Critical Mach

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Coffin Corner
Any object in subsonic flight which has some finite thickness or is producing lift will have local velocities on the surface which are
greater than the free stream velocity.

Hence, compressibility effects can be expected to occur at flight speeds less than the speed of sound. The transonic regime of flight
provides the opportunity for mixed subsonic and supersonic flow and. accounts for the first significant effects of compressibility.
Consider a conventional airfoil shape as shown in figure below:

If this airfoil is at a flight Mach number of 0.50 and a slight positive angle of attack, the maximum local velocity on the s urface will be
greater than the flight speed but most likely less than sonic speed.

Assume that an increase in flight Mach number to 0.72 would produce first evidence of local sonic flow. This condition of fli ght would be
the highest flight speed possible without supersonic flow and would be termed the “critical Mach number.”

Thus, critical Mach number is the boundary between subsonic and transonic flight and is an important point of reference for all
compressibility effects encountered in transonic flight. By definition, the Critical Mach number is the “free stream Mach number which
produces first evidence of local sonic flow.” Therefore, shock waves, buffet, airflow separation, etc., take place above critical Mach
number.
As critical Mach number is exceeded an area of supersonic airflow is created and a normal shock wave forms as the boundary between
the supersonic flow and the subsonic flow on the aft portion of the airfoil surface. The acceleration of the airflow from subsonic to
supersonic is smooth and unaccompanied by shock waves if the surface is smooth and the transition gradual.

However, the transition of airflow from supersonic to subsonic is always accompanied by a shock wave and, when there is no change in
direction of the airflow, the waveform is a normal shock wave.

One of the principal effects of the normal shock wave is to produce a large increase in the static pressure of the airstream behind the
wave. If the shock wave is strong, the boundary layer may not have sufficient kinetic energy to withstand the large, adverse pressure
gradient and separation will occur.

At speeds only slightly beyond critical Mach number the shock wave formed is not strong enough to cause separation or any noticeable
change in the aerodynamic force coefficients. However, an increase in speed above critical Mach number sufficient to form a strong
shock wave can cause separation of the boundary layer and produce sudden changes in the aerodynamic force coefficients. Such a flow
condition is shown in figure by the flow pattern for M= 0.77

As this value is exceeded by a few hundredths, the shock wave strengthens sufficiently to cause the drag to rise suddenly. This free-
stream Mach number is known as the Drag-Divergence Mach number.
A further increase in Mach number to 0.82 can enlarge the supersonic area on the upper surface and form an additional area of
supersonic flow and normal shock wave on the lower surface.

As the flight speed approaches the speed of sound the areas of supersonic flow enlarge and the shock waves move nearer the trailing
edge. The boundary layer may remain separated or may reattach depending much upon the airfoil shape and angle of attack. When the
flight speed exceeds the speed of sound the “bow” wave forms at the leading edge and this typical flow pattern is illustrated in figure
below, for M= 1.05
If the speed is increased to some higher supersonic value all oblique portions of the waves incline more greatly and the detached normal
shock portion of the bow wave moves closer to the leading edge.

Wings designed to operate at high speeds are generally thin and employ sweepback in order to increase the critical Mach number.

One of the most important problems in high-speed aerodynamics is the determination of the critical Mach number of a given airfoil,
because at values of Mach Number slightly above MCR the airfoil experiences a dramatic increase in drag.
Figure above shows the airspeed, in units of Mach number, of the air over a subsonic and a transonic wing. The subsonic airfo il is traveling
at a speed just below the critical Mach number such that the air never reaches supersonic. The transonic airfoil is just above the critical
Mach number so the air becomes supersonic. The Mach number of the subsonic airfoil decreases after the peak while on the transonic
airfoil it increases, until the shock wave.
In aerodynamics, the critical Mach number (Mcr or M*) of an aircraft is the lowest Mach number at which the airflow over
some point of the aircraft reaches the speed of sound, but does not exceed it. At the lower critical Mach number, airflow
around the entire aircraft is subsonic. Supersonic aircraft such as Concorde and combat aircraft also have an upper critical
Mach number at which the airflow around the entire aircraft is supersonic. The critical Mach number (Mcrit) is the lower limit
of a speed band, known as the transonic range, in which the local Mach number may be either subsonic or supersonic. Its value
varies with the angle of attack and is the free-stream Mach number at which sonic speed is reached over the upper surface of a
wing. In other words, it is the speed at which the local Mach number is equal to the free-airstream Mach.

By definition, the critical Mach number is the “free stream Mach number which produces first evidence of local sonic flow.”
Therefore, shock waves, buffet, airflow separation, etc., take place above critical Mach number.

It is also the highest speed possible without supersonic flow over the wing. For example, if the air passing over a wing at some
point reaches Mach 1, but the wing is only moving at Mach 0.8 then the critical Mach number is 0.8.

Generally, a thicker wing with a large amount of camber has a lower critical Mach number than a thin wing with little camber
because the airflow over its upper surface accelerates to a higher speed than it would over a thin wing. At the design stage of an
aircraft the inclusion of the following characteristics either individually or in any combination will increase the value of the
critical Mach number but the largest increase will result from a combination of a and b:
a. A swept wing having the same wing area and loading.
b. A thin aerofoil cross-section (low thickness to chord ratio).
c. Area ruling.
The critical Mach number is inversely proportional to the angle of attack, i.e. Mcrit decreases with increasing angle of attack and vice versa.
This is because, as the angle of attack increases the local peak velocity of the airflow over the wing also increases. It therefore reaches
Mach 1 sooner than it would have done at a lower angle of attack, thus the critical Mach number is less.

