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A Review On Ohmic Heating And Its Use In Food

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 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC & TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH VOLUME 9, ISSUE 02, FEBRUARY 2020 ISSN 2277-8616

A Review On Ohmic Heating And Its Use In Food

Rossi Indiarto, Bayu Rezaharsamto
Abstract: Ohmic heating, known as joule heating, can produce heat by flowing electric current through materials that can resist the flow of electricity.
The volumetric properties resulting from ohmic heating cause heat to be spread evenly on the material. This method is best for foods containing
suspended particulate matter in media containing weak salt. The advantage of ohmic heating in food is demonstrated by its ability to deactivate
pathogenic microbes, prevent the decline in functional properties of food, nutritional, and sensory values so that food shelf life increases. However,
related to viscosity, electrical conductivity, and fouling deposits are the limitations of ohmic heating. In addition to the inhibition of the microbial and
enzyme activity, ohmic heat was also used for the extraction of essential compounds, including various specific processes such as starch gelatinization.
This review discusses the ohmic heating, the principles and design of ohmic heating, the factors that influence it, and its use in food.

Index Terms: Ohmic heating, conductivity, frequency, electrodes, enzyme inactivation, microbes
——————————  ——————————

1. INTRODUCTION 2. OHMIC HEATING PRINCIPLES AND

The thermal method is one of the most crucial food processing
and preservation procedures. It's used to eliminate pathogenic
bacteria, improve texture, digestibility, and detoxify various
food products [1]. The use of thermal processes in food
generally uses pasteurization and sterilization methods [2].
Nevertheless, the use of high temperatures in these processes
causes a decrease in the quality of the final product, such as
reduced nutritional content [3] and organoleptic characteristics
[4]. An alternative to this thermal method is using electric
energy [5]. Ohmic is an electric-based heating method. Its
effects are equivalent to pasteurization and sterilization
processes with much higher efficiency [6]. Ohmic heating
produces heat directly from inside the material and ignores
restrictions such as low heat transfer coefficient, as well as the
difficulty of heat penetrating the material's surface wall [7]. This
volumetric heating property makes the ohmic process more
efficient in processing time and heating rate [5], [8]. The ohmic
system in the industry has been investigated and implemented
for heating dairy around 1920 since the late 19th century [9].
In other products like sausages and vegetables, the ohmic
heating method also used [10]. Due to high energy costs,
electrode corrosion, and the difficulty of finding inert material
and development of ultra-high temperature (UHT), ohmic
heating was abandoned [11]. However, as ohmic related
research develops, this method has once again become an
alternative method that is very important to its use in food,
such as blanching [12],[13], evaporation [14], dehydration [15],
baking [16], extraction [17], thawing [18], sterilization [19],
pasteurization [20] and gelatinization of starch [21]. Ohmic
heating is seldom used due to high electricity costs,
degradation of the electrode, difficulty in finding inert material,
and the development of the Ultra High Temperature (UHT)
process [11]. However, this method is widely used in foods
such as blanching [12],[13], evaporation [14], dehydration [15],
baking [16], extraction [17], thawing [18], sterilization [19],
pasteurization [20] and gelatinization of starch [21]. This work
aims at reviewing the influence of ohmic heating and its
application in foodstuffs based on principles and mechanisms.
————————————————
 *Rossi Indiarto, Bayu Rezaharsamto
 Department of Food Industrial Technology, Faculty of Agro-
Industrial Technology, Universitas Padjadjaran, Jl. Raya
Bandung-Sumedang Km. 21, Jatinangor, Sumedang 40600,
Indonesia.
 *Corresponding author. Email: rossi.indiarto@unpad.ac.id
IJSTR©2020
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DESIGNS
2.1. The ohmic heating principle
The principle of ohm heating is that electrical energy in the
form of heat is dispersed by an electrical conductor [11].
Electrical energy flowed into food is converted into thermal
energy. The electrical resistance of food, known as the Joule
effect, causes volumetric heating [2]. This heating has very
high efficiencies (> 90%). Because it can ignore the principle
of conventional thermal transfer, i.e., heat transfer via
temperature gradients or hot surfaces from the environment to
medium [22]. It results in uniform and rapid heating due to the
reactor fluctuation of electrical fields, thus increasing the
dynamic motion of charged species and solution dipole
moments [22]. The generated energy is directly proportional to
the electric quadratic area used and the conductivity of the
heating material [2].
