Table of Contents

Preface, vii

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Maintenance Defined 1
1.2 Trends in the Evolution of Maintenance 2
1.3 The Challenge of Maintenance 3
1.4 Maintenance Management 5
1.5 Function of Maintenance Work 7
1.6 Classification of Maintenance 9
1.7 Maintenance Objectives, Planning and Control 12

Chapter 2 Fundamentals of the Theory of Damages 15

2.1 Classification of damages 15
2.2 Reasons for damages 16
.IJ', '-~
" - 2.3
2.4
Behaviour of damages 16
Typical damages of equipment 17
2.5 Corrosion 17
2.6 Wear 20
2.7 Fatigue 34

Chapter 3 Typical Damages of Machine Parts 35

3.1 Sliding bearings 35 -
3.2 Anti-friction bearings (Rolling bearings) 40
3.3 Gear damages 47
3.4 Damages of friction surfaces 54
3.5 Seals 57
3.6 Shaft failures 62

Chapter 4 Determination of State of Damage 65

4.1 Measuring values of the state of damage 66
4.2 Methods of condition monitoring 67
4.3 Condition monitoring techniques 67
4.4 Potential failures and on-condition maintenance 68
4.5 Categories of condition monitoring techniques 70
4.6 General purpose monitoring techniques 72

III
...•. -- -.-~ .. _------._-- ----._--".
 Table of Contents
Table of Content~
Chapter 5 Elements of Maintenance i

5.1 Attendance (Operation) 76 76 9.7 The case of non constant repair rate 165
5.2 Service 76 9.8 Maintainability for a given restoration time with Weibull times-to-restore
5.3 Repair 77 distribution 166

Chapter 6 Decision Making Chapter 10 Maintenance Planning 169

79 10.1 Maintenance policies 170
Chapter 7 Basic Probability Concepts 10.2 Determination of a maintenance plan 172
7.1 Mutually exclusive events 83 83 10.3 Assessment of potential effectiveness of maintenance actions 173
7.2 Not mutually exclusive events 84 10.4 summary 175
7.3 Independent events 86
7.4 Conditional probability 87
7.5 Probability distributions 88 Chapter 11 Organization of Maintenance Resources 176
11.1 Maintenance resource structure 166
Chapter 8 Reliability and Maintainability 11.2 Administrative structure 168
8.1 Reasons for interest in the conce ts of reli ". 122 11.3 Work planning and scheduling 169
8.2 Activities involved to achi Pd' h.a?llIty and maIntainability 123
eve goo reliability and
8 .3 Interdependence ofre1iabil"ty . .
d . . " maIntaInability 123 Chapter 12 Spares Inventory Control 187
8.4 Reliability 126 I an maIntaInabIlIty 125 12.1 Objective 187
. 8.5 Failure and failure mode 127 12.2 Complicating factors 187
8.6 Functional failure 128 12.3 Classification of spares inventory 187
8.7 Failure mode 129 12.4 Inventory control theory 188
8.8 Failure effects 131 12.5 Spares provisioning for a desired confidence level 188
!:io ~~~life eqduipm~nt~ailure profile (Bathtub curve) 132
ime an reparr tune 134
12.6 Simple economic order quantity (EOQ) 191
12.7 Safety stock 195
8.11 Failure rate and .
8 12 ReII' bility fun ~eantIme between failures 135 Chapter 13 Network Analysis for Planning and Control of Maintenance Work 196
. a II chon 139
8.13 Sys.temreliability with Weibull fai .. . . 13.1 The basics of network planning ·196
8.14 MaIntainability 145 lure probabIlIty dlstnbution 143 13.2 Stage 1 - Logic diagram preparation 197
8.15 Maintainability function 145 13.3 Stage 2 - Activity duration determination 198
8.16 Determination f . 13.4 Stage 3 - Network analysis 198
8.17 A- '. 0 me~-!Ime-to-repair (MTTR) 147
priori and a-postenon maintai bT 13,5 Logic diagram 199
8.18 Availability 148 ama 1 rty determination 148 13.6 Stage 4 - Management application 201
8.19 Operational availability 149
Chapter 14 Reconditioning of Equipment 202
Chapter 9 Reliability and Maintainab'lity P " 14.1 Definition 202
9 1 BI k di I redictlon 1.4.2 Reconditioning process 202
, oc agram analysis 151 150
92. R el"iabili
I rty of series systems 152 14.3 Cost analysis of reconditioning 204
9.3 Reliability of 11I 14.4 Requirements for reconditioning undertakings 204
94 N' h . para e -connected systems 155
el t
9'5 M . e~ser~e~nor parallel connections 161
. al~tatnabllIty prediction 164 References 207
9.6 Maximum repair time 164
Appendix 209
iv
v
 Preface
The need for a single and suitable text for the course Maintenance of Machinery offered in the :
Department of Mechanical Engineering of the Faculty of Technology ,Addis Ababa University"
has prompted the author to prepare this teaching material to be used as the teaching manuscript.
The preparation of the teaching material is an outcome of a long teaching experience of the'
course Maintenance of Machinery at the senior level. The subject matter presented in the
teaching material has gone through a number of changes since it was first prepared as a
monograph to be used by students. In its present form, it is intended to be used by students who:
may find the topics discussed informative and beneficial to understand basic concepts in.
maintenance engineering. Maintenance engineers may fmd the subject matter applicable and
helpful in their maintenance-engineering practice.

The teaching material discusses important topics like damages and their remedies in a general
fashion to introduce damage problems in a wide range of engineering discipline; issues of
condition monitoring and on-condition maintenance are treated; it introduces concepts of;
reliability and maintainability in maintenance application; it also touches on aspects of
maintenance management.

It is the earnest belief of the author that users will find this material helpful and appropriate for
the subject matter treated inhere.

Needless to say, the author is indebted to the very many authors and editors of various texts and
handbooks that treat the same subject and whom he has freely referenced.

Acknowledgement is due to the Department of Mechanical Engineering for giving the author
the permission to prepare this material, and to the Research and Publications Office of Addis,
Ababa University for granting financial assistance for word processing of the manuscript. '

Alem Bazezew
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Faculty of Technology, Addis Ababa University
September 2003

Vll
 Chapter L
Introductioni

Manufacturing of goods is closely connected with the means of production. ~very means o~
production is, in turn, closely connected with wear and tear. A few examples are mentioned
below.

- Tools or dies wear out by friction with the workpiece.

~ Machines parts wear out by friction with one another.
- Atmospheric conditions destroy machine parts and materials.
- Aging affects materials and their behaviour.
- Improper handling affects equipment and materials.

If proper action against these wearing out of equipment and materials is not taken, there would
be breakdown in the production processes, and materials deteriorate unduly resulting in loss
or total stoppage of production. Hence, there is a permanent necessity that all means ot
production be
- used
- checked
- serviced
- tended
in order to give the full function which they are designed for. The last three necessities
constitute what is called maintenance, whereas the former is operational.

From the engineering viewpoint, the management of the means of production has two elements
to it. First, it must be maintained, and second, from time to time it may also need to b¢
modified.

1.1 Maintenance Defined

The term maintenance is derived from the word maintain which is defined as
 Introduction 3
2 Maintenance of Machinery

. . (according to Oxford D'lC tiionary), or

- cause . to continue
equipment was simple and over designed,
keep in an existing state (according to W e b st er D'ictionary).
.
downtime did not matter much,
prevention of equipment failure did not have high priority,
A means of production is made operational because the user wants to ..
expects the means of production to fulfil1 a ce rtai functi do something ~ the user failures were corrected as they occur.
am unction Th f h
has to be preserved in its existing state 7 ~ ere oret emeansofproduction
, or 1 must contmue to function in its desired state. As a result, there was no need for systematic maintenance beyond cleaning, servicing and

Therefore. in non-technical term s, maintenance

. may be d fi d . lubrication.
production coritinue to function t li e me as ensunng that a means of
. . 0 accomp Ish what the user want' d
definition of maintenance is stated as follows. s It to o. A comprehensive 1.2.2 Second Generation:
During the war, demand for good increased and supply of industrial outputs was low.
Maintenance can be considered as a com'bination 0 . '.
replace, repair, service modify th if actions carried out in order to This led to increase in mechanization. During this period:
r I e components or identi
components, of a manufacturing plant so that it wil~ ~ome I entifiable group of machines became numerous and more complex,
to a specified availability or a ifi d . continue to operate satisfactorily industry started to depend heavily on these machines,
speci te time.
downtime started to matter,
the idea that equipment failures could and should be maintained came up.
In other words, maintenance can also be defined as follows.
Maintenance is the totality of all measures directed towards control (preservation and As a result, the concept of preventive maintenance and maintenance planning and control
restoration) of the performance of a plant.
systems grew up.

Maintenance is an auxiliary process in a production

effectiveness of the main process. process directed towards a high 1.2.3 Third Generation:
Since the mid-seventies, new expectations, new research and new techniques have

If . Trends in the Evolution of Mairnffi~~

t
revolutionized maintenance. During this period:
maximizing life of equipment has become important,
higher plant availability and reliability have become very important,
According
. to John M ou b ray, author of Reliability-Centered .
maintenance since the 1930' b Maintenance, the evolution of greater automation has been effected,
~ scan e traced through three . . . quality standards, safety and environmental consequences matter quite a lot,
these generations depends up on b . 11 . generations. The distinction between
'. asica y three technical factors:
cost of maintenance has become central,
a) growing expectations of maintenance ~ greater expectations have lead to new research which in turn are leading to new
~ c hang~g
. VIews
. on equipment failures,' and z
techniques.
c) changing maintenance techniques."

F'19. 1.1 shows the evolution

. 1.3 The Challenges of Maintenance
o f maintenance
. starting from the mid - thirti1es to date.
As can be observed from the trends of the evolution of maintenance, higher plant reliability and
1.2.1 First Generation:', availability, personnel safety and environmental protection including cost effective methods
Thi~ covers the pe!Od up to the World War II. During this period: are given focal importance in maintenance activities. As a result of these demands,
industry was n \ t highly mechanized,

\
maintenance is . . 1 .
mcreasmg y facmg new challenges. The challe . Introduction 5
managers face can be summarized as follows: nges that modem maintenanC{
1.4 Maintenance Management
- to select ~he most appropriate maintenance techniques
- to deal with each t ff . '
. ype a allure process appropriately ,- -1> Maintenance is related to profitability through e<iuipmentou~ and e~t running cost;
- ~n order to fulfil the expectations of users, '
also' through time taken for maintenance purposes. With increasing industrialization and
- m the most cost-effective and sllstainable m d complexity of machinery, the importance of maintenance increases as downtime and 'costs
.I a e,
WIt 1active support of people involved. related to downtime become increasingly prohibitive.
----------

-v>l9-understand maintenance and its various characteristic features, it is imperative to know what
Tllird Genemlion
\
I ~ equipment life-cycle comprises and the factors at the various stages as they relate to .
- Higher plant availability
and rehabil ity \ maintenance. An industrial equipment is considered as passing through a number of stages, the/
- Greater safety /
- Better product quality first being design and the last one replacement. The level of maintenance activity required and
First Generation
Second GeneraJion
- No damage to the
\
- Fix it when it
- Higher plant availabilitv
environment
/ maintenance management involved at the equipment operation stage is affected by factors at
broke
- Longer equipment lite -
- Lower costs - Longer equipment life
) other stages through which the equipment passes. These stages are briefly discussed below
\
1940 - Greater cost effectiveness
1950 1960 1970 indicating how maintenance is affected by the actions undertaken at the respective stages.
1980 1990 2000
GrOWing expectations a/maintenance

-f>- Design stage: . \ "'.

, The most important features-of maintenance, particularly reliability and maintainability,
Third Generlltion / should be considered properly in relation to performance of equipment, capital and
t-- j
\ running costs right at the design stage. Good maintainability and reliability
~ / characteristics are incorporated in the system at this stage.
l
I
First Gelleration ] ~Installation stage:
Second Generatto«
Maintainability is an important factor to be considered during the installation, for it is
t--
1940 1950 1960 1970
Changing views on equipment failure
1980 1990 2000
here that maintenance problems become clear.

'~Commissioning stage:
-
This is a stage of technical performance testing and also a stage of where primary
Third Generation design faults are located and designed out. During commissioning, maintenance
- Condition monitoring
- DeSIgn for relaibility effectiveness can be analyzed and changes can be effected in the system.
and maintainability
- Hazard studies
Second Gefleration
First Generation
- Scheduled overhauls - Small fast computers
- Failure modes and etrects
-\> Operational stage:
- Systems for plannino
- Fix it when it analysis The operational stage is a stage of continued learning where maintenance plays an
and cintroll ing wort
broke - Expert systems (
- BIg, slow computers
1940 - Multiskilling and teamwork! important role. In this stage, mal-operation should be avoided and maintenance
1950 1960 1970
1980 1990 2000 activities are optimized so as to exploit the system reliability and maintainability
Changing Maintenance tech ntques
.
characteristics.
Fig.I.I Trends in the Evolution ot' A,r .
:/ IVlazntenance*
(* Source: John Moubray, Reliability C t d .
en ere Matntenance 2nd d I .
, e., ndustnal Press Inc., 1997.)
6 Main~enance of Machinery
Introduction 7

--t>Dpring the operation period or useful life of an equipment proper maintenance management
can influence' resource utilization and profitability of an industrial plant. Maintenance
management is the direction and organization of resources in order to control the availability
and performance of an industrial plant to a specified level. Normally, to meet the workload in
a timely and cost effective manner, any maintenance management is faced with a two-
dimensional problem and these are

.-.- -
i) determination of size and nature of the maintenance work load, and
ii) organization and control of resources, i.e. men, spares and equipment.
c»--;P1.5 Function of maintenance work

@The maintenance department influences plant availability directly through preventive and
corrective maintenance tasks.

The most basic definition of availability is expressed by the equation

Top
Availability = ----'---
Top + Tdawn
where Top cumulative time of operation, up-time
Tdown = cumulative outage time, downtime

Downtime does not consist only of the time taken for repair but also includes delays due to lack
of resources and information.

Downtime = repair time + delays

Repair time is affected by. management, system or equipment maintainability as well as

engineering techniques. Mathematically, this can be stated as

repair time = ftmairuainability, management method, engineering techniques)

~ Delays are influenced by organization of maintenance resources and flow of information and
~ this can be expressed as

delays = f(organization of maintenance resources and information)

 .;

Maintenance of Machinery Introduction 9

8

Plant availability is greatly influenced by reliability and maintainability. These charactenstIcS

are built in at the design stage and then after affect the maintenance
reliability or maintainability
responsibility

The maintenance
of maintenance

manager
can only be removed by engineering
department.

influences availability through

workload.

those outages
Causes of low
re-design which is not the

which occasion
r
CM
--=F?----.
~ epa ir Tune)
PM
(Off-line Time)

1-__
DELAYS
(Waiting for M)

1 -\
maintenance actions. The outages constitute downtime. Fig. 1.3 shows equipment time and
its constituent parts including the activities involved during maintenance.
RESOURCES INFORMATION

Fig. 1.4 shows downtime and its classification including the various features involved.

EQUIPMENT TIME
ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES
MAINTAINABILITY MANAGEMENT
(Logical fault-finding: Diagnostics)

I
ACTIVE TIME INACTIVE TIME
Fig. 1.4 Downtime and its constituents
I
UPTIME
I I
DOWNTIME

.----1-
MAINTENANCE MODIFICATION DELAY
1.6 Classification of Maintenance

Depending on the nature of maintenance workload as.related t~ time, maintenance is broadly

if d i t two Fig 1 5 shows the broad categones ofmamtenance.
c1aSSlle 10 0 . .,
l'AfTIME ('MTIME

r MAINTENANCE \
PREPARATION PROCU MENT FAULT
CLEANUP
I
TIME CORRECTION
TIME TIME
TIME

ISOLATION ADJUSTMENT CHECKING LOGGING AND

TIME CALIBERA TlON TIME RESTORATION
TIME TIME

REPAIR IN REMOVE REMOVE AND REPAIR

PLACE REPLACE.REPAIR WITH A LIKE ITEM

[Shutdown M \ [Shutdown M
I
I
INSPECTION SERVICING REPLACING MINOR OVERHAUL MAJOR OVERHAUL
\
TIME TIME TIME TIME TIME
(aging units)

Fig. 1.3 Classification of equipment time activities involved

F·Ig. 1.5 Classi'ication

u= 01'
'.f maintenance
 Introduction 11
, 10 Maintenance of Machinery
Identification of equipment with excessive maintenance costs indicating the need for
1.6.1 Preventive Maintenance
other measures to be taken like operator training, replacement of obsolete machinery,
adapting new and efficient technology
Preventive Maintenance is the techniqu f . . " .
. eo millImlZmg untimel e ui
an eqwpment's condition falling b I . Y q ipmenr breakdown and/or
. e ow a requIred level f .. A preventive maintenance program should include periodic inspection, preplanned
mamtenance calls for taking an' . 0 acceptabIlIty. Preventive
equIpment off-line for re . t I . maintenance activities, non-destructive testing, and maintenance to correct deficiencies found
or depending on the equipment c diti ( '. pair a panned mtervals (time-based)
on 1 IOn condItIOn-based) S h d 1 . through testing or inspection~leinents of preventive maintenance are:
performed at regular intervals for th .' c e u ed mamtenance is
. " e purpose of keepmg the svstem i ..
WIth bullt-mlevels of reliability c ys em III a condItIOn consistent
. ' perrormancs and safety A b . Care: . Regular care of normally operating subsystems and components requires such
tasks Iike servicing is carried out in th . " . scan e noted from FIg. 1.5, some
. e rurmmg condItIOn whil th ks Ii activities like cleaning, lubrication, etc.
require taking the equipment off-line. eo er tas s like repair/replace

Servicing: Servicing of subsystems ~d_ components includes care along with other activities
Preventive mainte nance helns i prolonging the life of e ui
e ps m . "
system failure rates from exceed' desi ~ q pment by limiting component and such as filling in of oil and fuel, readjustment, re-setting, adjusting, checking
mg esign levels Prev ti . without instruments.
accuracy of equipment. . en ive mamtenance also ensures

Inspection: Inspection of subsystems and components comprises servicing together with

The basic reasons for undertak' .
ing preventrve maintenance are the foIl . checking, testing, measuring, examining. The activities carried out during
- I ncreased automation owing.
inspection are
Loss. of ~rofitability due to production delays
i) checking of function (comparison with required data), and
Just-m-ttme manufacturing policy
ii) gauging (use of measuring instruments).
Production requirement for higher qual it '
Reducti . )
e ucnon III equipment redundancies
Repair: Repair activities include replacement of damaged and destroyed parts or those
Reduced cost of maintenance
nearing wear-out, and reconditioning of components. Repair action normally
require disassembling and assembling of components.
The last item, reduction in maintenance cost is achieved' .
- Reduced production d ti . 111many dIfferent ways:
. own ime resulting III fewer machine b akd The frequency of performing regular care, inspection and servicing to prevent degradation of
B etter preventIOn of . re own
eqUIpment and increased useful life ex . reliability depends on the characteristics of the components. The frequency of performing
premature replacement of eoui t/rnachi pectancy which eliminates
. quipmen machl11ery repairs depends on the wear out characteristics of system components. Optimum replacement
Efficienr us~ of maintenance labour achieved by workin . .
of crash baSIS repair breakdown g on schedule baSIS insteac or repair times can be scheduled in advance.

Timely routine repairs resulting in fewer large seal .

Reduced cost f . e repairs In order to have a successful preventive maintenance program, the focus should be on cleaning,
. 0 repaIrs by reducing secondar failure' . .
they usually damage other part '. . y s, when parts fail in operation, lubrication and correcting deficiencies found through inspection and testing.
Redu d duct rr-i s givmg rise to secondary failures Repair/replacement of components should be done by highly qualified maintenance personnel
ce pro uct rejects, rework and sera ) due t b
Improved safety and quality conditions T 9 etter overall equipment condition to avoid maintenance-induced problems. It should be noted here that the risk of preventive
maintenance program are those maintenance tasks that may result from a faulty preventive
maintenance activities; these are preventive maintenance-induced problems.
12 Maintenance of Machinery
Repairs
Breakdown queue (time under repair cost)
(Waiting for repair cost)
1.6.2 Corrective Maintenance Breakdown resources
( spares, equipment,
labour cost)
Corrective maintenance is defined as that which is carried out when equipment fails or falls
below acceptable condition while in operation. Basically, corrective maintenance is an Maintenance resources
emergency maintenance which is carried out after breakdown, thus it is a shutdown activity. Preventive resources
Corrective maintenance is an off-schedule maintenance required by system in-service failure ( spares, equipment,
Breakdown labour cost)
Cost \
or malfunction. System operation is restored as soon as possible by replacing, repairing or data \ data

adjusting the component which interrupted service. I

Preventive Maintenance
Plant out of production \
1.7 Maintenance Objectives, Planning and Control
_----1 ( time under repair costs)
\ Preventive Maintenance
Preventive Maintenance (no production loss)
The proper maintenance objective is the minimization of the sum of plant unavailability and
resource costs through the proper planning and control of maintenance work. A unit is
(scheduled) )
considered to be in one of the following states: Manufacturing Plant
in production --------------------------------.------ available in
undergoing repairs, -------------------------- ..------ unavailable Production
Breakdown Maintenance
_ whole or part out of service
waiting for repair, ------------- unavailable
_ random incidence
undergoing preventive maintenance ------. ------ unavailable
Fig. 1.6 A general model of a maintenance system"
Harris Management of Industrial Maintenance.)
y an d M .. J
(* Source: A. Ke 11 ,
. A simple model of production-maintenance situation containing the essential characteristics
of a maintenance work, maintenance planning and maintenance resources is shown in Fig. 1.6. .' d I in needs to set-up a control system to
An establisheq maintenance Orga~llzatlOnan . p anll1 gd ted This control system performs
I d .zation are contmua Yup 11 a .
Maintenance is presented as the operation of a pool of resources (men, spares and equipment) ensure that the p an an org~l k t I lant condition control and maintenance cost
directed towards controlling the level of plant availability. The maintenance resources are three main interrelated functl~ns: wor .COtn r~ 't Pd in that they are targeted at minimizing
control. These three functions are in erre a e
divided between preventive maintenance and corrective maintenance as preventive and
breakdown resources, respectively. maintenance costs.

Maintenance objective is minimization of the resource and unavailability costs. 1.7.1 Work control

This is a function of the maintenance organization a~d it.sobject is to match men, spares and
Unavailability cost = loss of in-service material and production loss while in repair . kl d This function mcludes
equipment to the mamtenance wor oa .
or undergoing preventive Maintenance.
_ location of plant failure,
_ determination of the necessary corrective action,
Resource cost = corrective maintenance labour, preventive maintenance labour,
- the setting of priorities,
maintenance equipment, spares usage and holding costs.
coordination and control of resources.
 ,." n:.tUIh.entnrCl! oj'Machinery

1.7.2 Plant condition control

This function is required in order to achieve 0 timum 1 .

function of plant condition control is to: p p ant performance IIIthe long term, The
- identify the most important proble Chapter 2
ms,
- diagnose causes, Fundamentals of the Theory of Damages
- prescribe solutions,
Damages are causes for the loss of functionability or workability of a means of production,
In achieving this fun ti th ' if proper action is not taken against them,
, , c IOn e alternative actions available are:
- modificanoj, of preventive maintenanc I' ,
, e po icy,
- eqUIpment re-design (especially in the e I· iod f Even with optimum design and operation conditions damages are unavoidable. Thus
' ar Y peno 0 an equi Iif
- changes in production policy, ipmenr ife), damages are the reasons for the existence of a maintenance organization.

. I
1.7.3
Mamtenance cost control To deal with maintenance on a scientific basis, it is necessary to study the reasons for and
forms of damages, and the possibility for reducing the influences of damages.
The objective of maintenance control as the n ' Ii ,
' ame Imp Ies IS to " ,
re Iated to maintenance activities The f ti f ,mmlmlze the sum of costs 2.1 Classification of Damages:
, unc IOns 0 maint
- to identify high cost areas of plant, enance cost control is:

- to mon~tor ,the trend of maintenance effectiveness, The use-value of an equipment or a means of pro~uction is affected by two processes.
to pro,v,Ide mformation for maintenance decision makin These are technological processes. and technical and economical proce§ses.
- to facIlItate maintenance budget' g,
mg.
Processes Reducing
use-ralue

Technological
(Change r Processes
State)
Technical-Economical
proceres

I
D1 GES Obsolescence

Overload Others
WT (fire. pest, etc.)
I- I
Wear Wear Wear Wear

Fig. 2.1 Classification of damages

These two processes reduce the use value of means of production. Technological processes
are related to change of state of an equipment which cause damages, while technical-
 ,'U u.menance of Machinery
' ••

Fundamentals of the Theory of Damages 17

economical processes cause loss in the Usevalu f hi
. e 0 mac mery d b 2.3.2 Continuous behaviour:
existence of new equipment with hi h . . ue to 0 solescence or the
. I ig er prodUCtIVIty I
consumption, etc. ' Ower costs, lower material In such a: behaviour, the use value of equipment decreases with time due to wear.
This is a degradation process that comes with time under loading conditions.
2.1.1 Technical - economical processes:
these processes are related to development in th t
cause loss in the use value of hi d
mac inery ue 10 obsole
equipment with higher prod ti .t I .
he exi
.
e echnology of an equipment which
scence or t e exrstenca of new
g
.~
co r----------------
i'J
------
__ /\ ao
.~
i'J
cor--- __

uc IVIy, ower costs, lower material consumption, etc. \

2.1.2 Technological processes:
The processes are related to change of state of an . \
which result from operational processes Thr hequipment or a means of production
Time Time
form of damages. The focus of thi har ~ c anges of state are manifested in the Sudden behaviour Continuous behaviour
ISc apter ISto analyze these damages.
--------- Use-value behaviour

2.2 Reasons for Damages - - - - Load behaviour

Fig.2.2 Use-value and load behaviour

Damage ISm
..fluenced by environmental conditions and co " .
proper maintenance work, it is necess to mak nd~tlOnsof ~se of equipment. For 2.4 Typical Damages of Equipment
includes discussions on reasons c. dam e systematrc analysjj, of damages which
. ror amages and their co
obtamed are feed back to de' . nsequences. The conclusions The changes of state or damages, as are commonly known, that result from technological
signers, manufactures and operational maintenance personnel. processes are basically classified into three. These are: corrosion, wear and tear, and
fatigue. Apart from these, the natural phenomenon of aging can also be taken as a damage
Reasons for damages can basically be classified as follow:
process. These damages are discussed briefly below.
a. flbjective: Th d
~/ ose aTre amages caused by operational processes and environmental 2.5. Corrosion
causes. h damages are unavoidable.
ese

b. Subjective: Corrosion is the destruction or deterioration of materials by chemical or electrochemical

( These are caused by failure in desi .
l. and . gn, manufacturmg, use operation reaction with the environment. This includes the destruction of metals in all types of
mamtenance. If an equipment or a means of rod . .
atmospheres and liquids, and at any temperature. Corrosion is.usually superficial but it
handled appropriately, subjective damages can be avofded.uctlOn IS
sometimes is directed along grain boundaries or other lines of weakness because of
2.3 Behaviour of Damages: differences in resistance to attack or local electrolyte action. Under most ordinary
conditions of exposure, corr.osion products consist mainly of oxides, carbonates and
sulphides. in many environments corrosion occurs because most metals are not inherently
The ~~havi~ur of damages as related to time under the a . .
conditions ISeither sudden or continuous. cnon of damagmg or operational stable and lend themselves to revert to a more stable combination of which the metallic ores
are found in nature. Corrosion reduces the useful life of and equipment. And, about 5% of
2.3.1 Sudden behaviour: yearly production of steel is destroyed by corrosion.
In this type of behaviour, the use-value of an e ui . '. .
other words, sudden breakd f' q ipment dimmishes mstantly; in 2.5.1 The process of corrosion:
own 0 eqUIpment takes place.

