total mass of organisms in a given trophic level
Biome One of the world major biological communities, which is
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characterised by pre-dominant vegetations whose existence
is determined by certain climatic and physical conditions
Biotic component The living part of an ecosystem
Bivalent A pair of synapsed homologous chromosomes in the first
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meiotic division
Blastocoel The central cavity of the blastula stage of vertebrate embryo
Blastocyst A mammalian development stage consisting of a hollow ball
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of cells called trophoblast with an inner cell mass at one end
that gives rise to embryo
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Blastomere One of the cells of a blastula formed by cleavage of a fertilized

egg/ovum during early embryonic development
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Blastula An embryo after cleavage and before gastrulation

Cambium Undifferentiated meristematic tissue that brings about secondary
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growth in thickness in a plant. It is a meristematic band of

cells such as cork cambium or vascular cambium
Capillarity Rise in water in tubes of small diameter (capillaries) kept in
a vessel containing water
Carrier The heterozygous individual capable of passing recessive
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allele to offspring without himself or herself being affected

Carrying capacity The maximum number of organisms that the environment
can support and maintain
Casparian strip A band of suberin deposited in primary cell walls of root
endodermis. It is also known as a Casparian thickening

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Cell division A process by which a mother cell produces new cells. It is a

means of reproduction in lower organisms such as amoeba
and bacteria
Cellulose Primary carbohydrate component of plant cell walls
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Centriole A cellular organelle of microtubular organisation, which occur
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in animal cells only
Centromere A specialised structure on the chromosome appearing during
cell division as the constricted central region where the two
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chromatids are held together. It is also known as kinetochore
Chiasma A point of contact and interchange of genetic materials between
chromatids of homologous chromosomes during prophase I
of meiosis
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Chlorophyll Complex magnesium porphyrin compounds forming green
photosynthetic pigment contained within chloroplasts
Chloroplast Plastid containing chlorophyll, the site of photosynthesis
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Chromatid One of the two identical longitudinal halves of a chromosome
which share a common centromere
Chromosome Nucleoprotein structure, generally more or less rod like during
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nuclear division. It is the physical site of nuclear genes which
are arranged in a linear order
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Climax community A group of organisms inhabiting a particular environment

whose members form a final stage of an ecological succession
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Codominance The condition in which the effects of both alleles at a particular

locus are expressed in the phenotype of the heterozygote
Codon A basic unit of a genetic code or the sequence of three adjacent
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nucleotides in a DNA or mRNA which code for particular

amino acid
Cohesion Mutual attraction of molecules of the same substances, for
example water
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Community A collection of all populations inhabiting a particular environment

and whose members interact with one another
Companion cell A parenchymatous cell associated with sieve tube element in
phloem
Competition A biological interaction which occurs among organisms of the

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same or different species in an ecosystem associated with the

need for a common resource such as food , water and mates
that occurs in a limited supply relative to demand
Consumer An animal that obtains its energy from another animal or its
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part
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Cork A suberised tissue which forms the outer layer of a plant stem,
also called a periderm. It is formed during secondary growth
and can also be developed as a response to injury
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Cork cambium A lateral meristematic tissue that lie beneath the epidermis
that gives rise to a cork on its outside and secondary cortex on
its inside. It is responsible for secondary growth and replaces
the epidermis in roots and stems. It is also called phellogen
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or phelloderm
Cortex Region in stems and roots between epidermis and central part
Cotyledon The first leaf of the embryo in a germinating seed
Crossing over
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A process by which genes are exchanged between non-sister
chromatids of homologous chromosomes or exchange of
corresponding chromatid segments between homologous
chromosomes. It is responsible for genetic recombination
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between homologous chromosomes
Cuticle A protective hard layer made up of waxy material or cutin
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covering the epidermis of a plant or an invertebrate. It also

refers to the dead skin at the base of finger or toe nails in
human
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Cytokinesis The division (cleavage) of the cytoplasm following a nuclear

division
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Decomposers Saprophytic organisms that breakdown complex organic

materials into simple inorganic forms in an ecosystem
Detritivores Heterotrophs that feed on pieces of dead organic matter
Development The sequence of processes in the overall life history of a cell
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or an organism including growth, differentiation, maturation

and senescing
Diffusion Random movement of individual molecules from a region of
higher concentration to a region of lower concentration

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Diploid An individual or a cell having two complete sets of chromosomes

(2n)
Directional selection A type of natural selection in which extreme phenotypes in
one direction are favoured over other phenotypes
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Disruptive selection A mode of natural selection whereby extremes in either
nl
direction are favoured over the mean phenotypes. This is also
called a diversifying selection
Dormancy A state of inhibited growth of seeds or other plant organs as
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a result of internal causes
Ecological pyramid A bar diagram drawn to indicate the relative numbers of
individuals at each trophic level in a food chain, amount of
energy utilized at each trophic level or the amount of dry
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mass of all organisms at each trophic level
Endoplasmic reticulum A continuous membrane-bound system of flattened sacs and
tubules permeating cell cytoplasm, sometimes coated with
ribosomal particles
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Endosperm Seed storage tissue, formed by fusion of one sperm cell with
two polar nuclei (usually triploid)
Energy flow
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The transfer of energy between organisms in different trophic
levels through a feeding process
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Epicotyl A seedling axis above cotyledons

