ROOTS

FUNCTIONS OF PLANT ROOT:

1. Anchorage of the plant in the soil
2. Conduction of water and minerals upward to the stem
3. Reproduction in the form of plant propagation
4. Absorption of water

TWO MAIN TYPES OF ROOT SYSTEM

1. Fibrous root system(monocot plants) - most members of this group have one cotyledon
2. Tap root system(dicot plants) - any member of flowering plants that has a pair of leaves
in the embryo of the seed.

FOUR REGIONS OF A TYPICAL ROOT TIP

1. Root cap - thimble-shaped cell mass that protects the growing root tip by covering the
apex of the root
2. Meristematic region - location of cell division
3. Region of elongation - area of root lengthening, cells produced from the meristematic
region grow here.
4. Region of maturation - where the cells that grew in the elongation region fully develops
and become adult cells

EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF ROOT

1. Primary root - the first root of a plant, originating in the embryo
2. Secondary roots - produced on the primary root
3. Tertiary roots - grow in various directions and help in fixing plant firmly into the soil

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF ROOT

1. Epidermis - outermost layer and protects inner tissue of the root.
2. Cortex - found inside the epidermis, composed of parenchyma cells.
3. Endodermis - innermost cell layer that regulates ion movement into the xylem
4. Vascular cylinder - innermost layer with xylem and phloem cells for conduction of
materials, parenchyma cells for food storage and support other tissues

TYPES OF MODIFIED ROOTS

1. Adventitious roots - arise along stem
2. Aerial roots - roots that extend out into the air
3. Prop roots - lower part of stem of some monocots
4. Pneumatophores - spongy outgrowths from underwater roots
5. Parasitic roots - penetrate host plants to parasitize them
6. Storage roots - branch roots of plants
7. Buttress roots - produced by varieties of fig and tropical trees for support
CORN
Common name: Corn
Scientific name: Zea mays
Family: Poaceae
Description: tall annual cereal grass
Medicinal use: Corn silk is used for bladder infections, inflammation of the urinary system,
inflammation of the prostate, kidney stones, and bedwetting

CALAMANSI
Common name: Calamondin
Scientific name: Citrus microcarpa
Family: Rutaceae
Description: Green fruit that turns to yellow-orange as it matures
Medicinal use: Boost immune system, soothe acidity

MANGO
Common name: Mango
Scientific name: Mangifera indica
Family: Anacardiaceae
Description: roughly oval in shape with uneven sides
Medicinal use: Mango stem bark and leaves have been used in traditional medicine to treat
anemia, cutaneous infections, diabetes, diarrhea, scabies, syphilis, and malignant tumors

CARROT
Common name: Carrots
Scientific name: Daucus carota
Family: Apiaceae
Description: fleshy edible, colorful roots
Medicinal use: Anti-oxidant

CAMOTE
Common name: Sweet Potato
Scientific name: Ipomea batatas
Family: Convolvulaceae
Description: Large, starchy and sweet tasting fruit
Medicinal use: anti-cancer, anti-diabetes, and anti-inflammatory

MONGGO
Common name: Common Bean
Scientific name: Phaseolus vulgaris
Family: Fabaceae
Description: edible dry seeds
Medicinal use: The green pods are mildly diuretic and contain a substance that reduces the
blood sugar level
MAYANA
Common name: Mayana
Scientific name: Coleus blumei
Family: Lamiaceae
Description: branched, fleshy, annual herb, about 1 meter high. Stems are purplish and
4-angled
Medicinal use: folkloric medicine is primarily used for pain, soreness, swelling, and cuts

STEM

FUNCTIONS OF STEM
1. Provides mechanical support to the plant
2. Exposes the leaves for photosynthesis
3. Positions the reproductive shoots for optimal access to pollinators
4. Conducts water and minerals from roots to the leaves

TYPES OF STEM
1. Herbaceous stems - thin, soft and green colored except those underground, also
known as herbs
2. Woody stems - taller, thicker, and harder than herbaceous stems

