Flower

1. Peduncle - a specialized branch at the tip of a stalk

2. Receptacle - a small pad where a peduncle or pedicel swells at its tip
3. Sepals - are usually green and small that protects and support the petals
4. Petals - maybe distinct units in peach flowers but in some, they are fused
together into a single, flared, trumpet like sheet of tissue
5. Perianth - is the outer part of the flower that consists of calyx and corolla
6. Calyx - a whorl of sepals that protects the flower while it is in bud
7. Corolla - a whorl of three to many petals that attracts pollinators
8. Stamens - these are attached to the receptacle around the base of the pistil in
the center of the flower. It consist of a pollen-bearing anther and a stalk or
filament
9. Filament - where pollen develop and it support the anther
10. Anther - a part of stamen that produces pollen for reproduction
11. Pistil - consist of a stigma, style, and ovary. It is often shaped like a tiny vase that
is closed at the top
12. Style - a slender, stalk-like structure that holds up the stigma
13. Stigma - the top of a pistil which collects pollen grains
14. Ovary - a swollen base that consists of ovules. Ovary later develops into a fruit
15. Ovules - located inside the ovary. It develops into seeds of a fruit after
fertilization

FRUIT
Fruits are a characteristic of flowering plants. Once pollination and fertilization occur, the
ovary of the plant becomes the fruit and the ovules become the seeds.

They can be fleshy or dry

Main purpose of fruits is they protect the seeds during development

Fruits are often colorful and emanate a detectable odor, they help in attracting animals
to eat seeds. This way the seeds get dispersed to other areas for generating new
plants.
FRUIT REGIONS
Exocarp - skin
Endocarp - inner boundary around seed
Mesocarp - tissue between exocarp and endocarp

3 regions collectively is called pericarp

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS
Simple fruit - one fruit has developed from one single flower
Aggregate fruit - one flower that produces tiny fruits clustered tightly together
Multiple fruit - fruits from many different flowers which develop closely together to form
one bigger fruit

Simple Fruits- Fruits formed from 1 pistil. They may be either true or accessory fruits.

Dry Fruits: - Fruits in which the coat becomes dry at maturity.

Dehiscent Fruits- Dry fruits which at maturity open by definite natural means to shed
the contained seeds.
Legume - A dry dehiscent fruit developed from 1 carpel and at maturity splitting along
both the dorsal and ventral sutures. (beans, peas).
1. Follicle - A dry dehiscent fruit developed from 1 carpel and at maturity splitting
along only one suture. (columbine)
2. Capsule - A dry dehiscent fruit developed from several carpels.
3. Silique - A special long slender capsule of 2 carpels. (mustards)

Indehiscent fruits- Dry fruits which do not open when mature to shed their seeds.
Many of this group are one-seeded fruit.
1. Achene- A one-seeded, dry, indehiscent fruit; the one seed is attached to the
fruit wall at a single point. (dandelion, sunflower).
2. Nut- A dry, indehiscent, one seeded fruit similar to an achene but with the wall
greatly thickened and hardened. (chestnut, hazel, walnut - note: because of
extrafloral bracts, or "husk", the latter two fruits are sometimes called "drupes").
3. Samara- A one- or two-seeded dry, indehiscent fruit in which part of the fruit wall
grows out into a wing. (maple).
4. Grain- A one-seeded dry, indehiscent fruit in which the fruit wall and the seed
coat are fused. (wheat, corn).
5. Schizocarp- A fruit formed from several carpels, each carpel of this pistil
enclosing a single ovule, at maturity the carpels separate as separate
indehiscent fruits. (mallow, wild carrot, dill).
Fleshy Fruits- A fruit in which the wall becomes soft and fleshy as it matures.

1. Drupe- A one-seeded simple fruit developed from a superior ovary in which the
innermost portion of the wall (endocarp) becomes hard and stony, the outermost
part (exocarp) becomes a relatively thin skin, and the middle portion between the
skin and the stone (mesocarp) becomes either fleshy or fibrous. (cherry, coconut,
walnut - note: because of extrafloral bracts, or "husk", the latter two fruits are
sometimes called "drupes", but best called "nuts").
2. Berry- A simple fruit in which the ovary wall or at least its inner portions become
enlarged and usually juicy. (grape, banana). Two special types of berry-like fruits
may be singled out for special consideration.
a. Hesperidium- This is a special type of berry in which a leathery rind forms; the
interior of the fruit divided by septa, indicating the number of carpels. (lemon).
b. Pepo- This is a special type of berry in which a relatively hard rind is formed; the
interior of fruit not divided by septa. (watermelon, squash).

