1

Theories and Principles, Teaching and Learning

Student’s Name

Professor

Institution

Course Code

Date
 2

Table of Contents
Section 1: Introduction and Context......................................................................................................3
Section 2: Outline of Unit......................................................................................................................4
Section 3: Underpinning Theory............................................................................................................5
Section 4: Methodology........................................................................................................................7
Section 5 Case Students.........................................................................................................................8
Section 6: Description of Findings.........................................................................................................9
Section 7: Analysis and Interpretation of Findings..............................................................................10
Section 8: Conclusion and Recommendation......................................................................................11
Reference............................................................................................................................................13
Appendices..........................................................................................................................................15
Appendix 1.......................................................................................................................................15
Appendix 2.......................................................................................................................................15
Appendix 3.......................................................................................................................................15
Appendix 4.......................................................................................................................................15
Appendix 5.......................................................................................................................................15
Appendix 6.......................................................................................................................................22
 3

Section 1: Introduction and Context

This study examines how different learning theories and principles in teaching and

learning can influence curricular design and assessment in English second language (ESL)

Kindergarten. Students' ability to grasp new content is based on a variety of factors. One

factor is the theory and principle that a teacher implements when designing the curriculum

and assessment (Johnson, 2019). It is based upon the teachers' knowledge, preferences, and

beliefs regarding what would be most effective when educating the students. Another factor

that could determine a student's ability to grasp new content is the environment. If the teacher

can provide a safe environment for the students, they are going to be more confident and the

result of this is improved participation that has been observed to aid a student's ability to

learn. The final factor that affects a student's ability to learn is the type of materials that the

teacher implements during the lessons (Stewart, 2021). All these factors influence curricular

design and assessment.

The conducted investigation was intended to determine whether behaviorism,

cognitivism, and constructivism can work together to improve a student's learning ability, the

assessment strategy, and the curricular design. Participation, repetition, and feedback are the

principles of learning that were also tested in the process (Wakeman et al., 2021). The key

question is: do a teacher's selected theories and principles of learning affect a student's ability

to learn thus affecting the assessment strategy or the curriculum design? The investigation

focused on students who are in kindergarten and their age group is between 3-5 years. The

content focused on the development of students' knowledge of lower-case letters 'r', 'h', and 'j'.

Permission to collect and use data from participants was obtained from the principal and the

participants of the study were kept anonymous during the study.

 4

Section 2: Outline of Unit

There are several objectives that this unit was intended to achieve. The first was to

ensure that the students were able to name lowercase letters 'r', 'h', and 'j'. The second

objective is to ensure that the students were able to make the common sounds for the selected

letters. The next objective was to introduce phonics to the learners. The goal was to equip the

learners with knowledge regarding words that have sounds 'r', 'h', and 'j' as shown in appendix

1. The final objective was to ensure that the students could name words that start with the

selected letters as shown in appendix 2. Several strategies were implemented to ensure that

the students were able to achieve the selected objectives. First, the students were introduced

to the selected letters through the use of flashcards. Second, they were then allowed to

interact with flashcards that contain the selected letters. The section focused on repetition to

ensure that the students were able to achieve the selected objectives. At the end of the four

weeks learning period, the students were subjected to an assessment. It was important for the

students to learn about the selected letters because they form part of the English language.

Therefore, without the knowledge, they would not be able to master the English language.

The first appendix displays a sample of words that begin with the letter 'h'. The sample

displays 108 words. Considering that the selected English letters are 3, the students will not

be able to communicate using thousands of words if they are not familiar with the selected

letters. Therefore, it was important for the students to learn the selected content.

The students were then assessed using two main strategies and another assessment.

The first strategy was summative assessment and the second was formative assessment.