EXTERNAL PARTS OF STEM

1. Bud - growing point of the stem
2. Terminal bud - single bud located at the apex of the stem
3. Bud scales - protects and covers the bud
4. Terminal bud scale scars - marks leaves on the stem from the previous years which
serve as external measure of annual growth
5. Lateral bud - occur in the leaf axils on the side of stem
6. Leaf scar - mark that leaves on the stem after the leaf falls down
7. Lenticel - pores that facilitate gas exchange
8. Node - segment of stem where leaves and lateral buds are attached
9. Internode - section of stem between two nodes
10. Bundle scar - used in the identification of the woody plants and it is a mark left in the
leaf scar from the vascular tissue attachment

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF STEM

1. Epidermis - outermost layer of stem, usually functions to waterproof, protect and control
gas exchange
2. Cortex - below the epidermis, consists of hypodermis, parenchyma cells and
endodermis
3. Vascular bundles - comprises of phloem and xylem

SANTAN
Common name: Scarlet Jungle
Scientific name: Ixora coccinea
Family: Rubiaceae
Description: dense, multibranched evergreen shrub

Leaf

The following are the essential functions of leaves:

1. Photosynthesis
2. Transpiration
3. Guttation
4. Storage
5. Defense

External Structure of a Leaf

2 main parts:
Blade, also known as lamina, is the broad portion of the leaf consisting of the apex, margin,
vein, midrib and base.

Petiole is a thin stalk that attaches the leaf to a stem

Stipules - leaflike structure at the leaf base

Parts of LEAF:
Leaf base
Axil
Petiole
Venules
Leaf Blade
Vein
Midrib
Margin
Tip

Types of leaves

Simple leaves - consist of a single blade

COMPOUND LEAVES

Palmately compound - leaflets are attached directly to the end of the petiole
Pinnately compound - leaflets are arranged on the sides of the main leaf stalk
Leaf shapes
 1. Linear - narrow and long with approximately parallel sides
2. Oblong - longer than broad with nearly parallel sides and with a rounded base and apex
3. Lanceolate - widest below and tapers toward both ends
4. Oblanceolate - reverse of lanceolate, broadest above middle and tapering downward
5. Cuneate - wedge-shaped, broad at the tip and tapering by nearly straight lines to an
acute angle at the base
6. Spatulate - broadly rounded above and long and narrow below
7. Ovate - broadest part below the middle
8. Obovate - the broader part above the middle
9. Elliptical - broadest at the middle tapering more or less equally to the base and apex
10. Rhomboid - diamond-shaped, with equal sides but unequal angles
11. Deltoid - triangular
12. Orbicular - more or less circular in outline; flat
13. Reniform - kidney-shaped
14. Cordate - heart-shaped

Leaf Margins
1. Entire - even line, without teeth
2. Serrate - cut into sharp, saw-like teeth pointing forward
3. Undulate- margin of the leaf forms wavy line
4. Sinuate - like undulate, margine is very wavy(sinuous)
5. Crenate - teeth are short and rounded, also called scalloped
6. Crenulate - very finely notched with rounded projections
7. Dentate - teeth point outward
8. Denticulate - leaf having a finely toothed margin
9. Doubly crenate - coarsely crenate, teeth margins again serrated
10. Doubly dentate - coarsely dentate, teeth margins again dentated
11. Lobed - incisions do not extend deeper than halfway between the margin and the center
of the blade and are rounded

LEAF BASES
1. Cuneate - wedge shaped, tapering evenly to a narrow point
2. Cordate - heart-shaped
3. Oblique - slanting, unequal-sided
4. Acuminate - prolonged apex tapering to a long, narrow point
5. Acute - forming an acute angle less than 90 degrees
6. Obtuse - blunt; sides forming an angle of more than 90 degrees
7. Rounded - forming an arc
8. Truncate - abruptly cut off transversely at the base
9. Sagittate - arrow-shaped, the auricles turned inwards.
10. Hastate - halberd-shaped; lobes at base pointed and narrow and nearly at right angles
to the petiole
11. Auriculate - small pair of projections or ears, usually at the base
LEAF APEX
 1. Mucronate - abruptly tipped with a small, short point; like a mere projection of the midrib
2. Cuspidate - tipped with an elongated sharp or rigid point
3. Retuse - with a rounded sinus at the tip
4. Emarginate - indented or notched
5. Truncate - a square end that looks cut off
6. Acuminate - prolonged into a narrowed or tapering point
7. Acute - ending in an acute angle, but not a prolonged point
8. Obtuse - blunt or rounded apex
9. Rounded - broad and semi-circular in outline

LEAF VENATION

1. Parallel or Closed - characteristics of monocotyledons

- Veins running nearly parallel to each other from base to apex
2. Netted or Open - characteristics of the dicotyledons.
- Veins anastomosing some of which are running out and end blindly in the leaf tissue

Palmately veined: When three or more secondary veins branch radially from the base of the
leaf.

