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Introduction to Communication Systems

Book · July 2015 with 25,771 Reads
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.4108.8727
Publisher: 1515246981
Publisher: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform
Cite this publication

Elmustafa sayed ali ahmed

o 5.25
o Red Sea University

Abstract
Communication system is a system model describes a communication exchanges
between two stations, transmitter and receiver. Signals or information’s passes from
source to distention through what is called channel, which represents a way that signal
use it to move from source toward destination. To transmit signals in communication
system, it must be first processed by several stages, beginning from signal
representation, to signal shaping until encoding and modulation. After preparing the
transmitted signal, it passed to the transmission line of channel and due signal crossing
this media it faces many impairments such noise, attenuation and distortion. This note
book gives a brief concepts about transmission line calculation and also provides an
idea about communication system impairments with an example for each one. The note
book also provides an introduction to data communication with a simple ideas of data
processing.

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Linear distortion Equalizer

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nonlinear distortion
… 

crosstalk noise
… 

+12

internal noise
… 

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Introduction to
Communicatio
n Systems
Communication Model,
Transmission Line, and
Data Communication
Elmustafa Sayed Ali
Ahmed
Red Sea University,
Sudan

Introduction to
Communicatio

n Systems
Communication Model,
Transmission Line, and
Data Communication
Elmustafa Sayed Ali
Ahmed
Red Sea University,
Sudan
Introduction to
Communication
Systems
Communication Model,
Transmission Line, and Data
Communication

Edited By
Elmustafa Sayed Ali
Ahmed
Red Sea University, Sudan

Copyright © 2015
Elmustafa Sayed Ali
Ahmed
All rights reserved.
ISBN-10: 1515246981
ISBN-13: 978-1515246985
DEDICATION

To my Family and
Students…..
I
Contents
III
List of Figures
III
List of Tables
IV
Preface

Chapter 1
Communication model
1.1- Introduction
1
1.2- Attenuation
2
1.3- Distortion
3
1.3.1- Linear distortion
3
1.3.2- Nonlinear distortion
5
1.4- Noise effect
6
1.5- Summary
7
Chapter 2
Transmission line
2.1- Introduction
8
2.2- Reflections on
transmission line
8
2.2.1- Open circuit line
8
2.2.2- Short circuit line
9
2.3- Practical construction
of transmission line for RF
& Microwaves
10
2.3.1- Twisted pairs line
10
2.3.2- Coaxial cable
10
2.3.3- Hollow waveguide
11
2.3.4- Micro strip cables
11
2.4- Transmission line
parameters
12
2.4.1- Transmission line
equations
13
2.4.2- Lossless line (R = 0
= G)
17
2.4.3- Distortion less Line
(R/L = G/C)
17
2.5- Input impedance,
SWR, and power
22
2.6- Characteristics of
Open circuit and short
circuit line
25
2.7- The Smith Chart
28
2.8- Summary
41

II
Chapter 3
Noise in Communication
Systems
3.1- Introduction
42
3.2- Noise in Networks and
Noise Factor
43
3.3- Noise Generated by a
lossy Network
44
3.4- Cascaded Networks
46
3.5- Summary
48
Chapter 4
Attenuator and filters
4.1- Filters
49
4.1.1- Low-Pass Filter
51
4.1.2- High-Pass Filter
51
4.1.3- Band-Pass Filter
52
4.1.4- Band-Stop Filter
52
4.1.5- All-Pass Filter
52
4.2- Attenuator
52
4.3- Summary
54
Chapter 5
Data communication
5.1- History
55
5.2- Data Communication
Concepts
55
5.3- Data Transmission
57
5.3.1- Parallel
Transmission
57
5.3.2- Serial Transmission
58
5.3.2.1- Asynchronous
Transmission
59
5.3.2.2- Synchronous
Transmission
59
5.4- Data Encoding
60
5.4.1- Non-Return to Zero
(NRZ)
60
5.4.2- Return to Zero (RZ)
60
5.5- Modem Concept
61
5.6- Modem Operation
61
5.7- Summary
63

III

List of Figures
Figure 1.1: communication
system model
1
Figure 1.2: example of
communication system
1
Figure 1.3: channel
impairments
2
Figure 1.4: attenuation
effect
2
Figure 1.5: attenuation
example
3
Figure 1.6: amplifiers in
communication system
3
Figure 1.7: linear distortion
4
Figure 1.8: example of
liner distortion
4
Figure 1.9: Linear
distortion Equalizer
5
Figure 1.10: nonlinear
distortion
5
Figure 1.11: nonlinear
distortion example
5
Figure 1.12: crosstalk noise
6
Figure 1.13: internal noise
6
Figure 1.14: noise and
attenuation problem
7
Figure 2.1: Open circuit
line
9
Figure 2.2: Short Circuit
Line
9
Figure 2.3: Twisted pair
cables
10
Figure 2.4: coaxial cables
10
Figure 2.5: micro coaxial
cable
11
Figure 2.6: waveguide
cable
11
Figure 2.7: micro strip
cable
11
Figure 2.8: transmission
line circuit
13
Figure 2.9: circle of unit
radius
29
Figure 2.10: smith chart
32
Figure 2.11; smith chart
parameters
33
Figure 2.12: impedance
chart
34
Figure 2.13: admittance
chart
34
Figure 3.1: loss cable
example
45

List of Tables
Table 2.1: transmission
Line Parameters
12
Table 2.2: transmission line
characteristics
19
IV
Preface
 Communication system
is a system model
describes a
communication exchanges
between two stations,
transmitter and receiver.
Signals or information’s
passes from
source to distention
through what is called
channel, which represents a
way that signal use
it to move from source
toward destination. To
transmit signals in
communication system,
it must be first processed
by several stages,
beginning from signal
representation, to signal
shaping until encoding and
modulation. After
preparing the transmitted
signal, it passed
to the transmission line of
channel and due signal
crossing this media it faces
many
impairments such noise,
attenuation and distortion.
This note book gives a
brief concepts about
transmission line
calculation and also
provides an idea about
communication system
impairments with an
example for each one.
The note book also
provides an introduction to
data communication with a
simple ideas
of data processing. This
note book is presented to
undergraduate student, in
communication
engineering studies, and
dedicated to
communication
engineering
students in fourth
semester for electrical
and electronics
department at faculty of
engineering in Red Sea
University. The note book
chapters were arranged in
manner to
easy understand and
follows, chapter one
introduce a concept of
communication system
models and the
impairments that affect it.
Chapter two explain all
equation calculations
that related to transmission
line , then chapter three
provides a brief concept
about noise
effecting in communication
systems and the methods
used to overcome this
problem .
Chapter four explain filers
and attenuator usage in
communication system.
And finally
chapter five introduce the
data communication, and
gives a simple ideas
about data
transmission and encoding.
Elmutafa Sayed Ali

Ahmed
1

Chapter 1
Communication
models
1.1- Introduction
The Purpose of a
communication system is
to carry information from
one point to
another. A typical
communication system
consists of three main
components as
shown in figure 1.1, they
are:
 Source.
 Channel.
 Destination.
Figure 1.1: communication
system model
An example of
communication system
shown in figure 1.2
Figure 1.2: example of
communication system
In telecommunications and
computer networking, a
communication channel,
or channel, refers either to
a physical transmission
medium such as a wire,
or to
a logical connection over a
multiplexed medium such
as a radio channel. A
channel is
used to convey an
information signal, for
example a digital bit
stream, from one or
several senders (or
transmitters) to one or
several receivers. A
channel has a certain
capacity for transmitting
information, often
measured by its
bandwidth in Hz or
its data rate in bits per
second.