An essential distinction between ohmic and other methods
of heating is the use of electrodes that directly affect the
heated media [22]. Ohmic heater electrodes may be
considered as electric current connecting with heated medium,
and electrodes are also uniformly distributed to the medium by
the electric current [23]. The frequency used in ohmic heating
is lower than microwave and radio, and the sinusoidal
waveform is used [22].Ohmic methods can be used for heating
foods between 0.1 and 10 S/m conductivity. Ohmic technology
may be performed in batches or continuously. Electric field
intensity, electrode configuration, and conductivity of heating
material generate current flows. The current flow causes a
high-power density and fast heating input of heat energy. The
voltage is 400 to 4000 V; the power of the field is between 20
and 400 V/cm, and the gap between 10 and 50 cm for the
electrode. The heating rate is determined by the efficiency of
the energy source, the design of equipment, and the character
of the thermal medium, such as conductivity, viscosity, and
heat-specific capacity [10].
2.2. Design
Ohmic heating systems have different designs, but several key
elements are necessary [6]. The ohmic heating system
consists of a heating chamber, a pair of electrodes, and an
alternating current generator that supplies electrical energy to
the system [24]. The electrodes used must consist of highly
conductive, low cost, and non-corrosive materials to prevent
metal ion migration to foods such as Cr, Fe, Ni, Mn, and Mo
[25]. The electrodes connected to the power station must be in
direct contact with the material so that the electrical current
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can be connected. The distance between the electrodes may
vary depending on the system size used. The electrode gap
changes the number of formed electric fields [6]. The heating
design ohmic, as stated by Goullieux and Pain [11]:
a) Batch configuration
The flow of the heated medium is ignored in the batch
configuration so that the medium becomes static. This
configuration makes it easy to calculate fundamental
parameters such as electric conductance, heating time, and
process homogeneity. This batch configuration can be used to
identify an optimum initial product composition, and to monitor
the processing effect on final product quality. This design is
ideal for lab use, as it is useful for testing new product
development. The application is simple and can easily find the
best condition control during storage. However, to scale up the
product, the industry should use a continuous system.
b) Transverse configuration
This configuration uses a continuous system, parallel product
flow with electrodes, and perpendicular to the electrical field.
Electrodes are used as flat or coaxial [6]. The design of this
configuration is straightforward. However, there are two
electrical problems, namely 1) Possible leakage of current
through the material leaving the system due to active
electrodes adjacent to the inlet and outlet pipes, 2) The density
of the electrical current which leads to the flow of the product
may be very uneven around the edge of the electrode.
c) Colinear configuration
In this configuration, the product is flowing from one electrode
to another with the fluid flow parallel with the electric field.
Compared to the two previous designs, the layout of the two
electrodes is relatively more spaced.
3. OHMIC HEATING FACTORS INFLUENCE
Several factors, such as conductivity of electrical materials,
frequency and wave shape, particle size, heat capacity, and
material viscosity, as well as used electrodes, can influence
the food process ohmic heating [24].
3.1. Electricity conductivity
The heating efficiency of ohmic depends on the material's
conductivity [6]. The main factor of the ohmic heating rate is
the electrical conductivity of the food. When the alternative
current (AC) passes through the material, the electrical
conducting indicates that electricity is converted to heat [26].
The unit used for electric conductivity measurement is
Siemens per meter (S/m) and can be calculated by using the
Sakr and Liu formulation [8]:
σ= L/A × I/V
Where: σ= Electricity conductivity; L= Spaces of 2 electrodes
(m); A= Cross-sectional heat cell material surface (m2); I=
alternating current flow through the materials (A); V = material
voltage (V). The electrical conductivity of the materials
depends on various parameters, including the power of ions,
the water-free content, and the material's microstructure [27].
Ion compounds such as acids and bases can improve
electrical conductivity but reduce non-polar compounds such
as fats and lipids [28], [29]. The material's electrical
conductivity value is not constant. Increasing material
temperature can increase the conductivity of electricity [8].
Preheating with conventional methods is one method for
streamlining ohmic heating to increase the electrical
conductivity of materials [27]. The ohmic process can not
effectively heat the food at electrically conductive values less
IJSTR©2020
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than 0.01 S/m and above 10 S/m. It caused the desired heat
to require huge voltages or currents [30].