Pinnately veined: When the secondary veins branch off at intervals a prominent midrib

ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES
1. Alternate - only one leaf per node, it is placed alternate on each side of the stem in a flat
plane
2. Opposite - two leaves arise at the same point, with the leaves connecting opposite each
other along the branch
3. Spiral - one leaf per node, but it is arranged in a spiral along the stem
4. Whorled - three or more leaves connected at a node

MONOCOT LEAVES

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME

Banana Musa paradisiaca

Corn Zea mays

Coconut Cocos nucifera

Onion Allium cepa L.

 Cogon Imperata cylindrical L.

Palay Oryza sativa

Pandan Pandanus odoratissimus L.

Anahaw Livistona rotundifolia

Buntot-tigre Sansevieria zeylanica L.

Tanglad Andropogon citratus D.C.

Camia Hedychium coronarium Koen

Corazon de Maria Caldium bicolor

DICOT LEAVES

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME

Papaya Carica papaya L.

Tamarind Tamarindus indica L.

Guava Psidium guajava L.

Malunggay Moringa oleifera

Santan Ixora coccinea

Calamansi Citrus microcarpa

Ipil-ipil Leucaena leucocephala

Gumamela Hibiscus rosasinensis L.

Calachuchi Plumeria acutifolia

Camias Averrhoa bilimbi L.

Lettuce Lactuca sativa L.

Saluyot Corchorus olitorius

FLOWER
- is the reproductive part of a plant
Function: to produce seeds through the union of male sperm with female ovum
Pollination - process when pollen grains from the flower anther are transferred to the stigma

Fertilization - process of fusion of the pollen grains with the ovum to form the zygote

ACCESSORY PARTS
● Receptacle
● Sepals
● Petals

ESSENTIAL PARTS

Stamen - the male reproductive part of flower that is made up of filament and anther which
produces pollen

Pistil - the female reproductive part of flower that is made up of ovary, style, and stigma

CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWERS

Presence of Accessory parts

1. Complete - possess all the four whorls

2. Incomplete - do not possess any one or more of the four whorls

Presence of Essential parts

1. Perfect - with both male and female reproductive organs

2. Imperfect - with only one reproductive organ, either male or female
a. Pistillate - only the pistil is present
b. Staminate - only the stamen is present
3. Monoecious - with male and female flowers in separate structures on the same plant
4. Dioecious - with male and female flowers on different plants
5. Polygamous - with male and female in the same flower on the same plant

Location of the ovary

1. Hypogynous - with superior ovary

2. Perigynous - with a half-inferior ovary
3. Epigynous - with an inferior ovary

Symmetry
 1. Regular - wheel-like form or radially symmetric flower
2. Irregular - form which can be divided into two equal halves

Type of Inflorescence

1. Catkin - spike with only pistillate or staminate flowers

2. Composite or Head - daisy-type flower composed of ray flowers around the edge and
disc flowers that develop into seed in the center of the flat head
3. Corymb - stemlets arranged along main stem
4. Cyme - determinate, flat or convex flower, with inner floret opening first
5. Panicle - Indeterminate flower with repeated branching
6. Raceme - modification of a spike with flowers attached to a main stem by stemlets
7. Solitary - one flower per stem
8. Spadix - showy part is a bract of spathe, partially surrounding the male and female
flowers inside
9. Spike - flowers attached to main stem, without stemlets, bottom florets open first
10. Umbel - forets with stemlets attached to main stem at one central point forming a flat or
rounded top

