Welcome to

EAA Pilot Training School

HIGH SPEED AERODYNAMICS

PPT1.1 EAA/PPT/001:Powerpoint Guideline Rev No.01
 Discussion Points

(Course content and objectives)

Objective
• Define ‘speed of sound’.
• Explain the variation of the speed of sound with altitude and
temperature.
• Define ‘Mach number’ as a function of TAS and speed of sound.
• Explain the Influence of temperature and altitude on Mach number.
• Explain the relationship between Mach number, TAS and IAS during
climb and descent.
• change of density
Cont...
• Explain risk of exceeding the maximum operation speed (VMO) and
(MMO) during descent and climb.
• Explain Compressibility of air along a stream line
• Describe subsonic, transonic, and supersonic flow.
• Define a ‘shock wave’.
• Describe Normal shoke wave
• Expalain Critical Mach number (MCRIT) and Effects of exceeding the
critical Mach number (MCRIT) on lift,drag,Pitching moment and control
effectivness
Cont...
• explain Means to influence critical Mach number (MCRIT) with sweep
wing,airfoil shape and vortex generators.
• describe Stall, shock stall, and upset prevention and recovery
• Definine shock stall and relationship with Mach buffet
Content
 High Speed
 Speeds
 Speed of sound
 Mach Number
 Influence of Temperature and Altitude on Mach
 Compressiblity
Cont..
 Subdivision of Aerodynamic flow
 Shock Waves
 Normal Shoke Waves
 Oblique Shoke Wave
 MACH Cone-Sonic Boom
 Effect of Exceeding Mcrit
Cont..
 MACHcrit
 Effect of excedding Mcrit on lift,drag,Pitching
moment and control effectivness
 Buffet on set
 Means to influence critical Mach number (M CRIT)
 Means To Increase Mcrit
 Supercritical airfoils
Cont…
 Wing Sweep
 Aerfoil Shape
 Vortex Generators
 MACH tuck
 flight at excessive speed
 flutter, Divergence and Control reversal
1.1 Introduction
• During the preceding study of low speed aerodynamics it was assumed
that air is incompressible, that is, there is no change in air density
resulting from changes of pressure along a streamline.

• At any speed there are changes in air density due to 'compressibility',

but if the speed is low the changes are sufficiently small to be ignored.

• As speed increases however, the changes in air

density start to become significant.
Cont..
• When an aircraft moves through the air infinitesimally small pressure
disturbances, or waves, are propagated outward from the aircraft in all
directions,

• the waves travelling ahead of the aircraft are significant for the study
of high speed flight.

• These pressure waves 'signal' the approach of the aircraft and make the
air change direction (upwash) and divide to allow passage of the
aircraft.
• as the object's Mach number
increases, the object gets closer to
the 'leading edge' of the pressure
wave and the air receives less and
less warning of the approach of
the object.
• The greater the Mach number of the
object, the more acute the upwash
angle and the fewer the number of
air particles that can move out of the
path of the object.

• When the object's speed has reached

the local speed of sound (d), the
pressure wave can no longer warn
the air particles ahead of the object
Cont....
• Evidence of the pressure warning is seen in a typical subsonic flow
pattern of the following figure
• The figure to the left is a model
wing section fitted with a split
flap.
• When the flap is lowered,The
pressure of the air below
increases This increment in
pressure is propagated in all
direction.
Cont..

• Streams of air a long way in

front of the wing changes
direction and go over the wing
instead of below, this is one of
the reasons for an up wash
1.2 Speed of Sound
• Pressure waves 'propagate' from their source, that is, each air molecule
is rapidly vibrated in turn and passes-on the disturbance to its
neighbour.

• The speed of propagation of small pressure waves depends upon the

temperature of the air ONLY.

• Sound is pressure waves and the speed of any pressure wave through
the atmosphere, whether audible or not, has become known as 'the
speed of sound'.
“Sound travels faster in hotter air’’
Cont..
It can be shown that: a = √ 𝑦 . 𝑅.𝑇
Where a = speed of sound y = a constant(1.4 for air)
T = absolute temperature R = the gas constant
• The speed of sound is proportional only to the square root of the
absolute temperature.
1.3 Mach Number
• As the speed of an aircraft increases, there is a decrease in the distance
between the aircraft and the influence of the advancing pressure waves.