Formative assessment involves Formative assessments are in the forms of games, and other

activities as the lesson plans stipulates (appendix 5). Formative assessments are continuous

which enables students to be more efficient learners, thus achieving a higher level of mastery

(Xiao and Yan, 2019). Summative assessment involves gathering data, monitoring students’
 5

performance, measuring progress, and evaluating whether students are below, on, or above

the expectation (Chappuis, 2022). Gathering evidence of performance proves that student

learns wisely, flexibly, and creatively. Other assessments included game interaction, peer

working, questioning, listening, and informal observation. This other assessment was

essential to improve the assessment results.

Section 3: Underpinning Theory

Three main learning theories were implemented in the unit plan. The first learning

theory is behaviorism. Clark, (2018) observes that behaviorism is implemented by educators

whenever they intend the students to react to specific stimuli. Clark, (2018) observes that it is

a highly beneficial learning theory for students since the student are reminded to react to a

particular stimulus repetitively which could enhance positive reinforcement. Behaviorism is

beneficial whenever a teacher wants to implement inclusivity since behaviorism provides

valuable feedback, rewards good behavior, and makes students get used to a routine

Educating the students on the selected alphabet, flashcards were used as the intended stimulus

as per the requirements of behaviorism. Once the students observed a flash card containing a

particular letter, they were expected to react in a particular manner. For instance, the students

were expected to name the letters, the sounds that they produce, and examples of words that

make use of the letters. Behaviorism was selected because it can allow a student to grasp

content through repetition. Some of the games used during the study include DARTS were

sequencing as an activity was used from my class reading lesson

The second theory that was implemented is connections. Connectivism is a learning

theory that allows students to identify gaps in knowledge and then fill them (F. N., 2022).

Mitchell et al., (2019) observe that connectivism can be implemented by students through the

use of technology. Students can easily identify gaps and then take measures to ensure that

they can fill them with the help of an instructor or the available learning resources (Mitchell,
 6

2019). However, since young students of 3-5 years of age cannot identify the gaps on their

own; therefore, the use of teacher driven form of self-assessment is essential. Teacher- driven

involves the teacher identifying the student’s gap and helping the student to fill the gap.

Despite the learners being young, it is important to help them understand what they need to

learn. During practice, the goal was to determine the knowledge that students lacked

regarding the selected letters and then implement strategies to ensure that they learn them.

For example, if students were unable to learn a particular letter, then a prior knowledge that

the student has could be used to reinforce the teaching of the new concept until they

comprehend it effectively. Therefore, this is the second theory that was implemented during

practice.

The final theory that was implemented was constructivism. It focuses on improving

the learning experience of the students by allowing them to interact with the environment.

Constructivism can be implemented by teachers to improve the learning experience of

students; however, it has one key fault. The researchers observed that teachers can neglect

care learning outcomes whenever they implement the use of constructivism. Therefore, it is

crucial to ensure that the students learn the content through environmental interaction. The

learning theory was implemented by providing students with flashcards that contain

information. Through the interaction with the flashcards, the students were able to develop

their knowledge with a minimal probability that they will not grasp the content.

Humanism and cognitivism were the three theories that were eliminated. Humanism

could not be applied to the students because the teacher developed the group goal which was

to learn the selected alphabet (Lambert et al., 2022). Cognitivism could also not be

implemented because there was an absence of significant knowledge that the students needed

to process (Johnson, 2022). Mastery of the content was more applicable when compared to

the processing. It is because of these reasons that these two learning theories were eliminated.
 7

Section 4: Methodology

The methodology involved a thinking process (appendix 3) which allowed the

students to identify the required goals (appendix 4) and set learning objectives and outcomes.

Students can easily understand and achieve the learning goals if they can assess how to

achieve the goal. The unit activities were designed with assessment strategies to check and

monitor the student's progress after recording areas of growth. The collected data facilitated

formative and summertime assessment during the learning process aided in measuring

students' progress. Classroom assessment is effective when designed with a purpose, thus,

enhancing student effective learning (Shieh and Reynolds, 2021). Classroom assessment has

three purposes; for, as, and of learning.