Common Name Scientific Name Family

Apple Pyrus malus Rosaceae

Pomegranate Punica granatum Punicaceae

Orange Citrus aurantium Rutaceae

Pineapple Ananas Comosus Bromeliaceae

Strawberry Fragaria ananassa Rosaceae

Watermelon Citrullus lanatus Cucurbitaceae

Avocado Persea americana Lauraceae

Cherry Prunus avium Rosaceae

Cucumber Cucumis sativus Cucurbitaceae

Grapes Vitis vinifera Rutaceae

Fruits
 - Important in seed dispersal
- Process of fruit fertilization initiates both seed and fruit development
- While seeds develop from the ovules, the ovary tissue undergoes a series of
complex changes which result in the development of the fruit
- At maturity, ovaries swell and become fleshy(“juicy”), or the ovary wall shrivels
and becomes dry

MATURE FRUIT
● Exocarp
● Endocarp
● Mesocarp

Classification of Fruits
1. Simple Fruit - developed from a single matured ovary in a single flower and for fruits
consisting of more than just the ovary
- Also called an accessory fruit

2. Dry Fruit - classified as dehiscent and indehiscent fruits.

a. Dehiscent fruits - sub-classified into follicle, legume, capsule, silique

b. Indehiscent fruits - sub-classified into achene, caryopsis, samara, schizocarp,
loment, and nut

3. Aggregate Fruit - consist of a number of matured ovaries formed in a single flower

and arranged over the surface of a single receptacle. Individual ovaries are called
fruitlets

4. Multiple Fruit - consist of matured ovaries of several to many flowers more or less
united into a mass.
- Almost invariably accessory fruits

SEEDS
- Performs essential functions such as reproduction, covering the embryo, storage of food,
dispersal to a new location, and dormancy during unfavorable conditions

Seed germination - is the beginning of the process of development of a seed

A. External
1. Seed coat - outer protective covering
2. Hilum - scar from the seed being attached to the parent plant
B. Embryo
1. Cotyledon - the first leaf that germinates
2. Epicotyl and Hypocotyl - the portion of axis above the structure and lower portion of
the cotyledon respectively
3. Plumule - the first apical bud of shoot
4. Radicle - part of the seed where the root develops
5. Coleorhiza - the protective sheath investing the radicle in some monocotyledonous
plants through which the roots emerge
6. Coleoptile - covering the young shoot

Common Name Scientific Name Family

Green Bean Phaseolus vulgaris Fabaceae

Pea Seed Pisum sativum Fabaceae

Chickpea Seeds Cicer arietinum Fabaceae

Monggo Vigna radiata Fabaceae

POST LABORATORY DISCUSSION (FINALS)

I. Plant taxonomy (Binomial Nomenclature)

BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE

● In the early days of botany, it was common for multiple names to be published for a
single species, especially one that is found in many places or that is variable enough to
be mistaken for a group of several species. These excess names are called synonyms.
● To reduce confusion, there should be only one correct name for a species under a given
taxonomic treatment.
● The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature provides rules to determine what
the correct name is.
● These rules are too complicated to recount in detail, but the principle of priority usually
applies. That is, the oldest name that was “validly and legitimately” published for a
species provides the specific epithet that should be used if possible
● Certain errors in the publication of a name can make it invalid or illegitimate, meaning
that it should not be used no matter what its age. If the strict application of these rules
would lead to great nomenclature confusion, there are procedures by which younger
names can be conserved or older names rejected at the meeting of the International
Botanical Congress, which are held every six years.
Theophrastus
- Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim
- Father of Botany

International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)

● The set of rules and recommendations dealing with the formal botanical names that are
given to plants
● Its intent is that each taxonomic group (“taxon”, plural “taxa”) of plants has only one
correct name that is accepted worldwide
● The value of a scientific name is that it is an identifier; it is not necessarily of descriptive
value, or even accurate

Straightforward Principle
- Botanical nomenclature is independent of zoological and bacteriological nomenclature.
- The Code applies equally to names of taxonomic groups treated as plants were originally
so treated.

Type Principle
- The application of names of taxonomic groups is determined by means of nomenclatural
types

Priority Principle
- The nomenclature of a taxonomic group is based on the priority of publication

Uniqueness Principle
- Each taxonomic group with particular circumscription, position, and rank can bear only
one correct name, the earliest that is in accordance with the Rules, except in specified
cases.