• The aircraft begins to catch up the pressure waves, so the air has less
time to move from the aircraft's path and upwash has a more acute
angle.
Cont...
• At higher speeds there is also a change in the flow and pressure patterns
around the aircraft.Ultimatly lift and drag,the stability and control
characteristics will all be changed.where density can change along a
streamline,

• If the aircraft speed through the air (TAS) and the speed of sound in the air
through which it is flying (the local speed of sound) is known, this will
give an indication of the degree off compressibility. known as the Mach
number and Mach number is a measure of compressibility.
Cont..
• Mach number (M) is the ratio of the true airspeed (V) to the local speed
of sound (a)
V
M 
a
• Is nothing more than a ratio of the velocity of the a/c to the speed
of sound in the vicinity of the object

 The Mach number is named after Ernst Mach who

conducted many of the first experiments on supersonic flow
and captured the first ever photograph of a shock wave.
1.3.1 Effect on Mach Number of climbing at a
constant IAS
• It is known that temperature decreases with increasing altitude, so
the speed of sound will decrease as altitude is increased.

• It is also known that if altitude is increased at a constant lAS, the

TAS increases.

• Therefore, the Mach number will increase if altitude is increased at a

constant lAS. This is because (V) gets bigger and (a) gets smaller.
Cont.. • VMO and MMO, the high speed
(generally speaking) operational
limit speeds.

• It has been stated that as an aircraft

climbs at a constant lAS its Mach
number will be increasing.

• It is clear that it is possible to

exceed the maximum operating
Mach number (MMO) in a climb at a
constant lAS.
Cont..
• As the climb continues an altitude will be reached at which the flight
crew must stop flying at a constant lAS and fly at a constant Mach
number,
• to avoid accidentally exceeding MMO. The altitude at which this
changeover takes place will depend on the outside air temperature.
• When descending at a constant Mach number lAS will be
increasing,When climbing at a constant TAS Mach number will be
increasing, up to the tropopause.
1.4 Critical Mach Number
• An aerofoil generates lift by accelerating air over the top surface.
• highest local velocity on an aircraft will usually be located at the point
of maximum thickness on the wing.
• if the thickness/chord ratio is higher or increased angle of attack the
local speed will be higher.
• The Free Stream Mach number at which the local velocity first
reaches Mach1.0 (sonic) is called the Critical Mach number (MCRIT)

For example, at a free stream speed of M0.84, maximum local velocity on the
wing might be as high as M1.05 in cruising level flight.
Cont..
• Critical Mach number is the highest speed at which no parts of the
aircraft are supersonic
• At speeds just above the critical Mach number there will be a small
region of supersonic airflow on the upper surface, terminated by a shock
wave,
• A shockwave forms at the rear of an
area of supersonic flow
• At Mcrit there is no shockwave
because there is no supersonic flow
1.5 Subdivision of aerodynamic flow
subsonic speed
• If the local speed is every where on the a/c less than the speed of sound,
the speed of the a/c is referred to as subsonic
Super sonic speed
• Is if all local speeds are
greater than the speed of
sound
Transonic speed
• Is the speed at which
some local speeds are less
than the speed of sound
and some are greater than
the speed of sound.

• Is speed between 0.75M and

1.2M
Hypersonic speed
• In addition to these speed ranges future aircraft will need to
recognize a Hypersonic speed range which begins at approximately
Mach 5.
• In this speed range the air is heated so much by the friction of the
aircraft passing through it that the air molecules ionize.
1.6 Shoke Wave
 As the object's speed increases to
just above M1.0, the pressure and
density of the air just ahead of it are also
increased. The region of compressed air
extends some distance ahead of the
object.

 The actual distance depends on the

speed and size of the object and the
temperature of the air.
Cont..
At one point the free air stream particles are completely undisturbed,
having received no advance warning of the approach of a fast moving
object.

They suddenly made to undergo drastic changes in velocity,

pressure, temperature and density.Because of the sudden nature of
these changes, the boundary line between the undisturbed air and the
region of compressed air is called a "shock wave",
1.5.1 Normal Shoke Wave
(Normal meaning perpendicular to the upstream flow)
• a shock wave can be generated in an entirely different manner when
there is no object in the supersonic airflow.