Data obtained from formative and summative assessments during the unit were used

in quantitative and qualitative assessments. Qualitative involved giving homework, keeping

journals, engaging in conversation, participating in projects, keeping journals, and collecting

students' feedback. On the other hand, quantitative self and post-assessment, quizzes, and

tests. Results of the assessment were communicated to teachers and parents through parent-

teacher conferences emails, newsletters, and report cards.

Effective learning was reinforced using data triangulation methods which were used

to evaluate units and analyses the impact of the assessment. The data collection involved

three sources of information; conversation, observation, and products. Observation involved

the instructor watching and taking note of students' behavior, and physical characteristics in

their learning environment (Qureshi et al., 2021). The covert observation was used to ensure

that the feedback obtained is accurate as in the natural environment. The conversation

involved creating a web of students and instructors talking to each other (Ahmed, 2022). In

this way, the instructor can easily assess students based on how they converse on the topic
 8

and how they pronounce the letters 'r', 'h', and 'j'. the conversation and observation sources of

collecting data were used together.

Section 5 Case Students

Three Kindergarten students were selected, referred to as students A, B, and C.

Student A is a high achiever proficient in learning ESL, student B is a medium achiever

intermediate in learning ESL and student C is a low achieving beginner in learning ESL.

Student A joined the ESL class in January 2022. the continuous assessment of student

A since joining ESL class shows continuous improvement which is an indication that the

student is hardworking. Student A needed assistance in speaking, reading, and writing skills

when he joined the class. The last assessment done on the students indicated that student A

has little or no problem when it comes to pronouncing the letters 'r', 'h', and 'j'. furthermore,

student A can write and speak words with the letters 'r', 'h', and 'j'.

Student B joined ESL class in January 2022, just like student A. although he could

use English pretty well than student A, she still needed help with pronouncing some letters

properly like letters 'r', 'h', and 'j', reading, writing and grammar. The latest evaluation

conducted indicates that student B has improved in her pronunciation reading and writing

skills. However, she still has a problem pronouncing words with the letters 'h', and 'j' only.

Although there is a significant improvement in her reading and writing skills, she still needs

help to perfect them and raise them from level 3 and level 2 respectively. All assessment

conducted points out that student B is an enthusiastic learner, motivated, and has more room

to improve and level up with student A.

Student C joined the ESL class in May 2022 with limited use of the English language.

He joined as a beginner and had no prior knowledge of the English language. Since he joined

three months after the others had joined, there was an absence of effective communication

which frustrated him, thus making student C misbehave. Therefore, the student needed to be
 9

helped to first build relationships with the other student, and making him integrate with the

other students helped in his emotional and social balance. The learners still need help in

learning basic skills in using the English language, writing, and reading skills.

Section 6: Description of Findings

In the lesson, 1 student engaged in interactive activities (appendix 5) student did not

find a big challenge reading and identifying letters in the flashcards which allowed the

instructor to concentrate on practicing with the student speaking. Magazines, magnetic letters,

and iPad were very effective since they allowed students to practice identifying, reading, and

writing letters 'r', 'h', and 'j'. Students A and B easily made drawing of items of objects and

items starting with the letters 'r', 'h', and 'j'. However, student C found it challenging which

necessitated the use of an alternative method to meet the objective of the lesson. Changing

the level of support of the child by using teacher- driven form of self-assessment facilitate

effective learning. Teacher- driven involves the teacher identifying the student’s gap and

helping the student to fill the gap. Having students turn and mention words or with letters 'r',

'h', and 'j' was an effective practice since all of the students mentioned at least one item or

object.

Lesson 2 was relatively successful as the lesson involved singing which was loved by

the students. The student danced to the song and although some of the students were shy, they

got the rhythm and came in tune with the lesson. The lesson involved the use of flashcards

which was a bit challenging for some of the students. Most of the students could identify the

mysterious letters in the song (appendix 6). The magnetic letters were effective for those

students who found it hard to identify the words in the song.

