Principles of Flight

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

- 081 02 High Speed Aerodynamics

• Speeds
• Shock Waves

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 Principles of Flight

This Presentation
• Speeds
– Speed of Sound
– Mach Number
– Compressibility
– Influence of Alt/Temp on Mach

• Shock Waves
– Normal Shock Waves
– Oblique Shock Waves
– Mach Angle
– Mach Cone

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 Principles of Flight

Syllabus Progress

POF 1-3 POF 4-6 POF 7-9 POF 10-12 POF 13-15

POF 16-18 POF 19-21 POF 22-24 POF 25-27 POF 28-30

POF 31-33 POF 34-36 POF 37-39 POF 40-42 POF 43-45

POF 46-48 POF 49-51 POF 52-54 OPS 55-57 OPS 58-60

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 Principles of Flight

High Speed Flight

During the preceding study of low speed aerodynamics it was assumed that air is
incompressible, that is, there is no change in air density resulting from changes of pressure.

At any speed there are changes in air density due to ‘compressibility’, but if the speed is low, the
changes are sufficiently small to be ignored. As speed increases however, the changes in air
density start to become significant.

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 Principles of Flight

High Speed Flight

When an aircraft moves through the air small pressure disturbances, or waves, are propagated
outward from the aircraft in all directions, but only the waves travelling ahead of the aircraft are
significant for the study of high speed flight.

These pressure waves ’signal’ the approach of the aircraft and make the air change direction
(upwash) and divide to allow passage of the aircraft.

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Speed of Sound
Pressure waves ‘propagate’ from their source, that is, each air molecule is rapidly vibrated in
turn and passes on the disturbance to its neighbor.

The speed of propagation of small pressure waves depends only upon the air temperature.

The lower the temperature, the lower the speed of propagation. Sound is pressure waves, and
the speed of any pressure wave through the atmosphere, whether audible or not, has become
known as ‘the speed of sound’.

The speed of sound at 15°C is 340 metres per second, or approximately 661 kt.

𝒂= 𝜸. 𝑹. 𝑻

𝒂 – Speed of Sound R – The molar gas constant

𝜸 – Adiabatic Index Constant (1.4 for air) T – Temperature (K)

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Mach Number
As the speed of an aircraft increases, there is a decrease in the distance between the aircraft
and the influence of the advancing pressure waves. The aircraft begins to catch up the pressure
waves, so the air has less time to move from the aircraft’s path and upwash has a more acute
angle.

At higher speeds there is also a change in the flow and pressure patterns around the aircraft.

Ultimately lift and drag, manoeuvrability and the stability and control characteristics will all be
changed.

These effects are due to the compressibility of air, where density can change along a
streamline, and the associated conditions and the characteristics which arise are due to
‘compressibility’.

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 Principles of Flight

Mach Number
It is vitally important that the flight crew knows the speed of the aircraft in relation to the
potential effects of ‘compressibility’.

If the aircraft speed through the air (TAS) and the speed of sound in the air through which it is
flying (the local speed of sound) is known, this will give an indication of the degree of
compressibility.

This relationship is known as the Mach number and it is a measure of compressibility.

• Mach number (M) is the ratio of the true airspeed (V) to the local speed of sound (a).

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Mach Number
Effect on Mach Number of Climbing at a Constant IAS

It is known that temperature decreases with increasing altitude, so the speed of sound will
decrease as altitude is increased. It is also known that if altitude is increased at a constant IAS,
the TAS increases.

Therefore, the Mach number will increase if altitude is increased at a constant IAS. This is
because (V) gets bigger and (a) gets smaller.
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Mach Number
Effect on Mach Number of Climbing at a Constant IAS

As an aircraft continues to climb, it is clear that it is possible to exceed the maximum operating
Mach number (MMO) in a climb at a constant IAS.

As the climb continues, an altitude will be reached at which the flight crew must stop flying at a
constant IAS and fly at a constant Mach number, to avoid accidentally exceeding MMO.

The altitude at which this changeover takes place will depend on the outside air temperature.
The lower the outside air temperature, the lower the changeover altitude.

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Mach Number
Variation of TAS/IAS with Altitude at a Constant Mach Number

𝑇𝐴𝑆
𝑀=
𝑎

As altitude decreases the temperature will rise, local speed of sound will increase and TAS will
increase.

• When descending at a constant Mach number IAS will be increasing.

As altitude increases the temperature will drop, local speed of sound will decrease and TAS will
decrease (up to the tropopause and then remain constant).

• When climbing at a constant TAS, Mach number will be increasing, up to the tropopause,
and then remains constant.