Epigeal germination Seedling germination type in which cotyledons are carried
above the ground
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Epigynous flower A flower with inferior ovary (that is, the ovary is attached to
the receptacle above the level of insertion of the stamens and
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perianth parts)
Epistasis A form of gene interaction in which one combination of genes
has a dominant effect over other combination
Fibre An elongated, narrow tapering, thick-walled, and hollow cell
lacking contents at maturity. It possesses simple pits and usually
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occurs as part of a group, mostly composed of cellulose and

lignin for strength and support in vascular plants
Filament A stalk of stamen in a flower
Fossilisation The process by which fossils are formed

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Fossils The remains, impressions and traces of past organisms

Food chain The sequential flow of energy from one organism to another
in a community
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Gastrula The embryonic stage in which the blastula with its single
layer of cell turns into a three-layered embryo made up of
nl
ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm, surrounding a cavity
with one opening called blastopore
Gene flow Passage of alleles between members of the two populations
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as a result of interbreeding
Gene pool A total variety of genes and alleles present in a population at
a specific time
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Genetic drift Random variation in allele frequencies over time by chance
Genome The genetic constitution of an organism
Genotype The genetic composition of an organism
Growth
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An irreversible increase in mass and volume of an organism
which is accompanied by a change in form or structure
Growth ring A distinct growth increment caused by differential rates of
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growth during a growing season (in secondary xylem)
Guard cell One of a pair of specialized cells in the epidermis of a leaf
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or stem that surrounds stomatal pore and controls rate of

transpiration and gaseous exchange in plants
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Guttation Secretion (usually passive) of water droplets, often at hydathodes

Gynoecium The female part of a flower made up of one or more carpels
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Trichome or hair Epidermal appendage or outgrowth from the epidermis of a

plant
Haploid The term used when a cell has half the usual number of
chromosomes or an individual or cell having a single set of
chromosomes (n)
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Heterozygote An organism with a non-identical alleles of a particular gene

Homologous chromosomes Chromosomes occurring in pairs, one derived from each
of two parents, normally morphological alike and bearing
the same gene loci

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Homologous structures Body parts of different organisms with the common evolutionary
origin but perform different functions
Homology Similarity due to a common evolutionary origin
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Homozygote An individual with identical alleles of a particular gene
Hydathode A type of pore in angiosperms which is responsible for secretion
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of water droplets (usually on the epidermis of leaf margin)
Hypocotyl Seedling axis bearing cotyledons and shoot apex
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Hypogeal germination A type of germination in which cotyledons remains below
the ground
Hypogynous flower A flower with superior ovary, that is, ovary attached to seed
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coat after radicle has emerged
Instar A stage between moults in a life cycle of an arthropod such
as insects
Isolating mechanisms Behavioural, morphological or physiological factors preventing
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genetic exchange between individuals of different populations
or species
Isometric growth Growth which occur when an organ grows at the same rate
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as the rest of the body
Lignin Strengthening material deposited with cellulose in plant cell
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walls, giving rigidity. It is a high polymer composed of several

different types of phenyl-propane units
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Locus Refers to the position that a gene occupies within a DNA

molecule
Macrogametophyte Cellular component of mature pollen grain in angiosperms
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consisting of vegetative cell and generative cell, also refered

to as a male gametophyte
Megagametophyte Mature embryo sac, most commonly consisting of seven
cells and eight nuclei (two synergid cells, an egg cell, three
antipodal cells, two polar bodies). It is also called a female
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gametophyte
Megaspore Female haploid cell resulting from meiosis, usually one of
four (or two), of which only one is functional
Megasporocyte A diploid cell that gives rise to four haploid megaspores
following meiosis, also refered to as megaspore mother cell

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Megasporogenesis A process of megaspore formation from megaspore mother

cell (megasporocyte)
Meiosis (I and II) Two successive divisions of a diploid nucleus to form haploid
gametes
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Meristem A group of similar and immature cells which are capable of
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dividing and forming new cells or is a group of cells that
retain the ability to divide by mitosis to produce daughter
cells which grow and form the rest of the plant body
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Meristematic region Region of cell division and tissue differentiation
Microfibril Thread-like component of cell wall, primarily cellulose
Micropyle An opening at one end of ovule, usually surrounded by
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integuments
Microsporangium A pollen sac contained within anther
Microspore Individual haploid cell that gives rise to microgametophyte
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It undergoes unequal mitotic division to form vegetative and
generative cells. Microspores following meiosis
Microsporocyte A diploid cell that will give rise to four haploid
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Microsporogenesis Developmental process leading to production of four haploid
microspores from a diploid microsporocyte by meiosis and
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cytokinesis
Middle lamella Layer between walls of neighbouring cells
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Mitochondrion A mitochondrion (mitochondria-plural) is one of the cytoplasmic

organelles of the cell responsible for ATP formation used for
driving life processes in a cell
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Missing links The gaps in the fossil records

