Aerodynamics

Lecture Two
Contents

 Center of Pressure
 Types of Air Flow
 CENTER OF PRESSURE
Qn. If the aerodynamic force on a body is specified in
terms of a resultant single force, R, or its components
such as N and A where on the body should this
resultant be placed?
 The answer is that the resultant force should be
located on the body such that it produces the same
effect as the distributed loads.
• For example, the distributed load on a two
dimensional body such as an airfoil produces a
moment about the leading edge
 …cont
• So N' must be located a distance xcp downstream of
the leading edge such that

• center of pressure ( xcp ): is the location where the

resultant of a distributed load effectively acts on the
body.
• alternatively it can be defined as it is a point on the
body about which the aerodynamic moment is zero.
 …cont

Fig. Equivalent ways of specifying the force-and-moment

system on an airfoil.
 the quantitative relation between the above cases is
 TYPES OF FLOW
A study of aerodynamics has evolved into a study of
numerous and distinct types of flow.
 Continuum Versus Free Molecule Flow
 In continuum flow the surface feels the fluid as a
continuous medium.
 in free molecular flow the body surface can feel
distinctly each molecular impact.

 the vast majority of practical aerodynamic

applications involve continuum flows.
 …Cont
 Inviscid Versus Viscous Flow

Fig. The division of a flow into two regions: (1) the thin viscous boundary
layer adjacent to the body surface and (2) the inviscid flow outside the
boundary layer.
 …cont
• A flow that is assumed to involve a phenomena of
mass diffusion, viscosity (friction), and thermal
conduction is called a viscid flow.
• In contrast, a flow that is assumed to involve no
friction, thermal conduction, or diffusion is called an
inviscid flow.
 …cont

Fig. Examples of viscous-dominated flow.

 …cont
 Incompressible Versus Compressible Flows
• A flow in which the density is constant is
called incompressible.
• In contrast, a flow where the density is
variable is called compressible.
 the flow of gases at a low Mach number is
essentially incompressible; for M < 0.3,
 high-speed flow (near Mach 1 and above)
must be treated as compressible;
 …Cont
Mach Number Regimes
• Of all the ways of subdividing and describing
different aerodynamic flows, the distinction based on
the Mach number is probably the most prevalent. If
M is the local Mach number at an arbitrary point in a
flow field, then by definition the flow is locally:
 Subsonic if M < 1
 Sonic if M = 1
 Supersonic if M > 1
 Hypersonic M > 5
 …cont
Subsonic flow (M < 1 everywhere).
• A flow field is defined as subsonic if the Mach number
is less than 1 at every point.
• Subsonic flows are characterized by smooth
streamlines (no discontinuity in slope), as sketched in
Fig.
• Moreover, since the flow velocity is everywhere less
than the speed of sound, disturbances in the flow (say,
the sudden deflection of the trailing edge of the airfoil
in Fig. propagate both upstream and downstream, and
are felt throughout the entire flow field.
 …cont

Subsonic flow supersonic flow

hypersonic flow
 …cont
 Supersonic flow (M> 1 everywhere).
• A flow field is defined as supersonic if the Mach
number is greater than 1 at every point.
• Supersonic flows are frequently characterized by the
presence of shock waves across which the flow
properties and streamlines change discontinuously
(in contrast to the smooth, continuous variations in
subsonic flows).
 …Cont
• In a supersonic flow, because the local flow velocity is
greater than the speed of sound, disturbances
created at some point in the flow cannot work their
way upstream (in contrast to subsonic flow).
• This property is one of the most significant physical
differences between subsonic and supersonic flows.
• It is the basic reason why shock waves occur in
supersonic flows, but do not occur in steady subsonic
flow.
 …cont
Hypersonic Flow
• As M, increases above 1, the shock wave moves closer to
the body surface. Also, the strength of the shock wave
increases, leading to higher temperatures in the region
between the shock and the body (the shock layer).
• If M is sufficiently large, the shock layer becomes very thin,
and interactions between the shock wave and the viscous
boundary layer on the surface occur. Also, the shock layer
temperature becomes high enough that chemical reactions
occur in the air. The O2 and N2 molecules are torn apart;
i.e., the gas molecules dissociate.
• When M becomes large enough such that viscous
interaction and/ or chemically reacting effects begin to
dominate the flow (refer Fig) , field is called hypersonic.
 THE AERODYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS-THEIR
MAGNITUDES AND VARIATIONS
Qn. What are some typical drag coefficients for
various aerodynamic configurations?
 …cont

CD=f( Re, M)
 Questions ?

THANK YOU!!