Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126532

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Gradation of limestone-aggregate-based porous asphalt concrete under

dynamic crushing test: composition, fragmentation and stability
Jun Cai a, b, *, Chen Song c, d, Xiangbing Gong a, Jiupeng Zhang d, Jianzhong Pei d,
Zongwu Chen b, e, f
a
Key Laboratory of Special Environment Road Engineering of Hunan Province, Changsha University of Science & Technology, Changsha 410114, Hunan, China
b
Key Laboratory of Road Structure and Material of Ministry of Transport (Changsha), Changsha University of Science & Technology, Changsha 410114, China
c
Xi’an Xianyang International Airport Co., Ltd, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710064, China
d
School of Highway, Chang’an University, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710064, China
e
Faculty of Engineering, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan 430074, China
f
State Key Laboratory of Green Building Materials, China Building Materials Academy, Beijing 100024, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Aggregate with excellent mechanical properties, like basalt, is always in great demand in porous asphalt concrete
Porous asphalt concrete (PAC). While in areas where high-quality basalt is insufficient, limestone aggregate with acceptable performance
Limestone aggregate is considered as a potential alternative. This paper analyzed the composition, fragmentation and stability of PAC
Gradation stability
gradation based on limestone aggregate since its long-term performance and stability under repeated stresses still
Dynamic crushing test
Fragmentation behavior
haven’t been studied. Firstly, dynamic crushing test (DCT) was adopted to simulate the stress characteristics of
PAC gradation. Secondly, single size range of aggregate (SSRA) and PAC gradation were used to determine and
verify the test conditions. Thirdly, composition, distribution characteristics and stability of formed structural
systems were studied. Lastly, more PAC gradations were adopted to further verify the conclusions. Results
showing the test samples have reached relative stability by one-cycle test, were not significantly influenced by
test temperature. In DCTs, aggregate of 4.75 mm had a critical effect on structural systems stability, while ag­
gregates of 2.36 mm and 9.5 mm also played important roles in improving systems’ stability. Unlike SSRA, which
was influenced by its own objective crushing characteristics and contributed to larger air void ratios of newly-
formed-systems, aggregates in PAC gradations were affected by objective crushing characteristics as well as
structural skeletons. Aggregate particle size distribution of newly-formed-systems of PAC gradations was be­
tween those of AC and PAC gradations, more closed to that of AC gradation. Besides, those formed systems have
been proved to have better stabilities than control samples of similar air void ratios.

1. Introduction to affect the strategic target achievement of long-life asphalt pavement

In recent years, China has witnessed a rapid development of high­
ways, which has laid a solid foundation for its economic prosperity. The
highway has exceeded 161,000 km, and the total mileage of various
pavement has reached more than 5,198,100 km in China at 2020 [1].
The large pavement mileage ensures the efficiency of material and in­
formation exchange in different areas, moreover, it also brings
tremendous pressure to the natural environment and exacerbates the
shortage of high-quality aggregates represented by basalt [2–4].
The dilemma on the shortage of basalt aggregates will be predictable
and Construction of Powerful Transportation Country to a certain extent
in China [5,6]. And compared to the traditional types of asphalt mix­
tures, it has a greater impact on the porous asphalt concrete (PAC) [7,8].
PAC is a kind of framework-interstice structure with the air void ratio in
the range of 18%-24%, and consists of about 80% aggregate with the
size larger than 2.36 mm [9,10]. The porous structure and accumulation
of coarse aggregates easily cause excessive stress concentration [11,12].
Therefore, it has much higher requirements on the mechanical proper­
ties and wear resistance of the aggregate, and is also more sensitive to
the changes of aggregate performance [13–15].

* Corresponding author at: Key Laboratory of Road Structure and Material of Ministry of Transport (Changsha), Changsha University of Science & Technology,
Changsha 410114, China.
E-mail address: fromhscaijun@163.com (J. Cai).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.126532
Received 12 December 2021; Received in revised form 17 January 2022; Accepted 18 January 2022
Available online 31 January 2022
0950-0618/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Cai et al. Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126532

Fig. 1. Fragmentation behavior in limestone-aggregate-based PAC framework structure. a: PAC-20; b: PAC-13.

and Ziari employed dissipated energy method to evaluate the fatigue life
Table 1
of PAC by using limestone aggregate and SBS modified binder [25].
Basic performance of TMA.
It seems a good attempt to adopt limestone as aggregate in the PAC
Test items Results Specification requirements field, which may alleviate the shortage of high-quality aggregates.
[31,32]
However, it is still worth noting that PAC has high requirements on
Penetration (25 ◦ C, 5 s, 100 g)/ 45.8 ≥ 40 aggregate mechanical properties for its long-term service process. And it
(0.1 mm)
seems an overlooked issue for the differences in mechanical properties
Softening point (oC) 90.45 ≥ 80
Ductility (5 cm/min, 5 ◦ C) 45.1 ≥ 30
between limestone and basalt aggregate in current study. The decline in
Rational viscosity (135 ◦ C, mPa•s) 2977 – mechanical properties may cause a significant decrease in the stability of
Rational viscosity (180 ◦ C, mPa•s) 540 – PAC framework structure and a significant increase in aggregate
crushing properties (Fig. 1 [26–29]).
In this study, we try to research the fragmentation behavior and
A series of studies have been conducted by researchers in PAC field
stability of PAC gradation with limestone aggregate. Specifically, a
for the shortage of basalt aggregates. It seems to become a common way
modified dynamic crushing test (DCT) were firstly employed to simulate
by adopting reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) and industrial wastes
the stress characteristics of PAC gradation; then the single size range of
(such as steel slag) to replace the basalt aggregate [7,16,17]. Der-Hsien
aggregate (SSRA) in PAC gradation and two types of PAC gradations,
studied the overall performance of PAC with different percentages of
including three sets of traditional and developed PAC gradations
basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slag by volume as coarse aggregate, and
respectively, were selected to determine and confirm the test conditions
highlighted the edges of BOF slag in mixtures’ skid resistance, moisture
since the effects of test cycles, test temperatures and aggregate sizes
susceptibility, rutting resistance and sound absorption [17]. Wall and
were considered; thirdly, the compositions, distribution characteristics
Bosch [18] discussed the application attempt of RAP in PAC, and
of SSRA and PAC gradations, and the air void ratio, stability of formed
developed a new approach based on the optimal formula by mass. Frigio
mixtures were systematic investigated; and finally, 12 sets of additional
et al. [19] adopted course reclaimed asphalt from old porous surface
groups of PAC gradations were used to verify the test conclusions.
layers as aggregate in new PAC, and found recycled PACs can show
excellent durability. Zhang et al. [20] investigated the enhancement of
red mud as alternative filler in PAC.
Moreover, in areas where lack of high-quality RAP and industrial Table 3
Basic properties of mineral powder.
wastes, using limestone aggregates with acceptable performance in­
dicators are also a common alternative [21–23]. Norambuena-contreras Test items Results Specification requirements [31,32]
performed cylindrical samples of PAC manufactured with limestone Apparent specific gravity 2.699 ≥2.5
aggregates to study the experimental procedure of dynamic modulus of Particle size range <0.6 mm 100 100
asphalt mixtures by ultrasonic direct test [24]. Xu et al. studied the <0.15 mm 94.8 90 ~ 100
<0.075 mm 80.2 75 ~ 100
properties of PAC using limestone as coarse aggregate, and proposed the
Hydrophilic coefficient 0.72 <1.0
corresponding optimal Marshall molding parameters [22]. Shadman

Table 2
Physical and mechanical properties of aggregate.
Types Test items Results Specification requirements [31,32]

Coarse aggregate Flat and elongated (%) 3:1 4.75 ~ 9.5 mm 18.6 ≤20
>9.5 mm 13.9 ≤15
Soundness (%) 6.2 ≤8
Absorption 0.25 ≤2
Los Angeles abrasion (%) 24.8 ≤28
Crushing value (%) 18.3 ≤26

Fine aggregate Angularity (Flow time, s) 46.3 ≥30

Sand equivalent value (%) 65.0 ≥60

2
J. Cai et al. Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126532

Fig. 2. Flow diagram of the DCT method in this study.

