Aircraft Performance

AERO 3021
Climb and Cruise Performance
Contents
Climb and Cruise Performance – from slide 3
Nil Wind Range & Thrust Production – from slide 45
Practice Questions – from slide 97
 Objectives
The objective of this section is to –
• Discuss, with reference to aerodynamics, climb and cruise
performance in detail

Need to know Need to do

The aerodynamic theory surrounding climb and Complete the questions at the end of the slides
cruise in a transport category aircraft
 Discussion

 Climb Performance
 Cruise Performance Theory
 Flying for Maximum Range
 Climb Forces
The relationship in still air between climb
angle (θ), rate of climb (Vc) and TAS (V). The
angle of climb can be found from the
expression:

Fig. 2-1
Climb Forces
 Climb Forces

Fig. 2-1
 Climb Forces

In both cases, (thrust x V) and (drag x V) are

measures of 'power', i.e. force multiplied by
velocity

Drag multiplied by velocity (TAS) is power

required since it is based on the force (drag)
that must be overcome
 Climb Forces

Thrust multiplied by TAS is power available,

and is based on the propulsive force provided
by the engine, thus the equation becomes;
Excess Power Available
 Excess Power Available

There may be ONE nominated best ROC (excess power) speed.

There is a band providing ‘near Max ROC’ speeds

Common feature in jet aircraft and Operations Manual gives
Normal Climb (Max Rate) speed and High Speed Climb speed

Rate of climb is similar but the higher speed (TAS) gives better
track penetration which is important when climbing into a
headwind
Effect of Altitude on Climb Speed
Change from IAS to Mach in the Climb
Cruise Performance
Cruise Performance
Cruise Performance
Cruise Performance
Cruise Performance
Cruise Performance
Cruise Performance
 Cruise Performance

All large transport aircraft have a significant range of CG

positions to allow for variations in passenger/freight load.
Different CG positions will result in variations to the
balance of moments about the CG which are produced by
the main forces.
 Cruise Performance

Since the magnitude of lift, thrust and drag forces will

not vary for a given weight, a change in CG position
results in a different tailplane force.
For extreme rearward movement of the CG position,
the normal download on the tailplane may in fact be
reversed to an upload, to maintain longitudinal
balance
Practice Question 1
Question: Assuming the same altitude and ambient conditions are
maintained, how does cruise IAS/Mach vary throughout the flight when
cruising for maximum range?
Practice Question 1
Question: Assuming the same altitude and ambient conditions are
maintained, how does cruise IAS/Mach vary throughout the flight when
cruising for maximum range?

Answer: It decreases. The speed required to maintain level flight at the

maximum range angle of attack decreases as the aircraft’s weight
decreases.
 Objectives
The objective of this section is to –
• Discuss, with reference to aerodynamics, climb and cruise
performance in detail

Need to know Need to do

The aerodynamic theory surrounding climb and Complete the questions at the end of the slides
cruise in a transport category aircraft
 Aircraft Performance
AERO 3021
Nil wind range and thrust production
 Objectives
The objective of this section is to –
• Discuss, with reference to aerodynamics, flying for maximum range
in nil wind conditions
• Discuss factors affecting engine thrust at high speed and altitude

Need to know Need to do

How maximum range is achieved on transport Complete the questions at the end of the slides
category aircraft in nil wind conditions
The factors which affect thrust production on
transport category aircraft at typical cruise
speeds and altitudes
 Flying for Maximum Range
Specific Air Range – SAR

The consideration for maximum range is really is

really a matter of extracting the maximum range from
the fuel available or Specific Air Range (SAR)
SAR is defined as the distance travelled through the
air (i.e. nil wind) for a given consumption of fuel
SAR is a comparison of distance to fuel consumption
as follows:
Flying for Maximum Range
 Flying for Maximum Range
SAR is the basis for determining best performance of
aircraft in STILL AIR conditions.
The effect of wind has not been considered!