• Whenever supersonic airflow is slowed to subsonic speed without a

change in direction, a "normal" shock wave will form as a boundary
between the supersonic and subsonic region.
Shock wave pattern
 At about three quarters of the
speed of sound shock wave is
formed
 On a symmetrical wing at
zero angle of attack the
incipient shock wave
appears on both top and
bottom surfaces
simultaneously.
Cont..
 On a wing at a small angle of
attack, even if the airfoil
section is symmetrical, the
incipient shock wave appears
first on top surface only.
Cont..
 As the speed increases further, the
shock wave tends to move
backwards.But, in doing so
becomes stronger and extends
farther out from the surface.
Cont..
 At a speed just above that of
sound another wave appears,
in the form of a bow wave
some distance ahead of the
leading edge.
 The original wave, which is
now at the TE, tends to
become curved, and shaped
rather like a fish tail.
Cont..
 As the speed is further
increased, the bow wave
attaches itself to the LE, and
the angles formed between
both waves and the surfaces
become more acute.
Accelerating Beyond Mcrit
 At speeds just above the critical Mach number there will be a
small region of supersonic airflow on the upper surface,
terminated by a shock wave.
 Cont..
 As the aircraft speed is further increased the region of
supersonic flow on the upper surface extends and the
shockwave marking the end of the supersonic region, moves
rearwards.
 A similar sequence of events will occur on the lower surface
although the shockwave will usually form at a higher aircraft
speed because the lower surface usually has less curvature so
the air is not accelerated so much.
Cont..
 When the aircraft speed reaches Mach1.0 the airflow is
supersonic over the whole of both upper and lower surfaces, and
both the upper and lower shock waves will have reached the
trailing edge.
 At a speed just above Mach 1.0 the other shockwave previously
described above, the bow wave, forms ahead of the leading
edge.
Cont..
 The bow shock wave is initially separated (detached) from the
leading edge by the build up of compressed air at the leading edge,
but as speed increases it moves closer to the leading edge.
 For a sharp leading edge the shock eventually becomes attached to
the leading edge. The Mach number at which this occurs depends
upon the leading edge angle.
 For a sharp leading edge with a small leading edge angle the bow
wave will attach at a lower Mach number than one with a larger
leading edge angle.
Cont..
1.7. Effects of shock wave
 Sudden and considerable increase in density.
 Rise in pressure
 The speed of the air stream next to the normal shock
wave formed reduces to subsonic.
 Loss of lift
Cont..
 The pressure distribution changes
 The position of the c.p changes
 The balance of the a/p upsets
 The turbulent airflow behind the shock wave is apt to
cause severe buffeting This is shock stall
Cont..
 If there is a shock wave ahead of the control
surface, movement of the control cannot affect any
part of the aerofoil ahead of the shock wave.
Effect of Shoke wave on LIFT and Position
of CP in Transonic flight
 on the coming Picture The solid blue line represents upper surface
pressure and the dashed blue line the lower surface. Decreased
pressure is indicated upwards. The difference between the full line
and the dashed line shows the effectiveness of lift production;
 if the dashed line is above the full line the lift is negative in that area.
Lift is represented by the area between the lines, and the Centre of
Pressure (CP) by the centre of the area.
Cont..
MACH Number and lift

 At speeds above Mcrit a shockwave will

have formed on the upper surface. This
may cause boundary layer separation
aft of the shock wave, causing loss of lift.
Shock drag
 Is the sudden extra drag which is a marked feature of
the shock stall
it Is made up of two types
1) energy drag
2) boundary layer drag
Wave(Energy) Drag
 Energy drag stems from the irreversible nature of the
changes which occur as an airflow crosses a shock wave.
Energy has to be used to provide the temperature rise
across the shock wave and this energy loss is drag on the
aircraft.
Boundary Layer Drag
 In certain stages of shock wave movement there is a considerable
flow separation.

 This turbulence represents energy lost to the flow and contributes to the drag. As Mfs
increases through the transonic range the shock waves move to the trailing edge and the
separation decreases.
MACH number and Drag

