UNIT 4.

4 ACCESSORIES 1

1. Chain – short link

1.1 Examination and in-service inspection of load chains

1.1.1 Stretch and elongation

1.2 Chain replacement

2. Roller chain

3. Hooks and bottom blocks

3.1 Examination

3.2 Testing

4. Shackles

4.1 Safe use of shackles

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Introduction

To be able to successfully test or examine a lifting machine it is essential that you

first have a sound understanding of how it is constructed and how it works. This unit
will consider some of the common components that are used in the construction of,
or in association with, various power operated lifting appliances. It should however
be realised that in manufacturing lifting appliances, manufacturers will often use
components of their own design and specification. Where a manufacturer provides
specific information relating to these, then those instructions must be strictly
followed. However, in some cases no specific information will be given, so here we
must apply the criteria for similar items for which there is a standard or for which
criteria is published elsewhere.

Typical components for which British Standards exist and which will be used in lifting
appliance construction are chain, wire rope, hooks and shackles.

Typical items that may be specifically designed for the particular machine, but which
are closely related to standard items, include: suspension eyes (these are like and
serve a similar purpose to eyebolts); connectors and Clevis fittings (which are very
similar to shackles)

In this and the following unit we will therefore discuss components which are covered
by standards or for which there is established information published elsewhere.
Several of these matters were dealt with during your studies for the Part 1 Entrance
Certificate and are therefore dealt with briefly here as a means of revision. However,
you are advised to revise your earlier studies of these matters. We will then relate
these items to their use in lifting appliances.

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1. Chain - short link

Fine tolerance, or calibrated, short link chain is commonly used as the lifting medium
for power operated lifting machines. In order that it engages freely and without
jamming in pocketed load wheels it is made to precise dimensions. This is achieved
by the application of a force during the final stages of manufacture which also has a
work hardening effect. It is therefore less ductile than the chain used for sling
manufacture but has better wear characteristics.

Apart from close dimensional tolerances, load chains must be strong, reasonably
resistant to corrosion and have good wear resistance. These are partially achieved
by material selection and the manufacturing treatments. To further improve these
qualities many modern load chains are case hardened and/or plated with corrosion
resistant finishes at the time of manufacture.

In order to ensure reliable, safe operation and a satisfactory working life of the chain,
a number of factors are important:

(1) The chain must be aligned correctly with the chain wheel. In situations where
the chain may become slack or twisted, or where it may approach the wheel
at an angle to the plane of rotation, a suitable chain guide is used. A hoist
must not be used when direct entry of the chain on the chain wheel is
prevented or when the chain is twisted.

(2) To engage correctly into the chain wheel, the chain needs to be under tension
(the weight of a few links is sufficient). The tension is necessary to maintain
the gauge length of the chain.

(3) The chain should not be allowed to become corroded or covered in dirt and
debris which will impair free movement and increase wear. Debris can also be
carried over and deposited in the pockets of the chain wheel affecting the
proper seating of the chain.

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(4) As the chain is a close fit, provision is made in the pockets to forcibly remove
it from the slack side of the chain wheel. If this were not done, links at the
slack side would tend to remain in the wheel. This mechanical disengagement
is achieved using a stripper. This usually takes the form of a finger installed
between the chain strands, extending well into the centre groove of the wheel,
which engages links in the plane of rotation and forces them to leave the
wheel.

(5) Chain is a medium in which high bearing pressures are developed. In order to
maintain a satisfactory working life it is therefore necessary to provide
adequate and appropriate lubrication. Suitable lubricants are those which can
withstand these high pressures and will adhere to the chain. In adverse
working conditions, such as foundries, or where the lubricant may
contaminate other items, e.g. food stuffs, the use of dry lubricants in the form
of colloidal graphite dispersions are recommended. All lubricants must be
acid free in nature. Many hoist manufacturers provide a means of automatic
lubrication of chain and chain wheels. It is important that the manufacturer’s
recommendations for lubricants and their application are followed.