3. Pome- An accessory fleshy fruit formed by a group of carpels more or less firmly
united with each other and surrounded by and united to the floral tube or receptacle.
(apple, pear, mountain ash).

Aggregate Fruit- A fruit formed by the development of a number of pistils from the
same flower. The individual units may be berries or other specific types. (raspberry,
strawberry).

Multiple Fruit- A fruit formed by the development of a number of pistils often with
accessory parts, the pistils being from a number of flowers. (mulberry, fig).

A seed is made up of a seed coat and an embryo.

Embryo is made up of a radicle, an embryonal axis and one (wheat, maize) or two
cotyledons (gram and pea).

Angiosperm - Have seeds that are enclosed within an ovary (usually a fruit)
Gymnosperm - Have no flowers or fruits, and have unenclosed or “naked” seeds on
the surface of scales or leaves.

Monocotyledonous seed - has only one cotyledon. There is only one outer layering of
the seed coat. A seed has the following parts:

Parts of monocotyledonous seed:

Seed Coat:In the seed of cereals such as maize, the seed coat is membranous and
generally fused with the fruit wall, called Hull.

Endosperm: The endosperm is bulky and stores food. Generally, monocotyledonous

seeds are endospermic but some as in orchids are non-endospermic.

Aleurone layer: The outer covering of endosperm separates the embryo by a

proteinous layer called aleurone layer.

Scutellum: This is one large and shield-shaped cotyledon.

Embryo: The embryo is small and situated in a groove at one end of the endosperm.

Embryonal axis: Plumule and radicle are the two ends.

Coleoptile and coleorhiza: The plumule and radicle are enclosed in sheaths. They are
coleoptile and coleorhiza

Dicotyledonous seed - has two cotyledons.

Parts of dicotyledonous seed:

Seed coat: This is the outermost covering of a seed. The seed coat has two layers, the
outer testa and the inner tegmen.

Hilum:The hilum is a scar on the seed coat through which the developing seed was
attached to the fruit.

Micropyle:It is a small pore present above the hilum.

Embryo: It consists of an embryonal axis and two cotyledons.

Endosperm: In some seeds such as castor, the endosperm formed as a result of
double fertilization, is a food storing tissue. In plants such as bean, gram and pea, the
endosperm is not present in the matured seed. They are known as non-endospermous.

Cotyledons: These are often fleshy and full of reserve food materials.

Radicle and plumule: They are present at the two ends of the embryonal axis.

Dispersal by wind
The wind can carry light seeds for miles and most seeds and fruits relying on wind
dispersal have specialized adaptations. The samaras with their wings and membranes
are highly ideal fruits for wind dispersal. Some fruits are too large to be carried in the air
but can be rolled along by the wind. Cottony or woolly hair type adaptations as in the
Willow Family, enable the better transfer of seeds via the wind. Tumbleweed plants
break off and blow along in the wind, all the while dispersing seeds as it bumps along.

Dispersal by animals
There are so many adaptations for the dispersal of seeds by animals that it would take a
volume or two to discuss them all. Birds can carry seeds in the mud that they pick up on
their feet. Seeds pass through digestive tracts and are deposited randomly by animals.
Ants carry collect and carry seeds. Some seeds will not germinate unless they have
passed through the acidic environment of a digestive tract. Fur and feathers can trap
seeds and some seeds have burrowing type screws or hooks to ensure getting caught
on something and carried along.

Dispersal by water
Some fruits contain trapped air and are thus adapted to dispersal by water. Some
pericarps are thick and spongy enough to absorb water slowly and will thus protect the
tiny embryo held within. Saltwater dispersed plants generally have these type pericarps
and survival requires washing up on a beach somewhere before the saltwater reaches
the inside of the seed.

Other dispersal mechanisms

Some fruits mechanically eject fruits, some at a violent velocity. Humans are another
method of dispersal whether intentionally or not. Most countries have regulations with
regards to bringing fruits and seeds into the country that may harm native species and
cultivated crops.
Germination - is the process by which a dormant seed begins to sprout and grow into a
seedling under the right growing conditions.