3.2. Frequency and waveform
The frequency used for food ohmic heating applications is
classified by 50 Hz-60 Hz as low frequency [30]. The
electroporation of the quick cell membrane results from too low
a frequency. As a result, electric conductivity suddenly
increases, affecting the finished product's texture. The use of
high frequencies can reduce the electroporation of the cell
membrane, but can considerably increase the time needed to
reach the temperature required [31]. Electricity is also
significantly increased in wavelengths when the waveforms
used are sinusoidal (sine waves) and triangular (like saws) in
comparison to 4 Hz quadratic waves [22].
3.3. Size, heat capacity, and material viscosity
With an increased particle size of the material, the electric
conductivity of the material will decrease [24]. Materials of less
than 5 mm particle size can have an impact on the conductivity
of the material. However, the particle size has a significant
effect on the electrical conductivity of large particle (15 to 25
mm) material, which affects the process heating rate [32].
When solid particles are suspended into a liquid medium of the
same power conductivity, the material component with a lower
heat capacitance is heated more rapidly [6]. Materials with
high specific gravity and heat tend to require more time to
reach the desired temperature [22]. Liquid materials of higher
viscosity tend to heat more quickly than materials of lower
viscosity [33]. Materials with higher solid particulate
concentrations usually have a faster heating rate. This is
because more particles flow through the electrical current so
that the heat energy produced in the particles gets faster [6].
3.4. Electrode
Electrodes are one possible cause of heat loss during ohmic
heating and can lead to too high a product temperature
gradient [34]. The thicker the electrodes are, the lower the
temperature rates. This is because of the higher mass, lower
electrical resistance [35]. The material used as an electrode
can also influence the ohmic heating process. Titanium
electrodes have a higher temperature in heating than the
Stainless-Steel electrodes of the same thickness on the
surface of the electrodes. Aluminum electrodes tend to be
electrolyzed so that there is likely to be contamination in the
material [34]. Titanium electrodes are the best materials and
are electrolysis resistant and offer an optimum heating rate
[34].
4. OHMIC HEATING ON FOOD
Ohmic heating has enormous potential for use in the food
industry. Food ohmic heat is used for microbial inactivation,
pasteurization, extraction, blanching, thawing, starch
gelatinization, and evaporation. This method can be applied to
various food products. However, some food products should
be prepared for ionic content improvement and solid-phase
conductivity [11]. The lower the conductivity difference of the
material in the liquid and solid phase, the more the electric
current flow is uniformly distributed so that the generated
heating is more equally distributed [36]. Before the ohmic
heating process, other pre-treatments can be made to reduce
the reduction of texture value and to equalize the electric
conductivity of the material to achieve a uniform drying rate at
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all stages within the material [11].
4.1. Pathogenic microbes’ inactivation
There are various drawbacks to microbial inactivation by using
conventional heating methods, namely reduced organoleptic
quality and nutrient content in the material, especially in
materials that are not heat resistant [37]. The ohmic heating
process is the lethal result of conventional heating for
pathogenic microbes to be inactivated. Ohmic heating can,
however, be more effective in keeping quality ingredients with
shorter heating times [30]. Several studies have shown that
ohmic heating can cause non-thermal damage to microbial
cells due to exposure to electric fields. So that the value of D
or the time needed to kill microorganisms as much as 1 log
cycle during ohmic heating becomes smaller when compared
to conventional heating [30], [38]. The inactivation of the
microorganisms has significant impacts on the temperature
and electrical current. A 1% increase in the temperature can
decrease over 9% of the population of the first
microorganisms, and a 1% rise in the current of the electricity
used can decrease over 20% of the Zygosaccharomyces
rouxii population in orange juice [37]. The inactivation of
Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris spores using ohmic heating
also proved to be more effective than the conventional heating
of orange juice. Ohmic heating with an electric field of 30 V/m
in orange juice at 90 °C for 30 minutes is sufficient to reduce 5
log spores in the material [39]. According to Shao et al. [40],
there is a positive correlation between Escherichia coli
bacteria or the phase of adaptation with the voltage gradient in
ohmic heat. When the lag phase is longer than conventional
heat. This phenomenon can lead to non-thermal effects of
ohmic heat. Some other ohmic heating-inactivated
microorganisms include Listeria monocytogenes [41],
Salmonella typhimurium [42], Bacillus coagulans spores [43],
and Geobacillus stearothermophillus [44].