(6) Often chains are given a protective coating during manufacture, e.g. zinc
plating, to reduce corrosion. When these coatings are applied then it must be
remembered that they (a) reduce the chain pitch and (b) may affect the
mechanical properties of the chain. These matters are taken into account by
the manufacturer at the design stage. No attempt should therefore be made to
re-plate an existing chain or to apply any coating to a new chain. This will both
affect the chain’s performance and, in the case of the higher grade alloy steel
chains, lead to hydrogen embrittlement. Where a plated chain is required by
the application the manufacturer’s advice must be sought and followed.

(7) To prevent the chain hanging or descending from a hoist it is usual to fit a
chain collecting box or bag. It is of the utmost importance that these
containers are of adequate size, and properly aligned. They should also be
provided with a means of drainage. If a few links overflow the edge of the
box/bag then all the chain may run out under its own weight. This might cause

© Lifting Equipment Engineers Association 2012- Training\4-4u Rev 1.2 Jan 2013 4
 injury to persons or damage to property. The container must be positioned so
that the chain pile is never so high as to completely remove the tension from
the slack side of the chain. This can lead to the chain twisting, resulting in a
link entering the chain guide sideways with disastrous consequences.

(8) Load chains must always hang in a straight line, without twist. To prevent the
live side of chain from twisting, load hooks are fitted with a swivel. For these
reasons, as well as the obvious risk of damage and distortion, load chains
should never be back hooked. Slinging must always be carried out using
separate equipment so that the operation of the swivel is assured.

1.1 Examination and in-service inspection of load chains

In addition to the requirements for statutory periodic examinations, hoist
manufacturers will issue instructions for user inspections. The type and frequency of
inspections depends basically on the working conditions of the hoist. General
classifications are given for these inspections as ‘frequent' and ‘periodic'.

Frequent inspections are visual inspections carried out by the operator or other
designated person, with or without a record being made, to determine if damage or
deterioration has occurred in service. The following inspection intervals are
recommended when carrying out frequent inspections and are in addition to a daily
pre-use check which should be made by the operator:

1. Light service - every month

2. Moderate service - every 2 weeks
3. Heavy service - every week
4. Very heavy service - every day

Periodic inspections are more thorough inspections by appointed persons making

records of the external conditions to provide a basis for a continuing evaluation. The
following periodic inspection intervals are recommended.

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 1. Light service - yearly
2. Moderate service - six monthly
3. Heavy service - quarterly
4. Very heavy service - every six weeks
If at any of these user inspections external conditions indicate it necessary, the
machine should be referred to a competent person for thorough examination.

Thorough examinations are made by a competent person, i.e. the tester and
examiner. They are usually associated with statutory requirements calling for records
to be made and certificates or reports issued which permit the hoist to enter or
remain in service. This is far more thorough than the user inspection and will usually
include disassembly of parts to permit detailed examination. Each of the regulations
lays down a maximum time period between such examinations.

When carrying out thorough examinations the chain should be examined throughout
its length to detect any evidence of wear, distortion or external damage. The block
should then be operated under ‘no load' and ‘load' conditions in both directions to
check for the smooth functioning of the chain and wheels. If the chain jumps, binds
or is noisy after cleaning and lubrication then a more detailed examination must take
place.

To prepare for examination, the chains should be cleaned using any method that will
not damage the chain. The use of strong acids and alkalis should be avoided as
these can give rise to hydrogen embrittlement of the chain. Methods which involve
heating, removal of metal or movement of metal which can cover cracks (e.g.
rumbling) should also be avoided.

The chain should then be examined link by link in adequate light for cracks, gouges,
nicks, distortion, corrosion, wear and build-up of debris. If wear is observed (this will
be mainly at interlink contact points) or if elongation is suspected the chain should be
measured in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. Some block
manufacturers issue a gauge for this purpose. Figure 1 shows a typical gauge used
by one manufacturer, Konecranes, as an example. Table 1 gives chain pitch
rejection criteria for the chain used with XN25 electric chain hoists.