2. Materials and experimental program

2.1. Materials

(1) Asphalt binder

In this study, TAFPACK-SUPER modified asphalt (TMA), composed
of 12% TAFPACK-SUPER and 88% matrix A-90 asphalt binder (by
weight), is employed. The basic properties of TMA are shown in Table 1.
The more detailed performance of this employed binders can be seen in
the published article titled Investigation on high-viscosity asphalt binder for
permeable asphalt concrete with waste materials [30].
(2) Aggregate
The limestone aggregate used in this study is from Anwu Town,
Jingyang County, Shaanxi Province, and its physical and mechanical
properties are shown in Table 2.
(3) Mineral powder
Mineral powder is also produced in Anwu Town, Jingyang County,
Shaanxi Province, and its basic properties are shown in Table 3.
(4) PAC gradation
There are more than 30 groups of gradations used in the experiment.
For better showing the changes of gradations before and after the
experiment, detailed gradations will be given in the specific experi­
mental processes.

2.2. Experimental program

2.2.1. Test method

This study aims to study the relationship of composition, fragmen­
tation and stability of PAC gradation by using limestone aggregate, so an
appropriate test method is quite critical. Generally speaking, the pave­
ment is mainly subject to the dynamic shear stress during its service
processes. However, in the existing research, there are very few test
methods that can be used for the gradation dynamic shear tests. So in
this study, a replaced test method by using ‘DCT’ was employed to
simulate the stress characteristics of PAC gradation. The DCT is devel­
Fig. 3. Laboratory test scheme in this study.
oped from the ‘crushing value test of coarse aggregate’, which is specified
in the JTG E42 Test Methods of Aggregate for Highway Engineering [33].
The test methods of DCT and crushing value test of coarse aggregate are

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J. Cai et al.
Fig. 4. Aggregate size distribution of different SSRAs after one cycle and two cycle DCTs at normaltemperature (I refers to one cycle DCT, and II refers to two
cycle DCTs).
almost the same except for the following two aspects:
(1) DCT considered the effects of the second cycle crushing test and
the test temperatures.
After the first cycle crushing test (Fig. 2 a-f), the test sample (single
size range of aggregates or PAC gradation) was poured into a tray, then
put into the test mold again by using ‘equal quaternary method’
(Fig. 2h), and finally the second cycle crushing test would be conducted
according to the experimental methods (Fig. 2i-m).
During the test, the differences between the fragmentation behavior
of the test sample at normal temperature (25 ◦ C) and high temperature
(180 ◦ C) were also considered. Specifically, first put the test sample into
a test mold (Fig. 2c), and then placed the test mold and the indenter in an
oven at the target test temperature (25 ◦ C or 180 ◦ C), and maintained for
5 h (Fig. 2d). After 5 h, move the two quickly to the press for a crush test
(Fig. 2e). It should be noted that when the second cycle crushing test is
performed, it is necessary to continue holding for 5 h after the first cycle
crushing test (Fig. 2j).
(2) After the test, the aggregate size distribution of test samples at
each sieve size was calculated.
2.2.2. Influencing factors
This research studied on the composition, fragmentation and sta­
bility of limestone aggregate in PAC gradation, so the types and dosage
of asphalt binder, types of aggregate and mineral powder, are deter­
mined before the study. Regarding the possible impact factors of PAC
gradation during the pavement construction and service processes,
following three aspects would be investigated:
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Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126532
(1) The cycles of crushing test. Simulating the effect of vehicle traffic
volume and axle load on the fragmentation behavior of PAC gradation.
(2) Test temperature. Although aggregate is not a temperature-
dependent material, it may occur fragmentation under pressure at
high temperature. Herein, test temperature simulates the effect of con­
struction temperature on PAC gradation during the roller compaction
processes in pavement construction.
(3) Aggregate size. Aggregate size is also an important influencing
factor. Under the same design parameters (such as air void ratio), if the
aggregate size was different, the skeleton structure of the gradation and
the contact state between the aggregates are also different. In order to
reflect the effect of aggregate size on the gradation, this paper compared
the differences in fragmentation behavior between the gradations with
the same air void ratio while composed of different nominal maximum
aggregate sizes (NMAS).
Considering the above influencing factors, the following design was
carried out during the DCTs:
(1) The one cycle DCT and two cycle DCTs were set to simulate the
effect of vehicle traffic volume and axle load.
(2) DCTs were performed at 25 ◦ C and 180 ◦ C to reflect the effects of
different temperatures.
(3) With different NMAS, the gradation of PAC-20, PAC-16, PAC-13
and PAC-10 were selected to reveal the effect of aggregate particle size
on gradation fragmentation behavior.
2.2.3. Test samples
The test samples included two parts: single size range of aggregates
J. Cai et al.
Fig. 5. Aggregate size distribution of different SSRAs after one cycle and two cycle DCTs at high temperature (I refers to one cycle DCT, and II refers to two
cycle DCTs).
(SSRA) and PAC gradation composed of aggregates in different sizes.
Herein, SSRA refers to the aggregates with NMAS of 19 mm, 16 mm,
13.2 mm, 9.5 mm, 4.75 mm and 2.36 mm, respectively. And the design
is mainly based on the following reasons:
(1) The composition of SSRA is relatively simple, and the experi­
mental results can be relatively easy to summarize. Studying its
composition variation is helpful to understand the fragmentation
behavior of PAC gradation.
(2) Compared with PAC gradation, SSRA has more uniform size
distribution and the compounds within SSRA have fewer indirect con­
tacts when under test. SSRA is more sensitive to break in test conditions.
Therefore, it can be used to determine the test conditions under which
the gradation reaches the final stable state.
(3) In PAC gradation, the relatively large size aggregate
(NMAS ≥ 2.36 mm) generally accounts for more than 80% [5,30], so
research on the variation of SSRA during the test could be better to
understand the change of the gradation.
For PAC gradation, it also includes two types: One is the traditional
gradation based on the current PAC gradation design method (such as
PAC-20, PAC-16, PAC-13, PAC-10, etc.), and the other is a kind of
developed gradation from the traditional gradation (such as PAC-20C,
PAC-16C, PAC-13C, PAC-10C, etc.). In this developed gradation, firstly
the 4.75 mm size aggregate is considered as the center in the gradation,
and keeps its distribution ratio unchanged; then change the distribution
ratio of the adjacent size aggregates from 4.75 mm to both the larger and
smaller sides until reach the maximum aggregate size and 2.36 mm in
the gradation. The change principle is that the distribution ratio of
adjacent size aggregates in the gradation is completely opposite but does
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Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126532
not exceed the upper and lower limits of the specification. The devel­
oped gradation is designed mainly based on the concept of ‘Volumetric
mix design method based on multi-supporting framework condition (vS
design method)’ [34–36], and the purpose is to investigate the effect of
gradation composition on fragmentation behavior and gradation sta­
bility [37,38].
2.2.4. Evaluation indexes
After the DCTs, firstly the aggregate size distribution was calculated
and used as one of the indicators to evaluate the stability of test
gradation. Secondly, when analyzing the differences in fragmentation
behavior and gradation stability between the traditional and developed
PAC gradations, ‘volatility’ and ‘total volatility’ were introduced. The
specific ‘volatility’ and ‘total volatility’ calculation details are shown in
equations (Eq.1) and (Eq.2). Thirdly, for better verifying the accuracy of
the distribution characteristics of PAC gradation, more PAC gradations
were subjected to the DCTs. Meanwhile, the air void ratio, stability and
flow value were used as indicators to further evaluate the volume
characteristics and skeleton stability of the formed gradations after
DCTs.
( )2
V = Pafter − Pbefore (1)
∑
TV = V (2)
Where V refers to the volatility on passing rate of test gradation at each
sieve size before and after DCTs. Pafter refers to the passing rate of test
gradation at each sieve size after DCTs, and Pbefore refers to the passing
J. Cai et al.
Fig. 6. Aggregate size distribution of different SSRAs after one cycle DCT at normal and high temperatures (N refers to normal temperature, and H refers to high
temperature).
rate of test gradation at each sieve size before DCTs. TV refers to the sum
of volatility on passing rate of test gradation at all sieve sizes.
2.2.5. Test scheme
(1) SSRA was performed DCTs, in which the effect of test cycles, test
temperatures, and NMAS were considered, and the aggregate size dis­
tribution after the test was analyzed to determine the test conditions of
reaching stability.
(2) Types of traditional and developed gradations were employed
respectively to verify the determined test conditions, and also the
comparisons on the characteristics of aggregate size distribution, air
void ratio and Marshall stability were also made.
(3) More PAC gradations were selected to verify the test results.
Moreover, it should be noted that in this study-three sets of replicas were
conducted for each test, and the test results present here were the
average values of three test samples.
Based on the above introduction, the test scheme is summarized in
Fig. 3.
3. Test results and discussion
3.1. Influencing factors of SSRAs
3.1.1. Effect of test cycles
Figure 4 shows the aggregate size distribution of different SSRAs
after one cycle and two cycle DCTs respectively at normal temperature.
As can be seen from the figure, on the whole, the test cycles have no
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Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126532
significant effect on the results by considering the randomness of the
aggregate size and morphology of the aggregate. This means that at
normal temperature, the SSRA can basically reach a stable state after one
cycle DCT test.
Specifically, by comparing the aggregate size distribution after one
cycle and two cycle DCTs, it can be found that the larger the aggregate
size, the larger differences in the aggregate size distribution, indicating
that the test cycles have a greater impact on the aggregate with the
larger aggregate size. This is because compared with fine aggregate, the
coarse aggregate has larger sizes and fewer indirect contacts of aggre­
gates, so the larger size aggregates are more likely to break due to stress
concentration [39,40]. Meanwhile, results exhibit that all peaks appear
when the sieve size is 4.75 mm, which is in line with previous research
[35,36]. It is shown that aggregates with the size range of 4.75 mm to
9.5 mm are beneficial to improve the stability of the entire system after
DCTs. Therefore, SSRA preferentially generates aggregates with an
aggregate size range of 4.75 mm to 9.5 mm during the test to enhance
the load bearing capacity of the formed system [35].
Figure 5 shows the aggregate size distribution of different SSRAs
after one cycle and two cycle DCTs at high temperature. Overall, there is
no significant difference between the results at high and normal tem­
perature tests. The larger aggregate size, the greater differences in
aggregate size distribution between the two crushing tests. All distri­
bution peaks of curves appeared when the sieve is 4.75 mm.
In summary, the test cycles on the whole have little effect on the
SSRA aggregate size distribution, especially on the aggregates with
relatively small sizes. In fact, in DCTs, the test samples are subjected to a
J. Cai et al. Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126532

