GAS TURBINE

Materials andENGINE
Hardware
Inlet

SUB - MODULE 03

Cat. Cat.
A B

15.3 - Inlet
Compressor inlet ducts;
Effects of various inlet configurations;

Inlet
Ice protection

1 3

Issue-I, Rev.-0 3.1

INLET
INTRODUCTION
The inlet is normally considered to be part of the
airframe, not part of the engine. Nevertheless, it is
usually identified as engine station number one.
Understanding the function of the inlet and its
importance to engine performance makes it a
necessary part of any discussion on gas turbine
engine design and construction. Purpose is to furnish
a uniform supply of air to compressor for its stall free
performance. The inlet duct must also create a little
drag as possible. Proper inlet contributes to engine
performance by increasing the compression ratio.
COMPRESSOR INLET DUCTS
INLET CONDITIONS
The air velocity entering the compressor first stage
should never exceed Mach 0.4 regardless of the speed
of the aircraft. The average low pressure compressor
on a two spool turbo-jet is turning at about 15,000
RPM then you can imagine that the rotor tip speed
will be high. Add to this the forward speed of the
aircraft and imagine that this could be the axial air
velocity meeting the compressor. The resultant
airflow velocity meeting the compressor rotors will
soon reach the local speed of sound in air. The rotor
blade tips will experience shock wave formation with
a resulting breakdown in airflow through turbulence.
Intakes must cater for a number of variables within
an aircraft operating range. These changes are:
1. Airspeeds from stationary to maximum flight
speed.
2. Engine rotational speeds from start-up to
maximum.
3. Altitude changes from sea level to aircraft
ceiling height.
4. Changes in aircraft attitude in roll, pitch and
yaw.
5. Aircraft manoeuvres such as side-slipping,
climbing and diving
3.2
RAM RECOVERY
The intake should be designed so as to give the
greatest pressure recovery achievable. As airspeed
increases the intake air pressure will begin to rise and
eventually the ram effect will start to compress the
air and increase the air mass flow. Pressure can be
lost through turbulence and friction between the air
and the intake skin so the intake needs to be as
smooth as possible. As airspeed increases,
momentum drag will inevitably increase and will
have to be deducted from the gross thrust value. Ram
recover}' is said to have occurred when the thrust
gained from the intake ram effect recovers most if
not all the thrust lost as a result of momentum drag.
120
100
With ram
% of ISA Thrust
80
Without ram
60
40
Net thrust at 35,000
20
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
kts
Figure 3-1 : Thrust-Airspeed curves for turbojet
RAM RATIO
The ram ratio is the ratio of the total pressure at
compressor inlet to the static pressure or ambient
pressure existing before entry to the intake.
Ram ratio= Total pressure at compressor inlet
Ambient pressure
RAM COMPRESSION
As airspeed reaches approximately 350kts, the air in
the intake experiences a compression that increases
as airspeed rises. This will also increase the
temperature of the intake air. At transonic and
supersonic airspeeds shock waves form which, if
correctly positioned in the correct configuration
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intake, further enhance air compression inside the
intake.
In the wrong configuration intake, the shock waves
induce a break down in airflow. At high airspeeds,
external compression can occur in front of the intake
and this can cause a disruption to flow over the Mach 1 Sub-sonic
nacelle, giving rise to nacelle drag.
Pressure rise
Temperature rise
AIRSPEED RANGES
Subsonic flight refers to the air speed range where all
the airflow over the aircraft is less than Mach 1.
Bearing in mind that air increases in velocity over
curved surfaces, Mach 1 air velocities can occur on
some parts of an aircraft before the aircraft itself Normal
reaches Mach 1. As a result, the subsonic flight range Figure 3-2 : Normal shock wave