As-it-should-be Principle
- Scientific names of taxonomic groups are treated as Latin regardless of their derivation

Retroactivity Principle
- The Rules of nomenclature are retroactive unless expressly limited

NOMENCLATURE - it deals with the application of a correct name to a plant or a taxonomic

group

Carolus Von Linnaeus - Binomial Nomenclature

Family Names
 a. Graminae (Grass Family, alternative Poaceae)
b. Palmae (Palm Family, alternatively Arecaceae)
c. Cruciferae (Mustard Family, alternatively Brassicaceae)
d. Leguminosae (Pea Family, alternatively Fabaceae)
e. Guttiferae (St. John’s Wort Family, alternatively Clusiaceae)
f. Umbelliferae (Carrot Family, alternatively Apiaceae)
g. Labiatae (Mint Family, alternatively Lamiaceae)
h. Compositae (Daisy Family, alternatively Asteraceae)

II. Seeds
● Ripened fertilized ovules are the principal means of the perpetuation of the species.
● It consists of an embryonic plant, reserve food, and protective seed coat
● The embryo in the seed is made up of an embryonal axis. It contains a radicle
(embryonic root) and a plumule (embryonic shoot)
● Endospermic Seed/Albuminous Seed
● Non-Endospermic/Exalbuminous

Gram Seed
- A dicot, non-endospermic seed
- The seeds are produced within the pods or leguminous fruits
- A gram seed appears conical-pyriform in outline
a. Seed Coat:
● Consists of two layers: outer testa and inner tegmen.
● Testa is thick and brownish
● The tegmen is thin, membranous, and whitish and remains fused with testa
● The pointed beak-like end of the seed has a minute pore called micropyle
● If a soaked seed is gently pressed, a drop of water oozes out of the micropyle
● A small oval scar seen near the micropyle is called hilum through which the seed was
attached to fruit
● Another oval scar present in the middle is called chalaza or strophiole
● A distinct ridge called raphe runs from hilum to chalaza

b. Embryo:
● It presents inner to seed coat. It consist of two circular yellowish cotyledons that are
attached to the embryo axis
● The part of embryo axis above the point of attachment to the cotyledons is called
epicotyle
● The tip of epicotyle is called plumule
● Similarly, the region of the embryo axis below the point of attachment of cotyledons is
called the hypocotyle
● The tip of hypocotyle is called radicle
● During germination, the radicle comes out first through the micropyle and grows to form
a taproot. The plumule gives rise to shoot system
Castor seed

• a dicotyledonous, endospermic seed.

• The castor seeds are produced within a schizocarpic fruit called the regma which on maturity
breaks up into 3 cocci, each containing a single seed.
• A castor seed is roughly oblong in outline with distinct convex (dorsal) and flat (ventral)
surfaces.

a.) Testa: It is the outer layer of seed coat. It is thick, hard and brittle. The external surface
appears smooth, shinning and mottled brown in color.
b.) Tegmen: It is the inner layer of seed coat that appears dull and papery. Now it is called as
perisperm or persistent nucellus.
c.) Caruncle: It is a white spongy bilobed outgrowth present near the narrow end of the seed. If
partially covers the hilum (dark scar) and completely covers the micropyle (small pore).
Caruncle absorbs water which percolates through the micropyle into the seed.
d.) Raphae: It is a shallow ridge present on the testa of flat surface of
the seed. The distinct bifurcation of raphae represents chalaza.
e.) Endosperm: It is a white oily food storage tissue that is present
inner to the perisperm. From this layer castor oil of commerce is
extracted.
f.) Embryo: It lies in the center of endosperm. It consists of a radicle, a plumule and two lateral
cotyledons, all of which are present on a short embryo axis. The cotyledons are thin,
semi-transparent and oval in outline. They have palmate venation. The middle costa or rib is
more prominent and bears a few lateral veins.

Radicle
• Radicle lies outside the cotyledons towards the micropylar end. It is a knob-like outgrowth.
• Plumule lies in between the two cotyledons and is quite indistinct. Epicotyl is also indistinct.
• In between the place of origin of the two cotyledons and the radicle is present a short
hypocotyl.
• Castor-oil seed is dicotyledonous (having two cotyledons), endospermic (with a special
food-storing tissue called endosperm), and perispermic (having perisperm or persistent
nucellus).