Lesson 3 was good, the students understood the text and word connotations in the

story. Some of the students found the sequencing activity a bit challenging. Student A found
 10

it easy to identify the words with mysterious letters in the provided flashcard with the action

words run, hop, and jump. Student B needed help with a few of the words. Student C found it

challenging and a simple alternative flashcard was provided.

The results obtained from the formative and summative assessment were satisfactory,

an indication that the activities in lessons 1, 2, and 3 were effective. Students' grades

improved compared to the grades that had been obtained in a previous assessment.

Section 7: Analysis and Interpretation of Findings

Taba’s model involves using diagnostic assessments before the beginning of the unit

which helps in the identification of students' needs. Taba's model has a positive impact and

resulted in effective teaching and learning. There was an improvement in the formative

assessment offered at the beginning of the unit and the summative assessment offered at the

end of the unit.

The use of Bloom's revised taxonomy theory enabled the student to progress and

remember how to sound the mysterious letters that they applied as they speak. Cognitive

allows students to think critically, analyze and apply their learning in their daily life (Daba et

al., 2022). The students were able to recall and correctly pronounce the mysterious letters.

Furthermore, the student participated in cutting and gluing the mysterious letters to

form words. This is another example of cognitivism since the process activates brain

functioning skills, resulting in active learning. The learning and acquisition of new

knowledge are subjected to student active participation in the learning process which

contributes to improved student performance (Foster and Shah, 2020). The use of song as an

interactive activity in class is an example of the application of constructivism. The use of

constructivism enables the students to learn actively, resulting in a high level of engagement

(Goldman et al., 2022). Effective learning is achieved through an active process.

 11

The use of connectives and project-based learning enables students to connect their

learning and the real world which makes learning effective. It is important to focus on real

learners, and real stories, experiences, reasons, and choices (Intizor, 2022). A good example

is using the song and the passage in lessons 3 and 2 effectively. Furthermore, connectives

allow students to learn in a fun and authentic way.

Therefore, the utilization of different theories and principles throughout the unit

resulted in highly effective lessons. The learning process was effective and productive since

there was positive result improvement compared to prior assessment results. This was

evident in how the student used the mysterious letters in pronunciation and their writing. For

instance student A’s pronunciation of the letter r, h and j improved significantly.

Furthermore, there was a significant improvement in his writing. Student B’s could construct

grammatically correct sentences at the end of the unit. Student C had made some friends an

indication that he was learning to communicate better, furthermore hid writing improved.

Section 8: Conclusion and Recommendation

The use of several learning activities, including experiential learning, project-based

learning, direct and indirect instruction, interactive instruction, and independent study aided

by curriculum development promotes effective learning as indicated in the progress of most

of my students. The implementation of the use of several theories and principles in the unit

resulted in effective lessons evident in the student's assessment results and measured process.

Using constructivism helps the student understand the unit and improve previous

knowledge. Furthermore, applying cognitivism enables the student to think critically. In

addition, connectives using educational games make the learning process fun (Lambert et al.,

2022). Project-based learning is effective in language learners since it allows them to engage
 12

in the real world making them recognize the meaning of full target language use

authentically.

The use of several theories and models in my lesson has improved my teaching

practice and improved my incorporation of valuable knowledge in my future lessons.

Learning strategies help in facilitating productive lessons and making learning fun and

effective. Collecting students' feedback at the beginning of the unit and the end of the unit is

important since it allows an educator to reflect on their teaching and practice. As an educator,

I wish to enhance my teaching skills; I could start by building on project- based learning and

researching experimental learning in more depth. Furthermore, effective learning in students

of 3-5 years of age should involve more games. Using more songs that have the latter’s r, h

and j will make learning productive since most of the learners will fully participate in the fun

activity.
 13

Reference

Ahmed, S. H. (2022). Formative Assessment Techniques to support Student Motivation and

Achievement.

Chappuis, J. (2022). Student involvement in assessment. Routledge.