The process of corrosion takes place"due to direct chemical action when the metal enters
 ~ ------------------------------_1'_"_"_W-W-".---"-"-'--~~~--------------------
into a chemical
. reaction with 0th er eIements to form no - . _ usually it results in localized destruction of material (surface); and
electrochemical action' Metalli I . n metallic compound or due to
. .. . ICe ements when placed in . ' . _ it can take place below the surface affecting the strength of the component
have definite inherent tendencies to go .. t th " contact With water or a solutIOn
. III 0 e solution IIIthe fi f electri
particles. In general, the metal and particularl iron whi orm 0 e ectrically charged (invisible).
as rust. This formation of rust affect th ~ ~ which enters a solution is thrown down
s e continuation of the . .
of possible ways two of which are th £ II . corrosion process in a number Iii. Inter-crystalline corrosion ./.
, e 0 OWIng. -Ns type of corrosioritakes place below the surface and occurs at the grain boundary
of metal alloys usually causing sudden crack. .,...- -
i. Direct chemical corrosion:
This corrosion is limited to conditions involvin hi ,.
temperature or both E I g ghly corrosive environments or high jv, Trans-crystalline corrosion v'
. xamp es are: metals left open in darn . As in the case of inter-crystalline corrosion, trans-crystalline corrosion also takes place
temperature; metals in contact ith tronz aci p environments and at high
WI s rong acids or alkalis. below the surface. But unlike the inter-crystalline corrosion it takes place across the

grains of metal alloys.

ii, Electrochemical corrosion:
!his is cha:acterized by movement of metallic ions in solutio .' v, Galvanic corrosion (two-metal Corrosion) ../
IS placed In dilute hydrochlorid .d a vi ns. Examples. When ZInC
e aCI a VIgorous reaction occur h d . This is corrosion associated with the current of a galvanic cell made up of two dissimilar
evolved and zinc dissolves to form ZInCconde
. hlori This r ti s, y. rogen
, gas IS
metals. ~ potential difference usually exists between two dissimilar metals when they
anodic and cathodic reactions D . I. . . eac IOncan be divided into the
. urIng meta lie corrOSIOnth t f . . are immersed in a corrosive solution. If these metals are placed in contact, the potential
rate of reduction. ' era eo oxidation equals the
difference produces electron flow between them and corrosion of the less corrosion
resistant metal is increased. The less resistant metal becomes anodic and the more
2.5.2 Kinds of corrosion resistant metal cathodic causing transfer of ions, which results in galvanic corrosion.

Corrosion is classified by the forms in which .t . .

classification being the appearan fth 1 manifests Itself, the basis' for this 2.5.3 Common locations of corrosion
observation. ce 0 e corroded met aI,w hiICh can be Identified
. by visual
Common locations where problems of corrosion can be found are the following:
_ along the water-line in partially filled tanks;
i. Surface corrosion ( uniform attack) ./ in and around drops of water on steel surfaces;
This is the most common form of corrosi .
rrosion, mamfest . e t'
over the
over a large area. This type of co . . n Ire exposed surface or along crack lines;
rrosion IScaused by influenc f b' along joints, p;rticularly in dissimilar metals;
on unprotected metal surfaces Its h .. e 0 am lent conditions
. =,,--. . c aractenstic features are: along cold-worked areas like bending, sharp ends, etc.;
- surface ISdestroyed nearly parallel to th e sur face and
- metal bec.omes thinner and eventually may fail. '
2.5.4 Factors stimulating corrosion
From the technical standpoint surface corrosion is not of grea t concern.
Basic factors that stimulate the process of corrosion are the following.
ii. Plttmg.corrosion / _ atmospheric corrosion is stimulated by damp atmosphere, since a film of water is
Pitting corrosion is one of the most destructive an . ,. maintained on the surface which is an essential condition for corrosion;
causes equipment failure because of £ . . d .InSIdIOUSforms of corrosion. It
per oration WIthonly a very 11
oss 0 entire equipment The ch " sma percent weight _ oxygen dissolved in water;
1 f . aractenstic features of itti _ acids, acid gases in the atmosphere, sulphur compounds, coke, coal dust, etc.;
_ difficult to detect because of th 11' pi mg corrosion are:
e sma SIze of pits that £ hi h _ salts that dissociate in water producing acid reactions;
covered with corrosion products; orm w IC often are
_ contact of dissimilar metals;
 20 Maintenance of Machinery
caused by friction of two mating parts. For the formation of wear as a result of friction the
-. p~esence of depolarizing surfaces such as mill scale;
following conditions must be fulfilled:
- non-uniformity within the metal;
There must be a pair o{contacting wear partners, consisting of a basic body and a
cold working process on metals results in int~reasedrate of attack by acids' mating body.
- fatigue stresses; ,
A normal force must act maintaining contact between the basic and mating bodies.
- rust may accelerate corrosion and cause pitting; and
There must exist relative motion between the contacting surfaces.
- corrosion on metals under stress is much mom severe than under ordinary conditions. Other factors that represent those factors that may accelerate or retard wear processes

2.5.5 Methods of minimizing corrosion

From the point of view of maintenance, damages caused by corrosion have to be deal t with
preventively. Some of the methods of minimizing of corrosion are the following;
- Use of a coating of protecti ve metal such as zinc, tin, lead, etc.
- Application of protective paints.
- ~endering the surface of the metal passive (immersing in nitric acid after it has been
higWy poised immersing in fuming sulphuric acid).
2.5.6 Corrosion problems
Relative motion between the mating parts can be sliding, rolling, drilling or fretting
motion. The amount of motion, direction and time behaviour affect the resulting wear.
Normal force must be applied to keep the mating parts in contact. The magnitude,
direction and time behaviour (static or dynamic) of the normal force affect the resulting
wear.
Intermediate materials can be solid, liquid or gaseous. These materials are mostly used
in the fonn of lubricants.
Other factors that influence wear include factors like enviromnental conditions
(temperature, moisture, presence of attacking gases, etc.), presence of contaminating
materials ( chips, dust, harmful gases, etc.).

Corrosion problems are pronounced, to a varying degree, in

2.6.1 Kinds of wear and tear
- Steam generating plants,
- Equipments in chemical plants,
The whole field of wear which is diverse is divided into limited areas with similar
- Pipes and pipings, and
- Structures conditions.

2.6 Wear i. Depending on the relative motion of mating parts, there are three kinds of wear.
va. Kinematic wear which may possess anyone or a combination of the following
motion characteristics:
T~e phenomenon of wear is treated under the subject matter oftribology. Tribology is the - sliding
SCIence and technology of interacting surfaces in relative motion which embraces the
- rolling
gen~ral ~oncepts of all aspects of the transmission and dissipation of energy. Friction, wear,
lubrication come under tribology, - drilling
- fretting
- mixed
.we~ mechanisms that are frequently encountered in practice are schematically represented c> b. Static wear
m FIg. 2.6. The figure shows the system structure, interaction between th ti
th ib I . I . e ma mg parts v c. Impact wear
e tn 0 ogica action, the type of wear that ensue" and th ff . .'
takes place. .. e e recnvs wear mechanIsm that
ii. Depending on the time behaviour of wear there are two kinds of wear.
Wear is an undesired change of surface of machi a. Stationary. wear in which the wear intensity remains constant over a long period
. . ne components by the removal of little of time.
particles caused by mechamcal reasons and/or trib h . al
I oc enuc reasons. Mostly, wear is a. Non-stationary wear in which the wear intensity depends on time.
 Fundamentals of the Theory of Damages 23
2.6.2 Mechanisms of wear:
a. Surface fatigue wear mechanisms: This phenomenon may occur mainly due to the
Recent investigations in wear phenomenon . di th . action 0 stresses·-;- or below the surfaces without needing a direct physical solid
. III icate at wear f terial
different mechanisms depending 0 th . 0 ma en s occurs by many contact of the surfaces under consideration. Surface fatigue effects are observed to
n e matenals the envi I
conditions, and the geometry of th . ' rronmenm and operating occur in journal bearings. The effect of fatigue wear is especially associated with
classified into two groups: e weanng bodies. These wear mechanisms may be
repeated stress cycling in rolling contact, and is accompanied by the generation and
- those p~imm:ilYdominated by the mechanical behaviour of solids and propagation of cracks.

- :~:e~:::~dd:~:~::: ::~~t~:::ical behaviour of materials, ~ther factors being

--
a. Abrasive wear mechanisms: The effect of abrasion occurs in contact situations, in
which direct physical contact between two surfaces is given, where one of the
The chain of events that leads to the gene~ation of w >. • surfaces is considerably harder than the other. The harder surface causes wear of the
a given tribologica~ys~ i~ initiated b t -b (_ardP~~clesand matenal removal from softer material. Abrasion is usually caused either by particles which are embedded
y wo roa classes of trib I· .
Classification of these wear rnech . hown t- rt: I 0 ogical processes. or attached to some opposing force, or by particles which are free to slide arid roll
arusms are s Own IIIFIg. 2.3.
between two surfaces. An aspect of abrasive wear is shown in Fig. 2.4.
1Tribological InteractionJ-
j
l Stress Interactions L I Frictional l hardparticle
(Load, Frictional Forces)

j
I
l
1 Heating

I
1I Material Interactions
(interatomic Forces)

I
I )W»S~ /7 /7 /7 /
soft material
/Surface Fatigue
I /
Abrasion
1 [ Tribochemical reactions 1 l Adhesion
I
Stress Cycles
I I I I ---
Fig. 2.4 Abrasive wear
Micro-cutting
Microstructural Changes Micro-ploughing t<ibocl<m"" film, due -\) ii. Material interactions
Transferred material
Crack Formation Micro-cracking to material/invironment
due to adhesive joint
Delamination
mteratlOns
formation and rapture
These are due to intermolecular forces either between the interacting solid bodies or
between the interacting solid bodies and the environmental atmosphere and/or the
interfacial medium and lead to wear processes described broadly as tribochemical
reactions and adhesion.
l Material removal process
I
~Tribochemical wear mechanisms: Surface fatigue and abrasion wear mechanisms
I Fatigue Wear
Particles
I Abraded Wear
Particles
I C'ribochemiCal Wear
Process Adhesive Wear
Process
1 U are described mainly in terms of stress interactions and deformation properties.But
in tribochemical wear the dynamic interactions between the ma!e,rial~9mpon;rt;
and the environment determine the wear process, where the environment is the third
Fig.2.3 Tribological interactions and wea- m h . * partner.
(* S
ource:
M·
ichael J. Neale, The Triboio Hand
. r rnec antsms
')nd
Publishing, 1995) gy book;': ed., Butterworth - Heinenemann
a. Adhesive wear mechanisms. Adhesion is the ability of atomic structures to hold
i. Stress interactions themselves together and form surface bonds with other atoms or surfaces with which
These are due to the combined action of load f they come into contact. The adhesive wear processes are initiated by the interfacial
wear processes described broadly c. orc~s and frictional forces that lead to
as surrac- fatIgue and abrasi T adhesive junctions which form if solid materials are in contact on an atomic scale.
mechanisms are stress interactions and teri 1 . , rasion. hese wear Material is then transferred due to adhesive joint formation which leads to rupture.
ma ena IllteractIOns.
A simplified description of adhesive wear is shown in Fig. 2.5.
 l(! (b)
Classification

System
tructure
of wear pbenomena

Tribological
action
(symbols)
1)pe of wear
Adbesion
Effective mechanisms
(individuallY or combined)

Ab •.•••ion
Surface
fatigue
.
Tribo-
chemical
reactions

Fig. 2.5 (a) sliding occurring between surface films; (b) Surface films raptured
with direct interaction between materials
Isol id
in torfacial
medium (full
ftuidfilm
sliding
rolling
impact lL~
I~I
,
X X

separation)
solid
Wear mechanisms that are frequently encountered in practice are schematically represented Solid sliding sliding wear ,
I

solid t X x X X
in Fig. 2.6. The figure shows the system structure, interacting or mating parts, the (witbsolid ~~ I I
friction,
tribological action, the type of wear that ensues and the effective wear mechanism that takes bonndary
place. rolling

8
lubrication, rolling wear
mixed X X X X
lubrication) I
I

cp
I
2.6.3 Wear process / impact
impact wear
, X I X X X
c=:J I

The wear process is a complex one being dependent on a number of factors: load, velocity, osc "' atio~ freting wear
intermediate materials, ambient conditions, etc. Wear processes are accompanied by X X X X

heating in the micro-range as well as changes in the physical and chemical material ~olid sliding
solid and sliding abrasion
properties of the wear partners. Wear processes can be differentiated into the fOllowing. I ~\..., I
particles
C=J X

i. Shearing process j

Roughness points will be sheared off if the acting forces are greater than the shear
strength. This leads to the reduction of roughness and increased percentage of contact
area which reduces energy concentration and wear velocity.
sliding

rolling
~~

8
t

t
sliding abrasion
(three body
abrasion)

roll ing abrasion

(three body
abrasion)
i i
X

X
I
ii. Elastic deformation....( !'olid flow
particle erosion
ftuid witb
particles ~ (erosion wear) X X X
Big surface roughness results In low percentage of contact area and high energy Solid flow
c gas with fluid erosion X X X
concentration in contact point. This may result in high local stresses. In the elastic range particles ~ (erosion wear) i
this causes small flattening or bending of rouglmess points. Repetition of this process impact !

will cause local fatigue of material. tilt! 11111 impact erosion

X X X
(erosion wear) I
~ ~ I
Solid
iii, Plastic deformation"/ -ftuid
flow
X X
oscillation material eras ion
~ cavitation er osio
If the local stress produced exceeds the elastic limit, plastic deformation takes place in
flattening and bending the material with no loss in mass.
impact

~
IIIII
drop erosion
1 I
X
I
X

Fig. 2.6 Commonly encountered wear mechanisms

 215 a 'ntenance of Machinery
Fundamentals of the Theory of Damages 27
2.6.4 Wear types '-
/"
/V 2.6.5 Time- behaviour of wear
Depending on the presence oflubricants and/or lack of it, wear types are classified into the
following. Amount of wear depends on time according to the equation

h = h + h'ta
i. Wear by solid friction . ~ ~ ~/

where a is exponent of wear behaviour,

Solid friction occurs between the contacting surfaces of two bodies having relative
h -is amount of wear,
motion where there is no intermediate material. In relation to the surface roughness we
h' is wear velocity, and
find wear process by shearing, plastic and elastic deformation. wear by solid friction
results in heating of the surfaces. h o is the initial wear.

ii. Wear by liquid friction" Depen dimg on <1, assum m'g the initial wear h 0 = 0 ' the wear behaviour with time . can
• be
increasing, decreasing or constant. These three wear behaviours with time are shown m the
In the case of liquid friction the two mating bodies are completely separated from each
figure below.
other by an intermediate material, mostly a lubricant. Friction occurs in the lubricant,
and wear is influencedby load, relative velocity, temperature, viscosity oflubricant, the
lubricating gap and the force of inertia are neglected.
wear, [h] a - inceasing wear
b - decreasing wear
iii. Wear by mixed friction: a
c - constant waer
Simultaneous action of solid and liquid friction, caused by high roughness or high load
for the lubricating film causes wear by mixed friction, This results in metallic contact
at times.

Schematically these wear types are shown in Fig. 2.7.

time, [t]

Fig. 2.8 Wear behaviuor with time

Lubricant
2.6.6 'Protection against wear:

The main protection measure against wear is lubrication o~the mo~ing parts. A lubricant
Liquid friction
is the intermediate material between two parts with relative motion for the purp~se of
re duci
ucmg ./.':..
tnction an d/ or wear between them . Proper
'. .. lubrication. with timely
addition/replacement of lubricant plays a vital role in mamtammg machine ~ccuracy and
increasing its working life.

2.6.7 Classification of lubricants

Lubricants are in the form of lubricating oils, grease and solid lubricants. The use of each
Mixed friction one of these depends on purpose and "~perational desirability.
Fig. 2.7 Wear types based on presence of lubrication
 ,28 Maintenance of Machinery

;I i. Lubricating oils '-

Fundamentals of the Theory of Damages 29

Lubricating oils are of two types: m.YJ~raland synthetic oils In additi . , and contamination. Oxidation is the process offorrning oxides by some chemical process.
, , " _._ . I IOnto preventing or
mmuUlzmg wear, lubricating oils perform the foIlowi;"g duties: Factors that influence oxidation are:
- cooling by reducing friction and removing excess heat generated; rise in temperature: rate of oxidation doubles for about 10 Crise;
0

- protection by inhibiting corrosive processes caused by air and water - access to oxygen:
- cleaning by flushing dirt particles away from lubricated surfaces. ' presence of catalysts
- type of oil (compounds)
a. Mineral oils
- top-up rate
Mineral ~il~ are basic~llY hy~ocarbons often with some additives to introduce specific
charactenstic features in the OIl. Mineral oils are classified as: Mineral oils are relatively stable to thermal decomposition in the absence of oxygen. But
at high temperatures over 330 C oils will decompose into fragments. The effects of
0

- Paraffinic: which contain significant amount, of waxy hydrocarbons with little or no thermal decomposition is to produce light hydrocarbons and carbonaceous residues which
asphaltic matter; reduce flash point and viscosity of oil and formation of hard residues which accentuate over
heating.
- Naphthenic: which contain asphaltic matter in least volatile fractions with little or no
wax; Contamination is probably the most common reasonfor changing oil. Contaminants can
be one of the following or a mixture thereof:
- Mixed base: which contain both waxy and asphaltic materials. - gaseous, like air, ammonia, etc.,
- liquid, like water, oil of another type or viscosity or both
Th~ most important physical property of mineral oils is viscosity which is a measure of - solid, like fuel soot, road dust, wear products
. ~esIst~c~ to fl.ow. ?epending on viscosity lubricant oils are also classified by the change
in their ~ISCOSItywith temperature, which is given by Kinematic Viscosity Index (KVI). Additives are added to plain mineral oils to improve their properties and/or for the purpose
Depending on the KVFs lubricating oils are classified as: of imparting new properties. These additives improve the oxidation stability of oils result
Low viscosity index -' (LVI) below 35 KVI in increased operating temperatures and induce higher wear prevention ability. The main
Medium viscosity index '·(MVI) 35 - 80 KVI types of additives and their functions are given below.
High viscosity index (HVI) 80 _ I I 0 KVI - Acid neutralizers: neutralize contaminating acids formed by combustion,
Very high viscosity index (VHVl) over 100 KVI decomposition, etc.
- Anti-foam: reduces surface foam.
T~e viscosity of mineral oils reduces with increasing temperate and increases significantI - Anti-oxidants: reduce oxidation as inhibitors, retarders, catalyst
Withpressure. y
deactivators, etc.
- Anti-rust: reduces rusting of ferrous surfaces swept by oil.
Other important lubricant properties are the following: - Anti-wear agents: reduce wear and prevent of scuffing of rubbing surfaces
- anti-wear and EP ( extreme pressure) properties; under steady load conditions.
- oxidation resistance; Corrosion inhibitors: protect metallic surfaces from corroding due to
- anti-corrosion properties; combustion residues.
- anti-foaming properties; and Detergents: reduce or prevent deposits formed at high temperatures.
- demulsibility (ability to separate from water). Dispersants: prevent formation of sludge by dispersing fine suspensions.
- Viscosity index improvers: reduce' the decrease in viscosity due to increase in
Lubricating oils can become unfit for further service by oxidation, thermal decomposition temperature.
- Pour-point depressants: lower lubricant freezing temperatures.
 Fundamentals of the Theory of Damages 31
,30 Maintenance of Machinery
ii) Greases:
These. additives are...combined with oils in various ways so as t 0 0btai
tam the performance
~equITe~. The mixmg, If done indiscriminately, however, may result in undesired A grease may be defmed as solid to semi-fluid lubricant consisting of a dispersion of a
interactions. thickening agent in a lubricating fluid. The consistency of grease depends on the
percentage of thickener in the grease. Depending on the degree of consistency, greases are •
/ h)\Synthetic oils
/
classified as:
Synthetic oil~ ~e products produced under controlled conditions industrially from chemical
_ Semi-fluid
b~e and additives. These are pure, idealized lubricants whose molecules are uniform in
- Soft
weight and shape. Synthetic oils are engineered to perform under rigorous conditions and
- Stiff
extreme temperature. This classification is based on the NLGI class which is a measure of penetration by a ball
in the grease when released from a certain height.
The most important properties of synthetic oils are the following:
- Added lubricity: the uniform diameters of molecules allows the molecules to slide Types of greases are normally determine by thickener type used and these are classified as
~ore easi~y over each other resulting in free and smooth movement. Thus synthetic conventional soap greases, complex soap greases or non-soap greases.
Oils are shcker than petroleum based oils resulting in much less wear moving parts
and better performance and cooling of moving parts. In selecting a grease for use considerations must be given to conditions and nature of use.
- Higher film strength: the strength that pushes away molecules from each other is The first thing to be decided is the consistency range. Next comes the operating
higher resulting in higher film strength. temperature. Use of greases is limited to very low speeds upto 2 mls. They find good use
- Good engine start-up properties: Synthetic oils begin lubricating at very low where sealing against dirt is sought or for intermittent low speed motions.
tempera~e and as such have good resistance to thickening at low temperatures.
- Go~d resistance to thinning: Molecular uniformity of synthetic oils gives them good Application of grease in machinery has their relative advantages and disadvantages over
resistance to thinning at high temperatures.
using oils. Advantages of using greases include the following:
- Improved energy efficiency: this is due to the added lubricity of the oils.
. Convenience: grease is easily retained where it is applied.
- Le~s sludge or deposit formation: synthetic oils contain more detergent additives _ Persistence: lubricating film is retained on surface during shutdown.
WhICh protects formation of sludge inside the moving parts. Protection: minimum leakage thus encouraging the formation of protective
- Good th~~al properties: synthetic oils have good low-temperature properties, i.e. coating against corrosion.
good fluidity at low temperatures and low pour point. They also possess good high _ Cleanliness: greases do not leak nor splash thus maintaining cleanliness of surfaces
temperature property of high flash point.
where they are applied.
- Stability: Synthetic oils are stable under extreme pressure and temperature.
The disadvantages of using grease are the following:
Good fire resisting properties. _ Poor cooling properties: greases do not dissipate heat generated easily.
_ Contamination: greases can easily get contaminated by dirt, wear debris, oxidation
Bec~use ofth~~rproperties, synthetic oils are used for high speed lubrication under extreme
products, etc.
loadmg conditions, _ Low speed of application: greases can not be applied where working speed are
over 2 mls.
However, synthetic oils have some disadvantages and these are:
- compatibility problem with paints, elastomers and certain metals'
- reactive
.' in the presence of water resulting' m h y dr 0 I'
YSIS an d corrosion;
' .
high potential for toxicity;
- disposal problem due to undegradable molecular structure'
more expensive. '
32 Maintenance of Machinery Fundamentals of the Theory of Damages 33

,- b k machine defects and the

iii) Solid lubricants:
A solid lubricant is defined as any solid used as powder or a thin film on a surface to
provide protection from damage during relative motion so as to reduce frictionand wear.
Solid lubricants are used when fluid lubricants, i.e. oils and greases, are undesirable or
The personnel carrying out the lubrication should re~ort ac
planned lubrication system can be used to initiate repair work.
- ~~.

I
ineffective. Fluid lubricants are undesirable if they are liable to contaminate product as in SURVEY Separate cards
food machinery, electrical contacts, etc. Fluid lubricants are ineffective in hostile - Frequency CENTRAL preferable to give
- Grades RECORDS ease of records
environments, high temperatures, extreme pressures and fretting conditions. A common (Inventory )
- Plant description modification
type of solid lubricant is graphite. _ Application types
- Route order
The following are some properties of solidlubricants. - Time factors Sorting route,
- Workload PLANNING Workload
- Solid lubricants are incapable of carrying away heat.
- Accessibilty
- Solid lubricants are immobile and they must somehow be bonded to the surface.
- Solid lubricants are capable of retaining their lubricating effectiveness at high
temperatures.

2.6.8 Lubricating systems For small

r
Short-term
\
Long-term Monthly cards,
repetitive frequencies -- more details
-- frequencies
There are two methods of lubricating. tasks
\
\
Consize, Daily route, Scheduling __ Planning chart
i: Non-circulating lubrication easy to -- job cards
This is a process of a single passing of a lubricant through the friction area. e.g. Splash Understand
\
lubrication (lie-bath) for transmissions, application of grease by hand, packed -type, etc. \ r Feedback r

ii Circulating lubrication \

There must be a circuit of lubricant without leakage. In this case all lubricating points
must be tight. This action is a continuous circuit where the lubricant is forced to flow Fig. 2.10 A model of planning for systematic ~ubrication
and the lubricating points are continuously supplied with lubricant. In the circulation
type, tank, admission, lubricating points, re-circulation are needed.

2.6.9 Lubrication instructions:

2.6.8 Planning a lubrication maintenance system
Lubrication instructions should be clear and easily understandable by lubricating personnel.
When planning a lubrication system for a plant, the following techniques for sorting the
The procedures involved are listed below. .'
work to be done are helpful.
i. Cleaning and lubrication of machine should be done by operat~r himself In this
a) Divide the work in terms of the frequency of lubricant application. case, random checks have to be performed so as to eliminate neghgence by operator.
b) Divide the work by method of application and lubricant grade.
c) Consider the optimum route for the lubrication personnel.
iii. From the document of the machine lubricating frequency should be set.
By tabulating the data in this way, simple work loads can be established. A simple model
iii. At the start of the shift:
for lubrication planning is shown in Fig. 2.10.
_ machine should be cleaned;
 34 Maintenance of Machinery

- moving parts like grind ways, screws, feed shafts should be lubricated ;
- oil level should be checked.

At the end of the shift: Chapter 3

- machine should be cleaned off chips, dust, foreign materials, .... Typical Damages of Machine Parts,
- exposed parts must be lubricated to prevent rusting.