Fig. 7. Aggregate size distribution of different SSRAs after two cycle DCTs at normal and high temperatures (N refers to normal temperature, and H refers to high
temperature).

Fig. 8. Aggregate size distribution of different SSRAs under different test conditions. a: one cycle DCT at normal temperature; b: two cycle DCTs at normal tem­
perature; c: one cycle DCT at high temperature; d: two cycle DCTs at high temperature.

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J. Cai et al. Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126532

Table 4 can be considered that it already reaches stability during the road
Composition details of six sets of selected PAC gradations. service.
PAC- PAC- PAC- PAC- PAC- PAC-
20B 20CB 16B 16CB 13B 13CB 3.1.2. Effect of test temperature
19 2 11 Figure 6 shows the aggregate size distribution of the SSRA after one
16 13 5.5 5 5 cycle DCT at normal temperature and high temperature. It can be seen
13.2 5 18.3 15 25 10 21.7 that on the whole the temperature has not very obvious effect on the
9.5 25 7.3 22.5 8.3 25 6.7 aggregate size distribution of SSRA in one cycle DCT despite of some
4.75 30 33 36.5 36.5 50 50
2.36 10 8.4 5 9.2 3 9.6
differences in the relatively larger sieve size.
1.18 2 2.2 4 4 4 4 Figure 7 shows the aggregate size distribution of the SSRA after two
0.6 1 1.1 2 2 2 2 cycle DCTs at normal temperature and high temperature. Compared
0.3 2 2.2 2.5 2.5 1 1 with the results of the one cycle DCT, the results in the two cycle DCTs at
0.15 2 2.2 2 2 1 1
normal temperature and high temperature are more similar. This shows
0.075 2 2.2 1.5 1.5 1 1
0 6 6.6 4 4 3 3 that temperature has very little effect on the SSRA gradation stability.
Gradation Closed to upper Closed to middle Closed to lower Taken the effects of test temperature on DCT results, it can be known
characteristics limits value limits that the test temperature has little effect on the aggregate size distri­
Note: The PAC gradation before the DCT is marked with the letter B at the end to bution results. SSRA has its own crushing characteristics under DCT,
indicate “Before the Test”. The PAC gradation after the crush test does not have which is not easily affected by temperature. In fact, the results of the
the letter B at the end. In gradation comparison analysis, it is necessary to pay thermal stability test (TG-DSC) of commonly used aggregates have
attention to distinguish this difference. shown that they all have good thermal stability, and there are no
obvious performance changes during the temperature range of 0–300 ◦ C
force that increases to 400KN within 10 min, and withstands the pres­ [41]. The main components of the commonly used aggregates and the
sure of 400KN for 5 s. In this test process, it is calculated that the in­ crystal phase formed are relatively stable in the temperature range of
tensity of pressure on the test samples is much larger than the one 0–300 ◦ C. Therefore, the SSRA test results in DCT do not change
between the tire and the pavement surface during the normal driving significantly with the test temperature.
(assuming the pressure between the tire and the pavement surface is
about 0.7–1.0 MPa, the test pressure is about 20 to 30 times larger than 3.1.3. Effect of aggregate size
the actual pressure between the tire and the pavement surface). There­ Figure 8 shows the aggregate size distribution of SSRA at different
fore, once the test sample reaches a steady state in this test condition, it temperatures and DCTs. Firstly, as can be seen from the figure, due to the

Fig. 9. Aggregate size distribution of PAC gradations after one cycle and two cycle DCTs at normal temperature (I refers to one cycle DCT, and II refers to two
cycle DCTs).