Maize or Corn seed

• actually a one-seeded fruit called caryopsis or grain.
• It is a monocot, endospermic seed.

a.) Seed coat: it is fused with the fruit wall (pericarp). It encloses a kernel which includes
embryo and endosperm.
b.) Endosperm: It constitutes 2/3 of the grain. Endosperm consists of outer aleurone layer and
inner starchy endosperm.
Embryo
• The embryo axis has plumule (upper end) and radicle (lower end).
• The plumule contains a few rudimentary leaves and a conical protective sheath called
coleoptile.
• The coleoptile has a terminal pore for the emergence of first leaf during germination. The
sheath is capable of growth. It assists the future shoot in passing through the soil during
germination.
• The radicle has two protective sheaths, inner root cap and outer coleorhiza. Roughly in the
middle of the embryo axis arises a vascular strand. It ramifies into the scutellum.
• The place of origin of the vascular strand from the embryo axis is called cotyledonary node.

ANGIOSPERMS: Seed-producing flowering plants whose seeds are enclosed within an ovary,
usually in a fruit.
GYMNOSPERMS: Seed-producing non-flowering plants whose seeds are unenclosed or
"naked." Found on scales, leaves, or as cones.

III. Roots

• represent descending axes of plants which are devoid of leaves.

• Tuberous roots are roots that are swollen for food storage and which show different internal
structures from true roots.
• Tubers are short, thick, solid, underground stems borne usually at the end of slender creeping
branches (stolons) which arise from the lower region of the aerial stem.
• Rhizomes are creeping underground stems of horizontal, vertical or oblique growth.
• Bulbs are short, vertical, underground stems covered with numerous fleshy scales which
comprise the greater bulk.
• Corms are thickened, solid, erect, generally subspherical, underground stems with leaf scars
in the upper surface and root scars in the lower surface.
• A region of mitotically inactive cell called the Quiescent center is present in the meristematic
region. It is activated and produces new cells when the root apical meristem is damaged.
• In this zone, three primary meristems are present: the protoderm, which develops in to the
epidermis; the ground meristem, which stores food and uptakes minerals; and the
procambium which gives rise to the stele.

Types of Root System

A. Tap root system
- with the main taproot that is larger and grows faster than the branch roots
B. Adventitious root system
- roots that form on any plant part other than the roots
C. Fibrous root system
- with all roots about the same size

IV. Stem
Growth ring - bud scale scars from the last terminal bud. Can be used to age stems.

Bud - An underdeveloped and unelongated stem composed of a short axis with compressed
internodes, a meristematic apex, and primordial leaves and/or flowers.
- The stem develops from the plumule of the germinating seed.
- Normally it is the aerial part of the plant body. The stem with its branches, leaves, buds, flower
and appendages is known as Shoot System.
- The stem shows the differentiation of nodes and internodes.
- The place where the leaf develops on the stem is called the node.
- The portion of the stem between two successive nodes is called the internode.

APICAL MERISTEMS (located at the tips of roots and shoots) give rise to three PRIMARY
MERISTEMS (protoderm, ground meristem, and procambium).
ground meristem - develops into ground tissues
procambium - develops into vascular tissues and the vascular cambium
protoderm - develops into the dermal system

LATERAL MERISTEMS are cylindrical, secondary meristems in both stem and root that give
rise to either vascular tissue or secondary dermal tissues.
The vascular cambium - located between xylem and phloem cork and;
cambium - located between phloem and bark.
Procambium - produces primary Xylem & Phloem
Vascular cambium - produces secondary Xylem & Phloem
Cork cambium/Phellogen - produces bark to reduce water loss & protects stem (in woody
plants only)

• determinate growth: growth that occurs during a finite juvenile phase, and then stops.
• indeterminate growth: growth that occurs throughout the life of the organism.
• annual plant: lives for about a year, flowers and dies
• perennial plant: lives for more than one year

V. Leaves

Surfaces of a leaf may be smooth or may have some epidermal outgrowths.

The leaf is said to be:

(a) glabrous, when it is covered, sparsely or densely, with hairs.
A hairy surface may be (i) pubescent, i.e., covered with short, soft straight hairs; (i) tomentose,
i.e., densely covered with shorts, soft hairs; (ill) hispid i. e., best with rigid or bristly hairs, and
(iv) hirsute, i.e., covered with long, coarse stiff hairs.