Periodically
3.1. Sliding Bearings

- oil reservoirs, containers of oil including systems should be cleaned and filled
I the damage in sliding bearings is wear plus fatigue. Static loads cause wear whereas
up to level; In genera , . . ti ulating
dynanuc. '10ads cause wear plus fatigue. Incases where lubricant ..contains corrosion-s
. t un . ,
- replacement of oil should be done. Topping up of oils should be discouraged
substances like acids produced by aging lubricant, water leaking m lubncant, e c., corrosion
as much as possible.
also becomes an important damage.

iv. Lubrication points should be marked differently for the working ease of operator.
In a shaft bushing system, normally, the bushing is designed as the desired element of f~ilure.
2.7. Fatigue But when dealing with damages of the system, the whole system has to be considered
especially with respect to
- alignment and shape of bush hole or bore,
Fatigue is the failure (or reduction in strength) of a material under fluctuating stresses,
- lubrication, and
which are repeated a very large number of times. Fatigue failure begins with a hair-line
- deformation of shaft under applied loads.
crack which develops at a point of discontinuity in the material (notches, groves, fillets, ... ).
Once a small crack develops, it propagates under load to cause failure.
3.1.1 Factors influencing damages of slide bearings

Components subjected to fluctuating forces must be designed for fatigue conditions.

The important factors that influence damages 0f sucmg
lidi b eann. gs , among others , are the
Surface conditions, residual stresses due to metal working processes or metal _ treating
following:
processes, stress concentration affect fatigue strength very much. Hence, they should be
considered properly at design stage. - bearing forces,
- design of bearing, material and lubrication,
- manufacturing accuracy,
Fatigue strength (the endurance limit) of materials is greatly decreased by the presence of
a corroding medium. - . assembling conditions:- misalignment causes reduced contact area which produces
fatigue,
Alternating stresses tend to cause considerable damage to any protective film formed in the - service and operation conditions.
normal course of action of a corrosive medium. Continual damage to this film may be a
source of the further development of cracks which accelerate fatigue failure. The process of wear in sliding bearings is a complex one. This depends on the wear velocity
and operation conditions, particularly, temperature. ..
- High temperature and high wear velocity produce overheating which change the
36 Maintenance of Machinery
properties of the material.
- Presence of foreign substances in the lub
'.
- Selflubncated beanngs operate only up to th e 1'£
Typical Damages of Machine Parts 37
. Fig. 3.1(a) and (b) show how the application ofloads affect the wear of slide bearings. In case'
causes mcreased wear velocity.
1 e expectancy.
of symmetrically applied loads, wear in the bearing and shaft are uniform with higher wear.
occurring in the bearing. Eccentrically applied loads affect contact between the bearing and
shaft giving rise to excessive localized contact which results in higher wear in those areas.

3.1.2 Typical slide bearing failures

Typical slide bearing failures and their characteristics are outlined in the table below along with
their causes. The remedy for these failures is eliminating or reducing the causes for the failure
by proper lubrication, assembly, manufacture, operation and maintenance.

Table 3.1. Bearing failures, their characteristics and causes

Bearing failure Characteristics Causes

Scoring or - bearing surface is eroded in - excessively contaminated

erosion the direction of motion lubricant by non-metallic dirt
exceeding the minimum oil film
thickness which roll between
surfaces

Wiping - bearing surface melts, - inadequate clearance

especially, for materials with - insufficient supply of
low-melting point lubricant
- overheating
- excessive load
- distorted bore
.
Fatigne - random cracks on bearing - excessive dynamic loading
surface causing reduction in strength
- loss of area oflining - overheating
Shaft load
- high speeds causing excessive
centrifUgal forces
I. Eccentrici
- distortion of bearing bore
Excessive - excessive interference during
Fig. 3.1 Loading conditions of slide bearings interference causing overheating and interference
fatigue at the bearing joint
faces
'., ..

38 Maintenance of Machinery
Fretting - welding or metal pick-up
from the bearing housing
- vibration from external
sources causing damage
while journal is stationary
Misalignment - uneven wear of bearing
surface
- fatigue in diagonally opposed
in top and bottom halves
Cavitation - removal of bearing material
erosion leaving a roughened surface
- attack of bearing material in
isolated areas in random
pattern
Corrosion - formation of hard deposit on
surface of white-metal lining
- deep pitting and attack on
copper-base alloys
- black coloration due to
formation of copper sulphide
Faulty - localized fatigue or wiping
assembly - overheating
- pick-up at the sides of the
bearing
Seizure of - bearing seizes obstructing
bearing smooth motion
3.1.3 Slide bearing lubrication
The most suitable lubricants for slide bearings are mineral oils and greases. The most
important property of lubricants for slide bearings is the viscosity ofthe lubricant used. Ifthe
viscosity of lubricant used is low, the load-carrying capacity of the bearing will be low; and
if the viscosity is too high, there will be high loss of power and the operating temperature will
- inadequate interference fit
- improper housing design
- small sliding movements under
operating conditions
- misalignment of bearing
housing on assembly
- journal deflection under load
- changes of pressure in oil film
associated with interrupted flow
of oil
- formation of organic acids by
oxidation of lubricant
- electrolyte in oil
- attack by sulphur compounds
from oil additives or fuel
combustion products
- stagger at joint faces during
assembly
- incorrect grinding of journal
radii
- inadequate pump capacity
- inadequate oil-way dimensions
- blockage of oil supply
Typical Damages of Machine Parts 39
~ -----------2~~~~----
. . . d fi r plain bearings are shown in the
be higher. The general characteristics of lubncants use 0
table below.
..
Table 3 2 B earin. g lubrication oils
Operating range Remarks
Lubricant
- wide range of viscosities available
Mineral oils all conditions of load and
speed - potential corrosion problem with
some additive oils
- good for sealing against dirt and
Greases used for low operating speeds,
below 2 mls moisture
- good use for intermittent motion
When good properties are sought at high and low temperatures, synthetic oils may be used if
suitable viscosities are available. The application is, however, costly.
Methods for lubricant supply vary from application to application. The following are some
typical applications.
_ For low speed journal bearing hand oiling is possible. .
_ For journals in machine tools drip and wick feed method of supply IS used.
_ Bath and splash lubrication is used in engines, process machinery, etc.
_ For high speed and heavily loaded bearings in machine tools, engines, etc pressure-fed
supply is used.
For satisfactory performance and long life, cleanliness of the oil supply is always essential.
3.1.4 Bush bearing assembly:
In bush bearing assembly the following main features must be provided.
_ When bush bearings are installed at both ends thrust bearings or collars should be
provided to take up the axial load. . .
_ The bush outside diameter must be locked in housing either by a locking pin (AI) or
locking set screws.
- An axial play must be ensured.
_ For proper lubrication of the bush bearing, lubricating grooves must be cut on the bush
surface and connected with the lubricating hole.
 Typical Damages of Machine Parts 41
40 Maintenance of Machinery

- Proper fits and tolerances should be provided (basic hole/basic shaft systems).
-- _welding a new shank at the end sections

3.2 Antifriction Bearings: (Roller and ball bearings): ii. Housing bore loose on shaft:
The bearing gets heated up.
Ball and roller bearings normally fail by fatigue. In the case of tightening and lubrication Corrections:
_ housing bore knurled (temporary);
problems, wear also can occur. Rarely failure can occur by random damages like overload.
_ installing a sleeve.
Bearing tracks and rolling elements are loaded with periodic reversed loads which cause iii. Bearing running dry
In the absence of lubrication bearing gets heated up.
fatigue of these elements. This loading condition causes cracks (which are detected only after
a long time) . The cracks develop to form pitting which in turn leads to abrasion of parts.
iv. Mis-alignment
High contact pressure causes damage of inner and outer races. In case of over load and
v. Damage of one or more balls/rollers
assembly problems failure takes place in a short time.

Wear of bearing elements increases axial and radial play, which can be a cause for vibration vi. Damage of running race
leading to increased fatigue. Continuation of lubricants causes abrasion Impact loads in
standstill produces chatter marks causing vibration. vii. Deformed separation
Due to one of these defects bearing runs with a continuous knocking sound.

3.2.1 Analysis of damages: Correction: replacement.

Due to damages bearings will either get heated up or will run with abnormal noise and/or viii. Radial play
Radial play causes vibration of the system on which the bearing is mounted.
vibration.
- Heating can be felt by touching with hand. Correction> .
Angular contact bearings, taper roller bearings, and ball/roller bearings with conical-
- Abnormal noise can be detected by taking a rod ( screw driver oflength 200-300 mm)
bore can be corrected by tightening the regulating nuts.
and placing one end on the bearing housing and listening from the other end. A good
_ Other types have to be replaced.
bearing runs noiselessly, and a defective bearing will run with a continuous knocking or
rubbing sound.
3.2.2 Characteristics of rolling bearing damages
Rolling bearing defects can be anyone or combination of the following.

Rolling bearing damages as recognized by their operational behaviour are outlined as follows
i. Bearing inner race loose on shaft:
III Bearing running with such a defect gets heated up. in the table below.
I Correction: -
- Knurling of shaft (temporary repair only);
- chromium plating;
- metal deposition by welding
- installing of a sleeve
42 Maintenance of Machinery
Table 3.3. Rolling Bearing damages and their operational behaviour
Damage characteristics
1. Rnnning ont of roundness
2. Uncommon running noise
2.1 Howling, whistling
2.2 Unequal noise: rattling,
scrabbling
2.3 Gradual change of noise
3. High Temperature
3.1 Overheating
3.2 Sudden increase in
temperature
4. Difficulty in running
4.1 Uniformly
4.2 Non-uniformly
Typical Damages of Machine Parts 43
3.2.3 Typical damages of rolling bearings
Reasons for damage
Typical rolling bearing failures and their charac.te~sti~s are given in the table below along ~ith
- damage at the rings (pittings, ripplings) . The remedy for these failures is ehmmatmg or reducmg the causes for the failure
thelr causes. . .
- contamination I brication assembly manufacture operation and maintenance, as implied by the
by proper u , , '
- too much bearing clearance
cause of the failure.
- too small bearing clearance
..
T abl e 34 Bearingfailures , their characteristics and causes
too big bearing clearance Characteristics Causes
- Bearing failure
- damage on racing tracks - flaking with ripple pattern - fatigue due to repeated
Fatigue flake
(Pittings, troughenings, impressions) across the loaded part of the stressing
- contamination race
- too viscous lubricant
Atmospheric - numerous irregular pits with - exposure to moist conditions
- changing of effective bearing clearance (caused corrosion irregular bottom - insufficient grease
by change in temperature) - reddish brown or dark protection
- fast fatigue process brown in colour
- fast arising of impressions corrosion in
RoUer staining - formation of dark patches - bimetallic
- too small bearing clearance on rolling surfaces and end storage
- insufficient lubricant faces of rollers - poor storage conditions
- excessive lubricant - insufficient cleaning during
manufacturing
- lack of lubricant
- fast arising of pittings - formation of dents or - rolling elements brought
Bruising
- deformed bearing due to: (True brineling) grooves in the bearing track into violent contact with
conforming to shape of race during assembly
• mounting failure
• use of strong seals rolling elements
• tight sealings False brinelling - depression in the tracks - vibration while the bearing
- too much lubricant (overfilling) ,. varying from shallow marks is stationary
- too viscous lubricant to deep cavities - small oscillating movement
- contamination caused by large foreign material - depressions have roughened while under load
- limited local damage of tracks surfaces

44 Maintenance of Machinery
--------~----~~---------------------------
Fractured flange - pieces broken from the
inner race guiding flanges
- damage to cage and shields
Outer race fretting - a patchy discolouration of
the outer surface
- presence of reddish brown
debris
- cracks extending inward
from the fretted zone
Inner race fretting - heavy fretting of shaft
- inner race may show some
fretting marks
Inner race spinning - softening and scoring of
inner race and shaft
- may lead to complete
seizure
Skew running marks - running marks on stationary - misalignment
race
Uneven fatigue - normal fatigue flaking
limited to one side
Roller-end collapse - flaking near the roller-end
radius
Roller-end chipping - collapse of material near
comer radii of roller
Roller peeling - patches of the surface of
the roller removed
Magnetic damage - softening of running track
and rolling elements
Overheating - blackened bearing parts
- blackened lubricant
- bad fitting
- insufficient interference
between race and housing
- thin outer race
- too little interference or
slight clearance between
inner race and shaft
- misalignment
- misalignment
- manufacturing problem
accelerated by
misalignment
- heavy fatigue loading
- magnetic field
- overheating
Typical Damages of Machine Parts 45
--
smearing
_ discolouration of bearing - heavy loads
- poor lubrication
surfaces
_ presence of abrasive
- dull working surfaces
Abrasive wear particles in lubricant
_ presence of hard wear
particles
_ lubricant failure on high
Molten cage ,
speed bearings
3.2.4 Rolling bearing lubrication
Rolling bearings may be lubricated with grease oi-~ith oil depending on working tempe.rat~e,
bearing design and housing design. The general guidelines for use oflubncatlon
speed, Ioa d,
in bearings is outlined below.
Grease is used for
_ low temperature up to 120°C,
rev
_ lower speed factors up to 300,000 [mm -. ],
mm
- low to moderate loads,
- radial ball and roller bearings, and
- relatively simpler housing design.
Oils are used
_ for bearing temperature up to 200°C,
rev
- with higher speed factors up to 500,000 [mm -. ],
mzn
- for all types of loads,
- for all types of bearing designs, and
- complex housing design.
When grease is applied to lubricate bearings, balls and roller bearings are packed with grease.
 46 Maintenance of Machinery

Generally, the grease should not fill more than three-quarters of the total available free space
in the cover with the bearing packed full. For dirty environments with low to medium speeds,
- Maintenance of Machinery

3.3 Gear Damages

Typical Damages of Machine Parts 47

the grease must completely fill bearing and cover. c. ilure occurs rarely. A gear pair has not failed until it can no longer be run. This
Gear lID 1 . h urred:
·on 1· s reached when anyone or both -of'the fol owmg as occ .
condit1 . . . .
When oils are applied to lubricate bearings, bath or splash system may be used for low speeds; one or more teeth have broken away preventmg transmission; .
oil flingers or drip-feed lubrication is used for low speeds; pressure circulating and oil mist teeth are so badly damaged.or worn-out that unacceptable vibration and norse are
systems are used for high speeds. set up when the gear runs.

3.2.4 AssembJy of bearing units 3.3.1 Gear failures:

During assembly of bearings, the following general procedures have to be followed.
i: Washing
Before assembling a bearing unit, the bearing must be washed thoroughly with a mixture
or petrol and lubricating oil/or with kerosene and allowed to dry. After drying all bearing
surfaces are coated with a film of oil by dipping it in oil.
ii Assembly
A small bearing is mounted on the shaft by hammering its inner ring uniformly through a
copper or a steel tube/pipe of bore slightly bigger than the shaft. Direct hammering on
bearings is not recommended.
Large bearings are installed on the shaft by heating bearing in an oil bath and slight
hammering where necessary.
iii. Two Radial bearings:
Two radial bearings should be installed with axial clearances on the outer ring of one of
the two bearings to allow for thermal expansion of the shaft.
3.2.5 Storage of bearings
In gener al ,gear c.raiilures can be classified in one of the following. Surface
. fatigue (pitting)
Pits start forming on teeth contact surfaces with the runnmg of the gear.
The cause is over stressing of gear material.
The remedy is removing the causes of over stressing.
ii: . Scuffing . .
- This is the result of disruption of the lubncant film.
The tooth surface are severely roughened and tom as a result of unchecked
adhesive wear. ..
Cause is the rise of temp. for contacting surfaces above the critical temp. for the
lubricant.
The remedy is to use high grade oils with high critical temperature.
iii: Abrasive wear
During normal operation, if hard foreign material dimensionally. larger than the
film thickness in the range 1.00 - 0.6 um contaminates the lubncant, the tooth
surfaces are affected by abrasive wear.
Working surfaces become dull and scratched in the direction of sli~ing ..
The remedy is protection of oils from contamination and preventmg dirt from
entering in.

Bearings must be stored with packing materials on as otherwise moisture might cause
corrosion. ii Plastic deformation . . . .
With ductile materials, heavy loading exceeding the elastic limit, produces plastic
- Upright position may cause deformation of bearing rings, therefore, bearings must be
kept in a flat position. deformations.
The remedy is to avoid overloads.

v. Tooth breakage
If a whole tooth breaks away the gear has failed .
The cause of fracture has to be assessed for the future performance of the gear.
48 Maintenance of Machinery Typical Damages of Machine Parts 49

3.3.2 Typical gear failures

--
I-
2.Scuffine
- use of high
Most gear failures and their characteristics are discussed in the table below. The causes of tooth surfaces appear - disruption of the
a. - grade oils
the failures and their remedies are also included. dull and slightly rough in lubricant film with
Light with higher
comparison withun- the gear tooth
scuffing surfaces temperature temperature
Table 3.5. Gear failures, their characteristics, causes and remedies affected areas.
wear in the direction of reaching critical
-
Gear Characteristics Causes Remedies sliding at the tip and root temperature of
Failure of the engaging teeth lubricating oil
- use of low viscous
1. Surface Fatigue (pitting)
oils

tooth surfaces severely - maintained - eliminate

a. - pits continue to form with - over- stressing of - remove b. Heavy - causes of
roughened as a result of conditions of light
Progressive persistent running gear material cause of scuffing
scuffing. continued
pitting - rapid increase may large overload unchecked adhesive wear
- deficiency of light
pieces of teeth breaking (e.g. correct
lubricant scuffmg
away alignment)
- temperature of - use higher
- continuous line of pitting
grade oil
contacting surfaces
reduces bending ~
'J . rises above the
resistance in the affected
critical temperature
tooth .
of lubricant
b. - appreciable areas of the - development of - providing .
resulting in
Case skin on skin hardened cracks in the max adequate continued welding
exfoliation teeth flake away from Hertizian shear case depth and tearing of the
parent metal stress - tempering gear material
- more often surface gear
cracks. material 3. Abrasive wear
- high residual stress after grooves are cut in the tooth - dirt falling in an - use clean
a.
resulting from too hardening open gear lubricant
Foreign flanks in the direction ofthe
severe hardness matter in oil sliding - inadequate initial - prevent dirt
gradient between gear cleaning from
case and core - dislodged scale in oil entering
supply pipes system
c. - dedendum covered by a - possibly vibration in - use of more
- periodic
Dedendum large number of small the gear unit viscous
flushing of
attrition pits (with mat lubricant
gear unit
appearance)
- formation of a step at the L

pitch after a continued

running

, e- • ,
 Typical Damages of Machine Parts 51
50

b.
Maintenance of Machinery

- essentially similar to - fine foreign - gears should

--
.-
c.
- fractured teeth surfaces
usually smooth or
- continued excessive
loading breaks the
(
- reduce
loading of
I

Fatigue teeth due to fatigue gear unit

Attrition lapping materials in oils be cleaned, laminated and broken
fracture and final tension.
caused by - cause abrasive wear. - wear debris in flushed, parts are crystalline
fine foreign - dull and scratched lubricant refilled - impact or excessive
matter in oil surface in the direction - protection of loading
of sliding oils from check formation
slow fatigue traits with the - progressive pitting
- destruction of tooth contaminati d. indicating high of pitting
profiles. on origin of the break at the
Fatigue surface stress
failure from dedendum
intensity above the
progressive
4. Plastic deformation fatigue limit.
pitting cracks originating at
-
a. - dedendum of the driven - overloading - eliminate the surface continue
Scoring gear and addendum of - design error causes of to penetrate into the
the driving gear carry overloading
material
numerous ridges and surface defect due to - proper
- a whole tooth or part of -
hollowing parallel to the e. the inclusion of non manufactur
one breaks away leaving
direction of sliding. Fatigue
smooth humped surface metallic material mg
b. - A flash (knife) edge is - heavy loading of - reduction of failure
- manufacturing error
Sever formed on the tips ofthe gear material where transmitted starting
plastic flow driving gear teeth. surface stress is load by from
in steel - on the driven gear a ridge raised above the correcting surface
gears is formed elastic limit and alignment defect
- highly burnished tooth while in the plastic - more
flanks range, surface layers viscous
are displaced in the lubricant 3.3.3 Gear lubrication
direction of sliding
5. Tooth breakage The most suitable lubricants for gearing are mineral oils and greases. The use of each type

a. - at the fracture the surface - sudden shock load - eliminate depends on the specific application. In general, greases are used for low speeds.
Brittle is rough or crystalline. which exceeds the causes of
fracture - usually more teeth are impact shock i. Functions of gear lubricants
affected. characteristics of the loading
- presence of hard material Lubricants applied to transmission gears have the following functions.
materials a. Lubrication: The lubricant is used as a medium for separating the moving surfaces
b. - broken tooth tips - excessive local - limit use to
thereby reducing friction and wear.
Tooth end loading caused by rated torque
and tip high transmitted - proper
b. Cooling: Lubricants applied, particularly in enclosed gearing, are used for cooling
loading torque, incorrect meshing and
meshing aliznment purpose in that they are used for dissipating heat generated.

c. Protection: Lubricants have important characteristics that protect the meshing parts

from corrosion.
 52 Maintenance of Machinery
TypicalDamages of Machine Parts 53
d. Maintaining cleanliness: Lubricants flowing through
.
bin -
mes g parts remove Wear
-------------------------------~~----~~~-----------
3.3.4 Repair of transmission gears
debns and external contaminants thereby keeping the parts clean.

ii: Properties of gear lubricants i: Uniform tooth wear on one side

For gears running in one direction only, if uniform wear on the gear occurs, the
gears are turned over by 1800 so that the other face would be the working face.
~he most important.pro~erty of gear lubricants is their viscosity. The viscosity must be
high .~nough to maInt~n a~equa:e lubricating film between meshing teeth under all
condIt~ons. However, high VISCOSIty oils may not always be desirable as they ii: Uniform tooth face wear on both sides
- Increase drag and give rise to increased power losses; The smaller of two meshing gears is comparatively worn-out more, and should be
- are less effective as coolants', replaced by a new one. To achieve normal gap between meshing teeth, the depth
- are prone to overheating and become oxidized; of cut on the new ( smaller) gear is taken slightly less than the other and the outside
diameter of the old gear is reduced in the same proportion .
. - ~e more likely to foam because of poor demulsibility property.
VISCOSItyoflubricants is expressed by the viscosity index.
iii. Broken teeth
Other important gear lubricant properties are If there is no impact load on the gear, it is recommended to repair the broken teeth
- anti-wear and extreme pressure (EP) property, by welding. The welding is done either by using templates (m > 4),or by
- oxidation resistance, complete weld filling and subsequent machining
- anti-corrosion property,
anti-foaming property, iv. Cracked/damaged rim or bore of gear wheel
- demulsibility, i.e. good property to separate from water. The defective rim or bore portion is machined away and fitted by a new machined
part. This new part is locked in position by welding or set screws installed at the
These properties are attained by use of suitable additives to the base oil. mating periphery. The final boring and spline cutting is done after fitting. If the
rim is replaced the final turning and milling is done after securing in position.
Hi. Gear lubricant selection
3.3.5 Gear assembly
Lub~cant sel~ction for gears must be always be based on manufacturer's recommendations.
The influencing factors for lubricant selection are: i: Spur and helical gears
- gear type, speed, and speed reduction ratio', These gears must be assembled in such a way that the gear axes are parallel with
- gear material and surface finish; the correct center distance. The correct meshing of such gears is decided by
- operating temperature; and applying blue paste on the teeth of the driving gear and checking the blue marks
- load characteristics. on the driven gear after several turns. For correct meshing the blue mark on the
driven gear should cover 70 - 80% of the tooth face about and should be centrally
iv. Lubrication application distributed. Otherwise the gear assembly is incorrect.

ap~lication ~f.lubricant to meshing gear teeth is preferably applied at the parting pair in ii. Bevel gears
which the oil IS used for cooling and at the same time d . The correct meshing of such gears is decided in the same way as for spur and
re uces amount of 011 at the next
engagement cycle. Types lubrication application for gears are the following. helical gears with 50% covered area.

iii. Worm and worm wheel

 -
54 Maintenance of Machinery TypicalDamages of Machine Parts 55

observing the blue marks after several turns on the worm wheel.

Gap between gears can be checked by rotating a paper tape between the teeth. For normal ii) Friction lining
working gap, the paper will take the form of the teeth and will be torn at places.
Brakefiriction lining failures, their characteristics and causes
Table 3 ..7
Note: The most prolific sources of trouble in gear assembly are faulty lubrication and
misalignment. Both can be corrected if present, unless scuffing has occurred. 1 Beat spo mg -
. hard spots on drum resulting heat spotted metal.
in rapid lining wear member
3. 4 Damages of friction surfaces.
_ Randomly oriented cracks on - overheating of the
2. Crazing
the lining resulting in a high braking surface from
Friction surfaces of clutches and brakes usually fail by wear and/or deformation. The
rate of wear overloading
damage of the friction surfaces affects the performance and shortens the life of the _ overheating from brake,
component and in exceptional cases results in complete failure.
dragging
grooves formed on the - using new friction
3.4.1 Brake damages: 3. Scoring
frictional material in the line material against metal
of movement resulting in a member which need re-
In subsequent tables, damages of metal surfaces and friction lining of brakes will be grinding
reduction of life
discussed. - over heating caused by
4. Fade material degrades or flows at
the friction surface resulting excessive braking or
i) Metal surfaces brake dragging
in decreased and loss in
perfomlance
Table 3.6. Brake metal surface failures, their characteristics and causes unsuitable combination
5. Metal pickup metal plucked from the
Failure Characteristics causes mating member and of materials
1. Heat spotting - heat spotted areas with reddish - distortion causing heavily embedded in the lining
brown colour loaded contact on a small linings contact at ends only incorrect radiusing of
6. Grab
area noisy brake lining (fault in assembly)
- uncomfortable mating erratic performance
2. Crazing - randomly oriented cracks on - overheating excessive grooving and wear incorrect fitting of lining
7.
the rubbing surface of a - repeated stress cycling at preferential areas of lining to the shoe platform
mating component from comp. to tension surface
(heating and cooling)
3. Scoring - scratches of the rubbing path - too soft metal for the
in the line of movement friction material
- abrasive material
embedded in the lining
material
56 Maintenance of Machinery -
3.5. Seals

3.5.1 Basic seal types and their characteristics

3.4.2 Clutch damages. i) DynamiC seals

Sealing takes place between surfaces in sliding contact or narrow ly separated surfaces.