Mitosis A nuclear division in which the duplicated chromosomes
separate to form two genetically identical daughter nuclei
or cell division to form two cells of equivalent chromosome
composition to parent cell. It involves four main stages:
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prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase

Morula A solid ball of cells formed in the early stages of embryonic
development
Mutation The change in genetic composition of an organism

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Net productivity The amount of energy that an organism accumulates after

utilizing some of it for its physiological needs
Niche The precise point at which an organism fits into its environment,
both in terms of where it lives and where it does occur
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Oestrus The period of maximum female sexual receptivity associated
nl
with ovulation of the egg. It is a period of heat in animals
such as goat, cow, dog and rodents
Organic evolution The gradual change in structures, functions and efficiency of the
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organisms over a long period through successive generations
, leading to the formation of new species
Osmosis The diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane
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Permanent quadrat A rectangular area of a ground, repeatedly recorded over a
number of years to monitor ecological succession or investigate
seasonal changes
Phloem A food conducting tissue in vascular plants basically composed
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of sieve elements, phloem parenchyma, fibres, and sclereids
Population A group of organisms of the same species, all dwelling in a
particular habitat
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Predator An organism that capture and eats another organism of a
different species
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Prey An organism eaten by another organism (predator), often of

a different species
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Primary growth The first form of growth to occur in plants as a result of activity
of the apical and sometimes intercalary meristems
Procambium The primary meristematic layer that gives rise to vascular
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tissue
Quiescent centre A group of cells in the centre of root apex where mitotic
division is very slow
Recessive allele An allele whose phenotype expression is suppressed in the
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presence of dominant allele

Reproductive barriers Mechanisms that act either before or after fertilisation to
prevent successful reproduction among organisms resulting
into the creation of a new species
Root A descending axis of the plant, which is normally, found below

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the ground It anchors the plant and serve as the major point
of entry of water and minerals
Root cap Thimble like mass of tissue made of epidermal cells covering
and protecting the growing tip of the root
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Root pressure The transverse osmotic pressure with the cells of a root system
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that causes sap to rise through a plant stem to the leaves
Secondary growth An increase in stem and root diameter made possible by cell
division of the lateral meristem. It produces secondary plant
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body in angiosperms
Seed A fertilized mature ovule that possesses embryonic plant,
stored material and a protective coat
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Selection The process whereby the best adapted organisms in a population
survive to reproduce and pass on their alleles to the next
generation
Selection pressure A combination of environmental resistance and population
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size which eliminates the less adapted organisms from the
population during the struggle for existence
Senescence The process of aging or the gradual deterioration of functional
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characteristics in organisms, sometimes referred to as a
biological aging
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Sexual recombination A collection of three factors namely crossing-over during

meiosis, independent segregation during meiosis and random
fertilisation, which cause genetic variation
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Sexual reproduction Fusion of gametes to form zygote

Sieve tube A series of sieve tube members arranged end to end and
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interconnected by sieve plates

Sperm A mature male gamete. It is usually motile and smaller than
the female gamete
Spermatogenesis A process by which spermatogonia develops into sperm
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Spindle A motive assembly that carries out separation of chromosomes

during cell division
Spore A haploid reproductive cell, usually unicellular, capable of
developing into adult without fusion with another
Sporophyte generation A spore producing, diploid (2n) phase in the life cycle of a

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plant with alternation of generations

Stabilizing selection A mode of natural selection whereby the mean phenotypes
are gradually favoured over the extreme phenotypes
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Succession The slow orderly progression of changes in community
composition that take place through time. Primary succession
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occurs in nature over long periods and secondary succession
occurs in an area previously colonised by vegetation and that
has been disturbed
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Symplastic pathways Movement of water from cell to cell through the plasmodesmata
Synecology Refers to the study of relationships between communities and
the environment. It is also called community ecology
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Transcription Is the first step of gene expression, in which a particular
segment of DNA is copied into RNA
Translation A process by which the sequence of a messenger RNA
molecule is translated to a sequence of amino acid during
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protein synthesis
Transpiration Loss of water in form of water vapour from plant to the
atmosphere
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Trophic level A group of organisms with a similar feeding habit in a
community
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Uterus A chamber in which the developing embryo is contained and

nurtured during pregnancy in mammals
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Vascular cambium The dividing layer that separates xylem from phloem
Viability Ability of seeds to germinate in favourable conditions
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Xylem A specialized tissue of vascular plant composed of primarily