Scarification - involves artificially cracking the seed coat. In nature, seeds may require
a period of freezing and thawing in order to crack the seed coat or passage through an
acidic digestive tract.
Epigeal Germination
- Seeds emerge out of the soil or above the soil
- The cotyledons come out above the soil surface and generally turn green and act
as first foliage leaves. This type of germination present in groundnut, bean,
cotton, sunflower, and cotton seeds.
Hypogeal Germination
- Seeds remain inside the soil or below the soil
- The cotyledons do not come above the soil surface. This type of germination is
found in wheat, barley, maize, and pea.

Internal Factors
1. Maturity of embryo
In some plants the embryo is not fully mature at the time of seed shedding. Such seeds
do not germinate till the embryo attains maturity.
2. Presence or absence of chemical inhibitors
The freshly shed seed in certain plants may not have sufficient amounts of growth
hormones required for the growth of embryo. These seeds require some interval of time
during which the hormones get synthesized.

External Factors
1. Oxygen
Oxygen is necessary for respiration which releases the energy needed for growth.
2. Water
Dormant seeds must absorb external water to become active and show germination.
Besides providing the necessary hydration for the vital activities of protoplasm, water
softens the seed coats, causes their rupturing, increases permeability of seeds, and
converts the insoluble food into soluble form for its translocation to the embryo
3. Temperature
Moderate warmth is necessary for the vital activities of protoplasm, and, therefore, for
seed germination. Though germination can take place over a wide range of temperature
(5-40°C), the optimum for most of the crop plants is around 25-30°C. The germination in
most cases stops at 0°C and 45°C.
Medicinal Use of Fruits

Angelica (Angelica archangelica)

•Fruits used in treating colds and fevers; leaves used to stimulate

Buckthorn (Rhamnus catharticus)

•Fruits used as a laxative

Cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccum)

•Fruit juice drunk to treat female yeast infections (Candidiasis)

Cubebs (Piper cubeba)

•Dried fruit best known as a condiment but is also used in treatment of asthma

Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana)

•Fruit acid is believed to aid in weight reduction

Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana)

•Liquid from boiled fruit used as an astringent; fruits with high beta-carotene content;
leaves have high vitamin C content

Spicebush (Lindera benzoin)

•Berries, buds, and bark brewed for tea used to reduce fevers

Tamarind (Tamarindus indica)

•Fruit pulp used as laxative

Pineapple (Ananas comosus)

• Bromelain extracted from pineapple decreases clumping of blood platelets
(antiplatelet) and fibrin, thereby improving
circulation;
• bromelain also accelerates healing and can relieve pain
• holding fresh pineapple in the mouth may cure mouth ulcers
Medicinal Uses of Seeds

Anise (Pimpinella anisum)

•Seed oil used to relieve indigestion, colds, and respiratory problems such as sinusitis

Velvet bean (Mucuna spp.)

•Seeds contain levodopa used in treatment of Parkinson’s disease

Strophanthus (Strophanthus spp.)

•Seeds are major source of cortisone and also source of a heart stimulant

Strychnine plant (Strychnos nox-vomica)

•Strychnine extracted from seeds widely used as an insect and animal poison
•minute amounts stimulate the central nervous system and relieve paralysis

Pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo)

•Seed oil used to promote prostate health

Oats (Avena sativa)

•Extract from green oat seeds said to enhance both physical and sexual health

Perilla (Perilla frutescens)

•Seeds are the source of perilla oil, which is exceptionally rich in omega-3 fatty acids
essential to cardiac health

Evening primrose (Oenothera spp.)

•Seeds are source of Gamma Linoleic Acid (GLA) oils beneficial in human nutrition

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum)

•Seeds used in bulking laxatives; reduces mucus resulting from asthma and sinus
problems; reduces skin inflammation

Flax (Linum usitatissimum)

•Cold-processed seed oils are rich source of GLA, beneficial in suppressing or reversing
atherosclerosis;
•Crushed seeds used as a laxative and for treating bronchial problems.

Grape (Vitis vinifera)

• Seed extract source of powerful antioxidant
• (including quercetin) that also improve blood flow to the retina, thereby retarding
macular degeneration; red grapes in particular produce significant amounts of
reservatrol, which has been demonstrated to enhance enzyme activity associated with
the regeneration and stimulation of nerve

Grapefruit (Citrus paradise)

•Seed extract used to combat bacterial or fungal infections

Horse Chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum)

• Seed and leaf extracts used to improve blood flow; night cramps of legs; reduce
varicose veins and leg swelling
• (Caution: Plant is poisonousand only standardized extracts of demonstrated
therapeutic value should be used; a coumarin component of horse chestnut leaves can
interact adversely with aspirin and other anticoagulants)