The 'hump' in the curve from M 0.89 to M

1.2 is caused by:
a) The drag directly associated with the
trailing edge shock waves (energy loss).
b) Separation of the boundary layer.
c) The formation of the bow shock wave
above M1.0
Shock stall
A shock stall is a stall created when the airflow over an
aircraft's wings is disturbed by shock waves formed
when flying at or above the aircraft's drag divergence
Mach number.
Behavior of an a/c at shock stall
 The turbulent air due to the shock stall passes over the
tail unit This causes change of longitudinal trim Very
large force is required to move the controls,Trimmers are
ineffective.
 Cont..
Snaking: yawing from side to side
Porpoising: pitching up and down
Dutch roll: a combination of roll and yaw
Avoiding shock stall
The best way of getting out of shock stall trouble is either:
 To stop going fast or To go faster
 Shock Stall
Shock stall is because of speed
A specified speed is needed for
shock stall
Shock stall may occur at any angle of
attack More likely to occur at small
angle associated with high speed
Shock stall
Vs
Ordinary stall
To recover from shock stall, the
speed must be reduced
Shock stalling speed reduces with
increasing altitude (owing to the drop
in temperature)
In a shock stall controls may become
so stiff as to be impossible to move
Ordinary Stall
Ordinary stall can occur at any speed
Ordinary stall occurs at a large angle
of attack
To recover from ordinary stall, the
nose must be put down and increase
speed
Ordinary stall speed increases with
increasing altitude (owing to the fall
in density)
In an ordinary stall, controls become
sloppy and ineffective
Sound barrier and sonic boom
 In aerodynamics, the sound barrier usually refers to
the point at which an a/c moves from transonic to
supersonic speed. The term came into use during
world war II when a number of aircraft started to
encounter the effects of compressibility
Cont..
 The term sonic boom is commonly used to refer to the
shocks caused by the supersonic flight of an aircraft.

 Sonic booms generate enormous amounts of sound energy,

sounding much like an explosion.
cont..

 The "boom" is
experienced when there
is a sudden change in
pressure.
Height and speed range
 At earlier times, owing to limitations of engine power the
speed range of an a/c narrows with height, until, at the
absolute ceiling, where there is only one possible speed of
flight This speed, however, was not the stalling speed.
Cont.. Coffin Corner

Stall
safe Zone
Cont..
 Now, however, there is almost unlimited thrust available
Use of jet, rockets, or eventually atomic energy.
New aspect of the limitation of height at which
an a/c can fly without stalling
 The true speed of the
ordinary stall will increase
with height.
 The true speed of the shock
stall will fall from sea level
to the base of the
stratosphere.
Cont..
 The shaded portions represent
the altitude and speed in which
flight is not possible with out
stalling
 If this a/c is to avoid both kinds
of stall, it can not fly above
78,000ft what ever the power
available.
Cont..  If it flies any slower it will
stall (ordinary stall) If it flies
any faster, it will stall (shock
stall).
 Thus quite apart from engine
power, there is a limitation to
the height of subsonic flight,
and a narrowing of the speed
range as the limiting height is
approached.
Bow and Oblique shock Waves
 The shock wave ahead of the
leading edge is called a bow
wave and is normal only in the
vicinity of the leading edge.
Further away from the leading
edge ("above" and "below") it
becomes oblique.

 A shock wave forms at the junction of the supersonic and

subsonic flow, the generation of which is wasteful of energy (wave
drag).
Oblique shock Wave
 Is also a compression wave
 Is formed if a wedge shaped (sharp corner) is placed in a supersonic
airflow
 A supersonic air stream passing through a normal shock wave
experiences the following
 Air stream slowed to subsonic
 Static pressure increases
 Density increases
Expansion wave
 it is shows that a supersonic airflow
can follow a convex comer because
it expands upon reaching the corner.
The velocity INCREASES and the
other parameters, pressure, density
and temperature DECREASE.
Supersonic airflow behaviour
through an expansion wave is exactly
opposite to that through a shock
wave.
Cont..

oblique shock Expansion wave

Cont..
Raising critical Mach number
1) Slimness (low thickness to
chord ratio)It would distribute
the pressure and velocity more
evenly along the chord and
produce a lower peak velocity
for same lift coefficient.
The use of a low thickness ratio wing section
has some disadvantages:
 The lift produced by a thin wing will be less, giving higher take-off
and landing speeds and increased distances.

 Limited stowage space is available in a thin wing for:

 fuel
 high lift devices and their actuating mechanism and
 the main undercarriage and its actuating mechanism.
2) sweep back
One of the most commonly used methods of increasing
MCRIT is to sweep the wing back. it applies to wings, tail
fin, and control surfaces.
 The theory behind is that it is
only the component of the
velocity across the chord of the
wing, Vcosα, which is
responsible for the pressure
distribution and so for causing
the shock wave.
Disadvantages of sweep back
 When sweep back is combined with taper, the wing tip
will stall first, This is because of the span wise flow.