Inlet
is limited to mach 0.7. As soon as air velocity reaches
Mach 1 on any curved part of the aircraft shock wave OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVE
will form at that point. We now have a mixture of If a shock wave makes contact with a sharp edge it
subsonic and Mach 1 flow over the aircraft, the speed will bend backwards forming a wave that is at an
range is referred to as being transonic. Due to the angle to the airflow causing it. The airflow will
behavior of air flowing through shock waves this decelerate through the wave, but remains above
mixture of subsonic and supersonic air flows remains Mach 1 on exit.
until the aircraft reaches around Mach 1.4. So, the
transonic speed range is between approximately
Mach 0.7 and Mach 1.4. Above Mach 1.4 the air flow
over the aircraft is usually fully supersonic and this is
called the supersonic range. This airspeed range
exists up to around Mach 5 beyond which the term
hypersonic then applies. Mach 1 Super-sonic

SHOCK WAVES Velocity reduced

small pressure rise

NORMAL SHOCK WAVE

When a shock wave appears at a point of Mach 1 air
flow it is described as being normal if it appears at
right angles to direction of the air flow causing it. Air
Oblique
passing through a normal shock wave will be Mach 1
or above on entry but instantly decelerates to below Figure 3-3 : Oblique shock wave
Mach 1 on exit. As the shock wave is only about one
ten thousandth of an inch thick, the exchange of EFFECTS OF VARIOUS INLET CONFIGURATIONS
energy from kinetic to pressure potential and heat SUB-SONIC INTAKES
energy is quite dramatic. At a higher Mach number The ideal intake shape for sub-sonic aircraft is the
this can lead to severe turbulence and an increase in simple divergent duct that is referred to as the Pitot
air temperature behind the wave. type intake. It is invariably short and circular in