Java plum (Syzygium cumini)

•Powdered seeds used to counter excessive thirst and excretion of sugar in the urine,
characteristic of diabetics

Apricot (Prunus armeniaca)

- Seed extract said to function as a bronchodilator

Black currant (Ribes nigrum)

•Oil from seeds used to improve suppleness of skin and to reduce skin dryness

Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum)

•Seed oil has antibiotic properties and is used in treatment of cold

Celery (Apium graveolens)

•Seed contains an essential oil that acts like an antioxidant that fights free radicals that
attack joints; oil believed to have sedative properties

Borage (Borago officinalis)

•Oil from seeds contains gamma linoleic acid (GLA) and other oils beneficial in human
nutrition

Chaulmoogra (Hydnocarpus spp.)

•Seed oil used in the treatment of skin diseases such as eczema, psoriasis, and leprosy
Chia (Salvia columbariae)
•Seeds contain a caffeine-like principle that enabled Native Americans to perform
unusual feats of endurance;
•Seed paste used in eye irritation by foreign matter

Chocolate (Theobroma cacao)

•Seed extracts are good source of L-arginine and magnesium and are believed (when
combined with other chocolate constituents) to elevate serotonin levels;
•Contains theobromin (somewhat similar to caffeine in action) and phenylethylene,
which are believed to produce sustained elevation of mood

Cola (Cola nitida, C. acuminate)

•Seeds contain up to 3.5% caffeine and 1% theobromine, which may lessen fatigue

Cell Reproduction

Cell Cycle - orderly series of events where cells divide

2 Divisions:
1. Interphase
2. Mitosis
a. Prophase
b. Metaphase
c. Anaphase
d. Telophase

1. Interphase - period which chromosomes are NOT visible with light microscope
- Longest phase of cell cycle
- Living cells are Not dividing
- 3 Intervals
a. G1
b. S-synthesis
c. G2

G1 (growth or gap one)

- Lengthy period after the nucleus divide
- RNA are ribosomes are produced and cell increase in size
S- synthesis
- Synthesis- DNA replication takes place

G2 (growth or gap two)

- Mitochondria and other organelles divide
- Microtubules are produced
- Coiling and condensation of chromosomes begin

2. Mitosis - Division of the nucleus

- Where one cell divides into two and each of the two cells to produce two more
daughter cells
- Location: Meristem (found in roots and stem tips)

Cytokinesis
- Normally comes with mitosis
- Division of the remainder of the cell

PHASES OF MITOSIS

Prophase - the chromosome become shorter and thicker, and their two-stranded nature
becomes apparent
- Nuclear envelope dissociates and the nucleolus disintegrates

Metaphase - alignment of chromosomes in a circle midway between the two poles

around the circumference of the spindle
- Collectively, the spindle fibers are referred to as the spindle

Anaphase - briefest of the phases

- Involves the sister chromatids of each chromosome separating and moving to
opposite poles

Telophase - each group of daughter chromosomes becomes surrounded by a reformed

nuclear envelope
- Daughter chromosomes become longer and thinner and finally become
indistinguishable
- Nucleoli reappear
- Many of the spindle fibers disintegrate
- A cell plate forms
3. Cytokinesis - division of the cytoplasm to form two new cells, overlaps with the final
stages of mitosis
- Cell plate forms down the middle of the cell, splitting it into two daughter cells
separated by a new wall

Meiosis

Asexual reproduction - simply means reproduction wothout “sex”

- Flowering and cone-bearing plants -> Formation of seeds

Sexual reproduction - Sex cells are called gametes

- Two gametes (egg and sperm in higher plants and animals)
- United to form a single cell called zygote
Meiosis
- All living cells, before undergoing meiosis, have two sets of chromosomes-one
from the male parent, the other from the female parent
- Each pair of chromosomes are identical with each other in length, in the amount
of DNA present, in the genes they carry, and in the possession of a centromere
at precisely the same location
- When a cell undergoes meiosis, four cells are produced from two successive
divisions, which generally take place without pausing
- Four cells are never identical with the original cell or with one another