The actual wind is very significant when choosing the

optimum cruising Flight Level

The wind will be considered if we calculate the

Specific GROUND Range (SGR)
 Airframe Considerations

For maximum value of TAS/Drag We need a

max TAS/IAS, which is achieved at high
altitude, together with the max value of
IAS/DRAG (or min DRAG/IAS)

Min DRAG/IAS is achieved when a line from

the origin is drawn at a tangent to the curve,
shown in the following Drag v IAS chart
 Airframe Considerations
This IAS being 1.32 times the IAS for
minimum drag (VIMD).
An aircraft with a minimum drag IAS of 150 kt
for example, will have an ideal IAS for
maximum range of about 200 kt.
Airframe Considerations
 Airframe Considerations
Mach Number:

VMO is the abbreviation

for IAS maximum
normal operating
speed,

MMO is the Maximum

Mach normal
operating speed.
 Airframe Considerations
These speeds define
normal operating limit
speeds, and are less
than maximum IAS
(VNE), and Mach
never exceed (MNE).

VMO and MMO are

shown in the aircraft
flight manual (AFM)
on the buffet
boundary charts.
Factors Affecting Thrust - RPM
 Factors Affecting Thrust - RPM
Measure of the fuel efficiency of a jet engine is
SFC, which is the number of units of fuel per
hour required to produce one unit of thrust.

Thrust
%

RPM %
Factors Affecting Thrust – Air Density &
Pressure
 Summary – Flying for Range
ADVANTAGES IN OPERATING GAS-TURBINE-
POWERED AIRCRAFT AT HIGH ALTITUDE

Decrease in air density, which means a higher TAS for

the same IAS, allowing the same distance to be
covered with less fuel.

Decrease in air temperature, which means that turbine

limit tempera­tures are less likely to be exceeded when
the engine is operated at the high rpm settings which
provide the best SFC.
 Summary – Flying for Range
ADVANTAGES IN OPERATING GAS-TURBINE-
POWERED AIRCRAFT AT HIGH ALTITUDE

Increase in ram effect that accrues at higher

airspeeds; this increases the thrust developed, firstly
by increasing the mass airflow, and secondly by
providing some of the power required to drive the
compressor, thus off-loading the turbine section and
making more energy available to propel the aircraft.
 Summary – Flying for Range
ADVANTAGES IN OPERATING GAS-
TURBINE-POWERED AIRCRAFT AT HIGH
ALTITUDE

Increase in propulsive efficiency that occurs at

higher airspeeds, which increases the amount
of energy available from the exhaust gas
stream to propel the aircraft.
 Summary – Flying for Range
ADVANTAGES IN OPERATING GAS-TURBINE-
POWERED AIRCRAFT AT HIGH ALTITUDE

Decrease in fuel consumption that occurs principally

because:
 the engine can operate freely in its ideal high
rpm range

 for a given speed through the air (TAS), drag is

reduced, requiring less thrust and a lower fuel
flow.
Practice Question 2
Question: On a jet aircraft, what speed would we fly at for maximum
range in still air?
Practice Question 2
Question: On a jet aircraft, what speed would we fly at for maximum range in
still air?

Answer: 1.32Vimd

Flying at 1.32Vimd (indicated minimum drag speed) gives us an angle of attack

that yields the best TAS/drag ratio. This allows us to burn the least fuel per
mile flown. 
Maximum range will be achieved by flying faster than 1.32Vimd in a headwind
to give us the best groundspeed/drag ratio. (Getting out of the headwind
ASAP)
Similarly, maximum range will be achieved by flying slower than 1.32Vimd in a
tailwind to give us the best groundspeed/drag ratio. (Taking maximum
advantage of the increased GS caused by the tailwind)
Practice Question 2

Max Endurance

Max Range
Practice Question 3
Question: At what RPM range will the specific fuel consumption (SFC)
of a jet engine be the lowest?
Practice Question 3
Question: At what RPM range will the specific fuel consumption (SFC)
of a jet engine be the lowest?
Answer: 92-98% of maximum RPM