© Lifting Equipment Engineers Association 2012- Training\4-4u Rev 1.2 Jan 2013 6
 Figure 1 Table 1
Chain limit gauge Chain pitch rejection criteria
(Konecranes XN25 ECH) for Konecranes XN25 ECH

Other manufacturers may issue different instructions and acceptance/rejection

criteria. In the absence of any manufacturer’s information a figure of 2% increase in
length over 5 links should be used as the rejection value. You will note that this is
less than the figure of 5% usually allowed for chain slings where there are no mating
parts to be considered.

1.1.1 Stretch and elongation

A common misunderstanding is that stretch in a load chain is the same as

elongation. This is incorrect.

Stretch in a load chain is not permitted as this is actually the chain having exceeded
its elastic limit and now will have permanent set (it is now in the plastic deformation
stage) and this should be withdrawn from service.

Elongation is wear that has occurred due to articulation of the interlinking chain links
at the intrados of the connection point.

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Load chains should be rejected if any of the following conditions are observed:
1. Cracks
2. Nicks or gouges
3. Visible distortion
4. Severe corrosion
5. Deposits which cannot be removed
6. Increase in length which exceeds the manufacturer’s recommendations

In the case of wear, very rapid wear can occur leading to sudden failure of the chain.
This is characterised by a rough appearance of the mating surfaces. Such chains
should be replaced even if the amount of wear is within permitted tolerances.

1.2 Chain replacement

Calibrated chain for powered lifting hoists varies in dimensions, particularly pitch, for
different manufacturers. For this reason it is important that only chain specified by
the hoist manufacturer should be used for replacement. Each manufacturer provides
details on the best methods of chain replacement for their particular units and it is
recommended that these be closely followed.

When replacing worn chain with new chain it is advisable to also replace the
pocketed wheel(s) as the pockets will have worn with the chain.

2. Roller chain

Although seldom used with electric power operated blocks roller chain is commonly
used with the lower capacity models of air hoists. Here the overall block design will
be the same as with link chain except that a sprocket wheel will be used in place of
the pocketed wheel.

As wear mainly occurs on the roller pins, when examining the roller chain it is
possible to establish the extent of the wear by measuring the elongation. It should be
discarded if a 2% increase in length has taken place. This check will be made with
the chain laid flat under light tension, e.g. pulled hand tight, whilst the length is
measured.

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If the original length is unknown, then the percentage increase would be impossible
to determine. In this case the ‘shunt’ method should be used. By this method, the
length of the chain is measured whilst pulled taught, and again when the links are
pushed together, the chain remaining flat. The difference in the two sizes should not
exceed ±2%. That is to say the difference in the measurements taken should not
exceed 4% of the length.

With roller chain most wear takes place on the pins, which are case hardened. The
2% allowance is determined as the point at which most of the case hardened skin of
the pins will have worn through. Hence beyond this point, rapid wear and failure
would occur. Any increase beyond this value would also affect the running of the
chain on the load sprocket.

Roller chains are sometimes checked for wear by measuring the amount of ‘bow’.
Here the chain is laid out flat with the rollers horizontal and it is bowed horizontally in
both directions. For lever hoist chains the maximum permissible bow is 1 in 12, i.e.
25mm per 300mm length of chain, and a similar figure may be used. Sometimes
testing companies will make up formers against which the bow can be checked. It
must be remembered that bow is not such an accurate parameter to check as
change in length, since the chain is designed with a small amount of slackness
between link faces to permit movement and lubrication. As a result, even new chain
will have some bow.

Due to the small spaces between the rollers, debris can easily collect and compact,
leading to incorrect mating with the teeth of the sprocket. It is therefore important that
chains are kept clean and regular cleaning programmes introduced by the user.

When ordering roller chain for powered hoists, it is usual just to refer the supplier to
the type and number of the hoist and leave them to determine the chain required.
This is not always possible. If it is necessary to specify a particular roller chain the
following data will be required:

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 1. Length
2. Pitch
3. Roller and pin diameter
4. Inner and outer link width
5. Inner and outer link depth

3. Hooks and bottom blocks

Most manufacturers design their own hooks and bottom blocks and these are usually
alloy steel to a particular standard. However, the requirements for examination and
the acceptance/rejection criteria are the same. Revision of your earlier studies is
therefore advised. Here we will discuss bottom blocks and therefore hooks will be
considered with and as a part of the block.