8
J. Cai et al.
Fig. 10. Aggregate size distribution of PAC gradations after one cycle and two cycle DCTs at high temperature (I refers to one cycle DCT, and II refers to two
cycle DCTs).
difference in initial aggregate size, the aggregate size distribution ratio
of SSRA is different under the same test conditions. However, despite the
differences of distribution ratio in specific sieve sizes, further observa­
tion shows that with the 4.75 mm size as the demarcation point, the
trends of SSRA aggregate size distribution ratio are similar when the
sieve size is greater than 4.75 mm, and the trends of SSRA aggregate size
distribution ratio decrease as the sieve size decreases when the sieve size
is less than 4.75 mm. This shows that although the initial aggregate sizes
affect the distribution ratio of SSRA in each sieve size, SSRA has its own
crushing characteristics. Secondly, it can be clearly seen that despite the
different test conditions, all peaks appear when the sieve size is
4.75 mm. The reason is as explained in the previous study in the section
3.1.1, that is, the aggregate with the size range of 4.75 mm to 9.5 mm
plays a key role in the stability of the system after the test, and will be
generated firstly during the test.
Based on the effect of test cycles, test temperatures and aggregate
sizes on the DCT results of SSRA, it can be known that SSRA achieve a
relatively stable structural system after being conducted one cycle test,
and the test temperature has little effect on the results. Meanwhile,
although the aggregate size affects the distribution ratio of aggregates in
each sieve size, with the 4.75 mm size as the demarcation point, the
change trends of two parts are quite similar. However, in the subsequent
research, considering the differences in the compositions between SSRA
and PAC gradation, the conducted test conditions are still necessary to
verify for better revealing the formed structural systems’ fragmentation
behavior.
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Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126532
3.2. Influencing factors of PAC gradations
It is concluded from Section 3.1 that SSRA achieve a relatively stable
structural system after being conducted one cycle test, and the test
temperature has little effect on the results. In this section, three sets of
traditional PAC gradations (PAC-20B, PAC-16B, PAC-13B) with different
NMAS are used to further verify the above test results. Moreover, since
some test results of SSRA in Section 3.1 are consistent with the con­
clusions of vS design method, herein, three sets of developed PAC gra­
dations (PAC-20CB, PAC-16CB, PAC-13CB) with different NMAS are
also employed and compared (design methods could be obtained in
Section 2.2.3 Test samples). The composition information of above six
gradations is shown in Table 4.
3.2.1. Effect of test cycles
Figure 9 shows the aggregate size distribution of the six sets of PAC
gradations after one cycle and two cycle DCTs respectively at normal
temperature. As can be seen from the figure, compared with the test
results of SSRA, the results of PAC gradation in different test cycles are
more similar, which is mainly because the gradation composition of PAC
gradation is more reasonable than that of SSRA. In PAC gradation, fine
aggregates with different aggregate sizes and ratios have more particle
contacts inside, which can more effectively disperse the pressure during
the test [42,43]. Therefore, the impact of test cycles on PAC gradation is
smaller and it is reasonable to conduct the DCT in one cycle test. Sec­
ondly, results also shows that all the peaks appear when the sieve size is
4.75 mm after the test. This is similar to that of SSRA, which improves
the stability of the system of the aggregates after the tests by forming a
large number of aggregates with a size range of 4.75 mm-9.5 mm.
J. Cai et al.
Fig. 11. Aggregate size distribution of PAC gradations after one cycle DCT at normal and high temperatures (N refers to normal temperature, and H refers to high
temperature).
Figure 10 shows the aggregate size distribution of the six sets of PAC
gradations after one cycle and two cycle DCTs respectively at high
temperature. Firstly, the differences of test results between two test
conditions at high temperature are greater than those at normal tem­
perature, but it is still far from obvious. That is, the test cycles have little
effect on the test results of PAC gradation at high temperature. Secondly,
the differences of test results between two test conditions mainly ap­
pears in the area where the sieve size is larger than 4.75 mm, indicating
that the coarse aggregate is more easily affected by test cycles. The
reason is that, as a framework for aggregates, coarse aggregates bear
most of the load, and coarse aggregates have less contact with their
surrounding aggregates than fine aggregates, so the coarse aggregates
have a weaker load-dispersing capacity. Thirdly, similar to all previous
DCT results, when the sieve size is 4.75 mm, peaks of aggregate size
distribution appear, indicating that aggregates with the size range of
4.75 mm–9.5 mm have a very important influence on the stability of the
skeleton structure.
Based on the above results, it can be known that the PAC gradation
can reach a relatively stable state after being conducted one cycle DCT.
The impact of test cycles on PAC gradation is less than that on SSRA
gradation.
3.2.2. Effect of test temperatures
Figure 11 shows the test results of the PAC gradations after one cycle
DCT at normal and high temperatures. It can be seen that the test tem­
perature has no significant effect on the test results, indicating the test
temperature has little effect on the one cycle DCT of the PAC gradations.
Figure 12 shows the test results of the PAC gradations after two cycle
DCTs at normal temperature and high temperature. It can be seen that
the test temperature also has no significant effect on the test results. So
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Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126532
the above results reveal that the test temperature has little effect on the
test cycles of the PAC gradations.
3.2.3. Effect of NMAS
Figure 13 shows the test results of PAC gradations with different
NMSAs in different test conditions. Overall, although the gradation
compositions of the three sets in each figure are different (see Table 4 for
details), they show a similar distribution trend after the tests. It shows
that similar to the formed SSRA structural system, the PAC gradations
have their own objective crushing characteristics in DCTs, and different
gradations have similar trends after the test.
Secondly, the aggregate size distribution of the three sets of devel­
oped gradations optimized by the vS design method under different
experimental conditions (Fig. 13b, d, f, h) shows that there is a rapid
decrease of the aggregate size distribution when the sieve size is 9.5 mm
and then a small peak when the sieve size is 13.2 mm. Because in the
developed PAC gradation, the proportion of aggregates with a size of
9.5 mm is significantly reduced, and the proportion of aggregates with a
size of 13.2 mm is increased, the results after the DCTs also show a
similar distribution. These results indicate that in the DCTs, the PAC
gradations optimized by the vS design method not only have SSRA
crushing characteristics, but also retain the distribution characteristics
of the gradations before the test. In fact, the traditional PAC gradations
in DCTs also have similar results, that is, the aggregate distribution with
the size larger than 4.75 mm gradually decreases, which is different from
the stable aggregate size distribution of SSRA.
Above results show that the PAC gradations reveal dual character­
istics in DCTs: on the one hand, the aggregates have their own objective
characteristics of crushing; on the other hand, the aggregates are con­
strained by the gradation skeleton when under testing. The interaction
J. Cai et al.
Fig. 12. Aggregate size distribution of PAC gradations after two cycle DCTs at normal and high temperatures (N refers to normal temperature, and H refers to high
temperature).
of these two characteristics leads to the complexity of gradation frag­
mentation. In Section 3.1, the crushing objectivity of the SSRA plays a
leading role, which is shown by the stable distribution ratio in the coarse
aggregate area and the linear attenuation of the fine aggregate after the
test. The developed PAC gradations have obvious skeleton structure, so
they can be clearly observed that the constrain characteristics by the
gradation skeleton during the DCTs. For the three sets of traditional PAC
gradations in this section, the coarse aggregate size distribution after the
DCTs is neither stable nor exhibits obvious skeleton characteristics, and
their distribution range is between the structural system of SSRA and
developed PAC gradations. Moreover, since the range of PAC gradation
in the current specification is relatively large, so it is still difficult to
predict the aggregate size distribution of the stable PAC gradation after
DCTs, which is worthy of further research.
It can be known from aggregate size distribution of the six sets of PAC
gradations under different test conditions that, the conclusions of SSRA
in DCTs are basically accurate——The test samples achieve a relatively
stable structural system after being conducted one cycle DCT, and the
test temperature has little effect on the results. Moreover, it is worth
noting that, PAC gradations composed of different aggregate sizes have
different skeleton characteristics, and are subject to the impact of their
own objective crushing characteristics and constraints of the skeleton
during the test processes.
3.2.4. Effect of vS design method
Figure 14 shows the comparison of the DCT results between tradi­
tional and developed PAC gradations at normal temperature. As can be
seen from the figures, although their overall aggregate size distribution
trends are similar, the distribution ratios in areas with the size above
4.75 mm are almost opposite. The reason is that these two kinds of
11
Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126532
gradations before the test have exactly opposite distribution ratio when
the sieve size is larger than 4.75 mm. This result confirms the conclusion
that the PAC gradations are affected by the aggregate objective crushing
characteristics and the constraint of the skeleton structure during DCT
processes. Similarly, similar conclusions can be obtained from the test
results at high temperature (Fig. 15).
As mentioned before, the employment of the vS design method to
optimize the gradation is to increase the number of contact points be­
tween the coarse aggregate and the surrounding aggregate, thereby
improving the stability of the PAC gradation. Therefore, in this section,
the changes of the traditional and developed gradations before and after
DCTs are further statistically compared. Specifically, ‘volatility’ and
‘total volatility’ are introduced as evaluation indicators to analyze the
‘gradation volatility’ (see Section 2.2.4). Moreover, considering the
similarity between the test results at normal temperature and high
temperature, only the DCT results at normal temperature were analyzed.
Gradation volatility results of the PAC gradations were shown in Ta­
bles 5, 6 and 7, respectively.
Firstly, it can be known from Tables 5, 6 and 7 that the gradation
volatilities of the developed PAC gradations have been all decreased,
indicating that the vS design method can be used to improve the stability
of the PAC gradation.
Secondly, gradations with different NMAS are improved differently.
The volatility rates after two cycle DCTs show that compared with the
traditional PAC gradation volatility improvement rates, the PAC-20
gradation volatility improvement rate can be as high as 23.7%, while
the PAC-13 gradation volatility improvement rate is less than 3.5%. The
variation on the volatility improvement among different PAC gradations
is worth of further investigation, and in the another submitted article, it
would be systematic studied.
J. Cai et al. Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126532