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shape. This type of intake operates very well from
low sub-sonic airspeeds up to about Mach 1.2. Above
this speed, shock waves and air compression in the
intake generate enough heat to affect density and
disrupt the airflow pattern and severely reduce the
efficiency of the intake. The Pitot intake has a
divergent cross section from front to rear and
produces the maximum ram compression in sub-sonic
flight.
Figure 3-4 : Pitot type intake
Pressure recovery takes place in the pitot type intake
because of the increasing diameter of the duct. As air
passes through its velocity reduces and its pressure
increases as a result. If you compress a mass of air the
temperature also increases somewhat.
As the aircraft forward speed reaches Mach one, a
normal shock -wave appears just ahead of the intake
lip.
As you know, air passing through a normal shock wave
instantly decelerates to below Mach one. This means
that the air entering the diffuser section of the intake
still behaves in a normal sub-sonic fashion and
decelerates whilst increasing its pressure. The
problem is that at around Mach 1.2, the deceleration
through the shock -wave is so great that it becomes
difficult to avoid turbulence and excessive heat
generation. As the aircraft enters the transonic
range, the efficiency of the pitot intake decreases
due to the shock wave formation. The pitot intake is
the ideal sub-sonic intake.
3.4
TRANSONIC INTAKES
The problems experienced by transonic intakes will
also include all those encountered by subsonic
intakes. Aircraft that fly up to Mach 1.2 are normally
equipped with pitot type intakes and operate with a
normal shock wave positioned just ahead of the
intake lip. The lip of the intake is made sharper to
reduce the velocity of air flowing over the outer
surface of the intake. Thus reducing nacelle drag.
Problems can occur when the shock wave moves in
response to changes in engine mass airflow
requirements.
CRITICAL OPERATION
This is where the normal shock wave is positioned
across the mouth of the intake and the mass of air
entering the intake matches the engine's
requirement. Diffusion of the air occurs in two steps.
The velocity reduces to below Mach 1 through the
normal shock and pressure increases. Subsonic
diffusion then occurs inside the intake reducing the
air velocity to about Mach 0.4 at compressor entry
and raising its pressure.
Figure 3-5 : Critical operation
SUB-CRITICAL OPERATION
This occurs when the mass airflow requirement of the
engine is less than the air being delivered by the
intake, for example, if the engine is throttled back.
The normal shock wave is pushed forwards by air
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spilling out of the intake. This spillage increases
nacelle drag, "which, if the intention of throttling
back was to slow the aircraft, can be of use.
Diffusion now occurs in three steps.
1. Across the shock wave
2. In front of the intake
3. Then inside the intake
Figure 3-6 : Sub Critical operation
SUPER-CRITICAL OPERATION
This occurs where the engine mass airflow
requirement exceeds the flow available. The
pressure reduces inside the intake and draws the
normal shock into the duct. Now we have a bit of a
dilemma! The first section of the intake in front of
Figure 3-7 : Super Critical operation
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the shock has Mach 1 flow in it. As you know, Mach 1
flow will accelerate in a divergent duct and reduce
the air pressure. Just the opposite behaviour of
subsonic flow! Effectively, we have lost part of the
intake length m a pointless expansion of the air
before it reaches the shock. Diffusion occurs in two
steps, through the shock and then normal subsonic
diffusion up to compressor entry. This type of
operation can occur when the engine is accelerated
to high power.
SUPERSONIC INTAKES
For this speed range, we need to redesign the intake.
The simple pitot type intake is no good above Mach
1.2. A normal shock wave on its own is also not a good
Inlet
idea due to the sudden energy change it produces
which merely creates heat energy at the expense of
pressure. What we really need is two waves, one
oblique to take the air velocity down to a value
acceptable to normal shocks. At very high Mach
numbers, we may have to utilise several oblique
waves to achieve the necessary gentle deceleration
down to the normal shock entry. Early supersonic
intakes consisted of a pitot type duct with a
moveable* spike shaped bullet, which both created
the necessary oblique and normal shocks and created
a convergent/ divergent duct.
Figure 3-8 : Variable center body intake
THE VARIABLE GEOMETRY INTAKE
The only supersonic intake in commercial use was to
be found on the Concorde. We must remember that
3.5
these intakes relied on the correct positioning of the
oblique and normal shocks, which, as we know, can
be moved by changes in engine demand. The
Concorde's variable geometry engine intakes were
designed to deliver the correct mass of air at all
aircraft speeds and to reduce air velocity to an
acceptable subsonic value prior to compressor entry.
The intake has a moveable ramp and auxiliary spill
and inlet doors. During acceleration through Mach
1.3 into supersonic flight, the ramp is progressively
lowered to accurately position and maintain several