A bottom block is the unit at the load end of the hoisting medium and usually
includes a swivel hook from which the load is slung. They will vary in size and
construction depending on the make, type and capacity of the hoist to which it is
fitted.

Figure 2 Typical bottom blocks fitted to powered hoists

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 Figure 3
Cross section of two types of 2 sheave wire rope bottom blocks

Key to Fig 3.

1. Sheaves
2. Sheave pin with nuts
3. Side plates and straps
4. Crosshead
5. Thrust bearing
6. Nut
7. Hook
8. Rope guards

Similar arrangements are used for chain hoists, but then item 1 would be pocketed
chain wheels and item 8 chain guards.

3.1 Examination
For thorough examination, the bottom block should be dismantled as wear in many
critical parts cannot otherwise be seen. The parts should be de-greased and then
carefully inspected for wear or damage. Special attention should be paid to the
mating surfaces such as:

Sheave bore or bushes

Sheave pin
Holes in side plates and straps
Crosshead trunnions
Bearing face of crosshead
Hook shank and nut (especially corrosion on the threads)

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 Thrust bearing
Hook seat
Safety latch

The hook, sheave pin and crosshead should be examined carefully for evidence of
cracks, particularly at changes of section in the hook shank, root of thread, hook seat
etc.

If for any reason the bottom block cannot be fully dismantled, the following features
should be examined:

Hooks - for evidence of distortion

Hook set - for evidence of grooving, cracks etc. Hooks worn in the seat
must not be built up by welding.
Hook bearing - for ease of swivelling in the crosshead
Crosshead trunnions and/or sheave pin - for evidence of wear in the side
plates or sheaves.If damage and distortion to any of the following parts is
noted this will almost certainly be due to overloading or other excessive strain:

Sheave pin
Side straps and plates
Crosshead
Hook
Nut
Thrust bearing.

The parts should therefore be replaced. This may also be the economic answer, and
a more detailed examination of the machine may be necessary.
It is important that bottom hooks swivel freely, particularly in the case of hooks
attached to a single falls of wire rope. The shank of the hook must also line up with
the bearing point. This must be checked by allowing a load to swivel.

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3.2 Testing
Replacement hooks should receive the full proof load required by the standard to
which they are made, e.g. 2 x WLL up to 25 tonne, 1.22 x WLL + 20t for larger
capacity hooks. However, when hoists are manufactured, bottom hooks and blocks
are often fitted in an untested condition by the manufacturer. They are then
considered to be a component of the hoist and that the test made to the hoist,
i.e. 1.25 x WLL, is sufficient to test the hook.

4. Shackles

Shackles are sometimes used to attach powered hoists to trolleys or suspend loads
from the bottom hook. Special fittings, to which similar acceptance/rejection criteria
may be applied, are also used in the construction of hoists and attachments. In this
case care is needed as these will almost certainly have been designed on the
assumption that the jaw or clevis will be filled and that therefore the load will be
evenly distributed over the length of the pin.

A shackle with a bolt, nut and split cotter pin should always be used for this
type of semi-permanent application. (See Figure 3a)

In the case of BS EN 13889 standard shackles and those to international standards,

the shackle pin and body are designed to be of equal strength. To attain this
condition the pin normally has a slightly larger diameter than the material of the
body. Shackles to these standards should be proof tested to twice the WLL.

If the load on the pin is distributed over its length, or a large part of its length, the
load bearing capacity of the pin is effectively increased as bending does not occur,
but that of the body is not. Hence distributing the load right across the pin will NOT
increase the strength or capacity of the shackle body. However this does allow
smaller diameter pins to be used.

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CAUTION: In the case of shackles to US Federal Specifications extra care is
needed. This pattern of shackle is widely used in the offshore oil/gas
industry and is becoming increasingly popular in other industries. There
are several tables to these specifications allowing a wide range of
design variations. In many cases they are designed on the basis of the
load filling the jaw.