Clark, K. R. (2018). Learning theories: behaviorism. Radiologic Technology, 90(2), 172-175.

Daba, D., Teshome, Z., & Bekele, E. (2022). Communicative Language Teaching: The

Missing Link between Theory and Practice. International Journal of Research Studies

in Education, 11(13), 1-14.

Foster, A., & Shah, M. (2020). Principles for advancing game-based learning in teacher

education. Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 36(2), 84-95.

Goldman, S. R., Hall, A. H., & Ko, M. L. M. (2022). Co-design as an interactive context for

teacher learning. In Teacher Learning in Changing Contexts (pp. 112-135).

Routledge.

Intizor, S. (2022). Formative assessment and feedback. Involta Scientific Journal, 1(7), 49-55.

Johnson, A. P. (2019). Essential Learning theories: Applications to authentic teaching

situations. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

Lambert, J. M., Copeland, B. A., Paranczak, J. L., Macdonald, M. J., Torelli, J. N., &

Houchins‐Juarez, N. J. (2022). Description and evaluation of a function‐informed and

mechanisms‐based framework for treating challenging behavior. Journal of Applied

Behavior Analysis.

Mitchell, R., Myles, F., & Marsden, E. (2019). Second language learning theories. Routledge.
 14

Qureshi, M. A., Khaskheli, A., Qureshi, J. A., Raza, S. A., & Yousufi, S. Q. (2021). Factors

affecting students’ learning performance through collaborative learning and

engagement. Interactive Learning Environments, 1-21.

Shieh, J. J., & Reynolds, B. L. (2021). The origin and impact of an ESL teacher’s beliefs on

curriculum design. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 41(3), 574-593.

Stewart, M. (2021). Understanding learning:: Theories and critique. In University teaching in

focus (pp. 3-28). Routledge.

Wakeman, S. Y., Karvonen, M., Flowers, C., & Ruhter, L. (2021). Alternate Assessments and

Monitoring Student Progress in Inclusive Classrooms. In Handbook of Effective

Inclusive Elementary Schools (pp. 302-321). Routledge.

Xiao, Y., & Yang, M. (2019). Formative assessment and self-regulated learning: How

formative assessment supports students' self-regulation in English language learning.

System, 81, 39-49.

 15

Appendices

Appendix 1
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
Thinking process

1. What data do I need?

2. In what ways could I collect that data?

3. How could I document data, or organize it so that it can be analysed?

4. What methods were most appropriate for my context and timeframe?

5. How much time would my data collection require?

6. How would my data achieve triangulation in addressing the research question?

7. What sources would I need to ensure triangulation of data?

Appendix 4
Passage used****

Appendix 5
Lesson Plan 1

Rene Munian

Teacher

Grade Kindergarten

Lesson title Letter identification

Content Area English ( beginner level )

Duration of lesson 1 week

 16

Topic  The main topic of this lesson is to focus on

identifying letters, specifically letters ‘r’,

‘h’, and ‘j’. in a single word.

 After reviewing these letters students will

learn to recognize these letters in different

words, which will eventually help them

understand the formation of words and

usage of these letters in the written context

Goals  The essential goal of this lesson is to help

students to master the letters ‘r’, ‘h’, and ‘j’.

and to understand their basic usage in

different word formations.

 This will help students’ understanding of

making appropriate connections between

the individual letters and words (concept of

how the letter is used to create a new word).

 With constant practice in working with

these letters, the students will become more

familiar with the use of written words and

learn to identify these letters in a word.

Objectives  Students will be able to name and make the

 17

common sound for the letters ‘r’, ‘h’, and

‘j’

 Students will be able to recognize the letters

‘r’, ‘h’, and ‘j’ in simple words

 Students will be able to write words that

start with the letters ‘r’, ‘h’, and ‘j’

 Students will be able to write words that

have the letters ‘r’, ‘h’, and ‘j’ in them

 Students will be familiar with both upper

and lower case letters ‘r’, ‘h’, and ‘j’

Material and aids  Flashcards

 Color Pencils (18 each)

 Magnetic letters(upper and lower case)

 Magazines

 Ipad

 Scissors

 Pieces of paper

 Pencils

Overview  It will be short lessons (maximum of 20

minutes) because the attention span of

children lasts for a short period of time.