2
 The channel is a media

that information passes

through from source to

destination
and there are many channel
impairments affect in
channel performance as
shown in
figure 1.3 .these
impairments such as;
 Attenuation.
 Distortion.
 Noise.
Figure 1.3: channel
impairments
1.2- Attenuation
Attenuation can be
problematic for long
distance communications.
This means
due to signal propagate
through media the initial
signal power decreases if
the length
of the media becomes
longer.
Figure 1.4: attenuation
effect
For example if the
attenuation level is 0.9 /km,
so every length that signal
passes
the power of the signal
becomes lower by 0.9 *
Power at every km . As an
example,
figure 1.5 shows the
attenuation effect in the
transmission media.
3

Figure 1.5: attenuation

example
 To solve the problem of

attenuation, amplifiers used

to amplify the signal

power,
make it able to pass the
haul distance between the
source and destination.
Also use of
digital signals are less
susceptible to attenuation
than analog signals
Figure 1.6: amplifiers in
communication system
1.3- Distortion
Other channel impairment
known as distortion, it
means that the signal is
distorted
and may have a bandwidth
larger than the channel
bandwidth. The distortion
causes a
variation in signal
frequency and maybe a
linear or non-linear
distortion.
1.3.1- Linear distortion
Linear distortion is said to
occur if the system has a
not flat amplitude transfer
function or if the group
delay is not zero or
constant. Phase- and
Amplitude errors
cause linear distortions.
The linear distortion is
shown in figure 1.7 below.
4

Figure 1.7: linear distortion

Linear distortion can occur
for two reasons. A- The
first is a not flat amplitude
transfer function. It's called
frequency response. It's just
a graph of the reproduced
amplitude as a function of
frequency (as opposed to
amplitude as a function of
time-
the time domain). B- The
second is a bit more
confusing and has to do
with the phase
shift that can occur. A
signal has amplitude, but it
also has a phase
characteristic. If
the amplitude relationships
are reproduced correctly,
but the phase relationships
are
not, this can cause linear
distortion. A certain
amount of phase shifting
between
frequencies occurs
wherever there is not flat
frequency response. But a
device can
have a flat amplitude
transfer function and still
have this phase shifting
going on
between adjacent
frequencies.
Figure 1.8: example of
liner distortion
To solve the problem of
linear distortion, the
message should fit the
channel
bandwidth by using and
equalizer.
5

Figure 1.9: Linear

distortion Equalizer
1.3.2- Non-linear distortion
Nonlinear distortion is said
to occur when the output
waveform has any
frequency
components not present in
the original signal.
Figure 1.10: nonlinear
distortion
Means that Non-linear
distortion arises when a
signal passes through a
system
element that has a non-
linear Vin -Vout transfer
characteristic. Figure 1.11
shows a
non linear distortion
example for two signals
that pass through the same
media.
Figure 1.11: nonlinear
distortion example
6

To solve the problem

of nonlinear distortion
using and equalizer.

Equalization
compensates for the
differences in signal
attenuation and delay
associated with
different frequency
components. Around a
center frequency,
relatively high
frequency signals
attenuate more than
relatively low frequency
signals over a
distance, so an equalizer
may reduce the amplitude
of the low frequency
signals and
increase the amplitude of
the high frequency signals
in order that the signals at
the
receiver are in the same
relative balance as they
were at the transmitter.
Adaptive
equalizers automatically
adjust to levels of
distortion that vary as the
signal path or its
characteristics change over
time.
1.4- Noise Effect
Noise is the one of channel
impairment, causes an
interruption in the received
signal at the destination.
Noise maybe caused by
external or internal noise
source.
External Sources:
interference from signals
transmitted on nearby
channels
(crosstalk), interference
generated by contact
switches, automobile
ignition radiation,
natural noise from
lightning, solar radiation,
etc. as an example of
external figure
1.12 shows a crosstalk
noise.

Figure 1.12: crosstalk noise

Internal Sources: thermal
noise (random motion of
electrons in conductors,
random diffusion and
recombination of charged
carriers in electronic
devices). As an
example figure 1.13 shows
an internal noise.
Figure 1.13: internal noise
7

Notice that the effects

of external noise can be

minimized or eliminated.

And the
effects of internal noise
can be minimized but never
eliminated. The Solutions
for
External Noise are;
 Shielding or twisting.
 A different cable design.
 Proper design of the
channel.
 Use digital transmission
 Using BPF or LPF at the
receiver side.
Solutions for Internal Noise
are;
 Cooling.
 Use digital transmission.
 Using BPF or LPF at the
receiver side.
The effect of Impairments
ALL Together (Attenuation
+ Noise) is calculated as
shown in figure 1.14.
Figure 1.14: noise and
attenuation problem
1.5- Summary
The chapter reviews a
brief introduction to
communication system,
and
communication model
components, then explain
the channel impairments
such as
distortion, attenuation and
noise with a given simple
example of each one.

Chapter 2
Transmission
line
2.1- Introduction
The purpose of the
transmission line is to
transfer from source over
some distance
to a remote load.
Transmission lines are
commonly used in power
distribution (at low
frequencies) and in
communications (at high
frequencies). Various
kinds of
transmission lines such as
the twisted-pair and coaxial
cables are used in computer
networks such as the
Ethernet internet.
A transmission line
basically consists of two or
more parallel conductors
used to
connect a source to a
load. The source may be
a hydroelectric generator,
a
transmitter, or an
oscillator; the load may
be an antenna, or an
oscilloscope,
respectively. Typical
transmission lines include
coaxial cable, a two-wire
line, a
parallel-plate or a wire
above the conducting
plane, and a micro strip
line.
2.2- Reflections on
transmission line
When signals are travelling
down the transmission line,
the source does not at first
know what the impedance
of the load is. If the
voltage and the current
travelling
down the line do not match
the impedance, a reflection
occurs at the load end.
there
are two types of example of
transmission lines that
affected by the reflection
they are;
2.2.1- Open circuit line
A voltage V with source
resistance R is connected
by a switch to the
transmission
line of characteristic
impedance Zo at time t =0.
To get maximum power
from the
source into the
Transmission Line, R is
made equal to Zo. The load
is an open circuit.
when load is open circuit
the current should be zero
but the source cannot do
that , so
initially current starts to
flow at t=0 with value
V/2Zo (there is a potential
divider
effect between the source
resistance and the Zo of the
transmission line , giving
0.5
when R=Zo. When
current step arrives at the
load it has nowhere to go
so it is
reflected and a reverse step
is created at time t=δ where
δ is time taken to travel
down
the line. The value of
the reverse step is –
V/2Zo the two currents
cancel out
completely so there is some
transient behavior known
as the steady state.
9
Figure 2.1: Open circuit
line
2.2.2- Short circuit line
When the far end is short
circuit, the voltage at far
end will be zero, but the
source does not know what
is connected at the end, so
initially the voltage step
starts
to travel down the line
when value V/2
When the volage step
arrives at the load the step
is reflected and a
backwards-
traveling step is created at
the time t=δ and the value
of the reverse step is – V/2
and
the two voltages cancel out
at the short circuit end. The
reflection coefficient is the
ratio of the reflected and
incident voltage waves. For
the short circuit its value is
-1 or
magnitude 1 phase 180
degrees.

Figure 2.2: Short Circuit

Line
10
 Notes that transient

behavior in electricity

power transmission con

cause huge
spikes and destroy the
equipment’s. In computer
networks the reflections
cause data
error as bits interface with
one another. And in radio
systems reflections can also
lead
to damage to components,
inefficient transfer power
and data corruption.
The way to avoid this
problem is to ensure Z
source = Z load = Zo of
the
transmission line, in this
case the reflection
coefficient of the matched
load is zero.
For open circuit case the
reflection coefficient is 1
angle 0 degrees.
2.3- Practical construction
of transmission line for RF
& Microwaves
2.3.1- Twisted pairs line
Twisted pairs started off
life in telephony and were
generally regarded as a
cheap
and simple means of
achieving signal for low
frequency transmission
line. Nowadays
they used widespread in
computer networking a
UTP stands for unshielded
twisted
pair and this cables are
used to supply 100Mb/s.
Figure 2.3: Twisted pair
cables
2.3.2- Coaxial cables
Coaxial cable consists of
a centre connector inside a
cylindrical outer ground
shield, usable to a few
hundred MHz. Other types
are usable up to GHz.
Figure 2.4: coaxial cables
There are other types
used for computers
supports high data rate
connections
known as Micro – coaxial.
11