Often, a factor of safety lower than that adopted for other designs of
shackles is adopted. Further, depending on the source of the shackle,
the SWL may be indicated in short tons (2000lb) with the symbol ‘t’.
These shackles may then appear to give higher SWL’s than shackles
to other standards when in fact they are of equal or even lower
strength.

The proof load requirements therefore differ widely and may be as high
as WLL x 2.2 or more usually as low as WLL + 10%. In the latter, more
usual case, application of the normal proof load of WLL x 2 would then
result in damage or destruction of the shackle.

Before attempting to proof load shackles to US Federal Specification

the manufacturer’s recommendations must therefore be sought and
strictly followed. Similarly, users must strictly abide by the
manufacturer’s instructions for the safe use.

In the case of special fittings used in the construction of lifting appliances, it is

unlikely that these are proof tested separately. They usually form an integral part of
the appliance which can only be used in the manner that the designer intended.
Therefore the test applied to the appliance is considered sufficient to test such
components.

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 Figure 3a
Alloy steel (Grade 6) shackles (bolt, nut & pin type) to BS EN 13889:2003

The following table lists the most common defects that will be found when examining
shackles and the action that should be taken when they are apparent.

Defect Action
SWL missing or unreadable Check certification and re-stamp with the
proper stamps. If certification cannot be found,
or it is not satisfactory, retest and re-stamp.
Identification missing or unreadable Retest, re-stamp and issue a new test
certificate.
Incorrect pin Renew with correct pin of the same grade,
retest, examine and issue new certificate.
Damaged thread on pin or in tapped eye If badly damaged, scrap that component. If
only slightly damaged, re-cut the threads with
tap and die.
Distorted body or pin The Examiner must decide whether to scrap or
repair - this will depend on the degree of
deformation and the use to which the shackle
is to be put.
Nicks, cuts, cracks, corrosion Cracks will normally mean scrapping the
component. Nicks, cuts and corrosion are all
possible stress raisers and it will depend on
their position and depth as to what action must
be taken.
Worn body or pin If the wear exceeds 8% of the diameter of the
pin or shackle body, the component should be
scrapped.

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Similar examination techniques should be applied to special fittings. Where the
manufacturer gives specific advice this should be followed and their
acceptance/rejection criteria then applies.

4.1 Safe use of shackles

When examining appliances fitted with or used in association with shackles it

is important that a check is made to ensure that they are suitable for the
application and that they are being used safely. Full advice on the safe use is
given in Section 4 of the Code of Practice for the Safe Use of Lifting
Equipment, which you are advised to study. The following main points should
however be noted:

1. Before using a shackle, check that the body of the shackle and the pin
are both of the same grade, i.e. that both have the same quality mark (e.g.
grade M is marked thus: M). Alloy steel shackle pins to BS EN 13889 will be
Grade 6. BS EN 13889 also states that the shackle pin head will also be
marked with the grade mark or the traceability code if it is less than 13mm
diameter. For those with pins of greater than 13 mm diameter, the markings
will include the traceability code, grade mark and manufacturer’s symbol.

Many accidents have occurred where the user has put a mild steel pin in an
alloy steel body and lifted the marked SWL of the body. It still seems to be a
practice that many users keep a ‘tot box’ of old pins and select one that fits
whenever they find a pin-less shackle. It is for this reason that the Tester and
Examiner must always check that the grade of both pin and body are the
same and discourage this dangerous practice. Never replace a shackle pin
with a nut and bolt, other than one designed for the purpose.

2. In the case of shackles fitted with a bolt and pinned nut, it is important
that the length of the plain portion of the bolt is such that the nut will jam on
the inner end of the thread and not on the eyes of the shackle, thus leaving
the bolt free to rotate and not distorting the shackle body. The nut and bolt are

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 cross drilled for a split cotter pin when in this position. Nut and bolt pins must
always be fitted with a split pin. This type of shackle has a positively locked
pin and is therefore suitable for applications where the shackle cannot be
observed or where the pin may rotate and therefore unscrew when in service.

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