Table 3.8. Clutch failures, their characteristics and causes
Failure Characteristics
1. Dishing - clutch plate distorted into a
conical shape.
- dragging of plates in
disengaging the clutch.
2. Buckling - clutch plates become
buckled into a wavy
pattern.
- preferential heating occurs.
- thermal damage and
failure.
3. Material transfer - Friction material adhering
to opposing plate giving
rise to excessive wear.
ii) Static seals
Sealing takes place between surfaces which do not move relative to each other.
Causes
iii) pseudo-static seals
- lack of conformability Limited relative motion is possible at the sealing surfaces, or the seal itself allows
- difference in limited motion; e.g. swivel couplings for pipes, flexible diaphragm.
temperatures over the
iv) Exclusion seals
lining causing shrinkage, Devices to restrict access of dirt, etc., to a system, often used in conjunction with
- lack of comformability
dynamic seals.
(inner areas hotter that
outer area causing
3.5.2 Characteristics of dynamic seals
shrinkage). The basic characteristics of dynamic seals, which are the main sealing items in moving
machinery, are represented schematically in Fig. 3.2.
- overheating. Contact seals Clearance seals ~
- unsuitable friction Surfaces loaded together Predetermined separation . I
Sealing interface I
material. I

mw~
4. Bond failure - material parting at the - poor bonding. (i) (ii)

.% -----
Hydrodynamic operation Boundary lubrication
bond to the core plate - overheating, the high (normal loads, speed (high loads, low speed V/
causing loss in temp, affecting bonding and viscosities) low viscosities) ~

performance. agent.
~W~
5. Grooving

6. Distortion
- grooving of the facing

-
material on the line of
movement.
facings out of flatness
-

-
material transfer to
opposite plate.

unsuitable friction
I~:~"mn·lg~ m
FLUID MOLECULAR PRESET
giving rise to erratic clutch material. FILM FILM GAP
engagement.
(i) (ii)

As in (i) High, except for

Leakage Low to very low, or
viscoseal and
i
virtually zero
centrifugal seal at i
design optimum ---li
Friction

t_L_ifi_e
Moderate Sealing interface

M_~derateto gOOd---·----S-h-O~---._-_~_-~_-_-_~-I:~efmite -----J

Sealing interface !

Fig.3.2 Characteristics of dynamic seals"

(* Source: M.J. Neale, The Tribology Handbook.)
58 Maintenance of Machinery
----------~----~------------------------------ -
3.5.2 Types of seals
RUBBSR BOIIOEO METAL
CASE CASE

(a)

SEALING CONTACT
(O.2S-I.Onlml STATlON"RY
ROTATJIlG SHAFT GASKEt·· SEALING' HEAD
Fig. t, Rotarylip.u'
PISTON SEAL
Fig. 2. Fee•• u' ROD SEAL

PUMP ADJUSTMENT
HOUSING NUT

1'51 •
Fig. 4. Squsrs-b.clcad 'V' saals u pilSton and rod
5eels in • hydraulic cylinder .

(bl -\OTATING OR RECIPROCAlING PACKING

SHAFT
Fig. 3. Packed gland Fig. 5. Chflvron sBsl with shapBd. support rings

Fig.3.3 Examples of clearance seals: a) labyrinth; b) viscoseas; c) centrifugal

seal; d) fixed bushing; e)floating seal
(* Source: M. J. Neale, The Tribology Handbook, 2nd ed.)

Fig. 6. '0' ring SIIal Fig. B. Rectangular

onconrrClIVBllIBSpool Fig. 7. LClbad'O"ing rubbflrring

lal lbl
FIg. 9. Matal baflows: (a) formed; (b) wflldad

Fig. 3.4. Contact seals

(* Source: Michael J. Neale, The Tribology Handbook, 2nd ed.)
3.5.3 Seal damages
i) Rubber seals of all types
Table 3.9. Symptoms of rubber seal damages
Symptoms
- Rubber brittle
- Possibly cracked
- Seal leaks
-Rubber Softened, possibly
swollen
-Seal motion irregular
Jerky
. Vibration
-Seal friction very high on
starting
- Seal permanently deformed
-Permanent set (characteristic
of rubbers)
their causes and remed y
Cause
- Rubber ageing
- Exposure the sunlight
- overheat due to high fluid
temperature or high speed
-Rubber incompatible with
sealed fluid
- Stick-slip phenomena
- Static friction (time
dependent)
- softer rubber or more
Typical Damages of Machine Parts 61
--------------------------------------~~------~--~--------------
ii) O-rings, rectangular rubber rings, U-rings
Table 3.10. Symptoms of 0-, rectangular- and U-ring seal damages
...•....
Symptoms Cause Remedy
Remedy
...• _Fine circumferential cut set - Extrusion damage
- Reduce back clearance
- Renew seal
back slightly from sliding - Check concentricity of
- Change rubber
contact zone parts
compound
_Ring completely ejected -Fitting of back-up ring
- improve seal
from its groove -Use reinforced seal
environmental or
- Use harder rubber
operating conditions
_Wear (not restricted to - Ring rolling or twisting in - Replace O-ring by
-Change rubber
sliding contact) groove rectangular section ring or
compound or change
- Partial or total fracture lobed type ring
fluid
- Higher or lower speed iii) Lip seals
may avoid problem
Table 3.11. Symptoms of lip seal damages, their causes and remedy
- Change fluid
temperature
- Change rubber Symptoms Cause Remedy
- Probably inevitable Rotating lip seals -Damaged lip -Remove cause of
- Effect slowed by (during assembly) damage during assembly
- Excessive leakage
viscous fluid - Lip cracked in places -Excessive speed -Improve lubrication
- Poor lubrication - Reduce environmental
- Change rubber
- hot environment temperature
compound
- Consider using
alternative rubber
compound
ReCiprocating Lip Seal -Poor lubrication -Replace single seal
- Excessive wear/high -Seal overloaded -Use heavy duty seal
friction -For aqueous fluids
leather may be better than
- rubber
 3.6 Shaft Failures
Shafts function in a wide ranging operation conditions which include
corrosive environments,
high and low temperatures, and
abrasive environments.
Moreover, shafts are subjected to various types of loading conditions and experience
tension, compression, bending, torsion, or any combination of these loading' condition
s.
These loads can be stationary or may vary with time introducing. In addition, shafts are
subjected to vibratory stress conditions. Added to the service conditions, these load
conditions are sources of shaft failures. The basic causes of shaft failures are wear, fatigue
and misalignment.
3.6.1 Shaft failures due to wear
Wear is a common cause of shaft failures. The wear process takes place by abrasive wear
mechanism which is followed by removal of material from the surface of the shaft.
Abrasive wear normally occurs due to hard particles of protuberances sliding along the
surface. Presence of foreign particles such as sand, dirt, metallic particles, wear debris in
lubricant also results in abrasive wear. Abrasive wear reduces shaft size and destroys
shape of the shaft and causes shaft failure.
3.6.2 Fatigue failure
?~~
of the more common causes of shaft failure is fatigue. Fatigue failures commonly
imtiate at stress raisers. The mechanism of fatigue requires the simultaneous presence of
three things:
there must be cyclic stresses on the shaft:,
these stresses must be tensile in nature; and
there must be plastic strain.
The process of fatigue is considered to consist of three stages:
initial fatigue damage involving plastic' strains leading to crack initiation;
crack propagation that continues to grow across the part until the remaining cross
section of shaft becomes too weak to carry the imposed loads; and
final and sudden fracture of the remaining cross section, due to overload.
Typical Damages of Machine Parts 63
Fatigue failure is an insidious because the stresses at which crack initiates and propagation
take place are much lower than the nominal yield strength of the shaft material. These
stresses occur at stress raisers where the crack initiates. Some typical shaft features that act
as stress raisers are
comers, fillets, notches, etc.,
key-ways, grooves, splines, etc.,
press- or shrink-fits,
welding defects,
metallurgical defects introduced by metal working such as forging, machining,
heat treatment, etc.
Other service-related factors that are very important factors in fatigue initiation are damages
caused by corrosion and wear. These problems cause reduction in the cross section and/or
change of shape and local areas may be created which act as stress raisers.
Another service-related problem that results in fatigue crack is fretting where contact occurs
between journal and bearing. Fretting is a minute oscillatory tangential relative motion
commonly known as slip. Fretted surfaces show shallow pits filled with debris. Escape of
debris eventually results in loss of fit which aggravates the fretting process. And, debris
trapped may cause seizure of motion. Fretting initiates fatigue cracks over the fretted area
ffil:dreduces fatigue strength appreciably.
3.6.3 Shaft failures due to misalignment
Another common cause of shaft failures is misalignment. Misalignment can be introduced
due to the following problems:
mismatching of mating parts,
original assembly error of equipment,
any maintenance activity resulting in maintenance-induced alignment problems,
deflection or deformation of supporting components,
deflection or deformation of the shaft itself.
Misalignment imposes unexpected bending moments on journals which are responsible for
increasing cyclic stresses necessary for fatigue crack initiation. Misalignment also induces
vibratory motion which is a typical cause for development of cyclic stresses.
64 Maintenance of Machinery

3.6.4 Other shaft failures

Other
Chapter 4
. shaft. failures which need attention from assembly ,or
operation and! . t enance
mam
points of VIew are the following. Determination of State of Damage
Accidental overload
Corrosion due to working environment The state of damage of a machinery or one of its elements is the undesired deviation from the
Creep stress rapture required state fixed in the design procedures. Knowledge of the state of damage of a
component in connection with the determination of the survival probability is essential for
Brittle fracture
settingthe date and kind of maintenance measures to be taken. For the phase of testing of new
Bearing failures
components or equipment (means of production), knowledge of the state of damage provides
Metallurgical and manufacturing defects a collection of data ~ information about the state of damage, which in turn can be used for
Fits and tolerances between shaft and hub setting meaningful maintenance routines.
Hydrogen embrittlement
Excessive belt tension, overload. :7{ e state of damage of an equipment depends on
_kind and conditions of damage, and
3.6.5 Remedies of shaft failures _duration of operation of equipment.

Determination of the state of damage is part of technical diagnostics and maintenance

B~sic shaft f~il~es ~an be prevented by identifying the cause that are responsible for the technique. hechnical diagnostics i~the determination of the technical state or state of damage
failure ~d ehmmat.mg the conditions that create these causes. Some of the remedies for of an equipment, evaluation of the state and collection of information for deciding the date and
preventmg shaft failures are the following. kind of maintenance . This is normally done without disassembling while the equipment is in
We~r of shafts can be reduced/prevented by using proper lubrication in which the
operation.
lubncant acts as a wear deterrent and also as a cleaning agent.
Misalignment can be eliminated by proper assembly procedures. Information about
Diagnostic
State of Damage
Fatigue can be reduced by proper design oflocal areas known as stress raisers' i e Parametrs
by streamlining the part at the change of cross section. ' . .
MEASURED
Avoidi~g sharp surfaces during machining as much as possible eliminates the Means of I SIGNALS Measuring
Device QUANTITIES
formation of stress raisers.
\
Production
I
Use of prop~r fits and tolerances reduces fretting problems and misalignment
wear and fatigue. '
-
ERRORS