oblique shock waves and a normal shock wave. The
intake duct forms convergent and a divergent section
during this process. The air decelerates gradually
through the oblique shocks whilst decelerating
supersonically in the converging duct section. On
passing the normal shock normal subsonic
deceleration and pressure rise occurs in the
divergent section up to compressor entry.
SUBSONIC CONDITION
The ramp is raised and the auxiliary inlet door opens
to provide extra airflow on rapid forward engine
throttling and take-off. The intake duct is a subsonic
duct. The auxiliary door will close at about Mach 0.7.
SUPERSONIC CONDITION
At Mach 1.3 the ramp is lowered under hydraulic
power and computer control and a series of oblique
shocks appear starting at the lower intake lip. These
gently and smoothly decelerate the airflow as it
passes supersonically through the now convergent
duct section. On passing the final, normal shock, the
air enters the divergent section as subsonic flow and
diffuses up to compressor inlet. By Mach 2 the ramp
has moved about half its travel. The air temperature
in intake reaches around 200°C by this stage. The
computer senses any changes to the intake air
temperature and pressure and makes fine
adjustments to the ramp position. Movement of the
ramp doors also provides access to an air spill void,
permits air spill void when subcritical conditions try
to push the shock waves out. If the intake does go
sub-critical, air can intermittently spill over the
3.6
lower lip causing a condition called intake Buzz.
BELL MOUTH INTAKES
Bell mouth intakes are used on engine test beds and
also on some slow moving aircraft, notably
helicopters. These intakes experience little or no
pressure loss but do create high drag which is usually
not a problem at the air speeds they encounter and,
of course, no problem at all in a test bed. Because
they do not experience any significant duct pressure
loss they are ideally suited to engines undergoing test
bed runs.
Figure 3-9 : Bell Mouth intake
INTAKE EFFICIENCIES
Efficiency in this sense is defined as the duct's
efficiency in converting kinetic energy to pressure
energy whilst maintaining an undistorted airflow to
the face of the compressor. Pitot intakes can have
duct efficiencies up to 98% when used on under-
slung, wing pylon mounted or rear fuselage mounted
engines. When used with turbo-propeller engines,
however, the airflow disruption caused by propeller
blade roots reduces efficiency to around 80 %. If a
pitot intake is embedded in the wing root, or split to
either side of the fuselage, as in some military
aircraft, the efficiency is reduced to around 90%.
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INTAKE POSITION
The ideal engine position is slung under the wing,
pylon mounted. The intake is then exposed to the
undisturbed free air stream. Rear fuselage mounted
engines can be exposed to turbulent airflow
streaming back off the wines at high pitch up
attitudes.
Split intakes, positioned either side of the fuselage,
can experience problems with ingesting boundary
layer air off the fuselage. If the aircraft sideslips or
yaws, the leeward intake fan then be shielded from
the free stream airflow by the fuselage, ingesting
turbulence and experiencing a reduction in ram
pressure.
The air inlet on a turboprop is of more problem
because the propeller drive shaft, the hub, and the
spinner are located at the front of the air inlet.
Keeping the air flow and aerodynamic characteristics
in view, the inlet duct arrangement is done as shown
in the diagram below.
Compressor inlet screen, sand and ice separation: -
The use of compressor inlet screens is usually limited
to rotorcraft, turboprops, and ground turbine
installations. Screens have been tried in high sub
sonic flight engines in the past, but icing and screen
fatigue failure caused so many maintenance
problems that the use of inlet screens has for the
most part been avoided.
Figure 3-10 : Problem with split intakes
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When aircraft are fitted with inlet screen for
protection against foreign object ingestion, they may
be located internally or externally at either the inlet
duct or the engine compressor inlet. Sand and ice
separators are removable on the discretion of
operator. Engine Inlet vortex dissipator (also known
as a blow-away jet): - The purpose is to protect the
engine on the runway against the FOD.
ICE PROTECTION
Causes of Icing-Icing of the intake lip and the
compressor inlet ducting can occur both on the
ground and in flight. This can cause restricted airflow
and loss of engine performance. Damage can result
from ice breaking away and entering the engine.
When gas turbine engines are being statically run on
the ground a depression exists in the intake and the
Inlet
temperature is reduced. Air passing over the curved
lip of the intake accelerates and drops in pressure
also causing a drop in temperature. If the ambient air
is heavily saturated with moisture, precipitation will
occur as the temperature falls and water droplets
can then freeze locally wherever the temperature is
at 0°C or below. If visible moisture, fog, rain or cloud,
is present, engines should not be run without ice
protection if the outside air temperature is at 10°C
(50°F) or below.
In flight, super-cooled water droplets can be