Fig. 13. Aggregate size distribution of PAC gradations under different test conditions. a and b: one cycle DCT at normal temperature; c and d: two cycle DCTs at
normal temperature; e and f: onecycle DCT at high temperature; g and h: two cycle DCTs at high temperature.

Thirdly, comparing Tables 5 and 6, it can be seen that the gradation
volatility after two cycle DCTs is greatly reduced, which verifies the
conclusion that the gradation can be relatively stable after one cycle
DCT.
In addition, the volatility almost reaches the maximum when the
sieve size is 4.75 mm, and the volatility is also large when the sieve sizes
are 9.5 mm and 2.36 mm. In fact, at the sieve sizes of 2.36 mm, 4.75 mm,
and 9.5 mm, the proportion of aggregate size distribution increases,
resulting from the fragmentation of aggregates with larger aggregate
sizes in the gradation. The increases of the distribution ratio at the size of
9.5 mm, 4.75 mm and 2.36 mm indicate that not only aggregates with
the size of 4.75 mm, but also aggregates with a slightly larger aggregate
size of 9.5 mm and a slightly smaller aggregate size of 2.36 mm both play
an important role in maintaining the stability of the entire gradation.
Finally, the test results show that the larger the NMAS, the worse the
stability and the greater the variability of the gradation. Therefore, ag­
gregates with smaller aggregate sizes are more conducive to the stability
of the PAC gradation.

12
J. Cai et al.
Fig. 14. Effect of vS design method on the aggregate size distribution of PAC gradations at normal temperature. a, b and c: one cycle DCT; d, e and f: two cycle DCTs.
3.3. Composition, fragmentation and stability characteristics of
limestone-aggregate-based PAC gradation in DCTs
In Sections 3.1 and 3.2, the influencing factors and test conditions of
SSRA and PAC gradations with limestone aggregate were studied and
verified respectively. In this section, the composition, distribution, air
void ratio, and stability of the formed structural systems of SSRA and
PAC after one cycle DCT will be further studied.
3.3.1. Comparison on the specifications related to DCT results
Before analyses on the DCT results, it is essential to determine the
current specified gradation limits of PAC, OGFC and AC mixtures, which
are closely related to the test results, so as to facilitate subsequent
elaboration and comparison. Here, the PAC gradation range specified in
the CJJ/T 190 Technical specification for permeable asphalt pavements
[31], the OGFC gradation range and AC gradation range specified in the
JTG F40 Technical specifications for construction of highway asphalt pave­
ments [44] are compared. Details are shown in Tables 8, 9 and 10.
Firstly, compared with the gradation range of OGFC, the PAC
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Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126532
gradation range includes PAC-20 gradation, in which only upper and
lower limits of critical sizes are given and the specific aggregate size
ranges are not included. The reason may be that the current research on
PAC-20 gradation is still scarce, and based on the research results, it is
still difficult to propose a reasonable range for the upper and lower
limits of the entire gradation. Secondly, the differences between the
gradation types in both PAC and OGFC are very small, and they are
slightly different in the lower range of gradation-13. For convenience,
the upper and lower limits of PAC gradation were used in subsequent
studies to analyze the DCT results. Thirdly, by comparing the aggregate
size distribution of PAC gradation and AC gradation, it can be seen that
in PAC gradation more than half of the aggregate distributes in the size
of 9.5 mm and 4.75 mm, and the distribution of aggregates with
size ≤ 2.36 mm is rare, which generally does not exceed 20%. In
contrast, the aggregate size distribution of the AC gradation is more
uniform and is not concentrated in a certain or several sizes. The dif­
ferences between PAC gradation and AC gradation reflect their different
functional positioning. PAC aggregates should have large void ratios, so
the proportion of fine aggregate must be reduced. Moreover, aggregates
J. Cai et al. Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126532

Fig. 15. Effect of vS design method on the aggregate size distribution of PAC gradations at high temperature. a, b and c: one cycle DCT; d, e and f: two cycle DCTs.

Table 5 Table 6
Volatility results of PAC gradations after one cycle test. Volatility results of PAC gradations after two cycle tests (compared with the
results of one cycle test)
PAC- PAC- PAC- PAC- PAC- PAC-
20 20C 16 16C 13 13C PAC- PAC- PAC- PAC- PAC- PAC-
20 20C 16 16C 13 13C
19 109.18 40.31
16 17.77 11.51 1.62 4.97 19 0.04 0.24
13.2 22.91 33.53 22.35 108.77 27.04 81.00 16 1.44 0.27 2.35 6.43
9.5 38.67 9.65 139.05 50.94 162.90 75.11 13.2 3.45 0.89 19.78 4.22 1.17 1.57
4.75 33.79 118.13 273.33 212.45 489.68 490.57 9.5 0.60 0.21 4.03 6.87 1.56 0.06
2.36 36.73 33.47 58.81 61.81 90.96 130.34 4.75 6.71 0.03 0.43 0.67 3.59 0.11
1.18 19.25 13.59 43.84 41.85 62.41 84.54 2.36 0.98 0.11 0.65 0.79 1.23 0.81
0.6 3.20 0.76 8.24 8.24 15.47 21.91 1.18 0.23 0.06 0.36 0.09 0.46 0.51
0.3 0.45 0.01 2.37 2.48 4.45 5.91 0.6 0.20 0.00 0.19 0.11 0.41 0.05
0.15 0.45 0.00 1.49 1.66 2.19 3.23 0.3 0.15 0.01 0.06 0.03 0.14 0.03
0.075 2.07 0.87 2.34 2.84 2.72 3.20 0.15 0.10 0.00 0.04 0.01 0.08 0.00
Total 284.48 261.83 553.45 496.03 857.82 895.81 0.075 0.11 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.03 0.01
volatility Total 14.00 1.82 27.95 19.21 8.67 3.15
volatility

of 9.5 mm and 4.75 mm sizes play an important role and will be

necessarily increased. In terms of AC gradation design, it is necessary to
ensure a suspend-dense structure and reserve an appropriate void ratio,
which means that the integrity should be fully considered.
Based on the comparison of the three gradations, the upper and
lower limits of PAC gradation and AC gradation were used to analyze the
test results in subsequent studies.
3.3.2. Analyses on DCT results
(1) SSRA
Figure 16 shows the structural systems of SSRAs after one cycle DCT
at normal temperature. As can be seen from the figure, the system with a
uniform aggregate size distribution is formed after the test, and the
curve is approximately straight. Since the systems appear below the
scope of the upper and lower limits of the PAC and AC gradations, the air
void content of the formed structural system is larger than that of
traditional PAC and AC gradations.
Secondly, although the initial aggregate size distributions of the
SSRAs are different, the aggregate size distribution ratios of the aggre­
gate size ≤ 2.36 mm after the test decreases with the increase of the
aggregate sizes, and less than 15%. For example, in the formed system of
SSRA with the aggregate size of 9.5 mm, aggregate size distribution ratio
was about 13.85%, while in the formed system of SSRA with the
aggregate size of 19 mm, aggregate size distribution ratio reduced to
9.11%. Traditionally, fine aggregates play the role of filling the skeleton