I Influence from Environment I

Ftg. 4.1 Schematic rep~esentation of technical diagnostics
66 Maintenance of Machinery Determination of State of Damage 67
--------------~------~--------------------------------------------~
Conclusions arrived at about the state of damage of an equipment are probabilistic, and the 4.2 Methods of Condition Monitoring
accuracy of results obtained depends on the accuracy of the method of investigation Used,
sampling techniques and measuring techniques. As shown in Fig. 4.1, the means of production . hni es of condition monitoring amount to the systematic application of commonly
~~~ . d
itself, the signals produced by the means of production, the measuring device and measured
ac~epted me 0 th ds of fault diagnosis. This techniques are classified as on-load or off-loa
quantities are all influenced by the environment which is a source of error. Hence, the monitoring techniques.
usefulness of the results has to be weighed carefully and decisions made have to be supported
by experience and good judgement. 4.3.1 On-load monitoring techniques ...
On-load monitoring techniques are mostly carried out without interruption of operatIon ofthe
4.1 Measuriug Values for the State of Damage unit. These techniques include:
._ visual, aural and tactile inspection of accessible components;
The state of damage is defined by using different measuring values taken of the kind of temperature monitoring;
damage. The measuring principles employed are two: lubricant monitoring;
a - direct measured quantities, and leak detection;
b - indirect measured quantities. vibration monitoring/sound monitoring;
c~rrosion monitoring.
4.1.1 Direct measured quantities -:
4.3.2 Off-load monitoring Techniques include
The direct measuring technique determines the difference between the initial state and the state Off-load monitoring techniques require shutdown of the unit. These include: .
after wear process. The measurements taken can be direct linear, volumetric or mass quantities. visual, aural and tactile inspection of normally inaccessible or moving parts;

•.~ -----
These measured quantities can be absolute or related to duration of operation.
Absolute measurement gives the amount wear as an average worn out thickness.
Related measurement gives amount of wear per unit time of operation.
Direct measurement gives dimensions of parts. If the wear is not constant over a surface, the
measurement should be done in different planes with different orientations. Direct
measurement is usually done after disassembly. But it can also be made without disassembling
provided there is easy access to the measured qua~ti!ies.
.••... -----
4.1.2 Indirect measuring quantities
During the operation of a machine or parts of it, certain signals are produced which are related
to the state of operation of the machine. These signals, which are known as the diagnostic
parameters, if properly analyzed provide some information regarding the state of the machine.
It should be noted that influence from the environment introduces errors in the measured
results.
crack detection;
leak detection;
vibration testing ;
corrosion monitoring.
4.4 Condition Monitoring Techniques
Most failures give some warning before they occur. This warning is called potential failure.
Potential failure is defined as an identifiable physical condition which indicates that a
functional failure is either about to occur or it is in the process of occurring; this is indicated
as point P on the P-F diagram. A functional failure is defined as the inability of an equipment
in meeting a specified performance standard; this is represented by point F on the P-F diagr~.
Techniques of detecting potential failures are known as on-condition maintenance tasks. This
-isso because equipment is left in service on the condition that they meet specified performance
standards.
 68 Maintenance of Machinery

Determination of State of Damage 69

4.5 Potential Failures and On-condition Ma· t
In enance:
Between points P and F it may be possible to take action to prevent functional failure or to
If eVide~ce can be found that some component/equipment is in the final sta e of. . avoid consequences of functional failure. Tasks designed to detect potential failures are known
be possible to take action to prevent complete failure d/ . g faIlure,ItIlla) as on-condition tasks. On-condition tasks entail checking for potential failures so that action
is employed to show what happens in the final stages:ff:l:e:on~qeUpe~Fces. ThehP-F c~ can be taken to prevent functional failure or to avoid the consequences of the functional failure.
- h f ·1·· . curve sows·
were ai ure in the equipment starts to occurs. . This is known as predictive maintenance or condition-based maintenance. On-condition tasks
where equipment condition deteriorates to the point at which th fail are carried out at intervals less than the P-F interval, usually at a frequency equal to halfthe P-F
detected; and fmally, e ai ure can be
interval.
where the equipment has failed indicating functional failure.
In applying the P-F curve to condition monitoring, the sooner a potential failure can be
detected, the longer the P-F interval would be. Longer P-F interval would entail that the
point where failure frequency interval for inspection would be done less often. Hence there would be more time
starts to Occur
point where we can to take appropriate actions to avoid the consequence of failure.
determine that
/- component isfailing
P. (Potential Failure)

point where
-----=.:::_~~~~/- - - - -+----
Deviation for ~

I Deviationfor ~
Component has ~
failed I
~ ~~FL_:(Functional Failure) i
lime ! L~~~nterval
Fig.4.2 The P-F diagram I
~_~~ interval

The P-F interval is the interval between the occurrence .. . F

deterioration into functional failure Th P F . . of a potential failure and Its time
. e - mterval IS the warnin . d
failure, or the failure development period. g peno ,or the lead time to
Fig.4.4 Deviation of equipment condition from normal

'----" - F interval As can be observed from the P-F intervals shown in the figure, the deviation for P,. from the
o-J

I normal is smaller and this requires sensitive monitoring techniques and equipment. But gives

p a longer P,. - F interval. The larger deviation for P.z from normal results in a shorter

~ - F interval. But the monitoring equipment/techniques need not be as sensitive as in the p,.
case.

From the above discussion it can be concluded that the P-F curve is an important tool in
time
determining the condition monitoring techniques and setting the equipment for conducting the
Fig.4.3 The P-F interval
monitoring task.
 --
70 Maintenance of Machinery

Categories of Condition Monitoring Techniques

- elements to be released in to the environment. This technique is used to detect elements
in the lubricating oil which indicate occurrence of potential failure elsewhere in the system
They are employed to detect wear, corrosion, leakage. Some of the techniques are listec

beloW.
Atomic emission spectroscopy
Condition monitoring technique~ are designed to detect specific symptoms which are related
X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy
to the state of damage. of the equipment. The monitoring techniques are classified according
Infrared spectroscopy
to the symptoms monitored. These can be classified as follows.
Electro-chemical corrosion monitoring
Exhaust emission analyzers
v 4.6.1 Dynamic Monitoring
Colour indicator titration
Dynamic monitoring detects potential failures which cause emission of abnormal ener
in the.form of waves such as vibration and noise. Equipment which contain moving p!
4.6.4 Physical Effects Monitoring
that vibrate are monitored dynamically. This is done by measuring how much the system Physical effects monitoring includes changes in the physical appearance or structure 0)
vibrates. equipment which can be detected directly. The monitoring techniques involved detect
There are various techniques that belong to this category, examples of which are: potential failures in the form of cracks, wear, corrosion, etc. Some of the techniques
employed are:
broad band vibration analysis
Liquid dye penetrants
(changes in vibration characteristics are monitored)
Magnetic particle inspection
constant bandwidth analysis
Ultrasonic techniques
(changes in vibration characteristics are monitored by using accelerometers)
X-ray radiography
real time analysis
Light probes
(measurement of vibrational signals; shock analysis)
Deep-probe endoscope
ultrasonic analysis
Oil odor
(changes in sound pattern are monitored)
Strain gauge
Viscosity monitoring
J 4.6.2 Particle Monitoring
Particle monitoring detects potential failures which cause particles of different sizes and
4.6.5 Temperature Monitoring
~hapes to be released into the environment in which the component is operating. These These techniques look for potential failures which cause rise in temperature of an
mclude wear particles and corrosion particles. Among the various particle monitoring
equipment itself. Monitoring techniques included in here, among others, are:
techniques the following are some examples.
Infrared scanning
Ferrography
Temperature indicating painting
(Wear and corrosion particles are monitored by taking a representative sample of oil)
Real time ferromagnetic sensors
4.6.6 Electrical Effects Monitoring
Graded filtration
These techniques look for changes in r<:.sistance,conductivity, etc. Electrical Effects
Sedimentation
Monitoring techniques includes the following.
Electrical resistance monitoring
J 4.6.3 Chemical Monitoring
Chemical monitoring detects potential failures which cause traceable quantities of chemical
 Determination of State of Damage 73
72 Maintenance of Machinery

Potential monitoring ---darkened colour of oil is caused by oxidation of oil, excess temperature, combustion
Power factor testing or other chemical products reacting with the oil used.
Breaker timing testing
.. . that can be detected by lubricant monitoring are the following.
MalfunctIOns .'
4.7 General Purpose monitoring techniques damages of transmission components like gears,
__ shafts, beanngs, etc.
blockage of ducts, pipes, etc.
Thermal, lubricant and vibration monitoring techniques are considered to be general purpose
monitoring techniques. In each of these three techniques, the parameter being monitored . 7 2 Thermal monitoring
contains information that has been transmitted through the machine. 4. .. . the temperature of a component in a machine is undertaken for one of three
Monttonng

4.7.1 Lubricant monitoring
The oil which circulates through a machine carries with it evidence of the condition of parts
encountered. Examination of the oil and any particles it has carried with it allows monitoring
of the machine on-load or at shut-down.
Lubricant examination can cover debris deposited, debris in suspension or condition of oil.
Debris deposited are the larger particles carried along by the lubricant which can be collected
by filters or magnetic c~liectors. Examination ofthe debris under the microscope to establish
size and shape provides a good information regarding the state of damage of the machine.
Debris in suspension are the smaller particles collected by the lubricant which remain in
suspension. The examination of the debris in suspension gives the earliest warning of
component damage.
A change in the rate of debris collection indicates the change in the condition of the machine
as related to wearing out. Shape of debris collected carries information as to the wear
mechanism taking place.
r
') - Normal shape of wear particles tends to be flat;
\ -_ cutting or abrasive wear results in spiral shaped debris;
Lsurface fatigue failures produce larger angular particles.
Condiiion of used oil itself can be examined for indication of other malfunctions. To mention
a example:
foaming of oil - cause is excessive churning or passage under pressure through
restriction. Action to be taken: checking the system.
p~~se;~ enable the t.e~p. of a process to be controlled ~l1y, or to check that it is being
controlled properly; .'
To detect an increase in heat generation due to some malfunction such as damage of
11.
bearings; .
11 T~ detect a change in the heat transmitted through and out of the body of the machl~e
caused by a change in some component such as failed coolant circulation or ash build
up in a boiler.
Temperature monitoring can be carried out at a point within the body of the plant (~g.
measurement of water temperature in a boiler) or at the surface of a component (eg. beanng
housing). Temperature monitoring devices are diverse and can be classified as contact sensors,
non-contact sensors temperature points, pellets (pyrometers), etc.
A wide range of malfunctions are monitored thermally. Prime function of t~~perature
monitoring is checking the system that the controls are working properly. In.additIOn, s~me
range of general faults can also be detected by thermal monitoring. The followmg are possible
areas where thermal monitoring is applied.
Bearing damages which result in heat generation and heating of the bearing unit and
other units that come in contact with the bearing unit.
Failure of coolant or lubrication can be detected by a temperature rise of appropriate
bodies', such failures could result from pump failure, drive fault, blockage in piping,
valves or filter, or damaged heat exchanger.
Incorrect heat generation like in internal combustion engines.
Build-up of unwanted materials such as sediment is pipes, ash in boilers or ducts, etc.
Damage of insulating materials.
Faults of electric components.
 74 Maintenance of Machinery

4.7.3 Vibration/noise monitoring

Changes in noise or vibration characteristics are indicative of trouble. The causes ofvibrati
-
Table 4.1. General purpose mom ortng techniques
are unbalanced rotating and reciprocating parts, looseness in the fit between componen~
deflection of load carrying members, misalignment, damages in transmission components, etc, Thermal Lubricant Vibration
I--
Medium for -solids: casing, shaft, -oil used for lubrication -any solid par of
Vibration monitoring is generally used in preference to noise monitoring. The equiPllle~ transmission of etc. and! or oil machine
employed are vibrometers and accelerometers of wide variety. -Liquids: lubricant,
information
through cooling water or oil Depends on lubricant Depends on elastic a
Yrhe possible faults that can be detected by vibration monitoring are: machine being pumped round mass characteristics of
!-- wear or failure
I
of bearings; Depends on thermal the machine solids
" presence of unbalance in moving parts; conductivity
\ - changes in clearances; -Components any heat generating any component which any component that
~ - cracks in shafts and other moving components subjected to cyclic loads. monitored device such as is lubricated such as moves
. - condition of bearings - bearings, pumps - surface between
The table below discusses in brief the general purpose monitoring techniques showing the - fluid flow in heat - transmission components with
exchangers components relative motion
medium for transmission, components monitored, faults that can be detected and equipment
required for monitoring. - lubricants - clearances

Faults detected - failure of drives -any form of wear or change in any moving
- blockage of ducts failure that results in component
:
- loss of cooling, lubricated surface - wear or failure of ,!
fouling of coolers failure bearings i
,
- overuse -leakage of other - unbalance ,
contaminants in to - changes in clearances i
I
lubricant j
I
Monitoring - thermometers -on load removable -accelerometer and I

equip. - thermocouples filters, magnetic plugs, accessories I

- temperature paints visual examination of -frequency filters and I

- infrared scanning debris using recorders
cameras microscopes
-spectroscopes
-ferroscopes
;

-pressure gages
j
Frequency - Continuous and - Primarily periodic - Periodic put also
I

,
periodic continuous :
 Maintenance of Machinery
environment should be given due attention. Accessories like water jet, steam jet or

cOIIlpres air can be used to assist cleaning of machinery.

sed
Chapter 5
Elements of Maintenance S.2 Lubricating
A Lubricant has the task of reducing friction between mating surfaces with relative motion,
traJlSfer of heat generated and prevention of dust and other materials from entering into the
Broadly
attend speaking,
( the elements in a maintenance technology can be classified as:
. ance operation), servicing and repair. working environment.
Rules for lubricating include:
use the right lubricant and the specified amount;
5.1 Attendance (Operation)
cleanliness of lubricant is important;
complete replacement of lubricant;
Attendance is the right way 0f avoiding
avoi . mal-operation hi .
indirectly the maintenance. w ch influences the damages and avoiding contaminants at the point of lubrication.

In applying lubricants, taking good care of filters is of great importance. The task of filters
The fundamentals for the use of any technoica I means of production are' is to separate wear products and contaminants from the lubricant to reduce wear process.
proper use of operating instruction provided im operators manuals'.
Different types of oil filters, air filters, restrainers can be used.
proper
c. II .use of service instructions given in se rvice
.. instructions:
. and'
~o .owmg prop er maintenance
. procedures and . tru . '
maintenance manuals. ins ctions as outlined in S.3 R pair

Repair is the totality of measures of restoration with the aim of determined final state, or
Kno~ledge of these instructions is essential is attendin the .
quahfication of operators maint g machine. In this respect quality, or condition of equipment.
, enance personnel and man .
Proper attendance avoids subjective d . . . agement IS a requirement.
amages and rrnrurmzes objective damages. Classification of repair activities is based on various considerations. These considerations

5.2 Service are:

time related to breakdown,
number of elements involved in the repair task,
Servicing of a machin e IS
. Important
. in decelerating wear or d
~ortant measures to be taken' . . . amage of machine parts. nature of repair activity,
I \ m servicing are cleamng, lubricating and adjusting.
territorial, or
labour involved.
\S.2J Cleaning
Penetration of dust , dirt d eposited,
. etc accelerate the
machine components. Hence I . . wear processes and corrosion of The classification of repair activities are outlined in the chart below.
. c eanmg makes the prelim' .
Cleaning should be done in sh rt ti . mary mamtenance element.
o nne intervals and the m
be corrosive and should not damace oai . eans used for cleaning should not
ge pamts, working surfaces, etc.

For cleaning purposes detergents can be used, but compatibility with the workinz
'"
 Kinds of Repair

~---- __l _
Preventive
Corrective
(Restoration)
Time related to Chapter 6
breakdown
Decision Making

Maintenance management decisions, directed at every part of the maintenance function,

Individual
(One Element) Complex are interdepartmental and require information from different sources. Such decisions
(Several Elements) Number of elements

,-----L _
of a system involved range in importance from a major equipment replacement to minor repair option.

Decision making is directed at the objectives, organizational structure and actions of the
Medium Repair maintenance function.
(One or Several Elements) General Overhaul
(Nearly All Elements) Number of elements
of a system involved
AA decision problem exists when:
I
Minimum Repair
'tj - there is a desired objective,
Emergency repair
- at least two courses of action are available,
I
Exchange Repair Assembling of already
- there is uncertainty as to which course is the best, and
repaired elements / - external factors are present which can affect the outcome and which are outside
the control of the decision maker.

Single Repair
Repair in Series Influencing factors in decision making and in identification ofthe most suitable action
are the following:
- Cause of failure

Decentralized
»o - Failure incidence with respect to time
Centralized
Territorial
J - Costs of maintenance or re-design

------ __ 1 _ Maintainability

Manual In decision making, in place of forwarding decision rules it is always of primary importance
Industrial Division and type
to keep the maintenance objective clear, and information systems clearly designed and
of labour involved
Fig. 5.1 Classification of repair understood. This is so, because maintenance tasks that require decisions at various levels
are diverse in nature, and each task may have many alternatives.

The flow chart shown in Fig. 6.1 demonstrates a decision making procedure, in general.
80 Maintenance of Machinery
Define a
DECISION CRITERION v
for comparing the
effectiveness of the
alternative actions
Fig. 6.1 A general decision making procedure
Maintenance Decision Making 81
----------------------------------------~~~~~~~----------~---=
L
I fdentit: ~e e~stence of a
decIsIOn situation
I
In applying a decision making procedure in maintenance, there are a few important
questions that need to be answered. Moubray', has explicitly stated these questions as
I Identi~ the real problem and 1
l the mfluencing factors I follows.
In what ways does each failure matter?
What can be done to prevent each failure?
Classify the influencing factors What should be done if a suitable preventive task cannot be found?
into
i) those that are within the
decision maker's control In answering these questions, a maintenance decision procedure should take the following
and those that are not issues into consideration:
ii) those that are quantifiable
and those that are not Nature of failure: whether the failure is hidden or evident to operating crew under
normal operational conditions;
J Safety consequences: wether the failure affects health of operators, or even may kill
1I Define the objective someone;
Environmental consequences: wether the failure can affect the environment and
J wether it could result in violation of environmental standards and regulations;
Identify the alternative courses Operational consequences: the effect of failure on operational capabilities.
of action that are within the
decision maker's control and The decision diagram shown below, as suggested by Moubray", integrates these issues into
might achieve the objective
a decision process which forms a framework for maintenance decision making.
~
Determine a method for forcasting
the performance of the alternatives
in terms of the decision criterion
( example: use simple costing, or
complex modelling)
j
Make a
DECISION
based on the forecast
and allowing for the
non-quantifiable factors
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I

~ l!!. Will Ibe /0" oUuRd/OR ~ Does 'he (al/ure mode l!.. Do••• he f.llu~, mode .au e l2... Does 'he .• 1use mode
caused by thIS failure mod y cause a loss of function N a loss offunchonor other N bave a direct adverse N
on its own become eviden es or other damage which ~ damage which ~ould brea 0 effect ~~ operational . 0
to the operating crew und~ could hurt or kill any known environmental capability (output, quahty
normal circumstances? someone? standard or regulation? other non·repalr costs )?

I IYes Yes I I Yes

~~--~~--~~-,
l!!! Is a task to detect whether ~ Is a task to detect whethe lQ! Is. task to detect whether ~ Is a task to detect whether
the failure is occurring or the failure is occurring or the failure is occurring or the failure is occurring or
about to occur t&hnically about to occur technicall about to occur technically about to occur technically
feasible and worth doing? feasible and worth doing? feasible and worth doing? feasible and worth doing?
Yes I No Yes No Yes I No Yes No

SCbed~led
oD~nditioD task
I SChedluled
on-condition task
I SChed~led
on-condition task
I SChed~led
on-condition task
I
~ Is a scheduled restor.ation ~ Is a scheduled restoration ~ Is a scheduled restoratio ~ Is a scheduled restoration
task to reduce the failure task to avoid failures task to reduce the failure task to reduce the failure
rate technically f~asible technically feasible rate technically feasible rate technically feasible
and worth domg? and worth doing? and worth doing? and worth doing?

Yes I No Yes I No Yes I No Yes No

SChed~led
on-condition task
I SChed~led
restoration task
I SChed~led
restoration task
I SChed~led I
r.res=IOrr-:a,-ti_on-,la,-s..,k:-:--:-:-:-_-:-,-,
~ Is a scheduled discard ~ Is a scheduled discard ~ Is a scheduled discard ~ Is a scheduled discard
task to reduce the failure task to avoid failures task to reduce the failure task to reduce the failure
rate technically feasible technically feasible r ate technically feasible rate technically feasible
and worth doing? and worth doing? and worth doing? and worth doing'!
Yes I No Yes I No Yes I No Yes No
- I
Scheduled I I.
Scheduled I I
Scheduled I
No scheduled I
Scheduled I
No scheduled
on-condition task discard task discard task maintenance discard task maintenance

.5
~ ~ Is a failure-finding task to
detect the filure technically
~ Is a combination of tasks
to avoid failures technicall .
I I
.
.;:: feasible and worth doing? feasible and worth doing? Redesign may Redesign may
<.,) be desirable be desirable
::§~ Yes I No Yes I No

~ SChe.iuled I Com~ination Red~ign is

'Il failure-finding of tasks compulsory
~
~
task I Could the mUltiPle?1
failure affect safety
~ or the environment?
.S Redesign is Yes . No No scheduled Redesign may
~ compulsory maintenance be desirable

&:l Fig. 6.2 Decision diagram *

(. Source: Moubray, Reliability Centered Maintenance, 1997.)
 84 Maintenance of Machinery

Probability that either event 1 (E)

.
IS:
I or event 2 (E) will
2
c.
occur ror mutually exclusive ev
e~
-
probability that EI or E2 or both will occur for not mutually exclusive events is
Basic Probability Concepts 85

PEl OR E, = PE, + PE, - PE, and E,

Note that the "OR" is not used in its ordinary sense.

Example 7.1
Example 7.2
What is the probability of getting a 6 or an 11 in 11' .
ro mg two dIce? A rivet is to be selected from a box of 1000 rivets that contains
Solution 60 rivets with type A defects,
35 rivets with type B defects,
Let E, represent rolling a 6 15 rivets with type C defects,
8 rivets with type A and type B defects,
and E2 represent rolling an 11. 6 rivets with type A and type C defects,
3 rivets with type B and type C defects,
Probability of drawing 6 is P. =2 2 rivets with all types of defects.
E, 36

Probability of drawing 11 is Pc', = 3~ a) What is the probability that the rivet will have type A defect or type B defect, or both?

b) What is the probability that the rivet will have type B defect or type C defect, or both?

r.E,arE, =2
36 c) What is the probability that the rivet will have no defect?

Solution
7.2 Not-Mutually Exclusive Events:
(Addition Theorem)
Probability of type A defect is P(A) = 0.060
Probability of type B defect is P(B) = 0,035
When event EI or event E2 or both can occ .
exclusive events i e when I ur sImultaneously, we have not mutually Probability of type C defect is P(C) = 0,015
. . . severa events are involved, at least one of the events will occur. Probability of type A and type B defect is P(A nB) = 0.008
Probability of type A and type C defect is P (A n C) = 0.006
Probability of type B and type C defect is P(B nC) = 0.003
Probability of type A, type B and type C defect is P(A nB nC) = 0.002

a) Probability that the rivet will have type A detect or type B defect is

P(A uB) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A nB)

Fig. 7.2 Not mutua IIy exclusive
.
events
P(A uB) = 0.060) + 0.035 - 0.008 = .087
 86 Maintenance of Machinery

b) Probability that the rivet will have type B defect or type C defect is -
7.4 Conditional Probability:
Basic Probability Concepts 87

(Multiplication Theorem)
P(B uC) = P(B) + P(C) - P(B nC)
Event E2 is said to be conditional on event E1 when the probability of occurrence of E2
P(B uC) = 0.035) + 0.015 - 0.003 = .0497 depends on the prior occurrence of E,. The probability that E2 will occur provided E, has
occurred is denoted by PE 1E,
2
, which is read as "P of E2 given E, ". Here, the
c) Probability that the rivet will have no defect is
possible events are those in E1' and the favourable events are those in E2 which are also in

P (no defect) = 1 - P (at least one defect) E,.

P(atleastonedefect) = P(A) + P(A) + P(A)

Number of results E] n E2
P(A nB) - P(A nC) - P(B nC) + P(A nB nC) Number of results E]

P(atleastonedefect) = 0.060 + 0.035 + 0.015 The probability that both events will occur is
- 0.008 -0.006 - 0.003 + 0.002 = 0.095 PE, and E, = PE, X PE,I E,

PE, and E,
= FE
z
X PEIE
"
P(no defect) = 1 - 0.095 = 0.905

7.3 Independent Events Example 7.4

(Multiplication Theorem for independent events)
There are three boxes of spare each containing two units. Both units in the first box are

Event E1 is said to be independent on event E2 if the probability of occurrence of E1 is not good; one unit in the second is good; both units in the third are bad. A technician selects
affected by the occurrence or nonoccurrence of E2• a box and a unit from it at random. A test check shows that the unit is good.
a) What is the probability that the second unit in the same box is also good?

The probability that both events will occur in a trial for independent events E1 and E2 is b) What is the probability that the second unit in the same box is bad?

PE andE2 = FE J X P'E2
Solution
I

a) Having selected a box with one good unit, the probability of selecting the box with the
Example 7.3
other good unit is ~, for there are only two boxes that contain at least one good unit.

Three identical, independent machines are connected in series. The probability of survival
Having selected a box with one good unit, the probability of selecting the box with the
of each machine is 0.98 for 1000 h of operation. What is the probability that failure will other bad unit is 1/3.
not occur in the arrangement for 1000 h of operation?

Hence, having selected the box with one good unit, the probability of selecting thebox
Solution
with the other good unit is
PE, and s, and E, = 0.98 x 0.98 x 0.98 = 0.94
P (good unit/prevous selection good) = ( ~) + ( 1) x~
2
3
b)
P (good unit/prevo us selection bad) = ( ~) x ~ = ~
3 2 6
88 Maintenance of Machinery

7.5 Probability Distributions

-
The probability of flipping at least one tail is, therefore,

~pr~ba~ility distribution is a mathematical idealization, or model, of the relative frequency

distribution
... of outcomes of a random experiment . A Probability d'ISn t 'b utiIOn gIves
. the The probability distribution plot is shown in the figure below.
p~ob~bIl~tIes of all possible events that can result from a given trial. Probabili
distributions are classified as discrete and continuous. ty Probabilty

0.375 ----1-1
7.5.1 Discrete probability distributions
I I
I I
When the events are discrete, i.e. when countable number of values are assigned to th 0-125 -i-I--\---I
results ~~ a ~an~om.experiment, the probability distribution is referred to as discret: I
p~obabllzty distribution. Examples of such distribution include: flipping a coin, rolling a 2 3
Number of tails
dice where the number of events are finite.
As can be noted from the example above, the probability distribution is discrete in which
Example 7.5 the outcome of the random event is flipping a 0, 1, 2, or 3 tails, nothing in between.

Determine the probability of obtaining at least one tail when flipping three coins
i. Binomial probability distribution
simultaneously.
The binomial experiment is any experiment that can be regarded as a sequence of n trials
Solution
in which:
i) n is defined before the experiment begins;
Let p be the probability of flipping a head and the q be the probability of flipping a tail.
Therefore, ii) the result of every trial can be classified into one of two mutually exclusive
categories, success and failure;
p=0.5, q=0.5
iii) the result of any trial is independent of the results of other trials; and
The possible outcomes and their probabilities are shown in the table below.
iv) the probability of success p does not change from trial to trial.
Possible Outcomes Probability
H H H 0.125 The binomial probability distribution is obtained from the binomial expansion which is
H H T 0.125
given by
H T H 0.125
H T T
T H H
0.125
0.125
(x +v)" =xn +(~)xn-ly +_ .. +(:)Xn-kyk +--- +yn
T H T 0.125
T T H 0.125 The n-k coefficient, denoted by (:) is given by
T T T 0.125
Total 1.000
( n)k = k!
n!
(n -k)!
. 90 Maintenance of Machinery
-- d dr . g a black one be failure. The probability
. king a white marble be success an awm
The binomial distribution is applied to problems where the probability of occurrence P and. Let pIC .
probability of non-occurrence q are unchanged by drawing from the sample. . king a white marble is then glVenby
of pIC

The binomial expansion may be expressed as P = _3 = 0.3 .

'110 of picking a black marble IS
The pro b ab 1 Ity
p n! pr(l _py-r
(r,n,p)
(n - r)!r! q=1-P=0.7
where q = l-p
Sample size n = 3.
In the probability equation above, bi . I xpansion
c. the probability distribution is given by the momia e
Therelore,
p( r.ri.p ) = probability of r failures in a sample of n units when the probability of 2 2
(p + q)3 = p3 + 3p2q + sp q + q
the occurrence is p
r number of occurrences
p probability of the occurrence where
three successes, 0 failures = 0.33 = 0.027
q probability of nonoccurrence
= 3x0.32 xO.7= 0.189
n sample size two successes, I failure
2
one success, 2 failures = 3xO.3 xO.7 = 0.441
= 0.343
Practical limitations of the binomial distribution include:
Zero success, 3 failures = 0.73
- tedious calculations when n is large; Total = 1.000
- small values of p also make the calculations very tedious;
- tables do not include values for large n. . f wi 3 2 1 or 0 dollars is tabulated below
The chances in 1000 tnes 0 wmmng , ,

Example 7.6
Number of white marbles
Chances in 1000 tries
Suppose that we have ajar with three white and seven black marbles. While blindfolded in one draw
we draw three marbles, one at a time, replacing each marble in the jar before drawing the 27 chances to win $3
3
next and win $1.0 for each white marble. How many chances in 1000 tries are there of 189 chances to win $2
2
winning 0, 1, 2, or 3 dollars? 441 chances to win $1
1
343 chances to win $0
o
Solution
This problem can be solved by using the binomial theorem:
The possible outcomes are represented below.
p = n! pr(J _py-r
(r,n,p) (n - r)!r!
OW,3B and win $0
lW,2B and win $1
2W,IB and win $2 where n =3, p = 0.3 and r, number of occurrences, is 3, 2, 1 or O.
3W,OB and win $3
 92 Maintenance of Machinery

-
Basic Probability Concepts 93
The probabiiity for three succe~s r = 3 is
For draws in replacement, this is:

P(3,3,0.3) =
3'
O!~!0.33(0.7)° = 0.027 (2.x~)
10 10
+ (~x 2.)= 04200
10 10 .

The probability for r = 2 is ii) Multinomial distribution

2(07) The multinomial distribution is a generalization of the binomial distribution in which the
P(2,3,0.3) = 20.3
Il2! .
- 0 189
-. occurrence or non-occurrence of an event can take place in more than two ways. For
instance, in considering an operating unit, it may malfunction in more than two ways. Such
The probability for r = 1 is cases are easily handled by using the multinomial distribution.
31
P(1,3,OJ) = _. 0.3 (07)2 - 0441
2!1! . -. Let n be the number of independent trials, in, each of which only one of the events E J '
E2,··,Em can occur. Let the probabilities of these events be Pt> P2' , Pm. The
The probability for r = 0 is probability that EJ will occur is kJ times, that E2 will occur is k2 times, , that Em will
3!
occur is km times in n trials is given by
P(0,3,0.3) =: 310!(0.3)°(0.7)3 =: 0.343

Hence, the chances of winning 3 dollars in 1000 tries is 27.

the chanc f wi . , with the restriction that
es 0 WInnIng2 dollars in 1000 tries is 189.
m
the chances of winning 1 dollars in 1000 tries is 441 ~
the chances ofwinniug 0 dollars in 1000 tries is 343~
E k; = n,and
;:J

Note: In thi
s example the process is called drawing items with 1
I rep acement.
iii) The Poisson distribution:
Drawing Samples Without Replacement:

In the previous exam 1 ifth
p e, I e random experiment is drawi
the probability of drawin hi
g a w te marble will vary with
on the outcome of the previous dr F I eac SuccesSIvedraw depending
. aw. or example the ch
white marbles is expressed as: ,ance
p _ 1 2 1
three white -- X - X -
10 9 8
In applying the Poisson distribution, events are assumed likely to occur in a continuum of
.
mg marbles WIthoutreplacement time, length, volume, etc. The Poisson distribution, unlike the binomial distribution, is
h. '
used to deal with events in which the value of n is not known before the experiment begins.
fd .
0 rawmg thee successive
In deriving the Poisson distribution knowledge of the expected or average number of
occurrences 0 f an event IS
. require
. d . Let the expected number of occurrences of an event be
c: 0.0083
Q. The expected number of occurrences Q can be evaluated as follows from the probability

of an occurrence.
The probability of drawing one white marble and one black in 2 tri .
nes IS:
If the probability of an occurrence is P and the sample size is n, then the expected number
of occurrences is
a = np.
 Basic Probability Concepts 95
94 Maintenance of Machinery

As an example consider a production line which is normally 10% defective. If a sample

of 50 units is randomly drawn, the expected number of defects is
-- Probability of 3 occurrence
a3
_e-a =-e
3! 3!
(At) 3 -At

~e -a = (At) k e -It
a = np = 50 x 0.1 = 5. Probability of k occurrence k! k!

The Poisson formula . th Po'isson distribution of probabilities.

This 1S e

Like the binomial distribution, Poisson distribution consists of a number of probability tive poisson distribution, i.e. the probability of k or fewer occurrences is given
ThecumU la
terms that sum up to 1.000.
by
X2 3 k a i
x
eX = 1 +x +- + + ... P = E-e-a
2! 3! f i~O if
b bility of k or fewer failures
e" e ° -x = 1 . bility calculations with constant failure rate A, th e pro a 1 1
Forre 1ia 11
x2 3 is given by
or, e -xl 1 +x +-
2!
+
x
3!
+ ...J = 1
i (Atr -A[
P
f
= --e
./
i~O I.
Hence,

x2 3 Example 7.7
e -x + x'e -x + _oe-x +
x
-'e
-x
+ ... = 1
2! 3! - 0 5 h t is the probability of zero
lfthe expected number of occurrences of an event a - . ,.w h b bility of up to 2
In reliability considerations, the event is failure and the average number of failures in time 1 2 3 urrences? What 1S t e pro a 1 1
occurrences of the event; , , occ .
t is At for a constant failure rate A. Thus, the expected number of failures in time t is occurrences?
a = At.
Solution
Substituting a for x, a being the expected number of occurrences of ~ event, we get the
following distribution. Po = e -a = e -{).5 ,~0.6065
For 0 occurrences

e -a + a'e -a +
a2
-'e -a +
a3
-'e -a + ...
ak
-'e -a + .... = 1 PI = ae -a = (0.5)e -{)5 = 0.3033
For 1 occurrence
2! 3! k!
= (0.5f e -{)5 = 0.0758
Each Poisson term represents a probability of an occurrence. For 2 occurrences 2!
= (0.5)3 e -{)5 = 0.0126
Probability of the occurrence of Event Poisson term for 3 occurrences 3!

Probability of 0 occurrence e -a = e -At

The probability of up to 2 occurrences is:

Probability of 1 occurrence ae -a = (Xt )« -At P';2 = 0.6065 + 0.3033 + 0.0758 = 0.9856

a2 (At)2
Probability of 2 occurrence _e-a -_ --e -At

2! 2!
 96 Maintenance of Machinery

Example 7.8 - Basic ProbabilityConcepts

b continuous probability distributions. For instance, failure of an equipment can be

97

e~pressed by using a continuous probability distribution.

What is the probability of no failure for a system with a constant failure rate of 0.0065
failures/h which is expected to function for an operational period of 100 h? What is the
. Normal probability distribution function (Gaussian distribution)
I.
probability that more than two failures will Occur during the operational period?

The normal curve has the bell shape shown in Fig. 7.3. The area under the curve is 1.0.
Solution

The mid-point u, the mean of the population, occurs under the highest point on the curve.
The number of expected failures is
Sincethe total area under the curve represents all possible events, portions of the area under
the curve represent the relative frequency of events falling within this portion. In
a = A.t = 0.0065x100 = 0.65
determining the significant portions of the area under the normal curve, the standard
deviation (0) is used, which is a measure of the deviation of the data from the mean. The
The probability that no failure will occur is given by the first Poisson term
standard deviation is determined for two cases.

Po = e -a

Hence, the probability of no failure is

1 -!..-(x -J1./I,r
y __ e 2
Po = e -0.65 = 0.522 y
a,fiii p ± 1(J = 68.27%
p ± 2(J = 95.45%
The probability that two or less failures will occur is given by the first three Poisson terns
p ± 3(J = 99.73%

a2
= e -a + ae -a + -e -a
2!
= 0.972

-2cr -Jc fl + l c +2cr

Therefore, the probability that more than two failures will occur is given by

Fig.7.3 The Gaussian or normal probahility distribution

P>2 = 0.028
a. When grouping is not feasible

7.5.2 Continuous Probability Distribntions (J = I E (x - x) 2, X = Ex

~ (n - 1) n
In a continuous probability distribution, there are an infinite number of events possible (as
opposed to n discrete events in the discrete probability distribution) within a defined range.
i.e. a random variable can assume any real value and is called a continuous random
variable. Many physical properties studied which are continuous in nature can be described
 amtenance of Machinery

b. When grouping is feasible

- Z := 8400 - 6720 = 1.5
Basic Probability Concepts 99

a ~i f::, -(f:,.r Noting that Z = 0 for t

1120

= t, the area between Z = 0 and Z

this area 0.5000 will give the probability that the equipment will function up to t
= 1.5 is 0.4332. Adding to
= 8400h
where r =
fr equency of occurrence
without failure. Thus, the probability that the equipment will function for t > 8400h is
d = deviation from the zero point.
Th .
e zero point usually corresponds to the high t fr p
/>8400
= 1.0000 - (0.4332 + 0.5000) = 0.0668
i = the cell interval. es equency.

Or, the probability that the equipment will function for 8400 h or more without failure is
Z-Scale
6.68%.

Given CT, it is convenient to be able to read th h . . For t = 3920 h,

b)
deviation multiples Thi . . e onzontal scale m terms of standard
formula: . s IS accomplIshed by converting to the Z scale by using the
Z = 3920 - 6720 = -2.5
1120
Z x: _x_-_u
The area between Z = 0 and Z = -2.5 is 0.4938. Adding to this area 0.5000, the area
between Z = 0 and infinity, the probability that the equipment will function without failure
where CT is the standard deviation, and is
,
jJ is the mean value.

Pt>3920 = 0.4938 + 0.5000 = 0.9938

When x s: u , the value of Z is zero. Thus the value of Z c .
zero. Positive and negative values f Z .' orrespondmg to the mean is
Therefore, the probability that the equipment will function for 3920 h or more without
respectively. 0 give the areas to the right and left of the mean,
failure is 99.38% .

Example 7.9
c) The probability that the equipment will operate without failure for more than 3900

An . h and less than 8400 h is

eqUIpment which shows a normal 1 distri . .
mean of 6720 h and a standard d . . Y Istnbuted tImes-to-faIlure distribution has a
. . evranon of 1J20 h Wh . .. P3920s/s8400 = 0.4332 + 0.4938 := 0.927U
equipmenr may be expected to fun ti ith . . at IS the probabihry that the
c IOn WI out faIlure· a) for 8400 h
than 3900 h; c) for more than 3900 h d 1 . or more; b) for more Example 7.10
an ess than 8400 h?

Solution
A certain Amplifier company purchases transformers for a medium-power amplifies from