Figure 2.5: micro coaxial

cable
2.3.3- Hollow waveguide
In this waveguide signal
propagates as an
electromagnetic wave,
with a
complicated filed pattern,
they have low loss and
handle high power.
Figure 2.6: waveguide
cable
2.3.4- Micro strip cables
This type consists of signal
conductor mounted above
ground plane, usually by
using dielectric substrate.
The micro strip is usable to
more than 100 GHz.
Figure 2.7: micro strip
cable
12
2.4- TRANSMISSION
LINE PARAMETERS
It’s easy to describe a
transmission line in terms
of its line parameters,
which are
its:
1- Resistance per unit
length R
2- Inductance per unit
length L
3- Conductance per unit
length G
4- Capacitance per unit
length C.
Each of the lines has
specific formulas for
finding R, L, G, and C For
coaxial,
two-wire, and planar lines,
the formulas for calculating
the values of R, L, G, and
C
are provided in Table
below ;

Table

2.1: transmission Line

Parameters
The characteristics of the
conductor at each cable are
δ, µ, ε and other lengths are
also used. Normally each
of the above line R, L, G
and C are given to calculate
the
transmission line equations.
13
2.4.1- TRANSMISSION
LINE EQUATIONS
For calculating the
equations of the
transmission lines assume
that we have a line
with two conductors they
support an electromagnetic
wave , the electric and
magnetic
fields on the line are
transverse to the direction
of wave propagation , the
fields E and
H are uniquely related to
voltage V and current I,
respectively:

V = - ∫ E . dI , I =∫ H.dI
we will use circuit
quantities V and / in
solving the transmission
line problem
instead of solving field
quantities E and H , the
equivalent circuit for this
line shown
below . We assume that
the wave propagates
along the +z-direction,
from the
generator to the load.
Figure 2.8: transmission
line circuit
 Steps of Equations
1- By applying Kirchhoff's
voltage law to the outer
loop of the circuit we
obtain;
V (z, t) =R∆z I (z, t) + L∆ z
+V (z + ∆z, t)
(2.1)
V (z, t) - V (z + ∆z, t) =
R∆z I (z, t) + L∆ z
(2.2)
14
 Divide the equation 2 by
∆z :
 V (z, t) - V (z + ∆z, t)
= R I (z, t) + L
(2.3)
∆z
 Taking the limit of ∆z
0 :
∂V (z, t)
= R I (z, t) +L ∂ I (z, t)
(2.4)
∂z
∂t
2- By applying Kirchhoff's
current law to the main
node of the circuit we
obtain;
I (z, t) =
I (z + ∆z, t) + ∆I
(2.5)
 From the figure 21 the
value of ∆I given by;
∆I = G∆z V (z +
∆z, t) + C ∆z ∂V (z + ∆z, t)
(2.6)
∂t
 So the equation 5
becomes;
I (z, t) = I (z + ∆z, t) +
G∆z V (z + ∆z, t) + C ∆z
∂V (z + ∆z, t) (2.7)
∂t
I (z, t) - I (z + ∆z, t) =
G∆z V (z + ∆z, t) + C ∆z
∂V (z + ∆z, t) (2.8)
∂t
 Divide the equation 8 by
∆z :
I (z, t) - I (z + ∆z, t) = G
V (z + ∆z, t) + C ∂V (z +
∆z, t) (2.9)
∆z
∂t
 Taking the limit of ∆z
0 :
 ∂I (z, t) = G

V (z, t) +C ∂ V (z, t)

(2.10)
∂z
∂t
 If we assume harmonic
time dependence so that;
 V (z, t) = Re
jωt
s

[V (z) e ]

(2.11)
15
 e s
I (z, t) = R [I
jωt

(z) e ]

(2.12)
 where Vs(z) and Is(z)
are the phasor forms of
V(z, i) and I(z, t),
respectively;
equation 4 and 10 become;
d Vs = (R + jωL) Is
(2.13)
dz

d Is = (G + jωC)

Vs

(2.14)
dz
 Take the second
derivative of Vs in
equation 13 and apply
equation 14 to the
equation obtained after
second derivative;
 2
s

d V = (R + jωL)

(G + jωC) Vs

(2.15)
2
dz
 or can be written by;
2
d
2
Vs – γ Vs= 0
(2.16)
 d
2
z
Where γ=;
γ=α+ j β =
(2.17)
 Take the second
derivative of Is in equation
14 and apply equation 13 to
the
equation obtained after
second derivative;
 2
s

d I = (R + jωL)

(G + jωC) Is

(2.18)
2
dz
 or can be written by;
2
d Is
2
– γ Is= 0
(2.19)
 d
2
z
16
 for all above equations ;
γ = represents the
propagation constant.
α= attenuation constant (in
nepers per meter or
decibels per meter).
β= phase constant (in
radians per meter).
 The wavelength λ and
wave velocity u are,
respectively, given by;
λ =2π
β
u=ω
β
β= 2π
λ
 So;
u=fλ
 The solutions of the
linear homogeneous
differential equations 16
and 19
similar to;
2
d
2
Vs – γ Vs= 0
(2.16)
d
2
z
 2
s

d I
2

– γ Is= 0

(2.19)
2
dz
Vs (z)
+ -γz + - γz
=V oe Voe
(2.20)
>+z -z<
Is (z) =
+ -γz + - γz
I oe Ioe
(2.21)

>+z -z<
+ - +
 Where Vo , Vo , Io ,
-
I o are wave amplitudes ;
wave traveling along +z-
and -z-directions .
17
 The characteristic
impedance Zo of the line is
the ratio of positively
traveling
voltage wave to current
wave at any point on the
line. By applying equation
20 and
21 into 13 and 14 we will
obtain;
+ -
Zo = V o = - V o
= R+ jωL = γ___
(2.22)
 + -
I o Io
γ G+ jωC
 So becomes;

Where; Ro and Xo are real

and imaginary of Zo.
2.4.2- Lossless line (R = 0
= G)
A transmission line is said
to be a lossless if the
conductor of the line are
perfect
and the dielectric medium
separating them is lossless.
Means that; R=0=G
α=0 ; γ= j β = jω√LC
Xo= 0 ; Zo=Ro = √L
C
2.4.3- Distortion less Line
(R/L = G/C)
A signal normally consists
of a band of frequencies;
wave amplitudes of
different
frequency components will
be attenuated differently in
a lossy line as α is
frequency
dependent. This results in
distortion.
18
 A distortion less line

is one in which the

attenuation constant α is

frequency
independent while the
phase constant β is linearly
dependent on frequency.
- For distortion less line,
- showing that α does not
depend on frequency
whereas β is a linear
function of
frequency. Also
Or

Note that; A- The phase

velocity is independent of
frequency because the
phase
constant β linearly depends
on frequency. We have
shape distortion of signals
unless
α and u are independent of
frequency. B- u and Zo
remain the same as for
lossless
lines. C- A lossless line is
also a distortion less line,
but a distortion less line is
not
necessarily lossless.
Although lossless lines
are desirable in power
transmission,
telephone lines are
required to be distortion
less. Table below shows
the
characteristics of
transmission line.
19
Table 2.2: transmission line

characteristics
 Example 1
An air line has
characteristic impedance of
70 Ω and phase constant of
3 rad/m at
100 MHz Calculate the
inductance per meter and
the capacitance per meter
of the
line.
Solutions;
An air line can be regarded
as a lossless line;
R=0=G ; α = 0
Zo=Ro = √L
C
β = ω√LC
 Divide equation 1 by 2;

Ro = 1
β ωC
C= β
ωRo
20

6
= 3 / (2π*100*10 *70) =
68.2 pF/m
 2
L= R oC
2 -12
= (70) (68.2*10 ) =
334.2 nH/m
 Example 2
A distortion less line has
Zo = 60 fl, α = 20 mNp/m,
u = 0.6c, where c is the
speed
of light in a vacuum. Find
R, L, G, C, and λ at 100
MHz.
Solution;
For a distortion less line,

21

 Exercises
1- A transmission line
operating at 500 MHz has
Zo = 80 Ω, α = 0.04
Np/m, β=
1.5 rad/m. Find the line
parameters R, L, G, and C.
Answer: 3.2 Ω/m, 38.2
-4
nH/m, 5 * 10 S/m, 5.97
pF/m.
2- A telephone line has R
= 30 Ω/km, L = 100
mH/km ; G = 0, and C
= 20
µF/km At f = 1 kHz,
obtain:
(a) The characteristic
impedance of the line.
(b) The propagation
constant.
(c) The phase velocity.
Answer: (a) 70.75<-1.367°
Ω, (b) 2.121 * 10-4 +
78.888 * 10-3/m (c)
7.069*
105 m/s.