14
J. Cai et al. Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126532

Table 7 Table 10
Volatility results of PAC gradations after two cycle tests (compared with the Specified ranges of AC gradations by JTG F40 Technical specifications for con­
original composition of PAC gradations) struction of highway asphalt pavements [44].
PAC- PAC- PAC- PAC- PAC-13 PAC- AC
20 20C 16 16C 13C
Upper limit Lower limit
19 105.18 46.73
20 16 13 10 20 16 13 10
16 9.09 15.31 0.07 0.09
13.2 8.57 23.52 84.19 155.81 16.96 105.08 26.5 100
9.5 48.91 12.68 190.40 95.21 196.37 79.50 19 100 90 100
4.75 70.63 122.00 295.34 236.91 577.08 505.28 16 92 100 78 90 100
2.36 49.72 29.70 71.83 76.58 113.40 151.66 13.2 80 92 100 62 76 90 100
1.18 23.70 11.79 52.10 45.74 73.63 98.14 9.5 72 80 85 100 50 60 68 90
0.6 4.99 0.67 10.92 10.22 20.91 24.14 4.75 56 62 68 75 26 34 38 45
0.3 1.11 0.00 3.17 3.06 6.19 6.80 2.36 44 48 50 58 16 20 24 30
0.15 0.96 0.00 2.05 1.93 3.10 3.33 1.18 33 36 38 44 12 13 15 20
0.075 3.11 1.06 3.27 3.16 3.27 3.56 0.6 24 26 28 32 8 9 10 13
Total 325.99 263.46 713.34 628.73 1010.91 977.49 0.3 17 18 20 23 5 7 7 9
volatility 0.15 13 14 15 16 4 5 5 6
0.075 7 8 8 8 3 4 4 4

Table 8 result is consistent with the conclusions discussed in Sections 3.1.3 and
Specified ranges of PAC gradations by CJJ/T 190 Technical specification for 3.2.3.
permeable asphalt pavements [31]. In summary, compared with PAC gradation and AC gradation, For
PAC SSRAs, the structural systems have more large size aggregates and
smaller aggregate size distribution below 2.36 mm after the DCTs. An­
Upper limit Lower limit
alyses also verified that SSRA followed its own objective law of frag­
20 16 13 10 20 16 13 10 mentation and its distribution ratio is little affected by the initial
26.5 100 aggregate size.
19 100 95 100 (2) PAC gradation
16 100 90 100
Figure 17 is the newly-formed structural systems of the six sets of
13.2 84 90 100 64 70 90 100
9.5 70 80 100 45 50 90 PAC gradations, which were employed to verify the test conditions in
4.75 31 30 30 70 10 12 12 50 Section 3.2, after one cycle DCT at normal temperature. Firstly, as can be
2.36 20 22 22 22 10 10 10 10 seen from the figure, after the tests, the upper and lower limits of the six
1.18 18 18 18 6 6 6 structural systems are almost within that of the AC gradation. Moreover,
0.6 15 15 15 4 4 4
0.3 12 12 12 3 3 3
the aggregate size distribution of the PAC-20 and PAC-20C structural
0.15 8 8 8 3 3 3 systems in larger sieve sizes is even smaller than that of the AC grada­
0.075 7 6 6 6 3 2 2 2 tion. This result shows that PAC gradation in DCTs has a tendency to
gradually evolve to suspend-dense structure in long-term use to achieve
a stable structure.
Table 9 Secondly, the aggregate size distributions of those six sets of struc­
Specified ranges of OGFC gradations by JTG F40 Technical specifications for tural systems are not within the limits of PAC gradation after the test.
construction of highway asphalt pavements [44]. The main reason is that after the test, the aggregate size distribution
OGFC ratios of the six sets at 4.75 mm and 9.5 mm are 10% − 16% and 28.5% −
41% respectively (see Fig. 13 in Section 3.2.3), which are still some
Upper limit Lower limit
lower than the requirements (20% − 40% and 33% − 50%) in PAC
16 13 10 16 13 10 specification [31]. Moreover, there is little distribution of significant
19 100 large size aggregate (≥9.5 mm) in the formed system, so it is easy to be
16 100 90 100 closed to and even exceed the upper limit of the PAC gradation at
13.2 90 100 70 90 100
9.5 mm and 4.75 mm for the cumulative effect. Above results indicate
9.5 70 80 100 45 60 90
4.75 30 30 70 12 12 50 that the coarse aggregate in the PAC gradation is more vulnerable to
2.36 22 22 22 10 10 10 crush and the retention ratio is smaller during the DCTs. Meanwhile, the
1.18 18 18 18 6 6 6 aggregates with the size of 4.75 mm and 9.5 mm are also subject to a
0.6 15 15 15 4 4 4 large proportion of fragmentation before forming a relatively stability
0.3 12 12 12 3 3 3
structure (the retention ratio after DCTs decreased slightly). These an­
0.15 8 8 8 3 3 3
0.075 6 6 6 2 2 2 alyses reveal that on the one hand, the coarse aggregate of size larger
than 4.75 mm may all play a key supporting role in PAC gradation under
DCTs, which is more extensive than our traditional belief that just the
and transmitting loads, but the figure shows that the aggregate size 4.75 mm and 9.5 mm aggregate have a supporting effect. On the other
distribution of the fine aggregates is very close to that of the lower limit hand, the distribution of 4.75 mm and 9.5 mm aggregates may be
of the PAC gradation, which indicates that the proportion of fine excessive in the traditional PAC gradation design specifications by
aggregate is lower than we thought. considering the increasing of the gradation supporting function, which
Thirdly, before the test, the SSRA almost concentrated in the NMAS, may not be actually conducive to the stability of the gradation.
but after the test, the aggregate size distribution at the maximum sieve Thirdly, after the test, the aggregate size distribution of the six sets of
size was not the largest, almost all smaller than the aggregate size dis­ structural systems in the fine aggregate area is between the aggregate
tribution at the sieve size of 4.75 mm (see Fig. 8 for more obvious re­ size distribution of the lower limit of the AC gradation and upper limit of
sults). This shows that SSRA follows its own objective law of the PAC gradation, and is more closed to the later. This exhibits that
fragmentation and is little affected by the initial aggregate size. This although the formed structural systems are similar to AC gradation in

15
J. Cai et al.
Fig. 16. Distribution curves of formed structural systems of different SSRAs after one cycle DCT at normal temperature.
coarse aggregate area, but they have less fine aggregate, so they may
have larger porosity.
Based on the above, it can be known that the composition of PAC
gradations after DCTs possesses the characteristics of both AC gradation
and PAC gradation, and is more similar to that of AC gradation. In
addition, comparing the three groups of traditional and developed PAC
gradations results, it can be seen that although they had a large differ­
ence in the coarse aggregate composition before the test, the differences
after the test became significantly smaller. Both of their structural sys­
tem compositions tend to a certain curve or a narrow interval after DCTs.
This phenomenon shows the change trend of the gradation in DCTs,
which is of great significance, so more attention will be paid in the
subsequent research.
After completing the research on the composition of PAC gradation
after DCTs, the air void ratio and stability of the formed systems need to
be further explored. Considering that the selected six sets of gradations
have similar gradation composition after DCTs, therefore, the gradations
of three traditional PAC gradations before and after DCTs are compared.
The composition and asphalt-aggregate ratio of three sets of traditional
PAC gradations before and after DCTs used in the test are shown in
Table 11.
The Marshall specimen were made for determining their air void
ratio by the suitable test methods, meanwhile, the Marshall stability and
16
Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126532
flow value were also measured. The results obtained are shown in
Table 12.
It can be seen from Table 12 that the air void ratio of PAC mixtures
after DCTs has changed greatly. Before the DCTs, the air void ratios of
three sets of PAC mixtures are all within the range of PAC mixtures.
However, after the DCTs, the air void ratio of PAC-20 has already
reached into the range of AC mixture, and the air void ratios of PAC-16
and PAC-13 are between the range of AC and PAC mixtures. These re­
sults further verified the conclusion that the composition of formed
structural systems after DCTs possesses the characteristics of both AC
and PAC gradations, and is more similar to that of AC gradation.
Secondly, although the mixtures differ greatly in the air void ratio,
they may have relatively smaller differences in gradation stability.
Marshall stability results show that the results of PAC-20, PAC-16 and
PAC-13 mixtures after DCTs shows smaller differences to each other.
This may illustrate the complexity of the gradation composition, for
which gradations with different skeleton structures and air void ratios,
they may all have reached relatively stable states. Moreover, it is also
notable that this conclusion must need more scientific verification for
the not enough mechanical tests here.
Thirdly, the air void ratios of PAC mixtures with larger aggregate
sizes after DCTs are significantly smaller, which indicates that porous
structures with larger aggregate sizes have worse structural stability.
J. Cai et al. Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126532