 Sweep back reduces the effectiveness of the TE control

surfaces and high lift devices.
 Increases stability and reduces controllability at higher coefficient
of lift.
Cont..
 Structural complexity
 (CL)MAX is low, and therefore stalling speed is high (CL)
MAX
Is obtained at too large an angle to be suitable for landin
gI. gives a higher stall speed and increased take-off and
landing distances.
II. Maximum lift angle of attack is increased,
3) Vortex Generators
 The adverse flight characteristics resulting from the
boundary layer separation can be reduced if the amount
of separation can be reduced.

 Remember that the shock induced separation occurs

because the boundary layer has insufficient energy
to overcome the adverse pressure gradient through
the shock wave.
Cont..

 Each vortex generator produces a

vortex at its tip which will induce
high energy air from the free
stream flow to mix with the
boundary layer, thus increasing its
kinetic energy and helping it flow
through the shock wave with much
less separation.
Cont..

 Vortex generators are low AR airfoils used to reduce

drag caused by supersonic flow over portions of the
wing
 Cont..
 Any device that increases the KE of the boundary layer delays its
separation from the airfoil and, therefore, the shock has to be much
stronger to cause adverse effects.

 They form strong wing tip vortex ,The tip vortex causes air to flow
upward and inward in a circular path around the end of the airfoil
  Supercritical airfoil shape keeps
upper surface velocity from getting
too large.Uses aft camber to
generate lift Gives nose down
pitching moment they develop
shock waves farther aft than
traditional airfoils,

 They greatly reduce shock-induced boundary layer separation,

and their geometry allows for more efficient wing design
Supersonic flight effect on stability

h Tuck
Mac
1)Previously we have learned that wings have an aerodynamic
center and that center is at approximately the 25% chord point.

However, as the aircraft moves into supersonic flight the up

wash ahead of the wing disappears (since no pressure waves
move out ahead of the wing.)
Cont..
 As a result it is not surprising that the aerodynamic center and
center of pressure, both move back to the 50% chord point.

 The nose of the aircraft always tends to pitch nose down

as the aircraft transitions from subsonic to supersonic
speed. This tendency is called the "Mach Tuck.“ or
Tuck under In aircraft such as Concorde the "Fly by
Wire" controls compensate for this tendency
automatically, so the pilot never notices it.
Cont..
2) At transonic speed, the up wash reduces
The down wash too reduces,The negative AOA on the
horizontal stabilizer reduces the negative lift reduces in
magnitude,This will create a nose down moment which is
called Mach tuck or tuck under.
Cont..
 However, if the aircraft was never designed to enter supersonic
flight (like most airliners.) the nose would pitch down
significantly during the transition through the transonic speed
range
Cont..  A Mach trim system will adjust longitudinal trim and
operates only at high Mach numbers.

MACH Lift
Tuck

MACH
weight Trim
Longitudinal Stability Increases in
Supersonic Flight
 We know that the longitudinal stability of the aircraft depends
upon the center of gravity being ahead of the CP. But, as the
aircraft moves into supersonic flight the CP suddenly moves back.
Cont..

This will have two effects.

 It will produce a tendency for the nose to pitch down.
 It will also increase the longitudinal stability of the aircraft
making it harder for the pilot to make pitch changes.
Cont..
The above phenomenon was first encountered during the second
world war when some P-51 and Spitfire pilots got too close to the
speed of sound, usually in a dive to catch, or escape from, the
enemy. The pilots experienced a tendency for the nose to pitch
down even more and reported that it took all his strength to pull
the nose back up. Some did not make it and dove into the ground,
or broke up, as their aircraft exceeded the maximum design speed.
Trim Changes Upon Entering Supersonic
Flight
 Modern supersonic aircraft have little difficulty passing
through the sound barrier because they are designed with very
large and powerful elevators (or Elevons) with  "Fly by Wire"
to help the pilot move them.
Elevons

 Elevons are a/c control surfaces

that combines the functions of the
elevator (used for pitch control)
and the aileron (used for roll
control), hence the name...
Cont..
 When moved in the same
direction (up or down) they will
cause a pitching force (nose up or
nose down) to be applied to the
airframe.

 When moved differentially, (one

up, one down) they will cause a
rolling force to be applied.
Cont..
 These forces may be applied simultaneously by appropriate
positioning of the elevons e.g. one wing's elevons completely
down and the other wing's elevons partly down.