22
2.5- INPUT IMPEDANCE,
SWR, AND POWER
Consider a transmission
line of length L
characterized by γ and Zo
connected to a
load ZL as shown in figure
below ; the generator sees
the line with the load as an
input impedance Zin It is
our intention in this
section to determine the
input
impedance the standing
wave ratio (SWR), and the
power flow on the line .
- Let the transmission line
extend from z = 0 at the
generator to z = L at the
load;
we need the voltage and
current waves.
+ -γz + - γz
Vs (z) = V o e Voe
(2.20)
 + -γz + - γz
Is (z) = I o e Ioe
(2.21)
+ -γz + - γz
o o

Is (z) = V e V e
(2.22)
Zo Zo
- if we are given the
conditions at the input, say;
Vo = V (Z = 0) ; Io = I
(z = 0)
 +
V o= 0.5 (Vo + Zo Io)
(2.23)
-
V o= 0.5 (Vo- Zo Io)
(2.24)
- If the input impedance
at the input terminals is
Zin, the input voltage Vo
and
the input current Io are
easily obtained by;
23
Vo = Zin Vg
Zin+Zg
Io = Vg
Zin+Zg
- if we are given the
conditions at the load, say;
VL = V (z = L), IL = I (z =
L); substituting this into
equations 20 and 22; obtain
 + γL
V o= 0.5 (VL + Zo IL)e
(2.25)
- -γL
V o= 0.5 (VL- Zo IL) e
(2.26)
- The input impedance
Zin = Vs(z) / Is(z) at
any point on the line , at
the
generator ;
 in =

Z Vs(z) =
+ -
o
o
Zo(V + V )

(2.27)
Is (z)
+ -
V o- V o
After substitute the
equations 25 and 26 into 27
the equation solved by;
- We get ;
(Lossy)
24

(Lossless)
- The voltage reflection
coefficient given by гL; гL
is the ratio of the voltage
reflection wave to the
incident wave at the load.
 - γL
гL = V o e
(2.28)
+ -γL
V oe
- after Substituting
equation 25 and 26 into
equation 28 we obtain ;

- The voltage reflection

coefficient at any point on
the line is the ratio of the
magnitude of the reflected
voltage wave to that of the
incident wave.
- The current reflection
coefficient at any point on
the line is negative of the
voltage reflection
coefficient at that point.
- the standing wave ratios
denoted by SWR as;

- And also the Zin can be

at the standing wave ratio;
(Max)
(Min)
25

- The average input

power at a distance € from
the load is given by an
equation;

- The power transmitted

through the transmission
line given by ;

Pi= the incident power.

Pr= reflected power.
Where Pt is the input or
transmitted power.
Note: the maximum power
is delivered to the load
when Y = 0, as expected.
2.6- Characteristics of
Open circuit and short
circuit line
There are special cases
when the line is connected
to load ZL = 0, ZL = ∞ and
ZL =
Zo, these special cases can
easily be derived from the
general case.
1- Shorted Line ZL = 0
 From the equation
below; when ZL substituted
by zero (0)

 The result is;

26
 From the equation
below; when ZL substituted
by zero (0)

 The result is;

2- Open-Circuited Line ZL
=∞
 As the same when you
substitutes the ZL = ∞ to
the equations below;
 The results are;
 And
 The variation of Zin with
t is;

27

3- Matched Line ZL = Zo
 This is the most desired
case from the practical
point of view when
substitute
the ZL = Zo in the same
equations as in the last two
cases the results are;
 Example 1
Solution:

28

 Exercise
2.7- The Smith Chart
Prior to the advent of
digital computers and
calculators, engineers
developed all
sorts of aids (tables, charts,
graphs, etc.) to facilitate
their calculations for design
and
analysis. To reduce the
complexity of calculating
the characteristics of
transmission
lines, graphical means have
been developed. The Smith
chart is the most commonly
used of the graphical
techniques. It is basically
a graphical indication of
the
impedance of a
transmission line as one
move along the line. It
becomes easy to use
after a small amount of
experience.
The Smith chart is
constructed within a circle
of unit radius |г| <=1 as
shown in
figure 2.9 below
29

Figure 2.9: circle of unit

radius
- The construction of the
chart is based on the
relation in equation ;
Or
 Where гr and гi are the
real and imaginary parts of
the reflection coefficient г.
Instead of having
separate Smith charts for
transmission lines with
different
characteristic impedances
such as Zo = 60,100, and
120 Ω one that can be used
for
any line. To achieve this ,
using a normalized chart
in which all impedances
are
normalized with respect to
the characteristic
impedance Zo of the
particular line
under consideration For
the load impedance ZL
for example, the
normalized
impedance given by;

 When substitutes the

above equation to the
equations below;
And
 The results are;
30
 And
 After normalize the
obtained equations ;

 After Rearranging terms

in equations above ;

 The results equations

similar to;

 Which is the general

equation of a circle of
radius a, centered at (h, k).
then
equations become;
31

And
 Typical r-circles for r =
0,0.5, 1,2, 5 and ∞ for
normalized resistance as
shown
in figure below;
 Typical x -circles for x =
0, ± 1/2, ±1, ±2, ±5, ±∞ for
x part (L or C ) as shown
in figure below;
- After superpose the r-
circles and x-circles, what
we have is the Smith chart
shown in Figure below On
the chart, we locate a
normalized impedance z =
2 + j , for
example, as the point of
intersection of the r = 2
circle and the x = 1 circle .
This is
point P1 in the figure.
Similarly, z = 1 - 7 0.5 is
located at P2 where the r =
1 circle
and the x = -0.5 circle
intersect.
32
- We can draw the s-
circles or constant
standing-wave-ratio circles
(always not
shown on the Smith chart),
which are centered at the
origin with s varying from
1 to
∞. The value of the
standing wave ratio s is
determined by locating
where an s-circle
crosses the гr axis Typical
examples of s-circles for s
= 1,2, 3, and ∞ are shown
also
in figure 2.10 below.
Figure 2.10: smith cahrt
 Important points about
smith chart
1- At point Psc on the
chart r = 0, x = 0; that is,
ZL = 0 + j0 showing that
Psc
represents a short circuit on
the transmission line. At
point Poc, r = ∞ and x= ∞,
or
ZL = =∞+j∞, which
implies that Poc
corresponds to an open
circuit on the line. Also
at Poc, r = 0 and x = 0,
showing that Poc is another
location of a short circuit
on the
line.see figure 2.10
2- A complete revolution
(360°) around the Smith
chart represents a distance
of
λ/2 on the line. Clockwise
movement on the chart is
regarded as moving toward
the
generator (or away from
the load) as shown by
the arrow G in figures
below.
Counterclockwise
movement on the chart
corresponds to moving
toward the load (or
away from the generator)
as indicated by the arrow L
in. (see figure 2.11).
3- There are three scales
around the periphery of the
Smith chart as illustrated in
Figure B; the three scales
are included for the sake
of convenience but they
are
actually meant to serve the
same purpose; one scale
should be sufficient. The
scales
are used in determining
the distance from the
load or generator in
degrees or
wavelengths. The
outermost scale is used to
determine the distance on
the line from
33
the generator end in terms
of wavelengths, and the
next scale determines the
distance
from the load end in terms
of wavelengths. The
innermost scale is a
protractor (in
degrees) and is primarily
used in determining θr it
can also be used to
determine the
distance from the load or
generator.
4- Since a λ/2 distance
on the line corresponds
to a movement of 360°
on the
chart, λ distance on the line
corresponds to a 720°
movement on the chart.
5- Vmax occurs where Zin
max is located on the chart
and that is on the positive
гr axis or on OPOC. Vmin is
located at the same point
where we have Zin min on
the
chart that is, on the
negative гr axis or on OPsc
(see figure 2.11).
6- The Smith chart is used
both as impedance chart
and admittance chart (Y =
1/Z).
Figure 2.11; smith chart
parameters
- To Calculate the
Impedance and admittance
by smith chart ,
calculations of
impedance taken in the
side of open circuit at the
smith chart and the
admittance
calculations taken from the
short circuit side in the
smith chart. ( see figures
2.12 and
2.13 below).
34