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Subdivisions of Airflow
Airflow Classification

Low Subsonic – 0 < M < 0,4

High Subsonic – 0,4 < M < 0,75

Transonic – 0,75 < M < 1,3

Supersonic – 1,3 < M < 5

Hypersonic – M > 5

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Critical Mach Number

An aerofoil generates lift by accelerating air over the top surface. At small angles of attack the
highest local velocity on an aircraft will usually be located at the point of maximum thickness on
the wing.

For example, at a free stream speed of M 0.84, maximum local velocity on the wing might be as
high as M 1.05 in cruising level flight.

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Critical Mach Number

At increased angles of attack the local velocity will be greater and further forward. Also, if the
thickness/chord ratio were greater, the local speed will be higher.

As the free stream speed increases, the maximum speed on the aerofoil will reach the local
speed of sound first.

The free stream Mach number at which the local velocity first reaches Mach 1.0 (sonic) is
called the Critical Mach number (MCRIT ).

The critical Mach number will decrease with increasing thickness/chord ratio or angle of
attack.

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Coffee Break

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Normal Shock Waves

A normal shock wave will form as a boundary between the supersonic and subsonic region,
whenever supersonic airflow is slowed to subsonic speed without a change in direction.

This means that normal shock waves will occur before the aircraft as a whole reaches Mach 1.0.

At MCRIT, there is no shock wave because there is no supersonic flow.

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 Principles of Flight

Normal Shock Waves

At speeds just above the critical Mach number there will be a small region of supersonic airflow
on the upper surface, terminated by a shock wave.

As the aircraft speed is further increased, the region of supersonic flow on the upper surface
extends, and the shock wave marking the end of the supersonic region moves rearwards.

A similar sequence of events will occur on the lower surface although the shock wave will
usually form at a higher aircraft speed because the lower surface usually has less curvature so
the air is not accelerated so much.
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Normal Shock Waves

In a normal shock wave static pressure, temperature and density increase, while the energy of
the airstream is greatly reduced.

Minimum energy loss through a normal shock wave will occur when the Mach number of the
airflow in front of the shock wave is small but supersonic.

2 V1 < V2 > V3 V1 > V3

M1 < M2 > M3 M1 > M3
1 3
P1 < P2 > P3 P1 < P3
ρ1 < ρ2 > ρ3 ρ1 < ρ3
T1 < T2 > T3 T1 < T3
a1 < a2 > a3 a1 < a 3
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Bow Waves
When the aircraft speed reaches Mach 1.0, the airflow is supersonic over the whole of both
upper and lower surfaces, and both the upper and lower shock waves will have reached the
trailing edge. Just above Mach 1.0 ( ~ M=1.3) a bow wave forms ahead of the leading edge.

The bow shock wave is initially separated (detached) from the leading edge by the build-up of
compressed air at the leading edge, but as speed increases, it moves closer to the leading edge.
For a sharp leading edge the shock eventually becomes attached to the leading edge.
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 Principles of Flight

Oblique Shock Waves

An oblique shock wave is a shock wave that, unlike a normal shock, is inclined with respect to
the incident upstream flow direction.

It will occur when a supersonic flow encounters a corner that effectively turns the flow into
itself and compresses. The upstream streamlines are uniformly deflected after the shock wave.
The most common way to produce an oblique shock wave is to place a wedge into supersonic,
compressible flow.

MFS > 1.3

These shocks require a component vector analysis of the flow, doing so allows for the treatment
of the flow in an orthogonal direction to the oblique shock as a normal shock.
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 Principles of Flight

Oblique Shock Waves

The velocity and Mach number of the airflow behind the wave are reduced, but the flow is still
supersonic. The primary difference is that the airstream passing though the oblique shock wave
changes direction (The component of airstream velocity normal to the shock wave will always
be subsonic downstream, otherwise no shock wave).

MFS > 1.3

At ‘C’ the shock wave is a weak oblique shock wave. Further out from this point the effects of
the shock wave decrease until the air is able to pass the object without being affected, the
effects of the shock wave disappear and the line is called “Mach Line”.
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Oblique Shock Waves

As in the normal shock wave, in an oblique shock wave static pressure, temperature and
density also increase.

MFS > 1.3

2 V1 < V2 > V3 V1 > V3
1 3
M1 < M2 > M3 M1 > M3
P1 < P2 > P3 P1 < P3
ρ1 < ρ2 > ρ3 ρ1 < ρ3
T1 < T2 > T3 T1 < T3
a1 < a2 > a3 a1 < a 3

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Expansion Waves
With subsonic airflow the adverse pressure gradient would be so steep that the airflow would
instantly separate at the “corner”.

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Expansion Waves
Supersonic airflow can follow a convex corner because it expands upon reaching the corner.

The velocity increases and the other parameters, pressure, density and temperature decrease.

Supersonic airflow behaviour through an expansion wave is exactly opposite to that through a
shock wave.

