Switches

Relays

h-bridges

Switching Circuits
Switches
A switch is an electrical component that can "make" or "break" an electrical circuit, interrupting
the current or diverting it from one conductor to another.

Switch Types
1. Toggle Switch: Toggle switches are actuated by a lever angled in one of two or more
positions. The common light switch used in household wiring is an example of a toggle
switch.
2. Pushbutton Switch: Pushbutton switches are two-position devices actuated with a
button that is pressed and released. Most pushbutton switches have an internal spring
mechanism returning the button to its “out,” or “unpressed,” position, for momentary
operation.
3. Selector Switch: Selector switches are actuated with a rotary knob or lever of some sort
to select one of two or more positions.
4. Joystick Switches: A joystick switch is actuated by a lever free to move in more than one
axis of motion. One or more of several switch contact mechanisms are actuated
depending on which way the lever is pushed, and sometimes by how far it is pushed.
The circle-and-dot notation on the switch symbol represents the direction of joystick
lever motion required to actuate the contact. Joystick hand switches are commonly used
for crane and robot control.
5. Proximity Switch: Proximity switches sense the approach of a metallic machine part
either by a magnetic or high-frequency electromagnetic field. Simple proximity switches
use a permanent magnet to actuate a sealed switch mechanism whenever the machine
part gets close (typically 1 inch or less). More complex proximity switches work like a
metal detector, energizing a coil of wire with a high-frequency current, and
electronically monitoring the magnitude of that current. If a metallic part (not
necessarily magnetic) gets close enough to the coil, the current will increase, and trip
the monitoring circuit.
6. Speed Switches: These switches sense the rotary speed of a shaft by a weight mounted
on a shaft, or by some sort of non-contact detection of shaft motion like optical or
magnetic.
 7. Pressure Switch: Gas or liquid pressure can be used to actuate a switch mechanism if
that pressure is applied to a piston, diaphragm, or bellows, which converts pressure to
mechanical force.
8. Temperature Switch: An inexpensive temperature-sensing mechanism is the “bimetallic
strip:” a thin strip of two metals, joined back-to-back, each metal having a different rate
of thermal expansion. When the strip heats or cools, differing rates of thermal
expansion between the two metals causes it to bend. The bending of the strip can then
be used to actuate a switch contact mechanism. Other temperature switches use a brass
bulb filled with either a liquid or gas, with a tiny tube connecting the bulb to a pressure-
sensing switch. As the bulb is heated, the gas or liquid expands, generating a pressure
increase which then actuates the switch mechanism.
9. Liquid Level Switch: A floating object can be used to actuate a switch mechanism when
the liquid level in a tank rises past a certain point. If the liquid is electrically conductive,
the liquid itself can be used as a conductor to bridge between two metal probes
inserted into the tank at the required depth. The conductivity technique is usually
implemented with a special design of relay triggered by a small amount of current
through the conductive liquid.

Switch Contact Design

The part of the switch which is responsible for making and breaking the electric circuit is called
‘contacts.’ They are usually made of corrosion resistant alloys. Contacts are made to touch each
other by a mechanism which helps maintain a constant spacing and proper alignment.
For example, mercury switches use a slug of liquid mercury metal as moving contact. A wetting
current is the minimum amount of current required for a switch contact to break through any
film of oxidation that may have happened on the switch contacts.

Bounce Effect
When a switch is actuated, they are supposed to establish continuity in a single, crisp
moment. Unfortunately, switches do not achieve this goal. Due to the mass of the moving
contact and any elasticity in the mechanism or contact materials, contacts will “bounce”
upon closure for a period of milliseconds before coming to a full rest and providing unbroken
contact. In many applications, switch bounce is of no consequence. For example, it matters
little if a switch controlling an incandescent lamp “bounces” for a few cycles every time it is
actuated as the lamp’s warm-up time is very large as compared to the bounce period, no
irregularity in lamp operation will result.
However, if the switch is used to send a signal to an electronic amplifier or some other circuit
with a fast response time, contact bounce may produce very noticeable and undesired
effects.
A switch can be ‘de-bounced’ in various ways. Reducing the kinetic energy of moving contacts
will reduce the force of impact and hence minimize the bounce. In case of stationary
contacts, using buffer springs will soften the force of impact. If the switch is designed for
sliding or wiping contact rather than direct contact, the bounce effect can be greatly
minimized.