a Transformer company. The amplifiers require transformers whose excitation current must
a) Using the Z-scale associated with t = 8400 h fall between 150 and 225 mA. The Amplifier company uses a statistical sampling scheme
,
Which assures that a lot which is 3% or more defective will in 9 out of 10 cases be rejected.

Before shipping a lot of 280 transformers, the inspection department at the transformer
where» := 1J20 hand t- = 6720 h Company selected 32 transformers at random from production and recorded the following
~ --,e~xcitatinn l'l1M"<>nt~ ;~ _ A
 200 160 210 175 ]95 205 190 205
-
from tables: area between 0 and z, = 0.4857
area between 0 and Z2= 0.4726
LJaSICrrooaonllY cOnc:ep~3' II] 1'------

155 184 202 180 200 154 Total area between Z1 and Z2 is 0.9583
190 192
170 172 164 178 180 157 198 222
180 178 Therefore, 95.83% of the 280 transformers or nearly 268 transformers will fall within the
176 165 175 190 211 212 limit of 150-225 mA and 12 transformers are likely to be outside these limits. i.e the
Based on these readings is the sam Iin . percentage of defects is
transformers? p g scheme hkely to accept or reject the lot of 280
percent defects = ~ x 100% = 4.3% :> 3%
280
Solution
Thus, the probability of rejection of the lot of 280 transformers is 90%.
This problem falls under the catego h '.
deviation is given by ry were groupmg ISnot feasible. Hence the standard ii, The negative exponential probability density function (pdj)

a == j! (X-i)2
n-l
A given item is likely to fail in a given time shortly after installation as in a given time
many months latter. The item is always 'as good as new'. The cause of failure is external
~ to the item. In this case, the pdf of time to failure is given by the negative exponential
probability density function

x
- =-;;-=)2=
Lx 5920 185mA !(t) = A. exp( - A.t)

where .A.= average failure rate

t= time

a == j! n-l
xl {i03T8
(x -
=V~ == 18.25 hyper-exponential pdf

converting the Ii "

Imltmg excitations to the Z-scale:

____ -- negative expon..:ntialpdf

Z, = x, - X == 225 - 185
(J 18.25 == 2.19

Z; =~ _ ]20 - 185
- (J - 18.25 = - 1.92
Fig. 7.4 Negative exponential hyper-exponential probability
density function
 The probability of failure in time interval fr

F(t) = it f(t)dt = J - e -(AI)

om
0
to t
.
IS obtained from --
iii. The hyper-exponential pdf

Withmany types of equipment, the probability of failure is found to be much higher during
The reliability, or the probability of survival for time tis theperiod following installation than during the useful life. This pdf exhibits two phases:
_an initial rapid exponential fall, and
R(t) = J -F(t) _a later slower exponential fall.
Or,
R(t) = e -(J.I)
This is given by the hyper-exponential pdf

Example 7.11 iv. The Weibull Probability Distribution

A device has a failure rate of 05% f '1 This is a useful semi-empirical expression developed by W.Weibull for use in his studies
c. . . 0 ill ures per J000h. What is th l' bili .
lor an operatmg period of 500h? Ifth . ere ra I ity of the deVIce of the strengths of steel. Its usefulness to R and M lies in its providing the following
. ere are J000 Items . .
are expected in 500h? in operation, how many failures
advantages.

Solution
1. A single probability distribution can be made to represent any of the three types
ofp.d.j of times- to-failure.
2. Meaningful parameters of the failure pattern, such as the probable minimum time
= 5 jailureslJ06h = 5 x10-6jailureslh
to failure,
3. Simple graphical techniques for its practical application.
• \ I

For an operating time of 500h the probab'l'ty . a. Derivation of the Weibull Probability Distribution Function
• :I•.•.••• ~.,o.~>kJtlU~" ' 1I IS
/ ~ ~_l_,:,:",~~"'-_ ...\ .
'. -: <R(t), =; e -5,IIr"x500 = 0.9975 Consider n links which together form a chain.
For an individual chain link, the probability of fai lure F(x) under a load x must be of the
form shown in the figure. The failure probability increases as the load increases. For zero
The number of expected failures for 500h is load,the failure probability is 0, and with increasing load, the failure probability approaches
1.000. This is shown in Fig. 7.5 where for increasing x the value ofF(x) approaches unity.

.---
F(x)
where N is the total number of devices
H.r is the number of failed devices and
Ns is the number of devices that h~ve survived.
Ns = NXR(t) = 1000 x 0.9975 = 9975

Therefore, the number of expected failures is

Nf = 1000 - 9975 = 2.5 z 3

Load x
Fig.7.5 Probability offailure of a chain link under load x
 104 Maintenance of Machinery

This condition is given by the equation Basic ProbabiliJy Concepts 105

F(x) = 1 - e -tp'[x] Thus Weibull failure probability distribution is

where ¢ (x) , which is some function of the load, determines the precise shape.

The probability of survival of a given link under a load x is, therefore,

and the reliability, or survival probability is

Rj(x)= 1- F(x) = exp(-¢(x»)

The probability of survival of a chain of n links is

Rn(x) = [exp( -¢(x))f = exp( -n¢(x)) In applying the Weibull probability function to maintenance situation, the stressing agent
is not load but running time t, since new or since last overhaul. Therefore, the failure and
and the probability of failure for the chain of n links is survival probability distributions are, respectively,

F'" (x) = "1- exp( - n¢( x))

The failure probability increases with the number of links n. F(t) = I - exp[ -( ~r]
The function ¢(x) should be such that
- F(x) should never decrease as x increases ,
and
R(t) = e{( t ~ t.r]
- F(x) should be zero at some threshold load x and
0'
where:
- ¢(x) should be dimension less.
to is the threshold time-to-failure or guaranteed life. In many cases of wear-out,

Weibull suggested the form the first failures do not appear until some significant running time to has
elapsed. F(t) arises after to .

1] is the charaetertstic life. Forexample, when t - to = 'I , pet) = exp(-1) = 037 .

In this case 1] is the interval between to and the time at which it can be expected
where threshold load
=
that 63% of the items will have failed and 37% survived.
IJXO= ch aracteristic
" I oad
fJ = shape factor.
fJ is shape factor, which is a measure of the consistency of failure occurrence.
The larger the value of fJ the greater is the tendency for all items to fail at the
same time t = to + 'I .
 106 Maintenance of Machinery

For Weibull probability distribution, the pelf is

-
Failure
f(t) = - dR(t) fJ(t rate, ACt)
13>1
dt

and the failure rate is

A(t) = _f(t)
R(I)

For components that do not have shelf life, i.e. for components that no deterioration is
Time in service, t
considered before they go into service, the threshold time to is zero and the Weibull
failure probability distribution is given by Fig.7.6 1,
'T'herelationship between fJ and service time tfor 10 = Oand '7 =1

b. Estimation of a Weibull Process

The failure rate for a Weibull process is given by

,
and the reliability probability is give by P - }
fJ( t - t ) P -1 fJ t - to
A(t) = 0 = _
( )
"p '7"
Given the development of the failure and accumulated test times-to- failure, the Weibull
parameters can be estimated graphically.
For,! =.1 and to = 0, the failure depends onfJ and is given by
b.1 Consider the failure of n independent systems which are working .from~me zero. toto
A(t) = fJ t P -t
t; i.e. the threshold time-to-fai·1ure IS
. to. The mean number of failures 10 the n Items
IS
The relationShip between the failure rate and fJ is shown in the figure below. E(r) = n 11 A(t) dt
I"

=nLfl(f -tjP-Jdt
"p t"

from which the average number of failures is obtained to be

I -t)P
E(r) =n ( ~
108 Maintenance of Machinery Basic Probability Concepts 109

Using logarithmic transformations yeilds The average cumulative failure rate over the interval of time [to' t J is defined as

E(r) 1 ( t - to) P - 1
}.(t) (t _ t) ,or
IOg( E~)) =fJlog(t - tj -fJlogl]
= = ~ ~

or,

log(t - tj = log n + {log( E(r))

fJ ,n
Logarithmic transformation of this equation yields the straight line equation given
Assuming independent observed failures and to = 0, a relationship for every observed below.
failure numberj, i.e. E(r) and the failure time t} can be obtained. This relationship is given
by either of the following equations. log [ A(t)] = (j3 - 1) log(t - to) - fJ Zogl]

logt
J
= tozn + {IOg(
fJ
i...),
n
or The paired data ((t) - t j , A(t) ) should tend to a straight line on a log-log paper, and
the slope of the straight line is fJ - 1. fJ can be obtained from

IOg(~) = -fJ log I] + fJ logt}

This equation is a basic relationship for the graphical estimation of the Weibull process
which can be solved for fJ. The paired data (t}' j) plotted on a log-log graph paper will
tend to be straight line from which fJ and I] can be estimated. In general, the Weibull parameters are obtained as estimates from the plots on a Weibull
probability graph paper on which various paired data like ((t) - t j , A( t)) or (0, j) are
plotted. The Weibull probability graph with its controlling point known as the estimation
point is shown in Fig. 7.7 below.
fJ
logt )
+ I
t »]
- log! ) I

b.2 A second method for estimating the Weibull parameters is to consider the average
cumulative failure rate over the interval [to' tJ .

Consider the mean number of failures for n = 1.

r-t)fJ
E(r) = ( =:'
110 Maintenance of Machinery .Basic Probability Concepts 111

Example
(j) ESTIMATION POINT
The accumulated development and times-to- failure data for a complex repairable electronic
unit is given in the table below. Determine the fit parameters to describe the Weibull

process.

Failure Accumulated development

number, and times-to-failure,
j Ij [h]

1 8.5
70
2 56.4
50
3 86.8

30

20

10
m
- 4

7
195.3

242.6

267.2

451.9

5 8 458.5

3 9 757.0
2
10 797.0

11 968.0
2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
10' ., 12 1201.0
10'
TIME TO FAILURE
13 1618.0

14 1806.0

15 2400.0

Solution

This is a case where a single item is observed to fail. For the data given, n = 1. The paired
data in column 1 and column 2,(t} ,j) are plotted on a log-log paper. These points are made
to fit a straight line with to = o.
 112 Maintenance of Machinery

The
. value of 1'/ is the value of t.} when j = n. Therefore," ., is obtained from the plot for
L = 1 which yields 1'/ = 9. 7 h .
n

P is the slope of the straight line plotted on the log-log paper and can be evaluated by The average number of failureSler unit, jln, n = 1
considering two points and using the equation
p
p
...•. 1 .q. q,
..•.
ji+1)
Iog ( - - Iog - (ji) 1\
P
n n
\ ,
logt, 1 - logt.
} + i+l Ji

...•.
From the graph, for L
equation yields n
= 1, t} = 9. 7 h and for L
n
= 10, t} = 900 h. Therefor the above
"
.::S
P
log(J 0) - log(J)
= 0.5083. ..•. -co
II
log900 - log 9. 7 ~ :.....
1\
Therefore the failure rate function is
\

0.5083 ( t) ..•.
,
0.5083-1
J..(t) = - ,or
9.7 9.7 q,
A.(t) = 0.1605 (t) -0.4917 l.
~
The reliability of the unit is
co
R(t)
t)
exp {- ( 9. 7
0.5083}
0 ..
o
o
=
1\
Or, ~
, "
R(t) = exp{-0.3151 (t)05083}
...•.
0
 114 Maintenanfe of Machinery
Basic Probability Concepts 115
Example 7.13
The paired data k, A] are plotted on a log-log paper and a straight line is fitted to yield
Using the second method rework the above exam I t = O. The fJ value is obtained by picking two poi nts on the straight line and substituting
p e. o
in the equation
Solution

The average cumulative failure rates are calculated from

T_i
j - ;;
here r
.wnerej b
= num er of accumulated failures up to timet. -
J From the graph for tj = 100 h, Aj = 0.033 failures/h; tj = 10000 h,
and the values are entered in column 3 as shown in the following table. i )
= 0.0034 failures/h.

Hence, fJ is
Failure Accumulated Cumulative failure rate
number, development and log (0.0034) - log( 0.033) + 1 = 0.5065.
fJ
j log(J 00000) - log(J 00)
times- to-failure, Aj = 1. [failure /103h]
Ij [h] Ij

8.5 117.65 " is obtained from the relation

2 56.4 35.46 n = ((t j - to)P - I] ~
3 86.8 A (t)
34.56
4 195.3 20.48
5 For the problem at hand, t) = 10000 h , A.) = 0.0034 failures/h. Therefore,
242.6 20.61
6
7
267.2

45l.9
22.46
= 10000'
05065- 1)_1
0.5065 = 9.47h
15.49 IJ ( 0.0034
8 458.5 17.45
9 757.0 1l.89 From these values of fJ and IJ, the failure rate and reliability functions are, respectively,
10 797.0 12.55
11 0.5065-1 .
968.0 11.36 A(t) =. O 5065. _ t = 0.1622(t)-<i4935,
12 9.47 ( 9.47 ) .
1201.0
9.99
13 1618.0 5065
14
8.03 t ) 0.
R(t) =exp {- ( 9.47 1=exp[-0.3202(t)05065].
1806.0 7.75
15 2400.0 6.25
 Basic Probability Concepts 117
116 Maintenance of Machinery

The following examples demonstrate the use of the Weibull probability graph paper.

3
A{T), frl10 hr
..•o ..•o Example 7.14

N One hundred identical pumps have been run continuously and their times-to-failure were

0
'"' r
)" n
:1 r
~n·· II
noted. The times-to-failure in h, the number of pumps that failed
percent failed for to 0= 900 his given in the pump failure data below.
and the cumulative
Determine the
~ I II Weibull fit parameters, fJ and n.
e: 0
(:) P
0
e.
(")
0 (..)
~(,.)
Cumulative %failed t - to
~
_.""
~ I'~ Times-to-failure Number of Pumps

a ~
'"t II '"t
I IJ 1000 - 1100 2 2 200

~
('\)
II ,. I
J/
1100 -1200 6 8 300
....,
0
16 24 400
c+
I:T'
('\) :::1 ..•o 1200 -1300
1300 -1400 14 38 500
S
-;:
"0

~
G
II II . 26 64 600
0 1400-1500
8 II II
('\)

(ti
'"'
CD
-
t:
F
~...,
•
~
1500 -1600 22
7
86
93
700
800
1600 -1700
....,
0
0- j 99 900
S\) "" II 1700 - 1800 6
II .J 100 1000
It 1800 -1900 1
~
0'"
E: J
1I!ij

Solution
"0

0
..•
I
o
a
CD
w
:1 This is a case of a large and complete sample of times- to-failure.

rr The values in column 3 are plotted against the values in column 4 on a Weibull probability
graph paper. A straight line is fitted as shown iri Fig. 7. .

The characteristic life Yffor which 63% have failed is indicated as the Yf-estimator
from which Yfcan be determined.
From the estimation point on the Weibull graph paper a perpendicular is dropped
to the straight line fit which intersects the fJ-scale on the top of the graph to give

the fJ value.

The Weibull fit data is

Yf 0= 600 h and fJ 0= 3.70.
 118 Maintenance of Machinery
Basic Probability Concepts 119

Example 7.15

The failure dataof 10 items tested to failure is given in the table below. Determine the
Weibull fit da9'.8 and 1].

Item number Cycles to failure

1 9100
99.9
2 8000
99
3 6300
90
4 11100
--=-
ll:'
UJ
a:
6{.g 5 3300
:::I
...J 50 6 7200*
<C
u,
I-
Z
30 7 4500
UJ
o
a: 8 5000**
UJ
a.. 20
UJ
> 9 8400
i=
-c
...J
10
:::I 10 5200
~
:::I
o 5 :Item 6 (indicated by *) running after the test is over.
:Item 8 (indicated by **)test was not completed
3

2
Solution

1
2 3 4' 5 'I 2 3 4 5 This is a case of a small and incomplete sample.
10X -, i
10X tiME TO FAILURE

The failure poims are ranked in ascending order and classified as failed (j) or suspended (s).

For the failed items a new increment is calculated using the formula

New increment n + 1 - (order of previous failed item)

n + 1 - (number of previous items)
where

Order number = Newincrement + Previous order number

Columns 4 andjf are then filled.

 120 Maintenance of Machinery

Basic Probability Concepts 121

Having completed column 5, the median ranks as given by the following are calculated and
filled in column 6. For third item,

n + 1 - (order of prevIous failed item) 10 +1 - 2

Median rank order
= -- number - 0.3
_
New increment = 1.125
n + 1 - (number of previous items) 10 +1 - 3
n + 0.4
The previous table is filled in like manner.
The median ranks expressed as percentages are plotted against cycles-to-failure (times-to-
failure) on a Weibull graph paper to give the required parameters for the fit.
The Weibull fit data is
11 = 8200 h and f3 = 3.45.
Item Cycles to Class New Order Median
number failure increment number rank(%)
5 3300 f 6.7
8 4500 f 2 16.3
7 5000 s 0.5

10 5200 f .125 99.9 .

j 3.125 27.2
99 :
3 6300 f 1.125 4.250 38.0
6 7200 s
2 8000 =
i:C
f J .350 5.600 5l.0 70
w
c:
~ M'~
9 8400 f 1.350 i
6.950 63.9 -' 50
l
<,
u
9100 f J .350 8.300 J-
77.0 Z
W
U
4 11100 f J .350 c:
9.650 89.8 w
0-
20
W
>
i=
':=5 '10
For first failed item, ~
::E
~
'U 5

Order number = Newincrement + Previous order number = 1 + 0 = 1

3

2
For second failed item,

2 :; 2 3 4 5
New increment = n + 1 - (order of previous failed item) 10 +1 - 1 = 1 ~ 1
.10' 10'"
n + 1 - (number of previous items) 10 +1 - 1 TIME TO FAILURE

Order number = Newincrement + Previous order number = 1 + 1 = 2

 ReliabilityandMaintainability 123

8.1 Reasons for interest in the concepts of Reliability and Maintainability (R and M)
Chapter 8
Reliability and Maintainability The major reasons for the interest in R and M are the following:

In discussing the concepts of reliability and mainta inability, two terms must be understood 8.1.1 Complexity:The more complex a machinery is the more intrinsic the failures are.
precisely. These are: These failures may not result from a clearly definable failure of a component part.
') Failures are likely to result from
Failu/ defined as "non conformance to some defined performance criterion fl. - a combination of drift conditions or
- unforeseen characteristics of components.
Quality: defined as "conformance to specification".
Hence failures are more difficult to diagnose and are less likely to be foreseen by the
Based on the definition of failure and quality, we are now in a position to define the two designer. Therefore, reliability and maintainability concepts should be incorporated to
most importantlterms in maintenance. lessen failure occurrences and enhance system performance.

R~liabil~'}iS defined as the probability that an item wm perform a required function 8.1.2 Mass Production: This requires very high degree of control over material
~ under stated conditions for a stated period of time. procurement, manufacture and assembly, engineering changes etc. Along with the
labour involved, these items require sophisticated systems of control and good
It can also be defined as the probability of nonfailure in a given peri~d; and quality assurance techniques to prevent manufacturing- related failures.
~ is an extension of quality in to the time domain.
8.1.3 Cost and Tolerances: A product is designed to meet a production cost objective
Mai~t:;"abi/i~: is)defined the probability that a failed item will be restored to which imposes sever restrictions. These restrictions, in turn, lead to the
, /

-: operational effectiveness within a given period of time when the repair calculation of tolerance margins which must satisfy the requirement. Thus the
actions is performed in accordance with prescribed procedures. probability oftolerance related failure in the field is increased.

It is also defined as the probability of repair in a given time 8.1.4 Maintenance: Field diagnosis and repair costs are much greater than those
incurred in the factory. As a result, reductions in failure rate and repair time
Why do we need to talk of reliability and maintamability? The following are among the justify a reasonable investment, hence the interest in reliability and
reasons. ' maintainab~lity.

a) Reliability - determines frequency of repair; These major reasons, put together make reliability and maintainability factors which have
- fixes spares requirements; to be considered properly during the design, manufacture and operation time.
- determines loss of revenue.
8.2 Activities involved to achieve good Rand M
b) Maintainability - affects training, test equipment
downtime, manpower The achievement of good reliability and maintainability of a system results from
activities in three main areas:
124 Maintenance of Machinery Reliability and Maintainability 125
8.2.1 Design
In the design stage very many parameters have to be assembled together to
introduce reliability and maintainability features to the system at this stage.
During the design stage the following have to be considered adequately in order - Duplication
to introduce good design reliability and maintainability. DESIGN - Derating
DESIGN - Component Selection
RELIABILTY
Reduction in complexity - Design Qualifiction
Use of standard proven methods
Duplication of modules to increase fault tolerance
Derating practice of using components of higher stress rating than
- Quality Assurance
minimum requirement
- Production Testing
MANUFACTURE
Prototype Testing - Training
Subsequent feed back of information in to the design - Process Instruction

8.2.2 Manufacture
- Failure Feedback
The following considerations have direct effect on failure rate and should be well
ACHIEVED - Replacement Strategy
OPERATION/
accounted for during manufacture. RELIABILTY - Preventive Maintenance
FIELD SERVICE
Control of materials, methods, etc. - User Instruction
Control of work standards
Assembling procedures Fig. 8.1 Activities involved to achieve good reliability and maintainability
Installation and commissioning procedures

8.3 Inter dependence of Reliability and Maintainability

8.2.3 Field service Operation
During operation the following guidelines should be observed carefully.
Reliability and Maintainability are interdependent for three basic reasons.
Following adequate operating and maintenance instructions,
Use of preventive maintenance
1. The design and assurance activities required to achieve R and M, in many cases are the
Feed back of accurate failure information to design and manufacture.
same.
The achievement of reliability and maintainability requirements involves a wide spectrum
2. Maintainability is a parameter that greatly contributes to the reliability of a system.
of engineering and management activities. It should be noted that R and M cannot be added
For example, a system whose reliability is partly dependent on a degree of duplication,
after the design and manufacture stages by inspection and testing. Good reliability and
(i.e redundancy) is more reliable if the repair time (ie maintainability) of the failed
maintainability features should be incorporated in the design and manufacturing stages. No
redundant unit is improved.
amount of calculations, inspection, prediction, etc. would ever enhance reliability and
3. Both R and M contribute to the overall availability of the system. Availability is
maintain ability above the design reliability and maintainability.
achieved by a combination ofthe two parameters and a trade off between them.

The activities undertaken to introduce good reliability and maintainability during design,
The costs ofR and M the relation between these costs along with the cost of maintenance,
manufacturing and operation periods are inter dependent as shown in Fig. 8.1 below.
form a complex interaction about which it is difficult to generalize. Money spent on
maintainability reduces repair time which in turn enhances reliability. Improved reliability
As can be observed, the design reliability is never achieved in practice, because activities
reduces maintenance costs whereas money spent on preventive maintenance may enhance
of manufacture, operation and serviceability are always less than the theoretical design reliability.
level.
 Reliabilityand Maintainability 127
This interdependence between reliability ' maintainah] ty and
11·
n mai t . h . th
main enance IS S own ill e
diagram below. Operational conditions vary from one piece of equipment to another, so it is important
that these conditions be fully specified.

The definition of reliability involves a time constraint which is not unusual. No

RELIABILITY, __ -t-_---;...:..:W..:.;ith~__ _l_--=-MAINTAINABILITY
redundancy product lasts forever; therefore, its reliability under fully specified conditions of use
should be defined in terms of time.

Careful considerations of reliability and maintainability factors at the design stage help in
predicting the expected life of a plant, the availability of a plant, and the expected
maintenance work load.

Faster 8.5 Failure and Failure Mode:

preventive
Preventive Manpower and
maintenance Test equipme To discuss and fully explain the meaning of Reliability /Quality, it is essential to define fully
corrective
reducesnumber etc. reduces the word failure. A comprehensive definition of failure is "non-conformance to some
of failures
MAINTENANCE
MTTR
COSTS
maintenance
reducescosts , defined performance criterion". What may constitute non-conformance in one case may
not be considered as failure in another situation. Hence, the need for careful consideration
of failure.
Fig. 8.2 Interrelationship of system effectiveness and costs
In contractual agreements words like defect, malfunction, fault, failure, reject should be
well defined. The definitions of these terms include and exclude failures by type, cause,
8.4 Reliability degree or use. Given a specific definition of failure, there is no ambiguity in the definitions
of quality and reliability.
With increasing complexity of industrial equipment, the consequences of failure have
become more expensive. While the repair or replacement of faulty equipment may involve The classification of failures are indicated in the table below.
unexpected costs, its unavailability when needed may have even more serious
consequences, not to talk of the potentially catastrophic behaviour of failure. This has led By Cause - Production-related failures
to the concept of reliability.
- Stress related failures
- Misuse failure
Reliability is defined as the probability that a device will perform its intended function for - Interest weakness failure
a specified period of time under stated conditions. The terms used in this definition need - Wear out failure
some attention.
- Maintenance-induced failure
By Suddenness - Immediate failure
The term "intended function" used to describe equipment performance, makes it
- Gradual degradation failure
possible to identify what constitutes non-performance (failure) of the equipment.
By Degree - Catastrophic failure
"Per!~rmance under stated conditions" refers to operational and environmental - Intermittent failure intermediate
conditions or stresses that the equipment may experience during its useful lifetime. - Partial failure
128 Maintenance of Machinery Reliability and Maintainability 129

By Result - Critical failure has to be set logically.

- Major failure
- Minor failure Leak starts
By Definition - Applicable to the specification
- Not applicable .g "Failed"
~ ----SAFETY
If the reliability of a system is to be determined, it is necessary that we determine the failure 8\
rate of the item. And the definition offailure mode totally determines the systemreliability
I
and dictates the data required at the component level.

8.6 Functional failure:

Any equipment must fulfil all the functions as set by the user and must also satisfy the
performance standards. The function can be split into two categories: primary and
l_- Fig. 8.3 Equipment performance standard determination
secondary functions.

The following are important points to be considered in setting performance standards.

8.6.1 Primary functions: This category includes the functions such as speed, output,
product quality, etc. which are the functions why the equipment was procured. The
1. Performance standards must be clearly established before the failure occurs.
primary functions are the main reason for the existence of the equipment.
2. Performance standards used to define failure must be set by operations (production)

8.6.2 Secondary functions: This category includes such functions like safety , control , and maintenance people working together.
3. The performance standard defines the proactive maintenance required to avoid
operational efficiency, compliance to environmental regulations, etc. These are the
functions which the equipment is expected to fulfil in addition to the primary failure.
functions.
8.7 Failure Mode:
The occurrence which is likely to stop the equipment from performing to standard all the
A failure mode is defined as any event which is likely to cause a functional failure of an
functions expected is some kind of failure. The failed state of an equipment is known as
equipment. The failure mode shows the connection between the failed state and the events
functional failure, and this occurs when the equipment is unable to fulfil a function to a
standard of operation which is set by the user. which cause them. Failure modes are classified into three groups.

8.7.1 Falling capacity: when the capability of the equipment falls below the desired
The performance standard used to define a functional failure is set by the user. And to
performance, we have falling capacity of the equipment. The main causes for
determine this performance standard there should be a common understanding among
various people, not only maintenance people working on their own. Who should set the reduced capability are:
standard is a question for many to participate. For example, consider a leak problem in a - deterioration due to wear and tear,
hydraulic system. The safety officer has his own definition of failure, so also the - lubricant failure,
maintenance man and the production manager. This is shown diagrammatically below. - dirt,
When do we say the system has failed? Is it when due to leakage there is a pool of oil - disassembly (falling apart),
formed around the machine? Or, is it when the consumption of oil increases, or the - human error.
equipment stops functioning properly? To answer this question a standard of performance
130 Maintenance of Machinery

Desired Per ormance

~
~~ ~I~nl~u~'a~l~c~ap~a~b~i=li2ry _

~
Reduced Capability ~

Time
Initial Incapability
Fig. 8.4 Falling capacity Fig. 8.6 Low initial capability

8.7.2 Increase in desired performance: when desired performance rises above initial 8.8 Failure Effects:
capability of the equipment, there is failure of the equipment. The reasons! for
increase in desired performance are: Failure effects describe what happens when a failure mode occurs. In describing failure
- sustained, deliberate overloading, effects the following must be noted.
- sustained, unintentional overloading,
- sudden, unintentional overloading, 8.8.1 Evidence of failure:
- incorrect process materials which are out of specifications. Is the failure evident to operating crew?
Is the failure accompanied by obvious physical effects?
Does the equipment/machine stop functioning as a result of the failure?
Increased Desired Performance

8.8.2 Safety and environment hazards:

Is it possible that some one could get hurt?
Are environmental regulations and standards breached?

8.8.3 Production effects:

Is process stoppage caused?
How is production affected?
Time
How long is the downtime associated with the failure?

Fig. 8.5 Increased desired performance

8.8.4 Secondary effects:
How is product quality affected?
8.7.3 Initial incapability: when the equipment is not capable of doing what it is expected Is customer service and satisfaction affected?
to do from the outset we have initial incapability and the equipment is unfit for What is the increase in the operating cost?
operation. What secondary damages are caused?
 Reliability and Maintainability ljj
132 Maintenance of Machinery

8.8.5 Corrective action:

What must be done to repair the failure? useful life wearout
burn-in
What resources are required for the repair? failure overall failure curve
rate (bathtub curve)
\
To make a comprehensive failure mode and effects analysis one needs to have information \ /
\
about the modes and effects which are obtained from various sources including: \ / wearout failure
\ I~
\ L
the manufacturer/supplier of the equipment, \ /
\
-, L ,nmdom failure
other users of the equipment, --..::.
-,
the people who operate on and maintain the equipment.

8.9 The Whole-life Equipment Failure Profile: (The Bathtub Curve) L-

<,

-..~
--I---------
- -----
~arly failure

t2 time ••
The whole-life of equipment (failure) may be divided into three major distinct periods: F·19.•8 7 The bathtub curve
a) infant mortality period, or early failure
b) useful life period 8.9.1 Reasons for burn-in failures
c) wear-out period _ inadequate quality control
_ inadequate manufacturing methods
During the infant mortality period the failure rate is high owing to the presence of weak and _ substandard materials & workmanship
substandard components. As these component dropout one by one, the failure rate keeps _ wrong startup & installation
decreasing until a relatively low more or less constant level is obtained at time t.. Time _ inadequate processes and human error
tl is the beginning ofthe useful life period. For the time interval between t, and t2, which _ inadequate handling methods
is known as the useful period, only random failures occur which are unpredictable and
cannot be prevented. The wear-out period, beginning with time t2, is characterized by a 8.9.2 Reasons for useful life failures
rapidly rising failure rate as more and more components breakdown. - unexplainable causes
_ human error, abuse, natural failures
The failure rate curve, commonly known as the bathtub curve, is the sum of three separate - undetectable failures
over-lapping failure rate distributions known as burn-in (early failure), random failure, and - low safety factors
wear-out failure. _ higher random stress than expected
The decreasing failure rate known as early failures, of infant mortality, or burn-in,
is usually related to manufacture and quality assurance. 8.9.3 Causes for wear-out failures
The constant failure rate known as useful life or random failure is stress related. - inadequate maintenance
The increasing failure rate known as wear-out is due to damages causing wear - wear due to friction
processes - wear due to aging
- wrong overhaul practices
the superposition of these failure results in a curve which is commonly known as the - corrosion failure
bathtub curve.
 Reliability and Maintainability 135
134 Maintenance of Machinery
As a result of inserting a new module into the system, adjustment
8.10 Down Time and Repair Time Alignment Time:
may be required. Some or all ofthe alignment time may fall outside
Failure is the cause for outage of machinery which prompts the need for repair the downtime.
This is the time consumed waiting for spares, test gear, additional
undertakings. Downtime and repair time, though they overlap greatly, they are not the LogistiC Time:
same. In order to be able to distinguish between these two times, the following definitions tools and manpower to be transported to the system.
Typical activities involve failure reporting, allocation of repair tasks,
must be understood. Administrative Time:
decision making, etc. which constitute administrative time.
Mean Down Time: (MDT) or outage is the period during which an equipment is in the
~) See attached figure for the various times and their superposition.
failed state.
Downtime may commence before repair

{Repair Time: Includes elements of checkout or alignment which may extend

beyond the outage, or downtime.

The different time intervals which form part of repair time and/or downtime are defined
here under. DOWN

Realization Time: This is the time which elapses before the fault condition becomes
apparent. This time element is pertinent to availability but does not Realisation Access Diagnosis Spares Replace Check

constitute part of the repair time. REPAIR

Access Time: This involves the time from realization that a fault exists to making
contact with displays and test points and commence fault finding.
Diagnostic Time: This is referred to as fault finding period and includes adjustment of
Activities which may
test equipment, carrying out checks, interpretation of information Logistic time occur several times and
in no specific sequence
gained, verifying the conclusions drawn, and deciding upon the
Administrative time
corrective action.
Spare Procurement Time: Spares procurement time the time that elapses in the process
Fig. 8.8 Elements of downtime and repair time
of getting the necessary spare parts for the repair action.
Procurement of spares can be from the inventory, by
cannibalization or by taking a redundant identical assembly 8.11 Failure Rate and Mean Time Between Failures
from some other part of the system.
Replacement Time: This involves the removal ofthe faulty Least Replaceable Assembly 8.11.1 Failure Rate I.:
(LRA) followed by connection and wiring, as appropriate, of a
replacement. LRA is the replaceable item beyond which fault Assume a batch of N items out of which a number k have failed at time t. The total
diagnosis does not continue. cumulative time T can be evaluated in one of the following ways.
Checkout Time: This involves verifying that the fault condition no longer exists and
that the system is operational. It may be possible to restore the (i) If it is assumed that each failure is replaced as it occurs, the cumulative time is
system to operation before completing the checkout in which case,
although it is a repair activity, does not all constitute downtime.
 136 Main.tenance of Machinery . . t-- I
Reliability and Maintainability 137
(ii) If Items are not replaced as they fad, for non-replacement condition the cumuljtive
time is given by , , MTBF is the average of the values of (t)
i

T = tl + t2 + ... + t k + (N - k)t

where ti = Occurrence of the th failure.

Up time

Downtime
~JLjl
;

Deti .. i
~~ II Fig.8.9 Mean time betweenfailures
F or a stated period in the life of an item, the ratio of the total number of failures t~ the
total cumulative observed time is defined as the observed failure rate. / 8.11.3 Observed Mean Time to Fail (MTTF)
I
I
observed failure rate total number of failures I

k total cumulative obsrved time i Definition . .

!
A

A=- For a stated period in the life of an item, the ratio of cumulative time to the total number
T offailures is defined as MTTF.
A

where A, is the failure rate ofthe N items observed.

T
MTTF=-
k
Noting that the failure rate of an item can be determined from observations mad~ for
infinite time which is practically impossible, the observed failure rate gives the estimate for The difference between MTBF and MTTF is in their usage~
the actual failure rate. I
- MTTF is applied to items that are not repairable (e.g. Bearings)
A, (the average over the period in consideration) = A.. I - MTBF is applied to items that are repairable.
i
i - MTBF excludes downtime. Therefore it is the mean up-time between failures.
A.is expressed in
percentage failures per 1000 h
failures /h ~8.H.4~
failures /106 h
~ion
Mean life is defmed as the mean of the times to failure where each item is allowed to
8.11.2 Observed Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) fail.

Definition
MTBF and MTTF can be calculated over any period of time. Mean life must include
For a stated period in the life of an item, the mean value of the length of time be een the failure of every item.
consecutive failures, computed as the ratio of the total cumulative observed time t the
total number offailures is defined as the MTBF.
Example 8.1
T
MTBF= o =-
A

k Determine the failure rate in % 11000h for the following test for no-replacement case
From equation (1) and (2), it can be seen that test duration: t = 1000h
A 1 number of units tested: n = 12
() = "
A, number of failed units: k =5

The failure history for the test is given in the table below.
 138 Maintenance of Machinery
Reliability and Maintainability 139

T = 400 + 620 + 780 + (10 -3)1000 = 8800h

unit No. time to failure
[h] Therefore, the failure rate is .
2 620
3 A k __ 3_ = 3.409xlO-4jailureslh
390 T 8800
4 780
8 860 or,
9 950 A = 340.9 failures/TO" h

Solution 8.12 Reliability Function

For the case with no replacement the total tiune T' is given
. by Consider the probability of an item failing in the interval between t and t+dt. Given the
failure rate A.(t) , the probability that the item may Jail in the interval t to t + dt , provided
T= tj+···tk + (n- k)t it has survived until time t, is given by the conditional probability P E IE .
1 I
.;- ,......,'"

PE IE = A(t) dt
T == 620 + 390 + 780 + 860 + 950 + 7 x 1000 == 10600 1 I

where E I is survival up to time t with survival probability which is given by the reliability
A = Failure rate = Number of failures PE = R(t), •
Total time- I

5
A = 10600 = 0.0004716 failures/ hr and, E2 is item failing between time t and t+dt.

6 The probability offailure in the interval t to t+dt unconditionally is f(t)dt where l(t) is
,1,==
0.0004716 X 10 == 47.l6%failures /103 h
6 the failure probability density function. This probability is obtained by the multiplication
== 471.6failures/10 h ()
theorem which states that
Example 8.2
f(t)dt = PE I1E
I 2
A 1000-h life test is performed 10
. on components. One component failed after 400 h
another faded after 620 h and still another one failed after 780 h. The..restsurvi d th t t. PE
J
I1E
2
is given by
Compute the failure rate for the case of no replacement. rve e es .

Solution
Therefore,
The total cumulative time is
f( t) dt = R ( t) .A.(t) dt

from which we obtain the failure rate to be

 I"IU

A(t) = f(t)
R(t)

To determine MTBF, consider the (N-k) items that survived at t. Let (N-k) be NJt)
The probability that the item may fail between the runni ti 0 dt. . b
" ng imes an IS grven y

F(t) = J;tf(t) dt = 1 - R(t) Then, R(t) = NJt)

N

Differentiating both sides in the above equation yields

In each interval dt, the time accumulated is Ns I t)· dt. At time t = =, the total time
f(t) = -dR(t) accumulated will be /" N (t)dt.
dt io s

Substituting for f(t) in the equation of A(t) we get Hence MTBF will be given by

A(t) = _1_. dR(t) . MTBF = ~ /: N (t)dt,

R (I) dt N in S

Integrating both sides yields from which one obtains the MTBF to be

-loIA(t)dt lotdRR(t)(t)
= MTBF = /"
io
N (t)dt
S

N
= f~
io
R(t)dt.

where A(t) is integrated with respect to time from 0 to t, and 1 For the case of constant failure rate A
is integrated with
respect to R(t). R(t)
MTBF = ;;~ R (t) dt = e -At
1
A
Wh~n t = 0, R~t) = 1 .i.e. the itej is 100% reliable; at time 1 , the reliability is R(t). Hence
the Interval of IntegratIOn for -- is between 1 and R(t) Example 8.3
R(t) .

Integrating the above equation yields What is the highest failure rate, expressed in faih ires/I 06 h, that a piece of equipment can
have if it is to operate with a probability of survival of 90% for 5000 h?

Solution
from which the reliability function is obtained to be
The reliability is given by

Assuming constant failure rate A.,

From tables taking the value of e" nearest to 0.'1 we have 0.90125 and this corresponds

R(t) = exp[ -l IAdt]

to At = 0.104

0.104
Or, R(t) =e-At A. = 5000 = 0.000021 failure / hr.
•
 = 21 failures z l Ot h.

Example 8.4 Example 8.5

The MTBF of a piece of equipment is 1000 h. W hat is the probability of survival of this A bearing unit operating in an equipment has a Wei oull times-to-failure distribution with
equipment for a) 200 h of operation? b) 500 h of operation? c) 1000 h of operation? the following parameters

Solution P = 2.00, '1 = 2000 h , to = O.

From the MTBF of the equipment we obtain the Iailure rate to be i) Determine the reliability of the bearing unit for operating time of a) 100 h, b) 250 h, c)
500 h, d)750 h, and e) 1000h.
1 1
A = -- = -- = O.OOlfailures/h ii) Plot the reliability versus operating time.
MTBF 1000

The reliability of the equipment is then obtained as: Solution

a) for 200 h of operation Given the threshold time to = 0, the reliability fun .tion is given by

R(t) = e -At =e -O.OO/x200 = 0.818

b) for 500 h of operation For the various operating times t, the reliability of the bearing unit is tabulated below.

R(t) =e -AI =e -(J(J(J/x5(J(J = 0.607

operating time t [h] R(t)

c) for 1000 h of operation 0 1.0000

100 0.9976
R(t) =e -At = e -o.aot nooo = 0.368
250 0.9846

500 0.9394

8.13 System Reliability with Weibull Failure Probability Distribution 750 0.8691

1000 0.7792
In the Weibull probability distribution of failure. the failure rate varies with time. The