Prophase I - nuclear envelope disintegrates; chromosomes begin to condense; spindle

appear
Metaphase I - homologous chromosomes align at the equatorial plate ensuring genetic
diversity among offspring (cross over)
Anaphase I - homologous chromosomes are pulled towards the opposite poles
Telophase I - spindle fibers disappear
- Nuclear envelope is reformed
Cytokinesis I - cytoplasm and the cell division resulting in 2 non-identical diploid
daughter cells
Prophase II - chromatin condenses into chromosomes; Nuclear envelope disintegrates;
centrosomes migrate to either poles; spindle fibers reformed
Metaphase II - chromosomes align along the equatorial plate. On the contrary, the
chromosomes metaphaseI were in homologous pairs
Anaphase II - Sister chromatids are pulled to the opposite poles
Telophase II - Nuclear envelope redevelops and the spindle fibers disappear
Cytokinesis II - cytoplasm and cell divides producing 4 non-identical haploid daughter
cells

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Metabolism - sum of all the interrelated biochemical processes that take place in a
living organism
- Energy requiring reaction

Anabolism - build up of molecules

Catabolism - break down of molecules
Photosynthesis - the process by which green plants manufacture their own food when
they absorb light energy
- Causes the carbon dioxide and water to chemically combine, forming a simple
sugar and free oxygen into the atmosphere. (Glucose is a kind of sugar)
- An anabolic, endergonic, carbon dioxide (CO2) requiring process that uses light
energy (protons) and water (H2O) to produce organic macromolecules (glucose)
- Stored as carbohydrate in their bodies

Importance of photosynthesis
● Photosynthesis = process of making food
● Organisms like plants provide food for almost all other living things on Earth
● Plants release oxygen into atmosphere - almost 90% of oxygen is from
photosynthesis
Autotrophs - get energy from “self”
- Energy from sunlight
- Use light energy to synthesize organic molecules

Heterotrophs - get energy from “eating others”

- Consumers of other organisms
- Consume organic molecules

Plant Structure - Obtaining raw materials

CO2 - stomata = gas exchange regulation

- Found under leaves
H2O - uptake from roots
Sunlight - leaves = solar collectors
Chlorophyll - Photosynthetic unit
- Light Absorbing Pigment The Solar Panel Chemical

Chloroplast - contains
● Stroma
● Grana -stack of thylakoids
● Thylakoids - contain chlorophyll, green pigment that captures light for
photosynthesis

STAGES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
2-STAGE PROCESS
 ● Light Dependent (Light) Reactions
- Require light to occur
- Involves the actual harnessing of light energy
- Occur in the Grana (Thylakoid membrane)
- Total byproducts: ATP, NADPH, O2

● Light Independent (Dark) Reactions

- Do not need light to occur
- Involve the creation of Carbohydrates
- Products of light reactions are used to form C-C covalent bonds of carbohydrates
- Occur in the Stroma

Fd - ferredoxin
NADP - Nicotine Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate
Pq - Plastoquinone
Cyt - Cytochrome b8f complex
Pc- Plastocyanine

Photophosphorylation - excited electron eventually provides energy so a phosphate

group can be added to a compound called adenosine diphosphate(ADP), yielding
adenosine triphosphate(ATP)

LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTIONS

ATP = Adenosine - (PO 4-) - (PO4-) - (PO42-)

- The string of 3 phosphate groups is held together by covalent bonds
- When the bond that attaches 1 of the phosphate groups onto ATP is broken, it
becomes ADP
- Adenosine - (PO4-) - (PO42-) + (PO42-) + Energy

Photolysis - replaces lost electrons by splitting water

- The 2 water molecules are split into Hydrogen and Oxygen
- Splitting 1 H2O molecule releases 2e-, 2H+ and ½ O2

LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTION

- Needed products of light reactions to drive synthesis reactions
● ATP
 ● NADPH
- 3 Major Events
● Carbon dioxide fixation
● Reduction
● Regeneration
- Occur in Stroma of the chloroplasts

CALVIN CYCLE STEPS

1. Six molecules of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air combine with six molecules of
ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP , the 5-carbon sugar continually being formed
while photosynthesis is occuring), with the aid of the enzyme rubisco (RuBP
carboxylase/oxygenase)
2. The resulting six 6-carbon unstable complexes are immediately split into twelve
3-carbon molecules known as 3-phosphoglyceric acid (3PGA), the first stable
compound formed in photosynthesis

3. The NADPH (which has been temporarily holding the hydrogen and electrons
released during the light-dependent reactions) and ATP (also from the
light-dependent reactions) supply energy and electrons that chemically reduce
the 3GPA to twelve molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GA3P , 3-carbon
sugar phosphate)

4. Ten of the twelve glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate molecules are restructured, using

another six ATPs, and become six 5-carbon molecules of RuBP , the sugar with
which the Calvin Cycle was initiated