MFS > 1.3 2 V1 < V2 < V3 V1 < V3

1 M1 < M2 < M3 M1 < M3
3
P1 > P2 > P3 P1 > P3
ρ1 > ρ2 > ρ3 ρ1 > ρ3
T1 > T2 > T3 T1 > T3
a1 > a2 > a3 a1 > a 3

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Expansion Waves
After passing through the bow shock wave, the compressed supersonic flow is free to expand
and follow the surface contour.

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Shock Waves - Summary

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Mach Angle
As the Mach number increases, the shock waves become more acute. The angle of the shock
waves is called Mach angle ‘μ’ (mu).

If the TAS of the aircraft is greater than the local speed of sound, the source of pressure waves is
moving faster than the disturbance it creates.

A pressure wave propagated when the point is at ‘A’ will travel spherically outwards at the local
speed of sound, but the point is moving faster, and by the time it has reached ‘D’, the wave from
‘A’ and other pressure waves sent out when the point was at ‘B’ and ‘C’ will have formed circles
as shown, and it will be possible to draw a common tangent ‘DE’ to these pressure waves.
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Mach Cone
In three dimensions, the disturbances propagating from a moving point source expand outward
as spheres, not circles. If the speed of the source (V) is greater than the local speed of sound (a),
these spheres are enclosed within a Mach cone, whose semi vertical angle is μ.

Mach angle (μ) continues to decrease with increasing Mach number, it is inversely proportional
to the Mach number.
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Questions

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Sample Questions (1)

• Identify which of the following is the correct formula for Mach number:

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Sample Questions (2)

• Mach number is:

a) The ratio of the aircraft’s TAS to the speed of sound at sea level;

b) The ratio of the aircraft’s TAS to the speed of sound at the same atmospheric
conditions;

c) the ratio of the aircraft’s IAS to the speed of sound at the same atmospheric
conditions;

d) The speed of sound.

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Sample Questions (3)

• For an aircraft climbing at a constant IAS the Mach number will:

a) Increase;

b) Decrease;

c) Remain constant;

d) Initially show an increase, then decrease.

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Sample Questions (4)

• The term ‘transonic speed’ for an aircraft means:

a) Speeds where the airflow is completely subsonic;

b) Speeds where the airflow is completely supersonic;

c) Speeds where the airflow is partly subsonic and partly supersonic;

a) Speeds between M 0.4 and M 1.0.

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Sample Questions (5)

• At M 0.8 a wing has supersonic flow between 20% chord and 60% chord. There
will be a shock wave:

a) at 20% chord only;

b) at 20% chord and 60% chord;

c) at 60% chord only;

d) Forward of 20% chord.

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Sample Questions (6)

• As air flows through a shock wave:

a) Static pressure increases, density decreases, temperature increases;

b) Static pressure increases, density increases, temperature increases;

c) Static pressure decreases, density increases, temperature decreases;

d) Static pressure decreases, density decreases, temperature decreases.

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Sample Questions (7)

• For a wing section of given thickness, the critical Mach number:

a) Will decrease if angle of attack is increased;

b) Will increase if angle of attack is increased;

c) Will not change with changes of angle of attack;

d) Is only influenced by changes in temperature.

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Sample Questions (8)

• As air flows through a shock wave:

a) Its speed increases;

b) Its speed decreases;

c) Its speed remains the same;

d) It changes direction to flow parallel with the Mach cone.

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Sample Questions (9)

• The airflow behind a normal shock wave will:

a) Always be subsonic and in the same direction as the original airflow;

b) Always be supersonic and in the same direction as the original airflow;

c) May be subsonic or supersonic;

d) Always be subsonic and will be deflected from the direction of the original
airflow.

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Sample Questions (10)

• A bow wave is:

a) A shock wave which forms on the nose of the aircraft at MCRIT.;

b) The shape formed when the shock waves on the upper and lower wing surface
meet at the trailing edge;

c) A shock wave that forms immediately ahead of an aircraft which is travelling

faster than the speed of sound;

d) The shape of a shock wave when viewed vertically.

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Sample Questions (11)

• When an aircraft is flying at supersonic speed, where will the area of influence of
any pressure disturbance due to the presence of the aircraft be located?:

a) Within the Mach Cone;

b) In front of the Mach Cone;

c) In front of the bow wave;

d) In front of the Mach Cone only when the speed exceeds M 1.0.

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Sample Questions (12)

• The temperature of the airflow as it passes through an expansion wave:

a) Increases;

b) Decreases;

c) Is inversely proportional to the square root of the Mach number;

d) Remains the same.

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Sample Questions (13)

• At what speed does an oblique shock wave move over the earth surface?

a) Aircraft ground speed;

b) The TAS of the aircraft plus the wind speed;

c) The TAS of the aircraft less the wind speed;

d) The TAS relative to the speed of sound at sea level.

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See you next Class!

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