failure rate and reliability function are given by, respectively, 1500 0.5702

2000 0.3682
A(t) = Pp (t - to)P -/

R(t) ":XP[ -( ~ ) 'I These values are plotted against operation time in t he graph shown below.

For values of P > 1, the failure rate increases with time resulting in decreasing reliability
with time. This id explained in the following exa nple. •
 Reliability and Maintainability 145

- clear markings for convenience and safety

- maximum use of interchangeability
- elimination of unnecessary adjustments
- clearly written maintenance instructions
- adequate use of test points for fault isolation
0.8 These allow rapid restoration of service by minimizing downtime.

&-_ 0.7 8.15 Maintainability Function

~
.s
.!!! The time-to-restore probability density function g(t) for the exponential times-to-restore
~ 0.6
distribution is
g(t) = p e -pI
0.5~
I
where p = equipment corrective repair, replacement or restoration rate.
0.4 ~
I
0.3 L_-'-----L- __~_'___~_'_
____'__._.
'. .L.~___" __ .~.L..I ~---'
Given the equipment repair rate u, the mean time to correctively repair, replace or restore
o 200 400 600 800 1000 1~00 1400 1600 1800 2000 the equipment to satisfactory operation is given by
operating time, t [h]

1
MTTR =-.
p
8.14 Maintainability
Hence, the time-to-restore probability density function is given by
Maintainability is a characteristic of design and installation which is expressed as the
probability that an item will conform to specified c( mditions within a given period of time, g(t) = _1_ e MTTR
MFTR
when maintenance action is performed in accorc ance with prescribed procedures and
resources. This case of exponential times-to-restore distribution applies to corrective maintenance
when the duration of repair, replacement or restoration times is exponentially distributed.
The objective of a maintainability program shoul j be to influence equipment design to
assure that maintenance of the equipment can be accomplished efficiently and safely. The maintainability function for the exponential time to restore distribution is

Maintainability requirements are usually contractual, and in such cases it is essential that ['g(t)dt
·0
the test method and the conditions under which it is to be carried out are carefully defined. [Ilpe -pldt
Achievement of specified Mean Time to Repair i~ rather expensive. ·0
- e -pI]

- I]
Since MTBF of an equipment defines the average time between failures, we can easily - e MTTR
estimate the probable number of failures in a give n time period.
where M(t,) is the probability that repair will be successfully completed in time t, when
Maintainability design features include: the time starts at time t=O, and
- access to replaceable assemblies p is the repair, replacement or restoration rare for which M «.) is to be determined .

•
If the time t I = MTTR, an equipment with an exponential times-to-restore pdjhas 63.2% 8.17 A-priori and a-posteriori maintainability determination
probability of being restored in the given time. i.e.
The a-priori maintainability function M(t J is predicted from
Mtt , = MTTR) = J - e -I = 0.632
M(tJ = P(t s tl) = ;;'g(t)dt

Maintainability probability of 90% is obtained for

where t, is the restoration period for which M(t) is to be predicted
tl = 2.3026xMTTR
To use the a-priori maintainability function M(t) , the times-to-restore distribution g(t)
-and 95% probability is obtained for should be known ahead of time.

tl = 2.9957xMTTR The a-posteriori maintainability is determined from actual data collected and is given by

The 50% probability of accomplishing any repair or restoration activity is obtained in time

t/ = O.693J5xMTTR number of maintenance actions which were successfully completed

in time tl or less;
t/ and is called the median time to restore NT = total number of maintenance actions undertaken out of which

8.16 Determination of Mean Time To Repair MTTR

GpleS6\ N(t s t)were completed successfully in time tl or less.

A piece of equipment is composed ofthree replaceahle subsystems. System failure rate and
For the exponential case, the mean time to repair is given by replacement time are given in the table. Estimate the equipment mean time to repair.
1 Estimate the probability that the equipment repair will be accomplished in 3/2 hrs.
MTTR= -
f.l

where is the repair rate. In many practical applications, determination ofMTTR is not
Jl Subsyste Failure MTTR(ll)
easy. m rate
MTTR is the mean of the distribution of equipment repair time and can be estimated from I 0.005 2

II 0.01
III 0.02 3/2

MTTR = AJ; + A2l; + A37; = _0_.0_0_5_x_2_+_0_._0

__1_x_l_+~0__.0-=2_x-=...:...1.5
where T, is the time needed to repair the equipment when the ilb part fails AI + A2 + A) 0.005 + 0.01 + 0.02
Ai is the constant failure rate of the jlh repairable part of the equipment
n is the number of repairable parts in the equipment. MTTR = 1.429h
 Reliability and Maintainability 149
148 Maintenance of Machinery

M(t) = 1- exp( - ~R) 8.19 Operational Availability:

= 1- exp ---
1.5)
( 1.429 This can be defined as the probability that an equipment, when used under stated conditions
in an actual environment, will operate satisfactorily at any time.
M(t) = 0.650

MTBM
A=------
o MTBM+MDT
8.18 Availability:

where MTBM Mean time between maintenance actions

Availability is the available up-time of an equipment. This is the probability that an
MDT Sum of the mean corrective and preventive maintenance
equipment, when used under stated conditions and ideal support environments, will operate
satisfactorily at any given time. This is referred to as the inherent availability or the steady time intervals, including supply downtime, and
state availability. administrative downtime, etc.

A = _P-
ss A +P

where Ass = steady state availability

11 = system constant repair rate
I
p=--
MITR
A = system constant failure rate

Similarly, system steady-state unavailability is defined as:

A
UA =--
ss A + f1

where UA\s = system steady-state unavailability.

Substituting for A and u, the steady state availability A,s is:

A = MTBF
ss MITR + MTBF

In the calculation of A", preventive maintenance down time, supply downtime, queuing
downtime, administrative downtime are excluded.

Thus, Au is more useful to designers in determining an early measurement of equipment

effectiveness.
 9.1 Block Diagram Analysis

Block diagrams are logic diagrams which show the functional relationship among the
Chapter 9
system elements. To be able to predict reliability of a system, the system is represented as
Reliability and Maintainability Prediction a number of functional blocks that are interconnected according to effect. The
interconnection of blocks can be one ofthe possible three types. However, there are cases
Reliability prediction is the process of calculating the anticipated system reliability from
when these interconnections may not represent a system.
assumed component failure rates. Reliability calculation is an imprecise calculation but
provides a quantitative measure of how close a design comes to meeting design objectives
9.1.1 Series-connected components
and ~e~~s ~omparisons to be made between different design proposals. Reliability For such a system to work all components must work. For a system of two blocks
prediction ISImportant for the following reasons:
failure of either block prevents operation of the system.

a) It provides an early indication of a system's potential to meet the design reliability

requirements. ~A H B \-

b) It enables an assessment of life cycle costs to be carried out. Fig. 9.2 Series connection
c) It enables establishment of areas which contribute major part system unreliability.
d) It enables the achievement of a given availability.
9.1.2 Parallel-connected components
e) It provides prior knowledge as to the magnitude of expected maintenance work load.
For such a system, system failure constitutes failure of all components. The system of
two blocks fails if both blocks fail.
For the purpose of analysis, a large and complex plant is regarded as a hierarchy of parts
ranked a~c.ording~otheir function and replaceability. The figure below shows how a plant
can be divided to ItSbasic components.

Performing the overall

PLANT function

Fig. 9.3 Parallel connection

-Performing major
plant functions
9.1.3 Composite connection
This is a combination of series and parallel connections. For the system shown, the
system fails if block A fails or if both blocks Band C fail. Failure ofB or C alone is
-Non-replaceable
ITEMS -Replaceable complex not sufficient to cause system failure.
-Replaceable simple

COMPONENTS
-Individual parts
-Simple replaceable
--1 A

Fig. 9.1 Hierarchy of parts of a plant

Fig. 9.4 Composite connection
 and the system reliability is given by
The approach to block diagram analysis requires establishment of failure criteria.
Moreover, in defining the blocks, the following rules should be kept in mind among others.

1. Each block should represent the maximwn number of components in order to

For identical-unit series system the reliability plot is indicated in the figure below.
simplify the diagram.

2. The function of each block should be easily identified. 1.00·

Rsy
3. Blocks should be mutually independent in that failure in one block should not affect
n increasing
the probability of failure in other blocks.

4. There should be only one environment within a block.

0.0 L-. --====•••••.-
1.00 (1.0
Runit
9.2 Reliability of Series Systems
Fig.9.5 Series system reliability for increasing n

For a series-connected system, the entire system fai Is if anyone of the subsystems fails.
For series connected units and constant failure rates, the system MTBF is given by
The survival probability of a system consisting of n components in series is given by
1
n

Rsy(t) = Rlt) ·RitJ·RitJ = Il R/tJ

i=1

Example 9.1
where Rsy(t)= survival probability of system, and
Rlt) = survival probability of a component.
An electronic system consists of a power supply, a receiver and an amplifier with failure
rates of 25 failures/IO" h, 30 failures/In" h and 15 failures/IO" h respectively. The
The reliability of a component is given by
equipment is to operate for 1000h. What is the pro bability of survival of this equipment?

Solution

Hence, for the series system of n components, the system reliability is given by
A power supply = 25 failures/l (f h

Rsy(t) = exp[ - Eil Alt) dt]

1=1 0
--. R
-- power=e
-25x1O'<;xlOOO = e-O.025 = 0.97531
_

6
A""Cei",r = 30 failure 110 h

~ R receiver
. exp[- 30 10-6 1000] 0.97045
Or, Rjt) = exp[ -io E A/tJ -
l

1=1
Aamplifier
=

= 15 failures
x

I 10 h
X

6
=

For constant failure rate case, i.e. for the useful life of components where the failure rate => R . = e-15xIOO<;XIOOO == 0.98511
amplifier
remains more or less constant,

-,l t -i, I
= e I
"', RitJ = e 1/
Requipment = Rpower . RReceiver . Ramplifier
 = 0.97531 x 0.97045 x 0.98511 R.
equipment
= e-J..I = e-O.00067x500 = 07153
.

Requipment= 0.93240
9.3 Reliability of Parall~1<;onnected Systems:
Or,

Requipmenl = exp[-(25X 106+ 15x 10-6) x 1000= 0.93239J Parallel-connected can be in parallel active redundancy where all systems are activated, in
standby, or partial active redundancy where system is allowed to function until a
Example 9.2 predetermined number of components are left for successful operation.

Calculate the probability of survival of a piece of equipment that is to operate for 500h and 9.3.1 All systems activated
which consists of four subsystems connected in series having the following MI'BF's.
In this type of parallel connection all components art: functioning simultaneously. Consider
Subsystem A: MI'BF 5000 h = the system shown in Fig. 8.15.
Subsystem B: BTBF = 3000 h
Subsystem C: MI'BF = 15,000 h
Subsystem C: MI'BF = 50,000 h }-
Failure rate for a component is given by
1 Fig.9.6 Parallel connection of two components
--1=--
MI'BF
There are three possible ways in which the system is able to operate:
Hence failure rates of the subsystems are - subsystem A and B are working;
1 - subsystem A is working, B has failed; or
AA = 5000 failure / h
- subsystem A has failed, B is working
1
AB = 3000 failure / h The system fails if only both subsystems fail.

J
--Ie = 15,000 failure / h Assuming the failure probabilities of components A and B to be FA (t) and FB (t) ,
respectively, the probability that the system fails is given by
1
A. D = 50,000 failure / h

1
A = A. A + AB + Ac + AD = --1500 = 000067
.
failure/ h
Therefore, the survival probability of the system is
System reliability is given by

R(t) = J- F(t)

If the survival probabilities of the components are RA(t) and RB(t) ,

Therefore, reliability of the system for 500 h of operation is

FA(t) = 1- RA(t) and
Therefore,
 R(t) = 1- (1- RAt))(I- RB(t))

R(t)= RA(t) + RB(t)- RA(t).RB(t)

For n redundant components in parallel, the survival probability of the system is given by

Rry(l) = 1-(1- R/I))(J - R,(t))'''(J - R.(t))

Since A and B also C and D are in series, their respective probabilities are given by
If R1(t) = ~(t) =. ··l\(t), the system reliability is given by
RAB = RA· RB

R,,{I) = 1- Q{t)' RCD = Rc·RD

with this the system reliability is found to be

where Q{t) = 1- R(t) is the unreliability of each com ponent in the parallel system.

The reliability plot of identical-unit parallel system in which all units are activated is RSYS = 1- (1- RAB)·(l- ReD)

indicated in the figure below. = l-(l-RA·RB).(l-Rc·RD)

= 1- (1- 0.9 x 0,9)· (1- 0.9 x 0.91

s.; = 0.9639
Rsy n increasing

9.3.2 Partial Active Redundancy

,

o.o~
1.00
__ l
0.0
In many cases of active redundancy, the number (ofunits permitted to fail before system
failure occurs is less than full redundancy. For example, in a system of three units, full
Runil redundancy requires only one unit to function, whereas partial redundancy would exist if
Fig.9.7 Parallel system reliability for increasing n two units were required with only one allowed to fail.

For a parallel connected system where all components are activated, the MTBF is given by For three identical units, each with reliability R, and failure probability F = l-R, the
binomial expansion of(R + F)3 yields the various probabilities offailure.

R3 gives the probability of zero failure

3R2. (1- R) gives the probability of 2 failures

3R(1- R)2 gives the probability

Example 9.3
(1- R)3 gives the probability of 3 failures

Assuming that RA = RB = ~: = Ro = 0.9 , determine the overall system reliability for the
arrangement shown in the figure. Partial active redundancy is also known as r-out-of-m unit network. At least r units out
of m active units must function successfully for the system success. The system reliability
is given by
 - --~-~----- J

where
Rsy t (7) (e -ll)i(J - e -J.t)m =i 9.3.3 Parallel Redundant System in Standby

(7) = i!(mm~i)!
In the standby configuration one or more subsystems are standing by to take over operation
upon failure of the basic unit. The standby units are not operative until a failure-sensing
The MTBF of partially active redundant systems is given by device senses the failure of the basic unit and turns on and connects the standby unit.
Should failure take place in subsystem A, B is switched in its place, and should B fail C is

MTBF = foi?(t)dt = 1[t (~)(e-lC r (1- e).1)"'-;] dt

switched on.

MTBF=~fl
/L i=r C .& "'--l.--

Example 9.4

An aircraft has four independent, active and identical engines. At least two ofthe engines Fig.9.8 Redundant system in standby
must operate successfully for the aircraft to fly successfully. The constant failure rate of
each engine is 0.009 failures/h. Compute the reliability of the aircraft for a seven-hour
In parallel systems in standby, the following assumptions are initially made.
flying mission.

i) The means of sensing that failure has occurred and for switching from the defective to
Solution
the standby is assumed to be failure free.
ii) The standby subsystems are assumed to have identical, constant failure rates to the main
This a case of 2 out 4 event.
subsystem.
iii) The standby subsystems are assumed not to fail while in the idle state.
The failure rate is given as A = 0.009 failures / h. The system reliability can be obtained
iv) Defective subsystems are assumed to remain so. No repair is effected until the system
from the relationship
has failed.

The Poisson distribution is used to determine the reliability of stand by systems since they
display the constant At characteristic of the Poisson process.
where m = 4, and r = 2. Therefore, the system reliability is

If the probability of no failure is e-)'I , the probabihty of one failure is given by At· e-AC ;
Rsy = (;) (e -0009 x 7)2(1 - e -0009x7)4-2 +

the probability of two failures is (At)2. e-A1 ; and so on. These terms may be arranged
( ;) (e -0009 x 7)3 (1 _ e -0.009 '7)4 -3 + 2
to represent the reliability of various standby configurations.
( ;) (e -0.009 7)4 (1 _ e -().009 7)4-4
x x

For the arrangement where one subsystem operates and another is in a standby, the
Rsy = 0.9991 reliability of the system is given by:
-AI
R sys = e -).1 + 1
/I,{. e
 For a system with two standby units, In general for n-l standby units ready to take over if the basic should fail, the MTBF of the
system is
Rsys = e-J.I + At. e-~ + (At/ . e-J.I
n
2 MTBF=-
A
For a system with n standby units,

Example 9.5
(At)n-l
R =e-A1 +At·e-A1+ .. + . -A'
sys (n-I)! e An electronic device has a failure rate of 500 failures/I 06h. One identical standby unit is
used to increase the reliability of the basic device. The operating time is 1000h. The
When it cannot be assumed that the fault-sensing and switching device is lOO% reliable
reliability of the failure-sensing and switching element is R,w = 0.97. What is the system
the reliability of the system is affected by the switch reliability. Assuming that th~
reliability .
switching process does not affect the basic unit, for one standby unit, the system reliability
is given by
For the basic unit and the standby unit, the expected number of failure is

R sy = e-A1 + R sw . (It)· e-A1

A.t = 500 x 10-6 X 1000 = 0.5
where R,w = Reliability of fault-sensing and switching device. R"y" = e-J.I +R,w-(At)e-A.,

= e-A'(l + R,w'(AI»)
MTBF of Standby Systems:
= e -05 (1 + 0.97 x 0.5)

-J./[ (A/)2 (At)n-i]

s; = 0.9007
R(/)=e I+AI+--+·+--
2! n-l
~ 9.4 Neither Series Nor Parallel Connections
MTBF = f R(t)dt
o
In calculating system reliability, there are cases in which the system configuration cannot
cur'+···+czrr-'dl'.
2 n_1
be reduced to simple series and parallel models, nor any combination ofthese. For such
r1+»+
eo -,V
=fe
o 2! (n -I)! 1
situations where uncertainty exists s to the configuration ofthe system, Baye's theorem can
be helpful to determine the system reliability. The use ofBaye's theorem is demonstrated
MTTF = MTBF = !: as follows.
A

Consider the block diagram shown in Fig. 9.9 below. The connection of the blocks in this
The MTBF of a system consisting of the basic unit and one standby unit is case is neither parallel nor series.

2
MTBF= - To ensure the reliability of the system, i.e. for the system to operate successfully, at least
A
on of the paths AA' or BB' should function. However, since neither A nor B is fully
reliable, a third element C is added to supply either ..\' or B'. Hence four paths are possible:
The MTBF of a system with two standby units is AA', BB', CA' or CB'.
3
MTBF=-
A
 Example 9.6

For the system connection shown in the figure below, determine system reliability given the
reliability of each component.

Fig. 9.9 Neither series nor parallel connection

System reliability for this arrangement can be calculated from Baye's theorem.
Solution

In this connection, the three elements A, B, and C are connected in parallel in the upper
row. This parallel connection is in series with the lower row of two elements, A' and B',
This system reliability is arrived at in the following procedure. The system success requires
which are parallel to each other.
at least one of the paths AA', BB', CA' or CB' to be successful.

Reliability of the upper connection is

With C working successfully,

Reliability of the lower connection is

With C unsuccessful

Hence, system reliability is

Hence, system reliability is given by the sum of the above reliability terms

R sys =R .
sys/C;
+ R sysIC".,

Substituting and simplifying yields

 Example 9.7
9.5 Maintainability Prediction
bili Mtt) = .90 , the maintenance time for a specific
It is specified that with proba
1 ity \ 'I
In assigning any maintenance workload to a mechanic or a technician it is not important to 2h Detennine the MTTR of the equipment.
equipment must not exceed 2h, tM."" = .
assign the job that has to be done, it is also important to specify the time during which the
job has to be accomplished. Doing this will help optimize the resource allocation and will M(t) = 1 -a = 0.9 - a = 0.1
help eliminating idle man-hour, idle machine time and so on. Hence, maintenance
engineers should engage themselves in determining the time which a specific maintenance
The meantime to repair is obtained to be
job is going to take. This is done by determining the maximum repair time, the median
repair time and the maintainability probability. To this end determining the maintainability
MTTR
function plays an important role. lnic)
-2 = 0.869 h
=---
In (0. 1)
9.6 Maximum Repair Time
= 52 min

Maximum repair time is the repair maintenance (restoration, replacement) time t M which
max
should not be exceeded or exceeded only with a small probability.
9.7 The case of Jl(t) not constant

For example,
For Ii(t) not constant, the pdfis given by

-i,'fl(l)dl
if tM = 2.3026 MTTR, then
max g(t) = Ii(t) eO. dt

and the maintainability probability function is

M(t) = J;lg(t)dt
or,
- Pfl(t)dt
M(tM ) = 1 - 0. = 0.90 = fli(t) e iu . dt
• max

In general,
Let
I
_( M.ua) -f Ii (t)dt = v - -li(t)dt = dv
M(tMmJ = 1 - e MITR = 1 - 0.
then the maintainability probability function is gi ven by
from which we obtain
M(t) - J;le "dv
Into) =
MTTR -e VI 0t
-1.' fl(t)dt I

or, = e 0 10
MTTR
In (a) Upon simplification, the maintainability function is obtained to be
-i,'fl(l)dl
M(t) = 1 - e Ii
166 Maintenance of Machinery Reliabit ity and Maintainability Prediction 167

Given M(t) and g(t), to determine the non-constant failure rate p(t) multiply the equation
for M(t) by p(t) to get tj - y)P
-.£'p(I)dl - In(1 - M(t)] = ( -rt-
utt)« a x: [1 - M(t)] p(t)
from which we obtain
or

g(t) = [1 - M(t)] p(t)

from which the repair rate p(t) is evaluated to be As an example, consider the case for which M(t) = 95%. Then,

(t) - g(t) tj = Y + n {-In[1 - 0.95] }IIP

utt) - [1 - M(t)]

or,
9.8 Maintainability for a given restoration time with a Weibull times-to-restore t, = y + n (2.99573 YIp
distribution

In the maintainability function The median time to restore t/ is obtained for M't/) = 50% and is obtained from
M(t) z: P(t s t) z: £llg(t)dt
t/ = y + n (0.69315 )IIP
the Weibull times-to-restore probability density function is

P - j - (I - yr Example 9.8
g(t) z: ~ t ~ Y . e -1/-
( )
Given the Weibull times-to-restore pdf of an equipment with distribution parameters

from which the maintainability function is obtai. led to be f3 = 3.5, rt = 4.0 h, y = 0.25 h,

a) Write down the maintainability function for the equipment.

b) Calculate the maintainability of this equij nnent for an allowable time-to-restore
period of Sh.
In Weibull times-to-restore distribution c) Calculate the mean time to restore the equpment.
rt is the characteristic time to restore; d) Calculate the median time to restore the eouipment.
f3 is a measure of the consistence of reston .tion; e) Calculate the time to restore for maintainability probability of 95% .
y is the minimum time, known as the thres hold time.

Solution
For the Weibull distribution, the time to restore t j f Ira desired maintainability probability M(t)
is obtained by solving the above equation for tj a)
 D) .For t == 5 h

M(t==5) z: 1 _e (~4(i25rJ
M(I-==5) == 083875 Chapter 10
Maintenance Planning
c) The me ti
an ime to restore for the Weibull ti
rrnes. to-restore pdf is given by
Maintenance plan is needed to lay down a rational basis for formulating a programme of
MTTR = r + 77 r (; + 1) . preventive maintenance and to provide guidelines fOI'corrective maintenance by the adoption ,.t

of the proper maintenance policies for the constituent items and components. Any rational
maintenance plan should be related to the production programme of the plant. This
MlTR = 0.25+ 4.0 r( ~+3.5 I) interrelationship is shown in Fig. 10.1.

PREVENTIVE CORRECTIVE
PRODUCTION
rC~5 + I) = r(1.2857) = 0.8998 PROGRAM --,---- MAINTENANCE
PLAN
---------- MAfNTENANCE
GUIDELfNES

MTTR = 3.8492h

d) The median time-to-restore is obtained for M(I) == 0.5

L WORKLOAD -T
Mt...fNTENANCE
WORKLOAD J
t/ -== y + '7 (069315 )11/1
0) tGANIZA TlON

Fig. 10.1 Production - Maintenance interrelation

z: 0.25 + 4.0(0 69315)//J·i

t/ == 3.8523 h The reasons for introducing a maintenance planni ng system are numerous, a few of the
important ones being the following.

e) The time-to-restore fi '.

or a mamtamability probability of95% is - -
Proper maintenance planning protects th e investment on machine!» plant and
buildings through adequate maintenance thereby maximizing plant utilization with
minimum downtime and elongating the useful life of equipment.
" c: y + '7 (2.99573 )"13 Maintenance planning minimizes waste of spares and materials; ensures proper use
== 0.25 + 4.0( -In(O.05))//35 of tools and maximizes labour utilizat ion. Thus, enables good control of ~
maintenance costs.
1/ c: 5.7227 h Good maintenance planning ensures right .listribution of technical information and
can help in establishing proper safety system.
Good maintenance planning facilitates plan t control and expedites evaluation of plant
performance.
 ..I. I v c:'6UTU;e UJ lY.laCnlnery
1.F .••.••. ' ••

Maintenance Planning 171

In order to be able to prepare a sound a d k bl . -- PM

. '. n Wor a e namtenance plan, a complex plant can be i) Fixed time maintenance
divided according to function and re I bili . PM
p acea I ity II to two distinct levels. These functional ii) Condition-based maintenance
levels are shown in Fig. 10.2.
iii) Operate to failure CM
iv) Opportunity maintenance
v) Design-out maintenance

10.1.1 Fixed-time maintenance: (repair prior to fa lure)

Hisba' .Dl8D8gCmc:at
n:spoDsiblli1¥ for This policy is effective where the failure ofthe j tern is clearly time dependent and where
repajr/rep1aMment the total costs of such replacement are substantialy less than those of failure replacement-
repair. The item is expected to wear-out within the life of unit.

Maintenance Difficulty of collecting statistical data should ie seriously considered in adopting this
ITEMS management policy.
responsibility for
repair/replacement
10.1.2 Condition -based maintenance
ICOMPONENTS I Condition performance monitoring techniq .ies which /are costly in t~ and

----._-
instrumentation form the basis for condition-cased maintenance. The proper time for

Fig. 10.2 Subdivisions of a complex pi int according to responsibility performing preventive maintenance is determin ed by monitoring condition/performance
if some parameters that can be monitored are isolated.
Th~ above division of responsibility is obligatory be cause replacement strategy for units (or the
~aIn plant itself) is influenced by external factors (I Jbsolescence, sales, capital cost) as well as 10.1.3 Opportunity maintenance
Internal factors, mostly short term such as maintenance cost, operating cost. Therefore This term opportunity maintenance is used for maintenance actions directed at items other
replaceme~t strategy at this level is considered as a part of the corporate strategy. In the lower than those that are the primary cause of the repair. This policy is most appropriate for
level, repaIr/replacement strategy is the responsibility of maintenance management. complex-replaceable or continuously operating terns of high shut-down or unavailability
costs.
Pro~er maintenance planning has some benefits, ev .n in the simpler plants. These benefits are
obtained as:
10.1.4 Operate-to-failure and corrective maintenance
reduction in downtime, '(f)
I~ adopting this policy, no predetermined actic n is taken to prevent failure. Corrective
efficient and optimal resource utilization ,
maintenance arises not only when an item fails but also when indicated by condition-
prolonged machine life, and /

based criteria. The basic task is establishing the most economic way of restoring a unit to
good maintenance cost control. ( an acceptable condition. Cost of unavailability, time of repair with that of replacement
(and source of cost) influence the repair-replac : choice.
10.1 Maintenance Policies

10.1.5 Design-out maintenance /

The m~or maintenance policies which can be cia ssified as corrective an preventive are the The design-out maintenance aims at rrumm izing and eliminating the causes of
following:
maintenance. This requires engineering action n .ther than maintenance action. This policy
111
.-
-. -,r
is for areas of high maintenance costs which exist because of poor design or equipment
usage outside its design specifications.
. EFFECTIVE
POLICY
10.3 Determination of a Maintenance Plan +
>
Detection of failure Allfour
n
e,
Many factors affect t he selection of a policy appropi iate for each item. The maintenance plan 0
Exponsive =.,..•.
set should be the best combination of the above pol icies, Factors that affect the selection of ;0:-
Age-related ••=
appropriate program are include the following. failure pattern .,
a'

Detectio \ of failure All four

'"••
Q.

0
1- A plant should be classified in to units, items and components Expensive =
g...,
Classification of items:
Complex ./
replaceable /"
.,
=
Q.

iterns > Design-out

Low \I1TTF Condition-based ~
? Simple replaceable items: specified)y manufactures where maintenance is
Operate-to-failure
;:;...,
determinist ic and expensive. '"<:
..•
Random ••
-Dcomplex replaceable items: maintenanc e probabilistic and costly. .J:l
failure pattern c
:;.
High MTTF Operate-to-failure ••9
~ non-replaceable items: no predetei mined maintenance action required Condition-based ••=
~

2- Acquisition of information which might be rele vant to maintenance planning is essential

for every unit of plant. The information shou d be regarding. Fig. 10.3 An example of selection of a maintenance policy
/' - production pattern :- continuous, inte mittent, etc.;

l~/ -
nature of the process:- chemical, mec ianical, etc.;
manufacturer's maintenance recomm ~ndations:- actions, periodicities, etc.;
equipment factors which assist prediction of maintenance work :- failure
){,10.4 Assessment of Potential Effectiveness of Maintenance Actions

( characteristics, meantime to failure, mode of failure, failure rate, etc.; The potential effectiveness of a maintenance action used has to be assessed if it can meet
( - economic factors which assist predici ion of main critical units :- consequences the requirements. An example for assessing the effectiveness of a plan adopted is given in
\ of failure, cost of replacement pnor to failure, momtormg cost, etc.; the sketch below, Fig. lOA.
safety factors which place constraints on the decision :- internal, environmental,
statutory regulations, etc.
The selection of the 'best' maintenance policy is affected by many factors, out of which
minimum cost is the criterion generally adopted for selection of the appropriate policy
given that the safety criteria are met; i.e. The b-est policy for each item is determined from
among identified applicable policies based on minimum cost criterion, given that the
safety criterion is satisfied. An example is given below in Fig. 10.3 for the selection of
maintenance policy for complex plant items.
 Maintenance Ptanning 175

10.5 Summary

Can reduction in failure

be detected on line? YES In maintenance planning the follo~ng guidelines sh. iuld be considered in setting a reasonable
List actions
and appropriate maintenance policy.
NO 1- A fixed-time replacement policy is usu illy most suitable for low-cost simple-
replaceable items.
Can reduction in failure
be detected at YES
List actions 2- A condition-based policy is usually most ef ective for high-cost complex-replaceable
maintenance base?
items.
3- All high cost maintenance items, replaceable or non-replaceable, should be
Identify cause
considered for designing out.
Does failure affect YES
and 4- Where no preventive maintenance or desig n-out action is effective or desirable, the
safety?
List actions item is operated-to-failure.
NO
Refer also to the discussions on Maintenance Decis ion Making in Chapter 6.
Does item have a YES
List actions
hidden furction?

NO

Is there an adverse
relationsh ip between YES
List actions
age and reliability?

/NO
No Preventive Maintenance actiorJ
will be effective, operate to failure

Fig. 10.4 Maintenance action effectiveness assessment procedure

 Orga nization of Maintenance Resources 177

makes more difficult the achievement of high labour utilization;

renders work planning more di fficult d~e to the complexity of trade
coordination.

11.1.2 Trade force location: The trade force Iocation must reduce the time of plant
unavailability.
If the work load is widely distributed ill d contains a large proportion of high cost
Chapter 11 emergency maintenance, permanent decentralization of the trade force reduces
Organization of Maintenance Resources the cost, both direct and indirect.
For a localized work load centralization of the maintenance improves utilization
of resources.
Maintenance organization can take an infinite numb er of forms, the best form for particular
For infrequent, but anticipated, highly specialized work, the use of contract
situation being determined by systematic consideration of the influencing factors. Organization
labour must be considered.
of maintenance resources for a multi-trade maintena nee work load is a difficult managerial
problem which involves three areas of organization cecision making.
The aim of trade-force location is to balance the advantages of centralization against the cost
associated with travelling. The solution is often a partially decentralized system. In this case,
1- Those concerned with the mix. Location, and siz e of the maintenance resources
the maintenance gangs carry-out the emergency work as priority and also as much of the
2- Those concerned with the nature and type of adrrinistrative procedures
scheduled work as possible, while the functions of the main workshop are:
3- Those concerned with the type of work planning and scheduling systems necessary to
match the level and supply of resources to the work load.
1. to act as a reserve of labour for the areas g.ige:
11.1 Maintenance Resource Structure: 2. to undertake the major reconditioning anc overhand work;
3. to act as a base for those trades men who ire better centralized;
Here, the objective is to set up the mix, location and size of resources which will best
4. to coordinate the externally contracted we rk
respond to the expected maintenance workload. The workload in general falls into two
categories:
A partially decentralized maintenance structure is shown in Fig. 10.1 below. As indicated in
(a) The deterministic work load: which can be rlanned and scheduled in the long term.
the figure, each area gang is responsible for mainte .iance activities within the section. Major
(preventive maintenance, modifications project)
overhaul and complex repairs are taken care of by the central workshop. For a few
(b) The probabilistic load: those which can be scheduled only in the short-
specialized maintenance workload which is beyond the capability of the central workshop,
term.(Corrective and emergency maintenar.cej The fluctuating nature of the latter
contracted labour is utilized.
makes the organization of maintenance resc urce a difficult task.

11.1.3 Trade force size: If the workload is deterministic, it is not difficult to determine the
11.1.1 Trade force mix: The work load is usually divided according to trade in addition to
best size of the trade force. However, in rnr.st manufacturing situations the work load
the above classification. This demarcation a::cording to trade influences the range of
usually contains a large probabilistic components which renders setting of trade force
plant equipment that can be effectively dealt with by an individual tradesman. This
demarcation: size a difficult task.
determines the number and size gangs;
The basic aim should be to achieve a tade force size and structure which will
 minimize the total cost of labour and waiti ti
•.•• If g ime. Utilization of trade force need
to be optimized.
11.2 Administrative Structure:

In most cases clear understand' f h .

. mg 0 t e mamtenance situation coupled with efficient cost' In discussing any maintenance administrative struct ire, two facts should be straightened out
will enable a sound resource structure to be developed and subsequently adjusted as necess;~ from the outset.

1. There is no ideal administrative structure jar maintenance.

- Overhau Is,

Maintenance workload
I Su~tore - Complex repair work
- Major reconditioning
2. The administrative
resource structure.
structure should be designed in conjunction with and to suit the

from production area A - Area work overload

AREA GANG A ,-
(Repair and In general maintenance administrative structure is based on division of the work into
Service) specialization including centralized planning funct ons. Such an administrative structure is
Work completed - -l
1 shown in the figure below.
I
1
1 The area foremen are responsible for maintenance vorkload within the specified area and are

Maintenance workload
I Su~tore
1
I
1 CENTRAL
accountable to the mechanical engineer. Maintenance engineers, i.e. mechanical, electrical and
building, are responsible for overseeing and ..upervising all maintenance workload
1 WORKSHOP
_from production area B undertakings directly under them; are responsible for overall maintenance works and are
\
AREA GANG B - - Overhauls accountable to the maintenance manager.
(Repair and ( - Spare parts
Service)
Work completed - -1-, '- - - Reconditioning
1 - Area work overload
1 Maintenance ]
support
Manager
I
1 - Cobtracting outside I
I expertise

Maintenance workload
I Su~tore
I
I
I
. from production area C __ J~
Building Maintenance I Mechanical Maintenar:1
AREA GANG C
(Repair and
I Head I Head J
- Completed work
Service)
Work completed
..

Building
I
Area I
I
Area 2
.I
Are t3 Workshop Electrical
Fig. 11.1 A partially decentralized maintei iance system Foreman Foreman Foreman Forer ian Foreman Foreman

Fig. 11.2 A sample organizational structure for a maintenance department

 r.....-.T •.~IWT
•.••."C" 7~"'-I"Cn:~rn:~ry--------::::::::::::====-_,--- _ Orga nization of Maintenance Resources 181

Main function of the maintenance manager and engi neers may include: a) locate the malfunction;
1. Set maintenance objectives and determine maintenance policy. b) diagnose the fault;
2. Assist with technical advice and decision r iaking. c) prescribe the action to correct the malfuncton;
3. Assist with medium term work planning and scheduling. d) decide on the work priority;
4. Look after day-to day personnel problems. e) plan the resources necessary to undertake the work;
g) schedule the work;
11.3 Work Planning and Scheduling h) issue job instructions;
i) check that the work is satisfactory.
The objective of work planning and scheduling is to get the right resources to the right place,
to do the right job in the right way and at the right ti ne in order to carry out the maintenance Such a work can only be scheduled, with any degree of certainty, a short time ahead.
function at minimum overall cost.
ii. The deterministic work load:
11.3.1 Work planning This consists of the preventive maintenance work and the necessary plant modifications.
It can be planned in detail and scheduled some time ahead. The functions of a
In designing a maintenance work planning some be sic rules should be observed. The most maintenance department as regards the deterministic workload is to:
important of these are: a) schedule all preventive maintenance- fixed -time maintenance;
1. The work planner must have the authority to make the necessary decisions (i.e. b) perform'all performance monitoring ar d set schedules based on the condition of
allocation of priorities) which affect the work load and the resources. the plant;
c) determine all reconditioning activities
2. The work planner must have the right information at the right time about both the d) recommend appropriate long tern sol uti on to recurring problems to enhance plant
work load and the resources. Here it is important to note that it is essential to have maintenance and maintainability.
different levels of work planning.
When the total work load for a department is servir .ed from common resources, usually the
3. The areas of responsibility of, and lines (If communication between, the planning preventive maintenance is neglected. Therefore the planning policy should even out the total
levels must be clearly defined. work load while conforming to priority rules.

In setting a workable maintenance plan, the maintena ice workload should be categorized based Proper work planning is facilitated by appropria.e equipment records. Two important
on the nature of the workload. This categorization should include the random and equipment records are:
deterministic workloads. 1.- equipment record card which contains us eful data regarding the acquisition and
installation of the equipment,
and
i. The probabilistic load: 11 - equipment history record card in which all 'aults, corrections, replacements, repairs,
This category consists of the emergency and corr ective maintenance workload which is etc. are recorded during its operation time.
random in nature. This workload fluctuates with tim e. The repair situation can be represented
by queuing mode. Typical equipment record card and equipment histo y record card are shown in Fig. 11.3 and
Fig. 11.4, respectively.
The function of a maintenance department as regards the probabilistic workload is to:

•
 1-=

Equipment History Card no.

Equipment Code
Equipment Code Equipment Date Opened
Card no. Equipment Location
Equipment Location Equipment Record Card no.
Date Entered
I
Equipment Details Equipment Serial no. Parts M to-hour
Serial Work Details Performed Downtime Name of Recorded
Replaced R. quired Personnel by
no. on Equipment
Signature
Type

Equipment Accessories
Dimensions Purchase Order no
Weight Work Details
Input: Voltage, current, ... Date of Purchase Performed
Manufacturer on Equipment
1 Agent Price
i

Services Needed
I Installation Cost

Cost of Services Fig. 11.4 Equipment/machine history recc rd card

11.3.2 Maintenance Scheduling

Spares Requiremnets
Originally Supplied
Subsequent Acqui: itions Costs A maintenance schedule shows the maintenance W( Irk to be done, frequency of the work, by
whom the work has to be done and estimated time rec [uired to complete the work. Maintenance
Lubrication
I Location ---J
~~~~-Tr:==::--,-:-~-:----,---- I Equipment History Card no. scheduling is a sequential arrangement of main ten an. .e jobs showing which has to be done first,
r----_-r
I Lub type
__~~_+_~L~u~b~~~I~e~th~o~d~-~F~re~ second, and so on. The queuing of the workload to be accomplished depends on priority set
I I and availability of spares, skilled labour and equipn lent. The maintenance schedule has to be
Design, Operation and Maintenance Specifications
Installation Manual prepared in collaboration with production departmer t. An example of a maintenance schedule
Operation Manual
Maintenance Manual is shown below. In setting up a maintenance schedule, guidelines must be provided by the
manufacturer.
Fig. 11.3 Equipment/machine record card