 However the nose up trim change which is always required on

transition to supersonic flight will result in an increase in trim
drag (because the down force on the tail will require more lift
from the wing.)
 One solution to this problem is to use forward located strakes,
or a canard to offset the pitch change.
Canard airplane
Cont..
 The designers of Concorde, in the 1960s
took a more obvious approach. They
equipped the aircraft with a second fuel
tank and high speed pumps which allow
the center of gravity to be shifted back
for supersonic flight.
Trimming Tail
 It is crucial for a jet airliner which may encounter
transonic effects to have a stabilizer and elevator
combination which will work effectively even if a shock
wave has formed.
 Conventional stabilizers with a fixed horizontal stabilizer and
a separate elevator promote the formation of shock waves
because they form a highly cambered airfoil when the pilot
moves the controls.
Cont..
 Once the shock wave forms it disrupts the airflow over the
elevators often rendering them useless, or at least greatly
degraded in effectiveness.
 Therefore, almost all jets use either a fully moving tail surface,
known as a stabilator or a trimmable stabilizer.
Cont..

 Both of these designs ensure that the tail surface never has
much camber on it.

 Therefore, they will remain effective even at transonic

speeds and should provide the control authority necessary.
Safety: flight at excessive speed
 The term ‘’very high speed’’ is entirely relative;

 In an aluminum tube and fabric aircraft it might be 70 knots,

 In an aircraft that cruises at 100 knots excessive speed, in favorable

atmospheric conditions, might be 140 knots.
Cont..
 Machines that move very fast seem to hold some kind
of fascination for us.We like the thrill of driving fast
cars and flying fast airplanes.
 But speed has its dangers.
What are the dangers of flying too fast?
Extract from an email from Italy to an RA-Aus member discussing the
crash of a Flight Design CT ultra light aircraft:

“The airfield has been closed due to a fatal accident

with a CT that went over Vne and (broke up) just 50
meters above the airfield. I don't know if you ever
experienced the CT, never fly it with pilots that want
to show you how fast it is. I saw ... what happens if
you feel greater than aircraft limits."
How are airspeed limits, especially Vne, determined?

In FAR Part 23, (Vd) the 'design diving speed' — is required

to be not less than 1.4 times the design cruise speed for a
normal category aircraft.
Cont..
 To receive certification, it must be demonstrated, possibly by
analytical methods, that at Vd, the propeller, engine, engine
mount, and airframe will be free from over speeding, severe
vibration, buffeting, control reversal and most importantly
flutter and divergence.

(Vd) this is the maximum speed which has to be considered when assessing the
strength of the aircraft. It is based on the principle of an upset occuring when
the aircraft is flying at Vc, resulting in a shallow dive.
Cont..
 To provide some safety margin, Vne (the IAS which
should never be exceeded in level flight, descent or
other maneuver) is set at 90% of the lower of Vd or
Vdf.
 Vdf (demonstrated diving speed): is a diving speed
which has been demonstrated by a test pilot without
problem in test flights, and which must be lower
than, or equal to, Vd.
Cont..
 Vne is always specified in the pilot's documentation as an
indicated airspeed and usually marked on the ASI (the red line)
but,unlike the performance airspeeds (also specified as
indicated airspeeds and perhaps marked on the ASI) Vne is
related to those structural characteristics and limitations
associated with bending, twisting and flexibility which affect
stability, control and even structural integrity.
Cont..
 Limiting speeds are also associated with structural
reaction to pilot induced loads and to gust induced loads.
 Limiting speeds could also be associated with other
potential problems; for example, suction effects at
particular speeds and attitudes might lead to canopy
departure, or door or cowling security problems.
 Quite often Vne is limited by the critical flutter speed;
Does Vne stay the same no matter how
high you fly?
 For most ultra light aircraft only one Vne is specified in the
Pilot's Operating Handbook or aircraft flight manual. That
value is probably conservative and applicable for operations
below 10,000 feet Amsl.
 The designers of most piston-engine General Aviation
aircraft specify one fixed-value Vne for operations up to the
service ceiling; that value is represented by the fixed red line
on the ASI.
Cont..

 However, a minority of GA aircraft have supplementary lower-

value Vne for operations in altitude bands above a stated
altitude, perhaps above 10,000 or 15,000 feet.
Cont..

