High speed flight

Terms
Lesson 1 - Specific objectives
• Define terms used in transonic flight
Content
• (i) Mach number
• ii) speed of sound
• iii) critical Mach number
• iv) raising critical Mach number
• v) free stream Mach number
• vi) detachment Mach number
Local Mach Number (ML
When an aircraft flies at a certain MFS, the flow is
accelerated in some places and slowed down in
others.
The speed of sound also changes because the
temperature around the aircraft changes.
Hence, ML may be higher than, the same as, or
lower than MFS
Mach Number (M)
What is Mach Number?
• The Mach number is the ratio of flow velocity after a
certain limit of the sound's speed.
• In simple words, it is the ratio of the speed of a body to
the speed of sound in the surrounding medium.
• The formula of Mach Number is:
• M = u/c
• Where,
• The Mach number is M
• Based on the limits the local flow velocity is u
• The speed of sound in that medium is c
Speed of Sound (a).
• The speed at which a very small pressure disturbance is
propagated in a fluid under specified conditions.
• The speed of sound can be equated to Mach 1 speed.
• Thus, Mach 0.75 will be 75% of the speed of sound that is also called
subsonic, and
• Mach 1.65 will be 65% faster than the speed of sound, which is also
called supersonic.
• The Mach number due to the local speed of sound is dependent on
the surrounding mediums in specific temperature and pressure.
• Flow can be determined as an incompressible flow with the help of
the Mach number.
• The medium can either be a liquid or a gas.
• The medium can be flowing, whereas the boundary may be
stable, or the boundary may be travelling in a medium that is at
rest.
• The medium and boundary both may be travelling with a certain
speed, but their velocities concerning each other matter.
• The medium may be channeled through several devices such as
wind tunnels or may be immersed in the medium.
• The Mach number is termed as a dimensionless number
because it is a ratio of two speeds.
Flow regimes

Regime Subsonic Transonic Sonic Supersonic Hypersonic Hypervelocity

Mach <0.8 0.8–1.3 1.0 1.3–5.0 5.0–10.0 >10.0

Flow regimes
• Subsonic:
alu
es
are
:

• Commercial aircraft with aerodynamic features such as rounded

nose and leading edges. The Mach is below 0.8.
• Transonic:
• Aircraft that are built with swept wings. The Mach value is
between 0.8-2.1.
• Supersonic:
• The aircraft created to go supersonic have a definite design, it has
the complete movement of the canards, thin aerofoil sections,
and sharp edges. The Mach levels are between 1.2 and 5.0.
Flow regimes
• Hypersonic:
• These planes have several distinctive features, such as cooled nickel-titanium
skin and small wings.
• The Mach values are between 5.0 and 10.0.
• The U.S. plane X-15 created the world record of flying at Mach 6.72.
• High-Hypersonic:
• The Mach levels are between 10.0 -25.0.
• When flying at such huge speeds, thermal controls becomes an integral portion
of the design.
• The hotness of the surface must be considered beforehand.
• Re-entry speeds:
• The Mach speed is above 25.0. This does not require wings and a blunt design.
Critical Mach Number (MCRIT).
• As MFS increases, so do some of the local Mach
numbers.
• That MFS at which any ML has reached unity is
called the critical Mach number.
• MCRIT for an aircraft or wing varies with angle of
attack.
• It also marks the lower limit of a speed band
wherein ML may be either subsonic or supersonic.
• This band is known as the transonic range.
Critical Mach number
• By definition, the critical Mach number, Mcr, is the freestream Mach
number at which sonic flow is first achieved on the airfoil.
• The critical Mach number is determined by equating two pressure
coefficients: (Cp)min and Cp,c
• the field of aerodynamics, airspeeds are usually stated in terms
of Mach number, which is the local airspeed divided by the local
speed of sound.
For example, assume we are considering airflow at a point, say, "A" on
the surface of an airfoil.
Assume we know the local airspeed is vA.
Why is the critical Mach number important?
• For values of M∞ slightly greater than Mcr, the airfoil experiences a
dramatic increase in drag coefficient.
• As a result, for more detailed analysis, it is important to know when
this condition occurs.
• On With the Present Example
• Consider an airfoil in sub-sonic airflow.
• The undisturbed airflow far ahead of the airfoil is called
the freestream airflow, whose airspeed is usually denoted M∞.
• As the airflow passes over the airfoil, its speed increases and,
somewhere on the surface of the airfoil
• its speed reaches a maximum value before completely passing over
the airfoil and returning to its freestream airspeed.
• Now increase the speed of the freestream airflow until the maximum
airspeed achieved over the airfoil is M = 1.
• This condition defines the critical Mach number.
• By definition, the critical Mach number, Mcr, is the freestream Mach
number at which sonic flow is first achieved on the airfoil.
Critical Drag Rise Mach Number (MCDR).
• MCDR is that MFS at which, because of
shockwaves,
• the CD for a given angle of attack has
increased significantly.
• Different criteria are often used, i.e. 0.002
rise in CD, 20% rise in CD etc
Raising critical Mach number
• For a free-stream Mach number greater than the critical Mach
number,
• shocks appear on the airfoil resulting in a dramatic increases in the
drag.
• By optimizing the shape of airfoil, it may be possible to increase the
critical Mach number and delay the appearance of shock
• Further increase in the free stream Mach number enlarges the region
of supersonic flow over the airfoil and leads to the development of
shock waves.
• The abrupt pressure rise due to the shock wave tends to separate the
boundary layer.
• In aircraft not designed for transonic or supersonic flight,
• speeds greater than the Critical Mach number will cause the drag coefficient
to increase suddenly causing a dramatic increase in total drag and
• changes to the airflow over the flight control surfaces will lead to
deterioration in control of the aircraft.
• What happens if Mach is allowed to increase while already at high speed?
• While already at high speed, what happens if Mach is allowed to increase?
• Airflow over parts of the airplane begins to exceed the speed of sound.
Shock waves can cause local airflow separation.
• Characteristics such as pitch up, pitch-down, or buffeting may occur
FREESTREAM MACH NUMBER
• Free Stream Mach Number (MFS).
• This is the Mach number of the flow sufficiently remote from an
aircraft to be unaffected by it.

• MFS is sometimes called flight Mach Number.

• Ignoring small instrument errors, MFS is the true Mach number of an

aircraft as shown on the Mach meter
Detachment Mach Number (MDET
If the leading edge of an aerofoil has no leading edge
radius
there will be a MFS at which the bow shockwave
attaches to the sharp leading edge
(or detaches if the aircraft is decelerating from
supersonic speed).
This value of MFS is MDET.
At MDET all values of ML are supersonic except in the
lower part of the boundary layer.
Detachment Mach Number (MDET) cont
• In practice this rarely happens since wings have a
significant radius of the leading edge,
• and behind the shock wave immediately in front of the
leading edge there will be a small area of subsonic flow.
• Nevertheless MDET can still usefully be defined as that
MFS above which there is only a small movement of the
bow shockwave with an increase in speed.
• MDET can therefore be used to indicate the upper limit
of the transonic range.
Definitions of Flow.
Changes in airflow occur at ML = 1.0 and the boundary between each
region of flow is that MFS that produces an ML appropriate to that
region.
• Notes:
• The subsonic region has been subdivided at M = 0.4 since below this
Mach number errors in dynamic pressure, assuming
incompressibility, are small. However,
• compressibility effects can be present even at M =
0.4, whether they are or not depends on wing
section and angle of attack.
• The actual values of MCRIT and MDET depend on
individual aircraft and angle of attack.
A third definition of the transonic range is that range
of MFS during which shockwaves form and move
significantly.
Flow speed range