 Impedance chart
Figure 2.12: impedance
chart
 Admittance chart
Figure 2.13: admittance
cahrt
35

 Example
Solutions;
36

Note : Locate zL on the

Smith chart at point P
where the r = 1.2 circle and
the x =
0.8 circle meet. To get г at
zL, extend OP to meet the r
= 0 circle at Q and measure
OP and OQ. Since OQ
corresponds to г=|1| then at
P,
37

Note that OP = 3.2 cm and

OQ = 9.1 cm were taken
from the Smith chart used
by
the author; Angle 0r is read
directly on the chart as the
angle between OS and OP;
that is
(b) To obtain the standing
wave ratio s, draw a circle
with radius OP and center
at
O. This is the constant s or
г circle Locate point S
where the ^-circle meets
the г –
axis The value of r at this
point is s; that is;

38
 Example 2
Solutions:
39

40

41

2.8- Summary
This chapter introduces
a communication
transmission line and the
all
parameters related to
transmission line, explain
the effect of each one in the
line, in
cases of short and open
circuits. The chapter also
explain the all derivations
of
transmission line such as
propagation constant, the
propagation characteristics,
input
impedance and
characteristic line
impedance. The chapter
ended by explaining how
to solve transmission line
problems by using smith
chart, with simple example
of
problems solved.
42

Chapter 3
Noise in
Communication
Systems
3.1- Introduction
The term noise refers to
unwanted signals over
which the designer has
little or no
control and which tend to
disrupt the transmission
and reception of signals in
a
communication system.
Noise may enter the
system from external
sources (eg
interference generated by a
motor next to the receiver
system) or may be
generated
from fluctuations internal
to a circuit. For examples;
 Thermal Noise - Due to
the random nature of the
movement of electrons.
 Shot Noise - Arises in
electronic devices due to
the discrete nature of
current
flow.
 1/f noise - Due to surface
leakage in semi-
conductors.
 Partition noise - Due to
recombination in the base
of a transistor.
Usually these types of
noise may be considered to
be independent of the
actual
operating frequency (ie
have a constant spectral
density) and are therefore
referred to
as White Noise. To
model the occurrence of
white noise, consider a
resistor at
temperature T degrees
kelvin (°K = 273 + °C).
The random movement of
charge in
the resistor will produce
a noise voltage at the
resistor terminals. The
rms noise
voltage is approximately;

Where;
k is Boltzmann’s constant
(1.38 × 10-23 J/°K).
T is temperature in °K.
B is bandwidth in Hz.
R is the resistance in Ω.
43
- The maximum power
transferred will be ;

We can model an arbitrary

source of noise (as long as
it is White noise) as an
equivalent thermal noise
power and characterise it
with an equivalent noise
temperature. An arbitrary
source of noise (sin source,
amplifier, and antenna)
which
delivers a noise power Ps
to a load resistor R can be
replaced by a noisy resistor
R at
a temperature Te. The
temperature Te is
calculated so the same
noise power is
delivered to the load;

Note: Components and

systems can then be
characterized by saying
they have an
Effective Noise
Temperature of Te.
3.2- Noise in Networks and
Noise Factor
We have already
mentioned the effective
noise temperature as a
measure of a
devices noise
performance. There is
another parameter also
commonly used to
characterize noise
performance, the Noise
Factor or Noise Figure. The
noise figure is
defined as the ratio of the
signal to the noise ratio
(SNR) at the input of a
device to
the SNR at the output.
44

In the diagram Si is the

input signal power and So

is the output signal power.

Ni
and No are the input and
output noise powers. Thus
the Noise Figure is defined
by;

In a practical device, No >

G.Ni and so F > 1.0. The
closer to 1 is F, the less
noise
the device introduces and
the better its noise
performance.

In

decibels, Fdb = 10 log 10

(F)
Since noise figure and
effective noise temperature
measure the same
characteristic
they are of course related.
Consider a network with
gain G, bandwidth B and
an
equivalent noise
temperature Te.
1. The input noise power
is Ni = kToB, where To is
the surrounding
temperature.
2. The output noise power
is a sum of the amplified
input noise and the
internally
generated noise; No =
kGB(To + Te). The output
signal power is So = G Si.
- Therefore, Noise Figure
F=

Thus F = 1 + Te/To
and Te = (F-1) To
If the network were
noiseless, Te = 0, giving F
= 1 or 0dB.
3.3- Noise Generated by
a Lossy Network
Lossy network is one in
which the input signal is
attenuated at the network
output.
Some examples are shown
below.
45
Figure 3.1: loss cable
example
What effect does a lossy
network have on the noise
performance of a system?
Consider a lossy network
connected to a matched
resistor, R. Assume the
lossy
network is at a temperature
To. The gain of the
network will be less than
one and can
be define by a loss factor L
= 1/G. Looking back into
this network from its
output we
see a matched resistance R
at temperature To. Thus the
output noise power will be;
No = kToB
We can think of this noise
as partly coming from the
source resistor at the input
of
the network through the
lossy network and the
remainder being generated
by the
lossy network itself. The
fraction of the input
noise power at the output
of the
network will be;

P1 = GkToB = kToB/L
The power added by the
network referred to the
input is say NN/W and
the
contribution due to this part
at the output will then be;
N/W N/W

P2 = G. N = N /L
The total noise output
power is therefore No = P1
+ P2. Substituting from
above,
 N/W

No = 1/L (kToB + N )
46

Solving for noise

generated by the network

referred to the input,

NN/W;
NN/W = (L-1) kToB
The Effective temperature
Te of the lossy network is;
N/W

Te = N /(kB) = (L-1) To
3.4- Cascaded Networks
We are often required to
determine the noise
performance of a number
of
networks in series.
Consider the system
below involving two
noisy networks in
cascade and at a
temperature, To.

The two noisy networks

can be considered as 2
noise free networks at
which an
extra noise term (the
effective temperature) is
added at the input. That is,

The effective temperatures

Te1 and Te2 are related to
the noise figures and the
ambient temperature.
 Te1

= (F1-1) To and Te2 = (F2-

1) To
From the diagram then we
see that;
47

Ts1 = Te1 + To = F1.To

 This implies that the input
noise at network 1 is N1 =
k B Ts1. The output noise
power, No1 is this value
multiplied by the gain of
the “ideal” first stage.
 No1 =

G1.N1 = k B G1 Ts1 = k B

G1 F1 To
This noise power implies a
noise temperature To1 of;
To1 = No1/(kB) = G1 F1

To
Similarly,

Ts2 = To1 + Te2

Therefore,
 N2 =

k B Ts2 = k B To [G1 F1 +

(F2-1)]
Finally,

The total effective noise

figure for the two networks
taken together (as one
device
with a gain G1.G2) is;

This result may be

extended for the cascade of
3 or more networks to get a
general
expression;
48
 We can write a similar

expression in terms of

effective noise

temperatures for the

whole system;
3.5- Summary
This chapter discuss the
effect of the noise in
communication systems,
providing a
brief explanation of noise
calculations in
communication networks
in simple a
cascaded networks types.
The derivation of the
noise effect in
communication
networks explained in a
simple way for quick and
deep understanding.