FAR Part 23.1545 (c) requires that "If Vne

varies with altitude, there must be
means to indicate to the pilot the
appropriate limitations throughout
the operating altitude range".
 The 'means' is normally a placard next to the ASI. So, in
such circumstances, designers must specify a series of
Vne values, corresponding with all possible operating
altitude bands.
The following table reflects the Sinus flight manual and the
ASI placard; the maximum true airspeed target is 122 knots.

Density altitude/IAS for nominal Vne 122 knots IAS/CAS

Density altitude VNE knots IAS
0 122
3300 116
6500 111
10,000 105
13,000 100
16,500 95
19,700 90
23,000 85
26,300 80
Cont..

 If there is insufficient manufacturer's information available for the

aircraft you fly, and you are uncertain about the appropriate Vne for
an operating altitude, then multiply the (density) altitude, in 1000s
of feet, by a factor of 1.5 to get the percentage DECREASE to
apply to the specified Vne to establish a safe Vne appropriate to the
altitude.
Cont..

For example if altitude is 8000 feet and specified Vne is

100 knots then 8[000] × 1.5 = 12%. Corrected Vne = 88%
of 100 = 88 knots IAS/CAS.
VMO/MMO
 Is defined as the maximum operating limit speed.
VMO is expressed in knots calibrated airspeed (KCAS), while
MMO is expressed in Mach number.
The VMO limit is usually associated with operations at lower
altitudes and deals with structural loads and flutter.
Cont..

 The MMO limit is associated with operations at

higher altitudes and is usually more concerned
with compressibility effects and flutter. 

 Above some altitude approximatly FL260, IAS

must be changed to MACH thus, became the
operating limit as you could not reach the VMO
limit without first reaching the MMO limit.
If I stay below Vne, I won’t have to worry
about structural failure, right?
 Vne is assessed at or near MTOW, with the CG within the
fore and aft limits for the aircraft's specified category; it does
not apply if weight, maneuvering loads or CG position are
outside the specified limits.
Cont..
 As a maximum airspeed it applies only in smooth
atmospheric conditions, for gentle control movements and
symmetrical aerodynamic loads; even gusts associated
with mild turbulence or control surface movements greater
than perhaps a few degrees travel will lead to some nasty
surprises, if operating close to but below Vne.
Cont..
 At high speed the controls are very effective with a probability of
over-control This applies extreme loads to the structures.

 Asymmetric aerodynamic loads, such as combined rolling and

pitching, reduce the maximum allowable airframe load by perhaps
30%.

 Take care because some aircraft control systems provide

inadequate feedback of the load being exerted; i.e. a high load can
be applied with a relatively low stick force.
Cont..
 Aircraft structures are designed to have adequate strength and
stiffness, while still being as light as possible. To receive type
approval certification, the design of a general aviation or ultra light
aircraft must conform with certain standards — among which are
the in-flight structural load minimums — for the category in which
the aircraft may be operated.
Elasticity
 All aircraft structures exhibit some degree of
elasticity; that is, they deflect a little, changing
shape flexing, bending and twisting under applied
aerodynamic loads.

 Those structural distortions also contribute to a

change in the aerodynamic forces, so the
distortions and forces are mutually dependent.
Cont..
 This is particularly so with the wings, tail plane and control
surfaces. However, structures usually spring back to the
normal position when the load is removed.
 This aero elasticity may lead to some problems at high speed,
but reducing elasticity means increasing rigidity, which
perhaps involves an unwarranted increase in structural
weight.
 Aircraft structural engineering must be a compromise
between rigidity and elasticity.
 AERODYNAMIC
REACTIONS TO FLIGHT
AT EXCESSIVE SPEED
Flutter
 The rapid and uncontrolled oscillation of a surface resulting
from imbalance. Flutter normally leads to a catastrophic
failure of the structure.