Fig. 17. Distribution curves of formed structural systems of PAC gradations after one cycle DCT at normal temperature.

3.3.3. Further verification of PAC gradations

Table 11
In Section 3.3.2, the composition, air void ratio and stability of PAC
Composition and asphalt-aggregate ratio details of three sets of traditional PAC
gradations after DCTs were analyzed. However, since the number of test
gradations before and after DCTs.
samples in Section 3.3.2 was relatively small, herein, more PAC grada­
PAC- PAC- PAC- PAC- PAC- PAC- tions were used to verify the conclusions made in Section 3.3.2. The
20 20B 16 16B 13 13B
details of selected PAC gradations in this section were shown in
26.5 100.0 100.0 Table 13.
19 99.3 98.0 100.0 100.0
For each of the newly added gradations, the test conditions were one
16 91.6 85.0 97.7 95.0 100.0 100.0
13.2 85.3 80.0 91.4 80.0 94.1 90.0 cycle DCT at normal temperature, then the aggregate size distribution of
9.5 69.4 55.0 73.1 57.5 79.0 65.0 test samples at each sieve size was calculated, and finally the results
4.75 34.9 25.0 39.2 21.0 39.0 15.0 were used to compared with the results in Section 3.3.2. The curves of
2.36 23.9 15.0 25.1 16.0 22.6 12.0
formed structural systems after DCTs are shown in Fig. 18.
1.18 19.7 13.0 19.7 12.0 16.6 8.0
0.6 15.6 12.0 13.6 10.0 10.6 6.0
It can be seen from the figure that firstly, the systems formed after
0.3 12.1 10.0 9.5 7.5 7.5 5.0 DCTs have the similar aggregate size distribution and composition to the
0.15 9.8 8.0 7.1 5.5 5.8 4.0 test results in Section 3.3.2. Secondly, the composition of the systems
0.075 8.0 6.0 5.9 4.0 4.8 3.0 formed after DCTs does not tend to the same curve but a small range.
asphalt-aggregate 5.6 5.2 5.4 4.6 5.4 4.7
This shows that the test results of PAC gradations are affected by their
ratio /%
composition, and the formed systems still differ in the composition after
Note: The PAC gradation before the DCT is marked with the letter B at the end to the DCTs. The reason is similar to that explained in Section 3.2.3. In this
indicate “Before the Test”. The PAC gradation after the crush test does not have study, different gradations were selected to represent the effect of
the letter B at the end. In gradation comparison analysis, it is necessary to pay
aggregate size distribution since different aggregate size distributions
attention to distinguish this difference.
lead to different skeleton structures. However, the fragmentation
behavior and size distribution of aggregate in the gradations are affected
by both the skeleton structures and itself objective crushing laws during
Table 12
the DCTs according to conclusion in Sections 3.1.3 and 3.2.3. And hence,
Marshall results of three sets of traditional PAC gradations before and after
DCTs. a less differentiated structural system range appears finally after DCTs.
Furthermore, for better analyzing the composition characteristics of
Air void ratio/% Marshall stability/KN Flow value/mm
the formed systems, the upper and lower limits of AC and PAC grada­
PAC-20 5.4 8.5 4.8 tions were also added to the test results, and were shown in Fig. 19.
PAC-20B 15.9 5.3 3.5
It can be seen from Fig. 19 that the formed structural systems after
PAC-16 10.4 7.6 3.6
PAC-16B 18.0 4.7 3.2 DCTs almost all included in the range of AC gradation, and also retain
PAC-13 14.0 6.8 3.9 some characteristics of PAC gradation in terms of the aggregate size
PAC-13B 19.5 4.0 3.8 distribution. This is consistent with the conclusion that the composition
of formed systems both have the characteristics of the AC gradation and
the PAC gradation and is more similar to the AC gradation composition
In summary, after DCTs, the composition and air void ratio of the
range.
PAC gradations both have the characteristics of the AC and PAC gra­
Secondly, by comparing the differences of the formed systems after
dations and the composition is more similar to the AC gradation
DCTs and the range of PAC gradation, it can be known that the formed
composition range. And the aggregate size in PAC gradation could
systems almost all exceed the range of PAC gradation at the aggregate
greatly affect structural stability.
size less than 4.75 mm. This is mainly because the distribution ratio of

17
J. Cai et al. Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126532

Table 13
Composition details of twelve sets of selected PAC gradations for further verification.
PAC-20- PAC-20- PAC-20-3B PAC-16- PAC-16- PAC-16-3B PAC-13- PAC-13- PAC-13-3B PAC-10- PAC-10- PAC-10-
1B 2B 1B 2B 1B 2B 1B 2B 3B

26.5 100 100 100

19 100 95 97 100 100 100
16 92 79.5 83 100 90 95 100 100 100
13.2 84 64 70 90 70 75 100 90 95 100 100 100
9.5 62 35 40 70 45 50 80 50 75 100 90 95
4.75 31 10 18 30 12 18 30 12 25 70 50 60
2.36 20 10 15 22 10 15 22 10 20 22 10 16
1.18 17 7 10 18 6 10 18 6 15 18 6 12
0.6 14 6 8 15 4 8 15 4 12 15 4 10
0.3 11 5 6 12 3 6 12 3 10 12 3 7.5
0.15 9 4 5 8 3 4 8 3 6 8 3 5.5
0.075 7 3 4 6 2 3 6 2 5 6 2 4
Gradation upper lower close to upper lower close to upper lower close to upper lower middle
characteristic limit limit lower limit limit limit lower limit limit limit upper limit limit limit value

Note: The PAC gradation before the DCT is marked with the letter B at the end to indicate “Before the Test”. The PAC gradation after the crush test does not have the
letter B at the end. In gradation comparison analysis, it is necessary to pay attention to distinguish this difference.