49

Chapter 4
Attenuator and
filters
4.1- Filters
The function of a filter is to
separate different
frequency components of
the input
signal that passes through
the filter network. The
characteristics of the
network are
specified by a transfer
function H_(jω) or H(s),
where s =+jω represents
the complex
frequency defined for the
Laplace transform The
transfer function is the
ratio of
output signal to input
signal, voltage, or current:

The transfer phase

function, φ(ω), is related to
the transfer group delay
through a
differential with respect to
frequency as follows:

For constant group delay,

the phase function must be
linear with frequency. In
most filters only the
magnitude of the transfer
function is of interest.
However, in
modern-day systems using
signals with complex
modulation schemes,
phase and
group delay functions are
also important. A filter
network passes some of the
input
signal frequencies and
stops others, and being a
linear circuit, this
function is
performed without adding
or generating new
frequency components.
The frequency band that
passes, ideally without
losses (0 dB insertion
loss),
defines the pass band, and
the band that stops the
frequencies, ideally with
infinite
loss, is called the stop
band. This loss
representation of the ideal
low-pass filter.
Low pass filter passes all
low-frequency signals from
dc to some high frequency,
ωc and stops all signals
above ωc. The frequency,
ωc, is called the cutoff
frequency
of the filter.
50
Similar considerations can
be applied in the design of
filters using phase linearity
and/or group delay flatness.
The concept of pass band,
stop band, and transition
band
permits specifications of
five major types of filters:
(1) low pass, (2) high pass,
(3)
band pass, (4) band stop,
and (5) all pass. The
transmission behavior of
these filters is
shown in figures below;

Filters are always used

to reduce the effect of
the noise to the signals
that
transmitted through the
transmission line. From
previous studies the
amount of noise
in the original signal
known as signal to noise
ratio SNR. Max signal to
noise power
ratio, represents a low
noise and min signal to
noise ratio indicate that the
amount of
noise is larger than the
signal. A matched filter is a
linear filter designed to
provide
the maximum signal to
noise power ratio at its
output for a given
transmitted symbol
waveform. consider signal
S(t) plus AWGN n(t) is
applied to a linear time-
invariant
receiving filter followed by
a sampler as shown in
figure below;
51
At t=T, the sampler output.
Z (T) =ai+n0
 where ai= signal
component at the filter
output
 N0=noise component
 The variance of the

output noise (average noise

2

power) is denoted by δo

4.1.1- Low-Pass Filter

Low-pass filter networks
are realized by using a
cascade of series inductors
and
shunt capacitors. At low
frequencies, series
inductances produce low
impedance, and
shunt capacitors produce
high impedance, thus
allowing the signal to
appear at the
output of the filter. Above
the cutoff frequency, the
series inductors behave as
large
impedances and shunt
capacitors as low
impedances, thereby
impeding the signal
transfer to the load.
4.1.2- High-Pass Filter
The high-pass filter allows
signal frequencies higher
than the cutoff frequency to
pass through the filter to
the load with a minimum
loss and stops all
frequencies
below the cutoff frequency.
This behavior is the reverse
of the low-pass filter, and
sometimes the high-pass
filter is referred to as the
complement of the low-
pass filter.
High-pass filter networks
are realized by using a
cascade of series
capacitors and
shunt inductors. Capacitors
at high frequencies have
low impedance, and
inductors
have high impedance. Thus
the high-frequency signal
passes through the filter to
the
output load with a
minimum loss. Just the
opposite happens at low
frequencies,
resulting in a high
attenuation of the low
frequencies.
52
4.1.3- Band-Pass Filter
The band-pass filter allows
the signal transfer in the
load in a band of
frequencies
between the lower cutoff
frequency, ωc1, and the
upper cutoff frequency,
ωc2.
Between the lower and
upper cutoff frequency is
the center frequency, ω,
defined by
the geometric mean of ωc1
and ωc2.
4.1.4- Band-Stop Filter
The band-stop filter is a
complement of the band-
pass filter the signal in a
band-
stop filter is transferred to
the load in two frequency
bands, one from a low
frequency
to a low cutoff frequency,
ωc, and the other from the
upper cutoff frequency,
ωc2, to
infinite frequency. The
signal experiences high
loss between ωc1 to ωc2,
hence the
name band stop or band
rejects.
4.1.5- All-Pass Filter
The all-pass filter allows
the signal amplitude for all
frequencies to pass through
the network without any
significant loss this
network has no frequency
selective pass
band or stop band. The
transmitted signal ideally
experiences a linear phase
shift or
constant group delay with
frequency.
Unfortunately, minimum
phase networks do not have
constant group delay:
rather
there are peaks near the
corner frequency. All
passive ladder networks,
such as filters
that have frequency
selectivity, are minimum
phase. In the design there is
a trade-off
between flat group delay
and filter selectivity.
However, a network that
is non
minimum phase can be
cascaded with a minimum
phase network to achieve
both flat
group delay and selectivity.
All pass networks with non
minimum phase are used as
group delay compensation
devices.
4.2- Attenuator
Attenuators are linear,
passive, or active
networks or devices that
attenuate
electrical or microwave
signals, such as voltages
or currents, in a system
by a
predetermined ratio. They
may be in the form of
transmission-line, strip
line, or
waveguide components.
Attenuation is usually
expressed as the ratio of
input power
(Pin) to output power
(Pout), in decibels (dB), as;
53

This is derived from the

standard definition of
attenuation in Nepers (Np),

as;

Where a is attenuation
constant (Np/m) and Dx
is the distance between
the
voltages of interest (E1 and
E2).
There are many instances
when it is necessary to
reduce the value, or level,
of
electrical or microwave
signals (such as voltages
and currents) by a fixed
amount to
allow the rest of the system
to work properly.
Attenuators are used for
this purpose.
For example, in turning
down the volume on a
radio, we make use of a
variable
attenuator to reduce the
signal. Almost all
electronic instruments use
attenuators to
allow for the measurement
of a wide range of voltage
and current values, such as
voltmeters, oscilloscopes,
and other electronic
instruments. Thus, the
various
applications in which
attenuators are used include
the following:
 To reduce signal levels
to prevent overloading.
 To match source and
load impedances to reduce
their interaction.
 To measure loss or gain
of two-port devices.
 To provide isolation
between circuit
components, or circuits or
instruments so
as to reduce interaction
among them.
 To extend the dynamic
range of equipment and
prevent burnout or
overloading
equipment.
54
 There are various types

of attenuators based on the

nature of circuit elements

used,
type of configuration, and
kind of adjustment. They
are as follows:
 Passive and active
attenuators.
 Absorptive and reflective
attenuators.
 Fixed and variable
attenuators.
A fixed attenuator is used
when the attenuation is
constant. Variable
attenuators
have varying attenuation,
using varying resistances
for instance. The variability
can
be in steps or continuous,
obtained either manually or
programmable. There are
also
electronically variable
attenuators. They are
reversible, except in special
cases, such
as a high-power attenuator.
They are linear, resistive,
or reactive, and are
normally
symmetric in impedance.
They include waveguide,
coaxial, and strip lines, as
well as
calibrated and un-
calibrated versions. Fixed
attenuators, commonly
known as
‘‘pads,’’ reduce the input
signal power by a fixed
amount, such as 3, 10, and
50 dB.
A variable attenuator has a
range, such as 0–20 dB or
0–100 dB. The variation
can
be continuous or in steps,
obtained manually or
programmable.
4.3- Summary
This chapter provides a
simple ideas about filters
and attenuators that used
in
communication systems.
Provides an idea about all
filters types such as low ,
high ,
band, pass
filters .attenuators
operation also explained
with some example such as
passive , active ,
reflection , fixed and
variable atenuators.
55

Chapter 5
Data
communication
5.1- History
Data communication is an
Exchange of digital
information between two
digital
devices is data
communication. Data
communication history;
 1838: Samuel Morse &
Alfred Veil Invent Morse
code Telegraph System.
 1876: Alexander Graham
Bell invented Telephone.
 1910: Howard Krum
developed Start/Stop
Synchronization.
 1930: Development of
ASCII Transmission Code.
 1945: Allied
Governments develop the
First Large Computer.
 1950: IBM releases its
first computer IBM 710.
 1960: IBM releases the
First Commercial
Computer IBM 360.
5.2- Data Communication
Concepts
Data communication is
most technology widely
used nowadays in several
proposes. The main
contributions of data
communication are;
1- Transmission
Technology.
2- Packet Switching
Technology.
3- Internet.
4- LAN Technology.
5- WAN Technology.
There are Various
Networks dials with data
com;
 Personal Area Network
(PAN).
 Local Area Network
(LAN).
 Metropolitan Area
Network (MAN).
 Wide Area Network
(WAN).
 Global Area Network
(GAN).
Data communication refers
to information’s transfer
such data, voice and
videos.
Each of this information
transfers from one device
to another through what is
called
network.
56
 Networking is the

convenient way of making

information accessible to

anyone,
anytime & anywhere. The
Capability of two or more
computers of different
vendors
to transmit & receive data
and to carry out processes
as expected by the user is
called
Interoperability.