5. This leaves a net gain of two GA3P molecules, which either can contribute to an
increase in the carbohydrate content of the plant (glucose, starch. Cellulose, or
related substances) or can be used in pathways that lead to the net gain of lipids
and amino acids
Calvin Cycle - produce 1 molecule of glucose, it needs:
● 6 molecules of CO2
● 18 ATP
● 12 NADPH

Main Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis

1. Light and rate of photosynthesis

- As light intensity increases, the rate of the light-dependent reaction, therefore
photosynthesis increases proportionately
2. Carbon dioxide and rate of photosynthesis
- An increase in the CO2 concentration, increases the rate of photosynthesis
3. Temperature and rate of photosynthesis

What affects Photosynthesis?

● Light intensity: as light increases, rate of photosynthesis increases
● Carbon dioxide: as CO2 increases, rate of photosynthesis increases
 ● Temperature:
- Temperature Low = Rate of photosynthesis low
- Temperature Increases = Rate of photosynthesis increases
- If temperature too hot, rate drops

Photorespiration - When CO2 concentration is low, rubisco binds O2 instead of CO2

Cellular Respiration
- release of energy from glucose molecules that are broken down to individual
CO2 molecules
- Initiated in the cytoplasm and completed in mitochondria
- In eukaryotic cells, cellular respiration begins with the products of glycolysis
being transformed into the mitochondria
- Series of metabolic pathways (the Krebs cycle and others) in the mitochondria
result in the further breaking of chemical bonds and the liberation of ATP
- CO2 and H2O are the end products of these reactions
- The theoretical maximum yield of cellular respiration is 36 ATP per molecule of
glucose metabolized
Stage 1 - Glycolysis
- Takes place in the cytoplasm
- Requires no oxygen
- Anaerobic process are picked up and temporarily held by an acceptor
- Anaerobic catabolic reaction
- Converts 6-carbon glucose molecule to 2 pyruvic acid
- The hydrogen ions and high-energy electrons released during the process are
picked up and temporarily held by an acceptor, NAD
Complex series of steps:
1. In a series of reactions, the glucose molecule becomes a fructose molecule carrying
two phosphates (P)

2. This sugar (fructose) molecule is split into two 3-carbon fragments called
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GA3P)

3. Some hydrogen, energy. And water are removed from these 3-carbon fragments,
leaving pyruvic acid

In aerobic respiration, Glycolysis is followed by two major stages the citric acid cycle
and electron transport
Stage 2 - Citric Acid (Krebs) Cycle
- Named after Hans Krebs
- Also known as Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) Cycle
- Occurs in the fluid matrix located within the cristae of mitochondria
Stage 3 - Electron Transport Chain
- Electron Transport Chain (ETC) is a series of electron transporters embedded in
the inner membrane of mitochondrion
- Oxidative phosphorylation uses ETC to make ATP by the process of
chemiosmosis
- Electron are passed from one member of transport chain to another in a series of
redox reactions
- Transfer energy from reduced electron carriers to ATP

● NADH and FADH2

- Electron donors to an electron transport system consisting of special acceptor
molecules arranged in a precise sequence on the inner membranes of
mitochondria
Stage 3 - Electron Transport Chain
- The electrons flow through a series of carrier molecules, many of which are part
of protein complexes (Complex I - IV), down an energy gradient
- Electron carriers also accept protons and release them to the intermembrane
space of the mitochondrion
- Shuttling of protons in this way causes a building of protons outside the
mitochondrial matrix, thereby establishing an electrochemical gradient
- Through the process of chemiosmosis additional protein, additional protein
complexes phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP
- The production of ATP stops if there are no electron donors or electron
acceptor oxygen molecules
- The acceptor molecules include iron-containing proteins called cytochromes
- Energy is released in small increments at each step along the system, and ATP
is produced from ADP and P
- As the final step in aerobic respiration, oxygen acts as the ultimate electron
acceptor, producing water as it combines with hydrogen
Anaerobic Respiration and Fermentation
- A form of respiration taking place in the absence of oxygen

Two well-known forms of fermentation are illustrated by the following equations:

● Alcohol fermentation - plants and fungi

● Lactic acid fermentation - bacteria and animals

Factors affecting the Rate of Respiration
Temperature - optimum temperature is between 20oC to 30oC

Water - respiration increases with an increase in water content

Oxygen - respiration increases with an increase in oxygen