elongated, thick walled conduction cells, which transports
water and mineral salts from the soil to the leaves
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Bibliography
Biological Sciences Curriculum Study. (1980). Biological science: An inquiry into life.
New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc.
y
Birkett, C. (1990). Heredity, development and evolution. Hong Kong: Macmillan Education.
nl
Chand’s, S., Verma, P. S., & Pandey, B.P. (2010). Biology for class XII (1st Ed.). New
Delhi: Rajendra Ravindra Printers.
Chapman, J.L., & Reiss, M.J. (2010). Ecology: Principles and application. Cambridge:
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Cambridge University press.
Glegg, C.J., & Mackean, D.G. (1994). Advanced biology: Principles and applications.
London: John Murray.
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Glenn, T., & Toole S. (1999). New understanding biology: For advanced level (4th Ed.).
London: Stanley Thornes Publishers Ltd.
Green, N.P.O., Stout, G.W., & Taylor, D.J. (1998). Biological science (2nd Ed.). Edinburgh:
Cambridge University Press.
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Hopf, H.S., Morley, G.E.J., & Humphries, J.R.O. (1976). Rodent damage to growing
crops and to farm and village storage in tropical and su btropical regions: Results
of a postal survey 1972 - 73. Centre for Overseas Pest Research,1976, pp.115.
e
Manuel, C., & Molls, Jr. (2010). Ecology: Concepts and applications (5th Ed.). New
York: Mc Graw-Hill Companies.
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Marshall, P.T., & Hughes, G.M. (1980). Physiology of mammals and other vertebrates
(2nd Ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
nl
Ministry of Education and Vocation Training. (2010). Biology syllabus for advanced
secondary education form V-VI. Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Institute of Education.
Parenti, L.R., & Ebach, M.C. (2009). Comparative biogeography: Discovering and
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classifying biogeographical patterns of a dynamic earth. Berkeley: University

of California Press.
Peter, H.R., & George B.J. (1986). Biology. St. Louis, Missouri: Times Mirror / Mosby
College Publishing.
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Raven, P.H., & Johnson, G.B. (1986). Biology. Santa Clara: Mosby publishing.
Rudall, P. (2007). Anatomy of flowering plants: An introduction to structure and
development (3rd Ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Taylor, D.J., Green, N.P.O., & Stout, G.W. (1997). Biological science (3rd Ed.). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Taylor, K.D. (1968). An outbreak of rats in agricultural areas of Kenya in 1962. E.
Africa. Agriculture Forest Journal 234 (1968) 66.
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Toole, G., & Toole, S. (1995). Understanding biology for advanced level (3rd Ed.).
nl
London: Stanley Thornes.
Toole, G., & Toole, S. (1999). New understanding biology for advanced level (4th Ed.).
London: Stanley Thornes.
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Vines, A.E., & Rees, N. (1972). Plant and animal biology (Vol. 2).London: Pitman
Publishing.
Windelspecht, M. (2013). Biology (11th Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies.
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Index
Index biogenesis 203, 205
biogeochemical cycle 243
A biogeography 224
abiogenesis 203 biomass 248, 250, 251, 252
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abiotic components 233, 234 biome 275, 276, 277 - 281
acquired characteristics 208, 209 biotechnology 197
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active transport 5, 7 - 9, 12, 17, 20, 21, 27, 54 biotic components 233, 234, 237, 238, 248,
acyl-tRNA 135, 146 253, 292
acyl-tRNA synthetase 135, 146 birth 119, 120, 286
blastomeres 115
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adaptations 1, 9, 27, 54, 128, 210, 221, 275
adrenal 120 blastula 116, 117, 296, 300
albinism 192, 193 blood 1, 8, 30 - 54, 62, 89, 109 - 111, 117 - 121,
albino 170, 171, 172, 193 126, 184, 186 -190, 192, 197, 198
alkaline pH 237 blood clotting 1, 32, 36, 37, 184
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alleles 86, 153, 158, 159, 161, 163 - 168, 178, blood groups 186, 187, 188, 189, 190
180, 183, 186 - 189, 201, 297, 300, 301, browsers 235
304
C
allometric growth 62
amino acids 7, 27, 30, 33, 119, 135, 136,
U calcitonin 198
142 - 148, 191, 201, 205, 206, 242 cancer 32, 191, 193, 275, 287
ammonification 243 capillarity 12, 14
analogous structures 221, 232, 295 cardiac cycle 1, 42, 46, 54
e
anaphase 56, 58, 78, 81, 82, 85 - 88, 158, 195, cardiac muscles 30, 45, 46
302 carnivores 235, 241, 245 - 249, 274
in
aneuploidy 195 carrier proteins 8, 15, 18, 20

antibodies 32 Casparian strip 10, 11, 12, 296
apoplast pathway 10 cell cycle 55, 56, 61
artificial selection 209, 226, 232
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cell plate 60, 61, 82, 84, 85

artificial selection 227 cellulose 3, 10, 61, 222, 238, 252, 301, 302
asexual reproduction 95 centriole 57, 82
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aster 57 centrioles 57, 59, 61, 80, 82, 84, 88, 89

astigmatism 193 channel proteins 15, 18
ATP 9, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, 89, 146 chemical energy 234, 241, 246
atrioventricular valves 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46 chiasmata 79, 80, 81, 87, 130, 194
atrophy 208 chromatid 79, 80, 82, 194, 298
autosomes 180, 181, 182 chromatids 56 - 59, 77 - 88, 130, 153, 194,
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autotrophs 234, 241, 245 214, 297, 298

chromosome mutation 191
B chromosomes 55 - 59, 77 - 88, 115, 130, 141,
belt transect 256, 257, 273 153, 158, 159, 180 - 182, 191, 194 - 196,
bimodal 212 214, 296 - 300, 302, 304
biodiversity 199, 276, 280, 287 circulatory systems 1, 30, 46 - 48, 50, 52, 53