Fig. 18. Distribution curves of formed structural systems of selected PAC gradations after one cycle DCT at normal temperature.

each size in the coarse aggregate area is smaller than the specified ratio
of PAC gradation, so that the formed system falls out of the upper limit of
the PAC gradation and enters the range of AC gradation under the cu­
mulative effect.
Thirdly, the results of the aggregate size distribution at 2.36 mm
show that the formed systems almost have 12.1%− 18.5% ratio in this
range except for PAC-10, which is much higher than the specified ratio
of 2%-11% [31]. This result reveals 2.36 mm aggregate also plays an
important role in forming a stable structural system during DCTs, and its
ratio should actually be more than we thought. Taken the analyses of
distribution of 9.5 mm and 4.75 mm into consideration, it is reasonable
to believe that the specified range on the distribution of 9.5 mm,
4.75 mm and 2.36 mm for PAC gradation seems not the most conducive
to gradation stability.
After analyzing the composition of PAC gradation after DCTs, the
stability of the formed systems is also explored. The upper and lower
limits and asphalt-aggregate ratio of formed systems are shown in
Table 14, and the details of selected gradations used as control sample
are shown in Table 15 (short for C in Table 15, which has the very
similar air void ratio to the formed systems). The test results of formed
systems and control sample are listed in Table 16.
It can be seen from Table 16 that the formed mixtures all have the
much smaller air void ratio, in which the smallest air void ratio has
reached into the range of AC mixtures, and the largest was closed to the
range of PAC mixtures. These results verified the conclusion that the
composition of formed structural systems after DCTs possesses the
characteristics of both AC gradation and PAC gradation, and is more
similar to that of AC gradation again.
Secondly, the result also shows that the larger NMAS, the smaller air
void ratio of formed mixtures. The reason of this result has been
explained in Section 3.1.1, which is mainly determined by the sup­
porting role of coarse aggregate and the fewer indirect contacts around
them.
Thirdly, the Marshall test results show that the mixtures with obvi­
ously different aggregate composition and air void ratios, do not have
the relatively significant basic mechanical properties. This result in­
dicates that although the compositions and air void ratios of formed
mixtures are obviously different, they all have a relatively stable skel­
eton structure, and hence have good stability.
Additionally, compared with the selected control samples, although

18
J. Cai et al. Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126532

Fig. 19. Comparison between distribution curves of formed structural systems of PAC gradations and specified ranges of PAC and AC types after one cycle DCT at
normal temperature.

Table 14
Details of upper and lower limits compositions and asphalt-aggregate ratios for formed systems.
PAC-20 upper PAC-20 lower PAC-16 upper PAC-16 lower PAC-13 upper PAC-13 lower PAC-10 upper PAC-10 lower
limit limit limit limit limit limit limit limit

26.5 100.0
19 100.0 97.0 100.0
16 96.0 90.9 100.0 96.6 100.0
13.2 90.5 82.4 93.6 83.8 100.0 94.7 100.0
9.5 73.8 62.3 79.6 63.5 87.5 72.7 100.0 92.6
4.75 44.2 31.6 44.4 31.8 47.7 35.6 77.7 64.2
2.36 26.9 19.5 28.3 18.8 29.5 20.9 37.8 27.7
1.18 22.4 14.4 23.4 13.5 24.0 13.4 28.6 18.8
0.6 16.5 10.0 17.2 7.9 17.9 8.7 20.3 10.7
0.3 12.3 7.2 12.4 5.3 12.7 5.9 14.5 6.8
0.15 9.9 5.1 8.2 4.1 8.3 4.5 9.4 5.0
0.075 8.1 4.0 5.9 3.1 6.4 3.7 6.9 3.6
asphalt-aggregate 5.8 4.5 5.4 4.0 5.6 4.4 5.9 4.0
ratio/%

Table 15
Details of gradation compositions and asphalt-aggregate ratios for control samples.
C-1 C-2 C-3 C-4 C-5 C-6 C-7 C-8

26.5 100.0 100.0

19 95.0 98.0 100.0 100.0
16 85.0 96.0 95.0 98.0 100.0 100.0
13.2 71.0 84.0 88.0 84.0 92.9 95.0 100.0 100.0
9.5 61.0 55.0 73.0 55.0 78.2 65.0 100.0 95.0
4.75 41.0 25.0 44.0 28.0 46.0 25.0 30.0 50.0
2.36 30.0 20.0 29.0 18.0 32.0 20.0 20.0 16.0
1.18 22.5 15.0 20.0 13.5 20.0 16.0 15.7 12.0
0.6 16.0 12.0 14.0 11.5 14.0 13.0 12.6 9.5
0.3 11.0 10.0 10.0 9.0 11.0 11.0 10.1 7.5
0.15 8.5 7.0 8.0 7.0 8.0 8.0 8.3 5.5
0.075 5.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 4.0
asphalt-aggregate ratio/% 4.6 5.0 4.6 4.9 5.1 4.9 5.3 5.2

19
J. Cai et al. Construction and Building Materials 323 (2022) 126532

Table 16 State Key Laboratory of Green Building Materials] under grant

Marshall results of the upper and lower limits of formed systems and control [2021GBM03], [Open Fund of Key Laboratory of Special Environment
samples. Road Engineering of Hunan Province, Changsha University of Science &
Air void ratio/% Marshall stability/ Flow value/mm Technology] under grant [number kfj190502], and [Open Fund of Key
KN Laboratory of Road Structure and Material of Ministry of Transport,
PAC-20 upper limit 4.6 8.7 3.9 Changsha University of Science & Technology] under grant [number
C-1 4.5 8.0 3.5 kfj190302]. The authors gratefully acknowledge their financial support.
PAC-20 lower limit 15.0 6.1 4.3
C-2 15.3 3.7 3.5
PAC-16 upper limit 5.7 8.5 4.1
CRediT authorship contribution statement
C-3 5.6 7.7 3.0
PAC-16 lower limit 17.1 6.7 3.3 Jun Cai: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Supervi­
C-4 16.5 3.7 3.6 sion, Writing – original draft. Chen Song: Data curation, Formal anal­
PAC-13 upper limit 4.8 8.3 4.1
ysis, Investigation. Xiangbing Gong: Validation, Writing – review &
C-5 4.6 6.6 3.2
PAC-13 lower limit 15.2 5.7 3.3 editing. Jiupeng Zhang: Data curation, Writing – review & editing.
C-6 14.7 4.8 3.5 Jianzhong Pei: Project administration, Supervision. Zongwu Chen:
PAC-10 upper limit 7.6 9.4 4.0 Writing – review & editing.
C-7 7.4 6.9 2.9
PAC-10 lower limit 16.9 6.3 3.5
C-8 17.1 4.5 3.6 Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial

they have the similar air void ratio, there is a significant improvement
on the Marshall stability of the formed mixtures, especially for those
large air void ratio mixtures. This result further verified that the formed
mixtures all have the relatively stable skeleton structure.
4. Conclusions
In this study, the fragmentation behavior and aggregate size distri­
bution of PAC gradation based on limestone aggregate were investigated
to learn the stability of limestone-aggregate-based gradation. Firstly,
SSRA was selected to determine the test conditions, and the traditional
and developed PAC gradations were used to verify the test conditions
respectively. Furthermore, the composition, air void ratio, and stability
of the formed structural systems, including SSRA and PAC gradations,
were systematically analyzed, and finally more PAC gradations were
selected to verify the test results. The conclusions are drawn as blow:
(1) The test results of SSRA and PAC gradation show that test samples
could reach relatively stable structural system by one cycle DCT, and test
temperature has little effect on the results in DCTs.
(2) The aggregate size distribution of SSRA and PAC gradations show
that the formed structural systems all have the largest distribution ratio
at the size of 4.75 mm, indicating the aggregate with the size range of
4.75 mm to 9.5 mm has the critical effect on the gradation stability in
DCTs.
(3) SSRA shows significant objective characteristics of crushing
during DCTs, while aggregates in PAC gradations exhibit the impact of
their own crushing objectivity and constraints of the skeleton. Affected
by the fragmentation differences in DCT processes, the formed systems
from SSRA have a much larger air void ratio, and show a relatively
uniform distribution in the coarse aggregate area; while the formed
systems from PAC gradation possess the characteristics of both AC and
PAC gradations, and is more similar to that of AC gradation. Moreover,
Marshall test results indicate that the formed systems from PAC grada­
tions have the better skeleton structure stability compared with the
control sample.
(4) The composition of formed systems results show that the upper
and lower limits of formed systems are significant smaller than the
specified range of PAC gradation, and the distribution ratios at critical
sizes were also different. The distribution ratios of formed systems at the
size of 9.5 mm and 4.75 mm were both smaller than the specified range
of PAC gradation, while at the size of 2.36 mm was significantly larger.
Funding
This work was supported by the [National Natural Science Founda­
tion of China] under grant [number 52008042], [Opening Project of
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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