4.2. Enzyme inactivation
In the ohmic heating method, the mechanism of inactivation of
the enzyme is the same as conventional heating, although
some kinetics of parameters change [45]. Various types of
enzymes found in food can cause adverse effects, such as
odors and deforested taste and texture changes, so that
inactivation is necessary [46]. The pectin methylesterase is an
enzyme which in the ripening process can degrade pectin in
fresh fruits like oranges and purify the juice by forming a Ca 2+
pectate gel [46], [47]. It is necessary to inactivate this enzyme
to avoid excessive pectin degradation and cause extreme
changes in texture. The method of inactivating this enzyme
with both ohmic and conventional heating also follows the
kinetics of the first-order inactivation. Still, the cost of the
reduction of ohmic heat shows a level of efficiency that is
better than conventional orange juice heating, which is 96%
compared to 88,3% [45], [46]. Some enzymes can cause
undesirable color changes, such as sugar cane juice browning
due to the peroxidase enzyme [48]. But in the second stage,
peroxidase enzymes are inactivated more rapidly by ohmic
heat, although the first phase did not change significantly
compared to conventional heat [45]. The presence of an
electric field combined with a heat of 80 °C influences the
biochemical reaction to peroxidase inactivation in sugarcane
juice samples. However, no significant non-thermal effect was
found during the inactivation process due to ohmic heating
[48], [49]. Tyrosinase is an enzyme that, in the case of oxygen,
IJSTR©2020
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can catalyze the oxidation reaction of phenolic compounds into
quinone, forming dark-brown pigments [50]. Inactivation of
tyrosinase using ohmic heating has shown that the time
needed for inactivation is reduced compared to conventional
heating [51]. Polyphenol oxidase and lipoxygenase are other
enzymes whose activation is more productive using the ohmic
heating method. Nevertheless, the inactivity of certain
enzymes such as alkaline phosphatase, pectinase, and β-
galactosidase is not affected by all heated ohmic treatments
[52].
4.3. Extraction
Ohmic heating can induce cell membrane electro-permeability.
The temperature and membrane damage can increase as
electric current flows through the medium, resulting in fluid
diffusion into the cellular structure [53]. The application of
ohmic heating to bulb samples for inulin extraction in
Jerusalem has proven that the extraction yields are
significantly higher than conventional heating [17]. The reason
is that the electrical field is higher, and the more solids are
extracted into the solution. According to Aamir and Jittanit [54],
the extraction of tepurang (Momordica cochinchinensis) fruit
oil using ohmic heating showed an extraction efficiency, color
characteristics, β-carotene, and lycopene content higher than
conventional heating. This is due to the more easily damaged
skin cell walls during the ohmic heating process. Further, it has
been proven that phytochemical extractions such as
anthocyanins and phenolic compounds from colored potatoes
lead to more extraction results with shorter treatment times,
less consumption of energy, and no use of organic solvents
using ohmic heating methods [55].
4.4. Thawing
The process of thawing with ohmic heating is more efficient.
The heat generated throughout the material is faster and more
uniform. This affects the time needed to prevent significant
freezing [56]. Increasing the frequency of frozen thawing will
increase the heating rate. The higher beef fat content results in
lower electrical conductivity and longer cycle times [56]. Ohmic
heating also decreased weight loss and frozen beef thawing
period [18]. An increase in gradient voltage will minimize
thawing time without increasing the loss of weight in the final
frozen beef product in the form of blocks and cubes [57].
5. CONCLUSION
Ohmic is an alternative method of heating, which uses
electrodes to convert electric energy into heat. The electrode
is directly in contact with the heated material. The ohmic
heating process allows for a higher quality of the end products,
faster cooking time, and efficient use of energy. The electrical
conductivity of the heating material is one of the factors that
determine the effectiveness of the ohmic heating system.
Ohmic heat from materials with electrical conductivity of
between 0.01 and 10 S/m can be effectively and efficiently
generated. There is already extensive use of ohmic heating
potential in the food sector. Ohmic heat is most widely used in
foods, including inactivation of pathogens and enzymes, as
well as the removal of compounds in food.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC & TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH VOLUME 9, ISSUE 01, JANUARY 2020
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author would like to thank the Republic of Indonesia's
Ministry of Research and Technology, and Universitas
Padjadjaran, for the financial support in this paper.
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