encountered. These freeze immediately on impact
causing rime ice to form. As water freezes it releases
heat that melts some of the ice allowing water to
flow back over the intake and re-freeze as glaze ice.
The humidity of the air at 35,000ft is so low that ice is
not a risk in temperate climates. The temperature at
this altitude is, however, -56°C. If an aircraft
descends to lower altitude and passes through rime,
clouds or mist, water will immediately freeze as it
contacts the cold aircraft skin forming rain ice.
Warmer air at low altitudes will cool on contact with
the aircraft and moisture will precipitate out of the
air causing hoar frost.
TYPES OF ICE PROTECTION
Hot Air System-Hot air is normally bled from the
engine HP compressor and passed through a pressure
regulating valve before being used to provide heat to
all parts likely to be affected by icing. These can
include the intake nose section, the nose cone,
intake guide vanes and compressor forward support
3.7
struts. The intake pressure-sensing probe is always
protected against ice formation. If the probe were to
block with ice, the Engine Pressure Ratio
instrumentation would read falsely high which is an
extremely dangerous situation giving rise to the risk
of the pilot setting the engine power too low.
Figure 3-11 : Hot air anti-icing system
A typical hot air anti-icing system would be as shown
in figure 3-21. Hot air is tapped from the engine HP
compressor. The bleed air supply is fed via a 28V DC
solenoid controlled anti-ice control valve to a
perforated distributor ring inside the leading edge of
the intake nose cowling. Hot air is then distributed
evenly on the forward inner surface of the nose cowl
and exits through a circumferential slot into the air
flow passing into the engine.
This will raise the turbine gas temperature indication
while the anti-ice system is in operation. The control
valve regulates the hot air supply pressure to
approximately 26psi. If the anti-ice control valve
allowed the supply pressure to exceed the control
pressure of 26psi a relief valve in the nose cowl will
activate and dump the excess pressure overboard
through a spill duct. Should the temperature of the
hot air exceed a typically maximum figure of say
230°C, a sensor in the nose cowl will signal the
control valve to automatically close.
3.8
NACELLE ANTI-ICE
1 OVHT 2 OVHT
TEST TEST
ON
ON
OFF
OFF
NACELLE NACELLE
VLV OPEN VLV OPEN
COWL COWL
OVHT OVHT
Figure 3-12 : Naccle anti-icing control panel
Control of the system is from a flight deck overhead
panel. Selection of hot air anti-icing will increase the
temperature and reduce the density of the air in the
intake. The hot air is tapped from the HP compressor
flow. The combined result will cause the exhaust gas
temperature to rise and the engine thrust to reduce.
A tapping from the hot air supply duct leads to a
shroud around the P1 probe from where it exits
through a slot into the engine intake air. The engine
spinner is not always anti-iced. Some spinners have a
flexible rubber tip that sheds any ice formation.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
Electrical ice protection systems will normally be
found on turbo-propeller engines as the propeller is
also electrically protected. Electrical heating
elements are bonded on to the outer surface of the
intake nose cowl. These are strip-conductors as
shown in figure 3-23. They are sandwiched in glass
fibre cloth impregnated with epoxy resin and coated
with a polyurethane based paint to prevent erosion.
The intake leading edge strips are continuously
heated when the system is selected whilst other
strips are heated intermittently.
This prevents any ice forming on the lip, which is
anti-icing and limits the ice build up further back on
the nose cowl, which is de-icing. When the system is
selected a rise in exhaust gas temperature and a
decrease in engine power will occur due to the
increase in inlet air temperature. On engines using
electrical de-icing and anti-icing, the compressor
inlet guide vanes and compressor forward support
struts are heated with hot air bled from the engine HP
compressor. Electrical power is provided by an
alternator and is frequency wild. To limit the size of
the alternator, the system is cycled between the
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intake and propeller. The continuously heated strips lower air temperatures, below 6°C when the
remain on at all times the system is in use. moisture content of the air is lower and light icing
occurs.

HOT OIL ANTI-ICE SYSTEM

Some engines utilise hot scavenge oil to heat the inlet
casings, inlet guide vanes, compressor support struts
and the engine oil cooler inlet. This is often used in
conjunction with nacelle hot air anti-icing or,
electrical ice protection. The hot oil is continuously
supplied whereas the hot air or electrical system is
selected when required.

Inlet
Figure 3-13 : Electrical ice protection system

A two speed cycling system provides a fast cycle at

higher air temperatures, + 10°C to 6°C when the
moisture content in the air is usually high and heavy
icing would be expected. A slow cycle is provided for

Hot Air (Inner Manifold) Oil

Hot Air (Outer Manifold) Electrical

Figure 3-14 : Use of hot air in ice protection

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