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cleavage furrow 82, 83 divergent evolution 232

climate change 234, 287 dizygotic twins 121, 122
closed circulatory system 30, 47, 48 DNA 35, 56, 77, 78, 82, 86, 129 - 142,
coacervation 206 144 - 146, 149, 191, 192, 197, 198,
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co-dominance 164, 166, 167 200 - 202, 297, 301, 305
codons 142, 143, 145, 148 DNA helicase 139, 141
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cohesion 10, 12, 13 DNA ligase 140, 141, 198, 200
commensalism 238 DNA polymerase 139, 140, 141
communities 249, 262, 272, 274, 275, 281, DNA replication 56, 77, 78, 82, 86, 136, 139,
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290, 291, 296, 305 140 - 142, 149, 191
comparative biochemistry 227 dominant alleles 161, 163, 178, 201
comparative embryology 222 dominant gene 154, 164
competition 96, 209, 210, 225, 233, 237, 238, double circulatory system 49, 50
244, 245, 274, 282, 283, 285, 286, 288, double fertilization 97, 99, 100, 108
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291 double helix 138, 141, 145, 146
complementary bases 138 Down’s syndrome 196
complimentary gene interaction 168
E
consumers 234 - 236, 241, 242, 245, 246, 248,
250, 251, 292, 311, 313
U ecological niche 293
convergent evolution 221 ecological pyramids 233, 248, 252, 294
corticotrophic hormone 120 ecological studies 253
crossed eyes 193 ecological Succession 290
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cytokinesis 55, 56, 60, 61, 82, 84, 88, 302 ecosystem 233, 234, 236 - 238, 242 - 250,
252, 253, 276, 289, 293, 295, 296, 298
D
in
edaphic factors 236, 237

Darwin’s theory 207, 209, 210, 213 embryo 60, 73 - 75, 92, 93, 97, 99, 102, 103,
decomposers 234, 236, 242, 243, 246 - 248, 108, 113, 115, 117, 118, 121, 122, 125,
nl
252, 291, 292 128, 180, 181, 222, 223, 295, 296, 298,
density dependent factors 282, 284 300, 301, 305
density independent factors 282, 283, 284 endospermic seeds 99, 100
deoxyribonucleic acid 133 environment 1, 7, 9, 95, 96, 102, 105, 191,
rO
deoxyribose 131, 134, 136 199, 203, 206 - 210, 213, 214, 216, 218,
detritivores 236, 241, 242, 246, 247, 252, 292 221, 224, 226, 233, 243, 244, 246, 247,
diffusion 7 - 9, 14 - 16, 18, 20, 29, 45, 51, 52, 253, 272, 274, 275, 281, 284 - 288,
295, 303 290 - 292, 296, 297, 303, 305
dihybrid inheritance 150, 157, 159 environments 107
Fo
diploid 77, 86 - 90, 92 - 94, 97 - 99, 101, 102, enzymes 5, 36, 73 - 76, 114, 116, 123, 140,
113 - 115, 195, 302, 305 141, 144, 147, 178, 206, 238
directional selection 211, 299 epiphytes 239, 259, 280
disorder 184, 190, 191, 196 epistasis 168, 170, 172, 179
disruptive selection 211, 213 erythrocytes 34, 35, 36
disruptive selection 212 erythropoietin 198

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Escherichia coli 199 genetic drift 214, 216, 300

excreta 236 genetic engineering 197
genetic material 35, 77, 130, 133, 134, 142,
F
150
y
F1 generation 152, 154, 157, 158, 160, 164, genetic materials 79, 86, 129, 130, 133, 142,
165, 169, 170, 172, 177, 184, 188, 192 197, 214, 297
nl
F2 generation 154, 157, 158, 164 - 167, 169, genetic variations 129, 142, 216
170 - 174, 176 - 178, 231 genome 77, 150, 197
fallopian tube 90, 113, 114 gonadotrophin 90, 113, 116, 119
fauna 226, 237, 255, 259, 273, 278, 281, 288 grazers 235
O
favourable traits 210 Gregory Mendel 149, 164
fertilisation 60, 77, 86, 93, 96 -100, 102, 108, growth curves 61
113 -115, 122, 129, 151, 152, 154 - 157, growth patterns 55, 62, 63, 66, 284, 285
160 -163, 165 -167, 169, 170, 171 - 173, guard cell 22, 23
se
176, 180, 181, 183, 185, 187, 188 -190, guard cells 8, 21, 22, 23
193, 194, 222, 230, 231, 303, 304 guttation 25, 300
filial generation 150, 152, 169
flora 226, 237, 255, 259, 261, 273, 280 H
foetal circulatory system 51
U habitat 104, 224, 230, 233, 237, 244, 245, 248,
foetus 30, 51 - 53, 60, 115, 118 - 120, 122, 222 254, 255, 257, 259, 260, 278, 285 - 287,
food chain 245, 246, 247, 251, 281, 299 303
food web 247, 248, 252 haemophilia 183 -186, 190
e
fossils records 218, 219 haploid 77, 78, 82 - 87, 89, 90, 92 - 94,
free nucleotide 145 96 - 98, 101, 102, 105, 107, 113, 153, 195,
in
frugivores 242 301 - 304

