Bryman & Bell, Business Research

Methods, 2nd edition, Chapter 5

Sampling

‘The need to sample is one that is almost invariably

encountered in quantitative research’.

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 Basic Terms in Sampling
1. Population 6. Non-probability
sample
2. Sample
7. Sampling error
3. Sampling frame 8. Non-sampling error
4. Representative 9. Non-response
sample
10. Census
5. Probability sample

see Key concept

7.1
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Steps in Conducting a Social Survey I

1. Topic/area to be researched
2. Review literature/ theories relating to topic/area
3. Formulate research questions
4. Consider whether a social survey is appropriate (if
not, consider an alternative research design)
5. Consider what kind of population will be appropriate
6. Consider what kind of sample design will be
employed
Fig. 7.1

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Steps in Conducting a Social Survey II
7. Explore whether there is a sampling frame that can
be employed
8. Decide on mode of administration (face-to-face;
telephone; postal; e-mail; Web)
9. Develop questions (and devise answer alternatives
for closed questions)
10. Review questions and assess face validity

11. Pilot questions

12. Revise questions

Fig. 7.1

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Steps in Conducting a Social Survey III
13. Finalize questionnaire/schedule

14. Sample from population

15. Administer questionnaire/schedule to sample

16. Transform completed questionnaires/schedules

into computer readable data (coding)
17. Analyse data

18. Interpret findings

19. Consider implications of findings for research

Fig. 7.1
questions

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 Types of Probability Sample
• Simple random sample
– Selection by equal probability of inclusion
• Systematic sample
– Selection from sample frame at a constant interval
• Stratified sample
– Proportional representation of population
characteristics
• Multi-stage cluster sample
– Selection from groupings of population units

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 Key Steps in Devising a Simple Random Sample

1. Define the population (N)

2. Select or devise a comprehensive sampling frame.

3. Decide your sample size (n)

4. List all the individuals in the population and assign them consecutive
numbers from 1 to N

5. Using a table of random numbers, or a computer program that can

generate random numbers, select n different random numbers that lie
between 1 and N

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 The Advantages of Stratified Sampling
Department Population Stratified Possible simple random
sample or systematic sample

Sales and marketing 1,800 90 85

Finance and accounts 1,200 60 70

Human resource 1,000 50 60

management and training

Technical, research and new 1,800 90 84

product development

Production 3,200 160 151

TOTAL 9,000 450 450

Table 7.1

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 Multi-stage Cluster Sampling, an
Example
• The 2001 Skills Survey
– working individuals in Britain aged 20-60
– sampling frame: Postcode Address File (PAF)

• Region – sample divided into sub-regions

• Socio-economic grouping
– three bands: non-manual
– random selection of household addresses

• Individuals in households
– residential and currently occupied
– aged 20-60 years of age
– at least one person in paid work of one hour per week or more.
see Research in focus
7.3
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 Sample Size: Important
Considerations
1. Absolute size more important than
relative size
2. Time and cost
3. Non-response
4. Heterogeneity of the population
5. Kind of analysis to be conducted

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 The Distribution of Sample Means
Notes: 95% of sample
means will lie within the
shaded area.
SE = standard error of the
Number of Samples

mean.

-1.96 Population +1.96

SE mean SE
Value of the mean Fig. 7.7
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 Confidence Interval
If the mean level of alcohol consumption is 9.7 units
and the standard error of the mean is 1.3, we can be
95% certain the population mean will be between:

9.7 + (1.96 x 1.3) 9.7 - (1.96 x 1.3)

= 12.248 = 7.152

95% certain population mean lies between

7.152 and 12.248

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 What Is a Response Rate?

number of usable questionnaires x100

total sample - unsuitable or
uncontactable members of
the sample

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Types of Non-Probability Sample
• Convenience sampling
– By accessibility

• Snowball sampling
– By contact

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 Limits to Generalization
• Findings can only be generalized to the
population from which the sample was
taken
• Findings may be specific to the
characteristics of the population
• Findings may be locality specific
• Findings may be temporally specific

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Sources of Error in Survey Research
1. Sampling error

2. Sampling-related error

3. Data collection error

4. Data processing error

Fig. 7.8