Botanical terms that describe the surfaces of leaves and stems:

Glaucous: Covered with a whitish powder or waxy coating.
Farinose: Covered with a meal-like powder or minute particles.
Scurfy: Covered with small scalelike particles.
Viscid (Viscous): Covered with sticky or resinous secretion.
Glutinous: About the same as viscid.
Punctate: Dotted with minute pits or translucent dots.
Papillate (Papillose): Bearing minute, pimplelike protuberances.
Tuberculate: Bearing tubercles or warty protuberances.
Verrucose: About the same as tuberculate
Rugose: Wrinkled--typical leaves of the mint family (Lamiaceae)
Glabrous: Without hairs of any kind.
Pubescent: With a hairy surface--there are many kinds of hairiness

Texture or feel of the leaf to the touch varies from leaf to leaf and is sometimes very important,
in its identification. The texture may be described as:
(a) Coriaceous (tough and scabrous);
(b) Papery (thin and pliable):
(c) Leathery (tough, thick, and leather-like), and
(d) Succulent (thick, soft, and juicy).

LEAF VENATION
The arrangement of veins in the leaf blade or lamina is called venation. It is mainly of two types
namely: Reticulate venation and Parallel venation.

Reticulate Venation: This type of venation is common in all dicot leaves. In this type of
venation, there is a prominent vein called the midrib from which arise many small veins which
finally form a net-like structure in the lamina. It is of two types.

Parallel Venation: In this type of venation all the veins run parallel to each other. Most of the
monocot leaves have parallel venation. It is of two types.

• Pinnately Parallel venation: In this type, there is a prominent midrib in the center. From this
arise many veins perpendicularly and run parallel to each other eg. Banana.
• Palmately parallel venation: In this type, several veins arise from the tip of the petiole and
they all run parallel to each other and unite at the apex. In grass, they converge at the apex and
hence it is called convergent. In Borassus (Palmyra) all the main veins spread out towards the
periphery. Hence it is called divergent.

Furcate venation: The veins branch dichotomously but the reticulum is not formed by the finer
branches. eg. Adiantum (fern).

VI. Flowers

• The flower is the reproductive shoot composed of whorls of modified leaves inserted on a
modified stem called a peduncle.
• Flowers contain four parts that are arranged in a whorl on the swollen tip of the peduncle
called a receptacle.
• The parts may be essential or non-essential.

Flowers may be classified based on the following

variables:
A. Color - brightly colored, white, cream, etc.
B. Odor - fragrant or stinky
C. Parts present - complete or incomplete
D. Sexuality - perfect or imperfect
E. Nature of flower - regular or irregular
F. Fusion of Flower - connation or adnation
G. Number of floral parts - monocot or dicot
H. Symmetry - actinomorphic or zygomorphic
I. Position of Ovary - hypogynous, perigynous or epigynous
J. Placentation - axile, marginal, parietal or basal
K. Inflorescence

Glossary of Terms
• Peduncle: The stalk of a flower
• Pedicel: The footstalk supporting a single flower in an inflorescence.
• Receptacle: The part of a flower stalk where the parts of the flower are attached. Some fruits
are enlarged receptacles rather than ovaries.
• Perianth: the technical term for the envelope that surrounds the reproductive parts of a flower.
This enclosure is composed of 2 concentric units, the outer perianth, or calyx which may be
divided into petals. Either the calyx or the corolla (or both) may be much reduced or lacking.
• Calyx: This layer actually forms the first layer in the flower structure. They are said to be
modified leaves. 'Calyx' is the word given for a collection of sepals. The sepals or calyx are often
green in color. Their main function is to protect the flower while it is still in the bud stage.
• Sepal: A division or lobe of the calyx or outer perianth of a flower. Sepals are often green,
and/or reduced in size, but they can be colorful and petal-like as well.
• Corolla: This forms the second whorl of the flower structure. 'Corolla' is the term given for a
collection of petals. The petals are the colorful parts of the flower to which the pollinators are
attracted to. In many flowers, the Corolla is scented to further make the flower attractive. Like
the sepals, the petals are also said to be modified leaves.
• Petal: The parts of a flower that are often conspicuously colored.
• Androecium: a term given to the male reproductive system in a flowering plant. It forms the
third whorl in a flower. It is made up of one or more stamens.
• Anther: The part of stamen where pollen is produced.
• Filament: The usually narrow and often threadlike part of
the stamen which supports the pollen-bearing anther.