SFC = fuel flow/thrust

Although fuel flow increases

with increase in RPM, thrust
increases by a larger
amount, which means the
SFC decreases at very high
RPMs. This RPM range is
optimal for jet engines. 
RPM%
Practice Question 4
Question: Jet engines produce thrust by imparting acceleration to a
mass of air (force = mass x acceleration). As the aircraft flies faster, the
velocity of the intake air is also faster, which means less velocity
change (acceleration) is imparted on the air. What stops this from
happening?
Practice Question 4
Question: Jet engines produce thrust by imparting acceleration to a
mass of air (force = mass x acceleration). As the aircraft flies faster, the
velocity of the intake air is also faster, which means less velocity
change (acceleration) is imparted on the air. What stops this from
happening?

Answer: Ram effect.

The air mass ahead of the engine intake starts to compress as the fast-
flying aircraft approaches it. This actually increases the mass of air
that passes through the engine intake, and thus helps to increase thrust
output. 
Practice Question 4
The air mass ahead of the engine intake starts to compress as the fast-
flying aircraft approaches it. This actually increases the mass of air
that passes through the engine intake, and thus helps to increase thrust
output. Remember, thrust = mass of air x acceleration imparted on
it, so an increase in mass of air would also increase thrust.
Practice Question 5
Question: Long haul flights typically start cruising at lower altitudes, but
will 'step climb' to higher altitudes as the aircraft becomes lighter.
Explain, with respect to engine rpm and drag, why this is beneficial.
Practice Question 5
Question: Long haul flights typically start cruising at lower altitudes, but will
'step climb' to higher altitudes as the aircraft becomes lighter. Explain, with
respect to engine rpm and drag, why this is beneficial.

Answer: Allows optimal/design rpm (92-98%) to be maintained, and drag to be

reduced (lower air density). 

As an aircraft becomes lighter, it will require less thrust to fly straight and level
at the same altitude, and therefore a lower rpm. By climbing higher, the air
becomes less dense, and a higher rpm would be needed to produce the
required thrust to fly straight and level, allowing the engines to continue running
at optimal rpm to achieve the lowest SFC. 

Also, at higher altitudes, there is less drag for a given TAS due to the reduced
air density. This means less thrust is required, and therefore a lower fuel flow.
 Objectives
The objective of this section is to –
• Discuss, with reference to aerodynamics, flying for maximum range
in nil wind conditions
• Discuss factors affecting engine thrust at high speed and altitude

Need to know Need to do

How maximum range is achieved on transport Complete the questions at the end of the slides
category aircraft in nil wind conditions
The factors which affect thrust production on
transport category aircraft at typical cruise
speeds and altitudes
The End
Question 1
You are descending on a fixed IAS below the tropopause. What
happens to Mach number and TAS as the descent progresses?

A. Mach number decreases, TAS increases

B. Mach number decreases, TAS decreases
C. Mach number increases, TAS decreases
D. Mach number remains constant, TAS decreases
E. Mach number increases, TAS remains constant
Question 2
How does Vimd change as the flight progresses?

A. It reduces
B. It does not change
C. It increases
Question 3
In nil wind, which of the following conditions would maximise range?

A. Minimum drag speed, with fuel flow as low as possible

B. Maximum speed, with highest thrust setting available
C. Lowest IFR altitude, at lowest thrust setting for steady flight
D. A cruise climb at engine design RPM, flown at 32% above minimum
drag speed
Question 4
An aircraft is cruising for maximum range (MRC). If the same altitude
and ambient conditions are maintained throughout, how do the true
Mach number (TMN), IAS, TAS and fuel flow change as the flight
progresses?

A. TMN, IAS, TAS and fuel flow all decrease

B. TMN and IAS decrease, TAS increases, fuel flow decreases
C. TMN, IAS, TAS and fuel flow all increase
D. TMN decreases, IAS and TAS increase, fuel flow decreases
Question 5
You are climbing to your cruise altitude of FL390. You are currently
passing FL200 at VMO speed. If your speed stays at VMO all the way
up to FL390, you will –

A. Experience a decrease in Mach number

B. Experience a decrease in TAS
C. Exceed MMO
D. Exceed VMO