As a flight progresses and fuel is burnt the aircraft mass decreases and it is able to accelerate to a higher maximum speed. If the pilot
maintains level flight and does not touch the throttles the aircraft will continually accelerate and the angle of attack must be continually
decreased to allow for the increased IAS. In such a case, the airflow peak velocity will not be attained until the aircraft is at a higher
maximum speed. Thus, the critical Mach number increases continuously throughout a flight assuming the aircraft is permitted t o accelerate
in level flight and the angle of attack is adjusted accordingly.
At speeds in excess of the critical Mach number, a swept-wing aircraft loses lift in the area of the wing roots, which decreases stick-force
stability and produces a sudden increase to the drag coefficient. As a result, the aircraft will experience buffeting, the fi rst evidence of the
formation of a shockwave on the upper surface of the wing at the wing root, and a tendency to pitch nose-down. During acceleration the
pressure-distribution pattern on the upper surface of the wing becomes irregular as the airflow becomes supersonic at Mcrit. However, with
continued acceleration, when the whole airflow becomes supersonic.
 COFFIN CORNER
Coffin Corner – “The flight regime where any increase in airspeed will induce high-
speed Mach buffet and any decrease in airspeed will induce low-speed Mach buffet.”

– FAA Airplane Flying Handbook

From a pilots point of view coffin corner (also called Q-Corner or aerodynamic ceiling), is when the high-speed limit and low-speed
limit on your airspeed come together as your altitude increases.

In a jet aircraft, as the altitude increases, the maximum speed (redline, barber-pole, or MMO) will decrease. The minimum airspeed
(low-speed buffet, stall speed, or min speed tape) will increase. The higher you climb the closer these minimum and maximum speeds
become. The point at which they converge or nearly converge is called “coffin corner.” In the below image you can see the high speed
and low-speed tapes converging. If the aircraft climbed to a higher altitude, these speed tapes would continue to become closer
together, leaving less window to maneuver within.
This can be a very dangerous region of the flight envelope because there is little room for error. If the aircraft over-speeds, there is a
possibility of “Mach Tuck” causing the nose of the aircraft to drop, increasing speed even more exceeding structural limitations, and
breaking apart. Going too slow could cause a stall, potentially causing the nose to drop, which could also increase the speed to the point of
structural failure. A pilot of the U2 flying at 60,000 feet only has a margin of six knots between its high speed and low-speed limits.

(Source: The U2 History Declassified)

Some Interesting Points About Coffin Corner:

• In coffin corner, either speeding up or slowing down will cause a buffet.

• It may not be possible to tell the difference between a stall buffet and a Mach buffet, and attempting to recover
inappropriately would aggravate the situation.
• Becoming too slow may actually cause Mach buffet and not a stall buffet. The increased angle of attack causes air to
flow faster over the wing potentially hitting Mach sooner.
• Mach buffet is a function of the speed of air over the upper portion of the wing, not the airspeed of the airplane.
• If any load factor is imposed (pulling up, turning, or turbulence) it will cause the airspeed margin to become even
smaller.
• A heavy aircraft will reach coffin corner sooner – Higher weight lowers the altitude which coffin corner occurs.
• The original term Q-Corner refers to “Q” being the symbol for dynamic pressure.
Avoiding Coffin Corner:

• Always be aware of, and comply with all aircraft operating limitations!
• Don’t climb a heavy aircraft higher than the published max altitude for that weight.
• Avoid abrupt control inputs, steep turns, or pulling G’s at high altitudes. Even moving the heading bug
to prompt an autopilot turn can induce Mach buffet on some aircraft when you are close to coffin
corner.
• If turbulence is expected, don’t climb to your maximum altitude.
• Don’t attempt to climb over a storm – Go around it! The increased load factors caused by turbulence
could cause you to stall, or “Mach Tuck”, down into the storm.
• Pay attention the published turbulence penetration speed. This speed is often calculated as being the
highest margin between high and low-speed buffet.
For any given mass and ‘g’ loading there is one altitude, which is temperature dependent, at which the high-incidence
stalling speed and the critical Mach number are equal, this is colloquially known as ‘coffin corner’ or ‘Q corner.’

It refers to the apex of a triangular shape at the top of the flight envelope chart where the stalling speed and critical Mach
number lines converge to a point. The colloquial name alludes to the fact that at this altitude the pilot is flying on a knife-
edge that demands great skill.

If the speed is reduced the aircraft will stall and lose altitude and if the pilot increases the speed of the aircraft it will lose lift,
because of the shockwave and flow separation that will cause the aircraft to violently pitch nose-down and lose altitude.
When flying at the ‘Q’ corner altitude, if an aircraft turns, the inner wing slows down and could fall below the low-speed
stalling speed, whilst the outer wing speeds up and could exceed Mcrit. If such is the case then the aircraft will have exceeded
both limits at the same time. Alternatively, turbulence at high altitude could result in the aircraft exceeding the ‘g’ limitations.