For any data networks

there are many
requirements that must be
available to
establish data
communication. This
requirements are;
 At least Two Devices
ready to communicate.
 A Transmission
Medium.
 A set of Rules &
Procedure for proper
communication (Protocol).
 Standard Data
Representation.
 Transmission of bits
either Serial or Parallel.
 Bit synchronization
using Start/stop bits in
case of Asynchronous
Transmission.
 In Synchronous
Transmission the agreed
pattern of Flag.
 Signal encoding rules
viz. NRZ or RZ.
 And other higher layer
protocol.
Data represented by using a
binary form, A group of
bits are used to represent a
character/number/ special
symbol/Control Characters.
 5-bit code can represent
5
32 symbols (2 =32)
 7-bit code can represent
7
128 symbols (2 =128)
 8-bit code can represent
8
256 symbols (2 =256)
A code set is the set of
codes representing the
symbols. there are many
standards
of codes that used in data
communications such as
ASCII , EBCDIC and
Baudot
Teletype code.
57

ASCII: this is ANSI’s 7-bit

American Standard Code
for Information
Interchange.
ASCII code (7-bit) is often
used with an 8th bit known
as parity bit used for
detecting
errors during Data
Transmission. Parity bit
is added to the Most
Significant bit
(MSB).
EBCDIC: this is IBM’s 8-
bit Extended Binary Coded
Decimal Interchange Code.
It is an 8-bit code with 256
Symbols. No parity bit for
error checking.
Baudot Teletype code is a
5-bit code also known as
ITA2 (International
Telegraph
Alphabet No. 2) used in
Telegraphy/Telex.
5.3- Data Transmission
Data Transmission means
movement of the bits
over a transmission
medium
connecting two devices.
Two types of Data
Transmission are:
 Parallel Transmission.
 Serial Transmission.
5.3.1- Parallel
Transmission
 In this all the bits
of a byte are transmitted
simultaneously on separate
wires. Practicable if two
devices are close to each
other e.g. Computer to
Printer,
Communication within the
Computer using a com
port.
58
5.3.2- Serial Transmission
Bits are transmitted one
after the other .Usually the
Least Significant Bit (LSB)
has been transmitted first.
Serial Transmission
requires only one circuit
interconnecting two
devices and it’s suitable
for transmission over
long distance.
Such serial device is USB.
The transmitting speed of
each types measured by bit
rate. the bit rate is Number
of bits that can be
transmitted in 1 second If
tp is the duration of the bit
then the Bit
rate R= 1/tp.
At receive side; received
Signal is never same as
transmitted. A clock signal
used
to samples & regenerates
the original bits as it was
transmitted. Received
Signal
should be sampled at right
instant. Otherwise it will
cause bit error.

There are two methods

for Timing control for
receiving bits.
Asynchronous
Transmission and
Synchronous Transmission.
59
5.3.2.1- Asynchronous
Transmission
 Sending end commences
the Transmission of bits at
any instant of time.
 No time relation between
the consecutive bits.
 During idle condition
Signal ‘1’ is transmitted.
 “Start bit” before the
byte and “Stop bit” at the
end of the byte for
Start/Stop
synchronization.

5.3.2.2- Synchronous
Transmission
 Carried out under the
control of the timing
source.
 No Start/Stop bits.
 Continuous block of
Data are encapsulated with
Header & Trailer along
with
Flags.
60
5.4- Data Encoding
Signal Encoding used to
represent the bits as
electrical Signals. That
because for
transmission of bits into
electrical signals for two
binary states simple +ve
and –ve
voltages is not sufficient.
Sufficient Signal transition
should be present to
recover the
clock properly at the
receiving end and the
Bandwidth of the signal
should match
with transmission medium.
Two broad classes of
encoding are:
5.4.1- Non-Return to Zero
(NRZ)

5.4.2- Return to Zero (RZ)

61

A transmission and

communication way take

place by three possible

modes they
are;
 Transfer in one direction
only called simplex, just
transmit in one way.
 Transfer in two
directions but one at a
time, known as half
duplex,
transmission done in two
way alternatively.
 Transfer in both the
direction simultaneously,
termed as full duplex, and
the
transmission take place in
two directions
simultaneously
5.5- Modem Concept
Modem is refers to
modulation and
demodulation. Modulation
is to adapt the
signal in transmitter side to
be suitable for the media.
Then demodulation refers
to
extracts the original signal
after received in receiver
side.
In order to transmit a signal
over a given physical
medium we need to adapt
the
characteristics of the
signal to the properties
of the medium. In the
case of
electromagnetic signals, the
main object is to fit the
spectrum of the signal into
a
prescribed bandwidth,
called the pass band, and
this is accomplished by
means of a
technique called
modulation.
5.6- Modem Operation
Modulation is performed
by multiplying the original
signal by a sinusoidal
signal
called carrier; the mean
of the modulation
theorem is that, in so
doing, we are
actually translating the
spectrum of the original
signal in frequency, over
the
frequency of the carrier.
This frequency is chosen
according to the physical
medium:
copper wires, optical fibers,
all require different
modulation frequencies
since their
useful pass bands are
located in different portions
of the spectrum. The pass
band of a
communication channel is,
roughly speaking, the part
of the spectrum which
behaves
linearly for transmission;
there, we can rely on the
fact that a properly
modulated
sinusoidal signal will be
received with only phase
and amplitude distortions.
The pass band of a physical
channel is of finite width,
so we must make sure that
the bandwidth of the
original signal prior to
modulation is "of the same
size as the
channel's pass band. In
other words, we must build
a signal with a finite,
prescribed
spectral support.
62
 A big effort in

designing a modem is

trying to squeeze as much

information as
possible over the relatively
narrow pass band of the
telephone channel for
example.
The operation of limiting
the band-with of a digital
communication signal goes
under
the name of pulse shaping
and is basically a linear
filtering operation.
To illustrate what
modulation is all about,
take the example of AM
radio. The AM
band extends from 530
KHz to 1700 KHz and each
radio station is allowed by
law to
transmit over an 8 KHz
frequency slot in this range.
Assume we want to
transmit
speech over AM with given
slot from Fmin=650 KHz
to Fmax=658 KHz, with
the
bandwidth W=Fmax-Fmin
equal to 8 KHz. The speech
signal s(t) , obtained with a
microphone , has a
wideband spectrum which
spans several KHz; we can
however
filter it through a low pass
filter with cutoff frequency
4 KHz without losing too
much quality and thus
reduce its spectral width to
8 KHz. The filtered signal
has now
a spectrum extending from
-4 to 4 KHz; by
multiplying it by a sinusoid
at frequency
Fc=(Fmax+Fmin)/
2=654KHz. We can sift it
to allotted AM band
according to the
modulation theorem:
For digital communication
first the data must flow as a
data stream, converts the
bit stream to data (baud)
stream by mapping the bits
into symbols of 2m, this
shape
not yet suitable for
transmission, first there is
a need to design its
spectral
characteristics to fits it into
the available bandwidth of
the channel, then translate
it in
frequency to place it
right in the pass band of
the channel .this
functions are
performed by a pulse
shaper (low pass filter) and
by modulator.
Demodulation done at
receives side by convert
modulated signal to
original
signal. The signal created
at the modulator is
converted to a continuous
time signal
c(t) by a D/A converter
operating at a sampling
frequency fs and sent
over the
telephone channel. With
reasonably good
approximation the channel
behaves like a
63
linear signal and also
introduces a certain amount
of additive noise so that the
signal
appearing at the receiver's
input looks like;