heart 1, 30, 38 - 49, 51 - 54, 105, 192, 223
G
helix 136, 138, 141, 145, 146
nl
G1 phase 56 herbivores 222, 235, 238, 241, 242, 245 - 248,

G2 phase 56 252, 274, 278, 280, 283, 289
gametogenesis 77, 84, 94, 95, 115, 128 heredity 129, 130, 149, 150, 207
gametophyte 93, 95, 96, 101 - 105, 107 - 109, heterosporous 92, 94, 96, 97, 105
rO
128 heterotrophs 234, 241

gene cloning 197, 198 heterozygote 154, 297
gene loci 158, 301 heterozygous dominant 157
gene mutation 191, 192 homologous chromosomes 77 - 82, 86 - 88,
genes 129, 130, 134, 142, 150, 152, 163, 167, 130, 153, 158 - 159, 194 - 195, 214,
Fo
168, 170, 174 - 179, 181-185, 191, 194, 296 - 298

196, 197, 199, 201, 214, 215, 226, 227, homologous structures 220, 221, 232, 301
297 - 299, 300 homosporous 96, 105
genetic code 134, 142, 143, 145, 149, 191, homozygous dominant 156, 200
223, 297 humidity 24, 25, 236, 244, 259, 280, 284

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hybrids 150, 231 Mendel’s inheritance 149

hydrogen bonds 133, 135, 138, 139, 141, 145 menstruation 109, 110
hydroxyl group 131, 133, 134 meristems 55, 60, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73,
hypothalamus 90, 120 76, 303
y
metamorphosis 122, 123, 124 - 126, 127, 224
I
metaphase 56, 76, 78, 80 - 83, 86, 87, 90, 114,
nl
imidazole ring 131 158, 159, 302
inbreeding 226, 227 micro nutrients 237
incomplete dominant 164 microsporogenesis 85, 92, 95, 107
industrial melanism 214 mineralization 243
O
insulin 198, 223 mitochondria 5, 7, 34, 35, 38, 45, 46, 56, 66,
insulin 223 68, 71, 89, 143
interbreed 154, 228, 230, 273 mitosis 35, 55 - 61, 66, 71, 76, 77, 81, 82,
interphase 55, 56, 61, 77, 82, 85, 86, 139, 141 86 - 88, 93, 94, 96, 97, 115, 191, 195, 302
se
interspecific competition 209, 238, 244 molecule 12, 13, 15 - 17, 131, 133 - 136, 138,
intraspecific competition 237 139, 141- 143, 145, 146 - 148, 178, 191,
isometric growth 66 201, 206, 295, 301, 305
monohybrid crosses 150, 152
K
U monozygotic twins 121
Klinefelter’s syndrome 196 moulting 65, 66, 123, 124
mRNA 134, 135, 142 - 148, 200, 201, 297
L multicellular organisms 55, 61
e
Lamarck’s theory 207, 208 multiple alleles 186
lethal genes 179, 196 multiple genes 150
in
leukocytes 32, 34, 35 mutation 191, 303

life cycles 67, 77, 109, 128 mutations 130, 142, 184, 191, 194, 195, 216
limited growth 63, 64 N
nl
line breeding 226

line transect 256, 257, 259 natural selection 209 - 216, 221, 227, 232,
lutenizing hormone 110 299, 305
Neo-Darwinian theory 207
rO
M nitrogen cycle 243, 253

macro-consumers 235 nitrogenous bases 133, 136, 138, 205
mass flow 10, 27, 28, 29, 30 non-cyclic energy 242
materialistic theory 205 non-disjunction 195, 196
megasporogenesis 85, 92, 93, 95, 107 non-endospermic seed 100
Fo
meiosis 77, 78, 81, 82, 84 - 88, 90 - 94, 96, non-Mendelian inheritance 164
102, 104, 105, 114, 115, 128, 129, 152, nuclear division 56, 59, 61, 77, 86, 87, 130,
153, 158, 181, 191, 194 -196, 214, 297, 139, 141, 297, 298
301, 302, 304 nuclear membrane 57, 59, 80, 82, 84, 85, 88,
meiosis I 77, 78, 89, 91, 93
meiosis II 77, 78, 82, 88, 90, 91, 92, 114