 The natural frequency of a wing or tail plane structure may apply

another limiting airspeed to flight operations, related to
interaction between aerodynamic and inertial loads 'flutter'.
Cont..
 When the airflow around a wing or control surface is disturbed
(by aerodynamic reactions, turbulence or pilot inputs) the
structure's elastic reactions may combine as an oscillation or
vibration of the structure possibly felt in the controls as a low-
frequency buzz that will quickly damp itself out at normal cruise
speeds.
Cont..
 At some higher speed — the critical flutter speed, where the
oscillations are in phase with the natural frequency of the
structure — the oscillations will not damp out but will resonate
and rapidly increase in amplitude. (Pushing a child on a swing
is an example of phase relationships and amplification.)
Cont..
 This condition is flutter and, unless airspeed is very quickly
reduced, the increasing dynamic loads will cause control surface
(or other) separation within a very few seconds.
Cont..
 Mass inertia is also involved in flutter development.
Consequently, control surfaces — ailerons, elevators, rudder
must be mass-balanced (i.e. the centre of gravity of the control
surface as close as possible to the hinge line) to limit the mass
moment of inertia. It may be acceptable for the control surface to
be over-balanced; i.e. its CG is slightly forward of the hinge
line.
Cont..
 Mass-balancing of the control surfaces should prevent
flutter of the surface, but the possibility of, for example,
wing flexing/twisting flutter may still exist.
Wing divergence
 Wing divergence refers to a state where at very low angles of
attack and high speed (when the nose-down pitching moment
is already very high) pressure centers develop, which push the
front portion of the wing downward and the rear portion
upward.
 Cont..
 The action finally exceeds the capability of the wing/strut structure
to resist the torsional stress, and causes the wing to separate from the
airframe with no warning. This could be induced if a downdraft is
encountered at high speed.
Control reversal
 As airspeed increases, control surfaces become increasingly
more effective. They reach a limiting airspeed where the
aerodynamic force generated by the ailerons, for example,
may be sufficient to twist the wing itself. At best, this
results in control nullification; at worst, it results in
control reversal.
 Cont..
 For example, if the pilot initiates a roll to the left, the down
going right aileron will twist the right wing, reducing its AOA
and resulting in loss of lift and a roll to the right.
Effect of wing washout
 Wings incorporating geometric washout have a significantly lower
AoA towards the wing tips.

 At high speed when the wing is flying at low AoA, there are high
aerodynamic loads over the wings. However, the outer sections
could well be flying at a negative AOA and the reversed load in that
area will bend the wingtips down, possibly leading to outer spar
fracture.
Recovery from flight at excessive speed

 Halt the buildup in airspeed by closing the throttle.Unload

the wings to some extent by moving the control column to
the neutral position or just aft of it. Keep the slip ball and
the ailerons centred the twisting action of excess rudder at
very high airspeed may strain the tail plane and rear
fuselage.
Cont..

 Gently roll off any bank while using coordinated rudder; this
will ensure the total lift vector is roughly vertically aligned.
Maintain the control column position at neutral or slightly aft
to avoid any asymmetric loading arising from simultaneous
application of aileron and elevator at high speed.
Cont..
 When the wings are level, start easing back on the
control column until you are pulling the maximum
load factor for the aircraft : +3.8g or +4.4g, perhaps
less for some ultra lights. Do not pull back so
harshly that the aircraft enters a high speed stall.
Hold the applied loading near the maximum until
the aircraft's nose nears the horizon, then level off.
The aircraft will have sufficient momentum to reach
this position before opening the throttle.
Cont..
If you have ample height at the commencement of recovery,
then there is no need to pull such high g — particularly if the
atmosphere is bumpy when gust loads, added to the high
maneuvering g, may prove excessive. In aircraft not certified for
aerobatics, it is best to wait until airspeed is less than Va before
pulling g — if circumstances permit.
Propellers
 The propeller is a rotating airfoil, subject to induced drag,
stalls, and other aerodynamic principles that apply to any
airfoil.

 It provides the necessary thrust to pull, or in some cases

push, the aircraft through the air.
Cont..
 For example, in takeoffs and climbs more power is
needed, and this can best be provided by low pitch.
 For speed at cruising altitude, high pitch will do the
best job.
A fixed-pitch propeller is a compromise.
Cont..
 The engine power is used to rotate the propeller, which in
turn generates thrust very similar to the manner in which a
wing produces lift Since the blade is an aerofoil,
 it produces thrust most efficiently at a particular angle of
attack This angle varies both with operating conditions and
with the design camber of the blade sections.
Cont..
 The rotational speed of a particular cross section of a blade
increases with its distance from the axis of rotation Since the
forward speed of all parts of the blades is the same,
 the relative airflow varies along the blade It is necessary to
provide a decreasing blade angle from the root to tip.
Blade Twist
 There is a twist along the length of a propeller blade(next
picture) because the blade speed is much higher at the tip
than it is at the root.
 The twist is necessary to maintain a more or less constant
angle of attack along the length of the blade. ...
 The performance of a propeller diminishes greatly as
the blade nears transonic speed
Thank you!