Where tp is the propagation

delay, dependent on the
distance between
transmitter
and receiver, d (t) is the
equivalent impulse
response of the channel and
n (t) is the
noise. The first thing the
digital receiver does is
sampling the incoming
signal A
fundamental building block
of any modem is an
adaptive equalizer whose
task is to
estimate the distortion
introduced by the channel
in order to eliminate it. A
modem is
a device consists of
modulation and
demodulation at each of
communication sides.
5.7- summary
This chapter provides an
introduction to data
communication, the chapter
introduced
the history of data
communications and then
explain the concept of data
transmission
using parallel and series
mode. An encoding
techniques also
introduced in this
chapter, then chapter ended
by a simple ideas about
modem operation.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Elmustafa Sayed Ali
Ahmed received his M.Sc.
degree in electronic
engineering,
Telecommunication from
Sudan University of
science and technology in
2012, and
B.Sc. (Honor) degree in
electrical engineering,
Telecommunication from
Red Sea
University in 2008. He
was a wireless networks
(Tetra system, Wi-Fi and
Wi-Max)
engineer in Sudan Sea Port
Corporation for 4 years.
Now he is a head
department of
electrical and electronics
engineering, faculty of
engineering in Red Sea
University,
Sudan. He is published
papers, and chapters in area
of MANET routing
protocols, and
big data clouds. Research
interests in field of
mobile ad-hoc networks,
wireless
networks, Vehicular ad-hoc
networks and computer
networks, and cloud
computing.
64

References
[1] Upamanyu Madhow;”
Introduction to
Communication Systems”;
anuary 17,
2014;http://
www.ece.ucsb.edu/wcsl/
Publications/
intro_comm_systems_mad
how_j
an2014b.pdf. [Accessed in
27 July 2015]
[2]http://
www.ed.gov.nl.ca/edu/
k12/curriculum/guides/
teched/commtech2104/ct21
04_unit1.pdf. [Accessed in
27 July 2015]
[3]Difference between
Attenuation and Distortion;
http://www.differencebetw
een
.com/difference-between-
attenuation-and-vs-
distortion/. [Accessed in 27
July
2015]
[4]Attenuation, Distortion
and Noise (Basics of
networking);
http://
www.bitlanders.com/
blogs/attenuation-
distortion-and-noise-
basics-of-
networking/282687.
[Accessed in 27 July 2015]
[5] https://www.st-
andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/S
cots_Guide/audio/part7/pag
e1.html.
.[Accessed in 27 July 2015]
[6]
http://www.amanogawa.co
m/archive/docs/C-
tutorial.pdf. [Accessed in
27 July
2015]
[7]DR. FARID
FARAHMAND;”
INTRODUCTION TO
TRANSMISSION
LINES”;http://
122.physics.ucdavis.edu/
sites/default/files/files/
Electronics/Transmi
ssionLinesPart_II.pdf.
[Accessed in 27 July 2015]
65
[8]Prof. Tzong-Lin Wu;”
Transmission Line
Basics”;
http://ntuemc.tw/upload/
file/
20120419205252ec3bb.pdf
. [Accessed in 27 July
2015]
[9]ROF. A.M.ALLAM;”
RANSMISSION LINE
THEORY”;
http://eee.guc.edu.eg/
Courses/Networks/
NETW502%20Communica
tion%20Engin
eering/LEC/LEC2-
%20TRANSMISSION
%20LINE
%20THEORY.pdf.
[Accessed
in 27 July 2015]
[10] Prof. Ali M.
Nikneja;” Lecture 12:
Noise in Communication
Systems”;
University of California,
Berkeley;
http://
rfic.eecs.berkeley.edu/
~niknejad/
ee142_fa05lects/pdf/
lect12.pdf.[Accessed in
27 July 2015]
[11]
http://www.daenotes.com/e
lectronics/communication-
system/noise. [Accessed
in 27 July 2015]
[12] ATTENUATORS /
FILTERS / DC BLOCKS
ATTENUATORS;
http://jacquesricher.com/
EWhdbk/attnfilt.pdf.
[Accessed in 27 July 2015]
[13] Attenuators,
equalizers & filters;
http://www.dktcomega.de/
Files/Filer/PDF/
Datasheets/att_hpft.pdf.
[Accessed in 27 July 2015]
[14] K.K.DHUPAR;”
DATA
COMMUNICATION
(Basics of data
communication,
OSI layers.)”;
http://www.di.unipi.it/~bon
ucce/11-
Datacommunication.pdf.
[Accessed in 27 July 2015]
[15]
http://telecom.tbi.net/histor
y1.html. [Accessed in 27
July 2015]
[16]
http://k-12.pisd.edu/currins
t/network/if2_2st.pdf.
[Accessed in 27 July 2015]
66
[17]The Difference
between Serial & Parallel
Data Transfer;
http://
science.opposingviews.co
m/difference-between-
serial-parallel-data-
transfer-
1608.html. [Accessed in 27
July 2015]
[18]
http://www.sqa.org.uk/e-
learning/NetTechDC01BC
D/page_02.htm. [Accessed
in 27 July 2015]
[19]Dr. Dheeraj Sanghi;”
Computer Networks
(CS425)”;
http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/
users/dheeraj/cs425/
lec03.html. [Accessed in
27 July
2015]
Communication system is
a system model describes
a communication
exchanges
between two stations,
transmitter and receiver.
Signals or information’s
passes from
source to distention
through what is called
channel, which represents a
way that signal use
it to move from source
toward destination. To
transmit signals in
communication system,
it must be first processed
by several stages,
beginning from signal
representation, to signal
shaping until encoding and
modulation. After
preparing the transmitted
signal, it passed
to the transmission line of
channel and due signal
crossing this media it
faces many
impairments such noise,
attenuation and distortion.
This note book gives a
brief concepts
about transmission line
calculation and also
provides an idea about
communication system
impairments with an
example for each one. The
note book also provides an
introduction
to data communication
with a simple ideas of data
processing.
Proo
f
 Printed By
Createspace
Citations (0)
References (6)
 Introduction to Communication Systems
Article

o May 2018
o

Upamanyu Madhow

View
Show abstract

 Lecture 12: Noise in Communication Systems

o Ali M Prof
o Nikneja

Prof. Ali M. Nikneja;" Lecture 12: Noise in Communication Systems"; University of

California, Berkeley;

 DATA COMMUNICATION (Basics of data communication, OSI layers

o K K Dhupar

K.K.DHUPAR;" DATA COMMUNICATION (Basics of data communication, OSI layers.)";

  97 pF/m. 2-A telephone line has R = 30 Ω/km, L = 100 mH/km ; G = 0, and C = 20
µF/km At f = 1 kHz, obtain: (a) The characteristic impedance of the line. (b) The
propagation constant
o Answer

Answer: 3.2 Ω/m, 38.2 nH/m, 5 * 10 -4 S/m, 5.97 pF/m. 2-A telephone line has R = 30
Ω/km, L = 100 mH/km ; G = 0, and C = 20 µF/km At f = 1 kHz, obtain: (a) The
characteristic impedance of the line. (b) The propagation constant. (c) The phase
velocity.

 Attenuation and Distortion; http://www.differencebetween .com/difference-

between-attenuation-and-vs-distortion/. [Accessed in 27
o Aug 2015

[3]Difference between Attenuation and Distortion; http://www.differencebetween

.com/difference-between-attenuation-and-vs-distortion/. [Accessed in 27 July 2015]
[4]Attenuation, Distortion and Noise (Basics of networking);


o Jul 2015
o 27
o D R Farid Farahmand

DR. FARID FARAHMAND;" INTRODUCTION TO TRANSMISSION

LINES";http://122.physics.ucdavis.edu/sites/default/files/files/Electronics/Transmi
ssionLinesPart_II.pdf. [Accessed in 27 July 2015]
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