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90 photorespiration 241
nuclear pore 145 photosynthesis 1, 6 - 8, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 63,
nucleolus 57, 59, 84, 135 234 - 236, 241, 244, 284, 287, 297
nucleotides 130 - 136, 139, 140, 141, 145, phytoplankton 235
y
146, 191 - 193, 201, 205 -297 pigment 126, 168, 178, 179, 193, 297
O pin frame quadrat 260, 273
nl
Pisum sativum 149, 150
oestrogen 110, 111, 112, 116, 119 placenta 51 - 53, 110, 117 - 122, 295
oestrus cycle 112 plasma 17, 31 - 35, 37, 38, 60, 82, 85, 114,
Okazaki fragments 140, 141, 200
O
186, 295
omnivores 235, 247 plasma membrane 17, 32, 35, 60, 82, 85, 295
oocyte 90, 91, 110, 113 - 115 plasma proteins 33, 38, 114
oogenesis 85, 88, 90, 91, 94, 95, 196 plasmid 198
open circulatory system 30, 46, 47 plasmodesmata 5, 11, 305
se
organic base 136, 192 Platelets 32, 34, 36, 37
organic evolution 202, 207, 208, 214, 216, pollen grain 93, 96, 97, 98, 301
217, 223, 227, 232 pollination 97, 98, 100, 108, 149, 164, 166,
organic matter 234, 236, 237, 241, 242, 246, 226, 231, 239
247, 252, 259, 290 - 292, 298
U polygenic inheritance 178, 201
origin of life 202, 204 - 206, 232 polymer 136, 301
osmosis 7 -10, 12 - 14, 23, 28, 29 polynucleotide 133, 136, 137, 145
ovarian cycle 110, 111 polypeptide chain 134, 143 - 145, 147, 148
e
ovules 93, 99, 102, 108 polyploidy 87, 195
ovum 85, 90 - 92, 94 - 96, 114, 182, 296 polyspermy 114, 122
in
oxytocin 120 population growth 274, 282 - 284, 287, 293,

294
P
potassium ions hypothesis 23
nl
palaeontology 216, 227, 232 precipitation 237

panspermia theory 204 predation 215, 238, 244, 282, 288
parasite 240, 241 pregnancy 110 - 113, 119 - 121, 127, 305
passive transport 7, 8, 14, 17, 20 pressure 4, 7, 8, 11 - 14, 23 - 25, 27 - 29, 33,
rO
pedigree 185, 227 41, 46 - 4 9, 50, 53, 68, 192, 205, 210,
pentose sugar 131, 136 211, 212, 215, 216, 230, 237, 304
peptide bonds 135, 144, 146 primary consumers 235, 241, 242, 245, 248
phenotypes 150, 161, 163 - 167, 170, 172, primary growth 67 - 69, 76, 295
174, 175, 177 - 179, 184, 187, 194, 197, primers 140
Fo
200, 212, 299, 305 producers 234 - 236, 238, 242, 245 - 251
phenotypic variants 212 progenies 156, 157, 176, 189, 196
phloem 1- 9, 26, 27, 29, 30, 54, 60, 61, 69 - 73, progeny 149, 155, 156, 165, 167, 169, 171,
240, 297, 303, 305 172, 209
phosphate group 17, 131, 133, 136 progesterone 110 - 113, 116, 119, 120
phosphodiester bonds 133 prophase 56, 57, 61, 78, 82, 85 - 88, 90, 130,

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214, 297, 302 selective breeding 226, 227

protein pumps 18, 20, 21, 54 selective disadvantage 210
protein synthesis 34, 134, 135, 138, self-pollination 97, 149
144 - 146, 149, 200, 305 semi-conservative replication 141
Punnet 160, 170, 172, 174
y
semilunar valves 40 - 44, 46
pure-breeding 149, 164, 179 sequestration 234
pyramid of biomass 250
nl
sex chromosomes 130, 180 -182, 196
pyramid of energy 251 sex determination 180 - 182, 201
pyramid of numbers 248 - 51 sex linkage 182
pyrimidine ring 131 sexual reproduction 95, 96, 101, 103, 109,
O
239
Q
sickle cell anaemia 191, 192
quadrats 255, 257 single gamete 152, 153
sori 96, 97, 105, 107
se
R
special creation 202, 206
recessive gene 154, 164, 193 speciation 227, 228
recombinant DNA 197 species density 262, 269
recombinant plasmid 198 species frequency 261
recycle 236
U spermatogenesis 85, 88 - 90, 94, 95, 196
red-green colour blindness 183, 184 S-phase 56
replication fork 139, 140 spindle fibres 57 - 9, 80 - 84, 88, 159
replication process 141 spontaneous generation 203, 204
e
reproductive isolation 228, 229, 232 spontaneous generation 203, 206
ribonucleic acid 133 sporangia 94, 96, 97, 102, 104, 105
in
ribose 131, 133, 136 sporophyte 97, 99, 101 - 109, 128
ribosome 134, 135, 146 - 148 stabilising selection 212
RNA 129, 131, 132 -136, 138 - 142, 144 -146, stabilizing selection 212, 305
nl
200, 295, 305 starch-sugar hypothesis 22