Relays
Relays are switches that open and close circuits electromechanically or electronically. Relays
control one electrical circuit by opening and closing contacts in another circuit. A relay is an
electrically operated switch. As relay diagrams show, when a relay contact is normally open
(NO), there is an open contact when the relay is not energized. When a relay contact is
Normally Closed (NC), there is a closed contact when the relay is not energized. In either case,
applying electrical current to the contacts will change their state. Relays are generally used to
switch smaller currents in a control circuit and do not usually control power consuming devices
except for small motors and Solenoids that draw low amps. Protective relays can prevent
equipment damage by detecting electrical abnormalities, including overcurrent, undercurrent,
overloads and reverse currents.

Electromechanical Relay

Relays involve two circuits: the energizing circuit and the contact circuit. The coil is on the
energizing side; and the relays contacts are on the contact side. When a relays coil is
energized, current flow through the coil creates a magnetic field. Whether in a DC unit or in
an AC unit, the basic function remains the same: the magnetic coil attracts a ferrous plate,
which is part of the armature. One end of the armature is attached to the metal frame, which
is formed so that the armature can pivot, while the other end opens and closes the contacts.
Contacts come in different configurations, depending on the number of Breaks, poles and
Throws that make up the relay.

Solid State Relays

Solid state relays consist of an input circuit, a control circuit and an output circuit. The Input
Circuit is the portion of a relays frame to which the control component is connected. The
input circuit performs the same function as the coil of electromechanical relays. The circuit is
activated when a voltage higher than the relays specified Pickup Voltage is applied to the
relays input. The input circuit is deactivated when the voltage applied is less than the
specified minimum Dropout voltage of the relay. The Control Circuit is the part of the relay
that determines when the output component is energized or de-energized. The control
circuit functions as the coupling between the input and output circuits. In electromechanical
relays, the coil accomplishes this function. A relays Output Circuit is the portion of the relay
that switches on the load and performs the same function as the mechanical contacts of
electromechanical relays. Solid-state relays, however, normally have only one output contact.

H-Bridges

Q1 and Q2: These are NPN transistors. They connect the motor to ground (negative terminal of
the battery).
Q3 and Q4: These are PNP transistors. They connect the motor to the positive terminal of the
battery.
R1-R4: These resistors prevent too much current from passing through the base of the
transistor. The resistor value of 1 kilohm was chosen to saturate the transistor.
M1: This is a direct-current (DC) motor. These are very common. You can find them in surplus
stores online or in salvaged toys. The motor should have only two wires. Measure the
resistance of the two motor wires using a multimeter. If the motor resistance is less than 5
ohms, then the transistor parts listed in this article are too weak to power the motor.

Working
Command R1 R2 R3 R4
OFF GND or +VDC or GND or +VDC or
disconnected disconnected disconnected disconnected
Forward GND or GND +VDC +VDC or
disconnected disconnected
Reverse +VDC +VDC or GND or GND
disconnected disconnected
Brake +VDC +VDC or +VDC +VDC or
disconnected disconnected

Bibliography
1. "Switch". The Free Dictionary. Farlex. 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-27
2. https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/digital/chpt-4/switch-types/
3. https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/digital/chpt-4/switch-contact-design/
4. Gregory K. McMillan (ed) Process/Industrial Instruments and Controls Handbook (5th Edition)
(McGraw Hill, 1999) ISBN 0-07-012582-1 page 7.26
5. https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/digital/chpt-4/contact-bounce/
6. https://www.galco.com/comp/prod/relay.htm
7. https://realpars.com/what-is-a-relay-system/
8. https://www.robotroom.com/BipolarHBridge.html