 18

 Multi-colored visualizations will be used to

capture students’ attention when reviewing

the letters and introducing the new words to

practice identifying the different letters.

Introduction  I will begin the lesson by telling the

students the purpose and learning intention

and ensure the students know the focus of

the lesson is about naming and making the

common sounds for the graphemes ‘r’, ‘h’,

and ‘j’

Presentation  Introduce the flashcards with the lower-case

letters ' written on them. Name each letter

and ask students to repeat the name after

each one.

 Simple words with accompanying picture,

to introduce the letter usage in a word

Guided Practice & Prepare  Using the chalkboard/whiteboard, I will

demonstrate to students by isolating the first

letter of my name, (which by the way is

Rene, one of the letters they are learning)

and write the first letter in the center of the

board.
 19

 Reinforce understanding by asking

students to come up and draw pictures of

other things that also start with the letters

‘r’, ‘h’, and ‘j’ to Pass out pieces of paper to

each student. Explain that they will be

choosing a letter and then drawing pictures

of words that start with the same

sound/letter around it.

 Have students turn and talk to share

something that starts with the first letters

‘r’, ‘h’, and ‘j’

Formative Assessments (check for While students are busy, the teacher will be

understanding) circulating the room, asking questions, and

checking for understanding

Differentiation The teacher will demonstrate, by doing 1 example,

call students to do another example, to reinforce

Support: Group work their understanding and clarity.

Working with a partner can help  Tic-tac-toe

to scaffold this activity  Go fish

 “I spy with my little eye something starting

with the letter …..” “I spy with my eye

 20

something ending with the sound……”

 Students sort magnetic letters to identify

letters ‘r’, ‘h’, and ‘j’, lower and upper case.

Students play sound/letter bingo with the

targeted letters.

Enrichment:

For students needing a greater

 Students find examples of words that
challenge
contain the letters ‘r’, ‘h’, and ‘j’ in texts

around the room. Record on their

whiteboards

Independent Practice  Students find pictures of examples of ‘r’,

‘h’, and ‘j’ in magazines. Cut out and

display

 Students use an iPad to photograph the

letters ‘Rr’, ‘Hh’, and ‘Jj’ from around the

room

 Students make their own personal

dictionaries. Focus on the letters ‘r’, ‘h’,

and ‘j’. Students draw pictures of words

that will help them remember the common

sound for each of these letters

 21

Review and closing  Ask the students to name and sound out the

letters they learned

 Ask students to name a word that starts with

‘r’, ‘h’, and ‘j’

 As students enter or leave the classroom

they use a password (i.e. a word that starts

with the letter…., a word that starts with the

sound…., a word that ends with the

letter…., a word that ends with the

sound….).

 Encourage students to try this at home with

their parents, siblings and pets!

 As students enter or leave the classroom

they use a password (i.e. a word that starts

with the letter…., a word that starts with the

sound…., a word that ends with the

letter…., a word that ends with the

sound….).

Assessment  Handouts

 (HW)Project: For students and parents to

work together. Please cut out three simple

words ((from magazines, printouts, cereal

boxes, etc) beginning with the letters ‘r’,

 22

‘h’, and ‘j’. Paste the word on construction

paper and find an accompanying picture to

help learners identify the meaning of the

word (due end of the week), eg: cut out the

word “hat” and have a picture of a hat

pasted next to the word.

Post Reflection and Evaluation of Students are generally enthusiastic, and

lessons engaging and especially enjoy the games. They

are having fun while learning. They grasped

and mastered the sound and identification of

the letters ‘r’, ‘h’, and ‘j’ and were successful

with their assessments.

Appendix 6
The song used in class*****