RNA polymerase 139, 145, 146 steady-state theory 204
root pressure 12, 13, 14, 25 stomata 8, 12, 21 - 26, 278
rRNA 134, 135, 142, 146
rO
stop signals 143

S sunlight energy 14, 234
survival of the fittest 210, 213
sampling 249, 253 - 257, 259, 260 - 263, 270, symbiotic relationship 238, 239, 240
272, 273, 293 symplast pathway 11
saprophytes 236, 242
T
Fo
secondary carnivores 245, 248

secondary growth 67, 71, 72, 75, 76, 296, telophase 58, 59, 82, 84, 85, 87, 128
298 thrombocytes 32, 36
seed dormancy 73, 75 topography 237
seed viability 55, 75, 76 transcription 134, 138, 144 -146, 149, 200
selection pressure 192, 210 - 212, 215, 230 transformation 122, 123, 198, 206

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transgenic organism 197 vacuolar pathway 12

translation 134, 135, 144 -148 variations 77, 115, 129, 130, 142, 209, 210,
translocation 4, 6, 7, 26, 27, 29, 30, 54 213, 216, 221, 233, 278, 280, 288
transpiration 14, 21, 24, 25, 305 vascular tissues 1, 2, 11, 14, 67, 69, 71
y
transpiration pull 12, 13, 14, 25 viruses 35, 133, 143
triplet codes 142, 145
X
nl
triploid 77, 98, 99, 108, 299
tRNA 134 -136, 142, 145 - 148, 200 xylem 1, 2, 10, 70, 305
tRNA complexes 146
Z
trophic levels 242, 245, 248, 250 - 252, 292,
O
293, 299 zooplanktons 250
Turner’s syndrome 196 zygote 60, 77, 96 - 99, 102, 103, 105, 108, 109,
twins 121, 122 113, 115, 119, 121, 127, 129, 130, 195,
tyrosinase 193 304
se
U
unicellular organisms 55, 61, 284
unlimited growth 62, 65, 66
uterine cycle 110, 111
U
V
e
in
nl
rO
Fo


Biology Form Six - Tie - DR Khaliyloullah

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Tanzania Institute of Education

PROPERTY OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA GOBVERNMENT

Biology for Advanced Level Secondary Schools

© Tanzania Institute of Education, 2019

ii Student's Book Form Six

Biology for Advanced Level Secondary Schools

se Tanzania Institute of Education

Student's Book Form Six iii

Biology for Advanced Level Secondary Schools

Coordinator: Ms Juliana B.R. Mosi

iv Student's Book Form Six

Biology for Advanced Level Secondary Schools

Primary and secondary growth in angiosperms ..................................................................67

Chapter Three: Reproduction .............................................................................. 77

Gametogenesis in ﬂowering plants ....................................................................92

Student's Book Form Six v

Biology for Advanced Level Secondary Schools

Life cycles of selected animals ................................................................................122

Chapter Four: Genetics ...............................................................................129

Chapter Five: Evolution .............................................................................. 202

Chapter six: Ecology .................................................................................... 233

The ecosystem ..........................................................................................................233

Methods of studying ecology ................................................................................... 253

Index ....................................................................................................................... 308

vi Student's Book Form Six

through a vascular system, which is made up

a plant while phloem is involved in the

Biology for Advanced Level Secondary Schools

Figure 1.1 Longitudinal section of vascular tissues in plants

Activity 1.1 Identiﬁcation of vascular which are arranged in bundles in the

white tiles, and safranin stain.

thin layer of a young stem of a maize

light microscope and start to observe

2 Student's Book Form Six

Transportation in living organisms

Parenchyma cell up of cellulose and lignin, which provide

shoot is removed from the dye and

tissue. outside a woody stem does not affect

Biology for Advanced Level Secondary Schools

modiﬁed for translocation. It is composed

4 Student's Book Form Six

Transportation in living organisms

Phloem parenchyma cell

cells are metabolically active since they

Biology for Advanced Level Secondary Schools

Steve tube element Companion cell

Plastid Nucleus of companion cell

Figure 1.4 A longitudinal section of sieve element and companion cell

the translocation of soluble synthesized

6 Student's Book Form Six

Transportation in living organisms

products of photosynthesis. The with low concentration. However, passive

its body to let its stylet exude juice

Osmosis: This is a special kind of diffusion

Biology for Advanced Level Secondary Schools

functioning, growth and stability of plants. diffusion. Sometimes, movement can be

of diffusion. For example, membranes with

8 Student's Book Form Six

Transportation in living organisms

Table 1.1 Differences between passive and active transport in plants

Passive transport Active transport

The movement of materials across the