Fig. 11.5 Maintenance scheduling card

.,
 Organization of Maintenance Resources 185
184 Maintenance of Machinery

In executing the maintenance schedule, the superviso' must every morning assigns work to equipment, spares, estimated time, sk~llrequired, etc. A typical job order card is shown in Fig.
every worker. "Everyworker has to be informed of the work he has to perform, the time the job 11.7 below.
requires, the expected finishing time, etc.
Job Order no.
Equipment Code
The details of the maintenance work to be done on eacJ1 equipment/item on schedule varies in Type of Job Name of Equipment Location Date

type and complexity of equipment as well as type of maintenance to be performed. The details
CM
PM
--
OU __
are shown on work specification card shown below, Fig. 11.6.
Priority

It should be noted that these forms are available in many different formats and each Details of Defect I Planned Work Breakdown Impact

organization can what is good for use. a) Shutdown

b) Standby Reduction

Equipment Description Specification no. c) Reduced Efficiency

Equipment Code
Job Description Special Requirements Safety Needs
Originatorl Signature Department Date Time
Planner

Manpower Required
Maintenance Work Details Estimated Time Materialsl Trade Description of Workload
Spares Required
Estimated Duration

Start of Maintenance
Date Time

Completion of Maintenance
Date Time
Ready for Operation
Date Time

Actual Duration

Services Needed
Special Tools Required/Used
Spares/Materials Required/Used
Tradesman Name Total Time Materialsl Labour Material Total
Taken Spares Cost Cost Cost

Job Assignment
Special Services Required/Used
Name

Remarks by Area Maintenance Engineer Signature

Fig. 11.6 Maintenance work description card Date Time

11.3.3 Maintenance Job Order

CM - Corrective Maintenance, PM - Preventive Mai ttenance, OH - Overhaul

A maintenance job order is a detailed and complete W( rk order by means of which a technician,
Fig. 11.7 Maintenancejob order card
a mechanic, an electrician or any other skilled person is given the authority to attend to a
specific maintenance workload. In addition to the workload, the job order card lists the
Once the maintenance
importance Th work
f h is completed ' an appro pnate . analysis of defects is of utmost
. e nature 0 t e defect ' the caus es an d action
. taken, man-hour requirement and
total downtime
in furthe di aret' entered
th on defect anal y sis r'ecord, This defect analysis record finds its' use
r iagnos ICS at may be conducted on the .
is shown in Fig. 11.8. equipment. A typical defect analysis record

""
Chapter I~,
Equipment Code I Equipment Description Location I Card DO. Spares Inventory Control

Component Defect Cause Action Maintenance Total Maintenance

Date
Noticed Identified Taken Time Downtime Manager 12.1 Objective
Signature

The objective of spares inventory control is the mir imization of the sum of the associated costs
which can be classified as direct and indirect. The nterrelation of these costs is a complex one.
I

Direct costs could be reduced to zero by totally eliminating spares holding. The
consequence in availability is obvious and hence affecting the indirect costs.

On the other hand, plant availability would be greatly increased iflarge numbers of
every spare items were always held, rut then direct costs would be enormous.

Fig. 11.8 Defects analysis record card

Thus seeking the optimum level of spares handlirg, and economically maintaining it are th e
basic objectives of spares inventory control.

12.2 Complicating Factors

Inventory control is complicated by many factors These factors arise from:

-complexity of the very many items
-these have widely ranging costs
-different usage rates, and
-different failure rates
-variable delivery dates
-deterioration in stock

12.3 Classification of Spares Inventory

Spares inventory can be divided in to three group.i.

 188 Maintenance of Machinery
The total number of expected spare pal ts required for a situation in which the total number of
identical parts in use remains constant is given by
12.3.1 Insurance inventory
'I Items which are unlikely ever to be used, but which are bought as an insurance against
failure

where Nsp o. - fl) is total number 'IS expected spares requirement during the life-time of
12.3.2 Manually controlled inventory
Items of low usage rate which are not predictable with large percentage of variation to
the component o. - t.);
NT is the number of identic a parts in use during the life-time (f2 - f}). NT varies
which no mathematical approach could be made.
with time t.

12.3.3 Automatically controlled inventory :

Items of high usage rate with small percentage variation and good predictability to which
Substituting for Nf(t2 - t}) the expect ed number of sparesNsp «. - t}) is obtained to be

mathematical forecasting techniques can applied.

NSp(t2-t}) = jIZ),,(t)NT(J)dt
I

12.4 Inventory Control Theory

where N T( t) is the functional relationship for the total number os identical components in use

Inventory control theory attempts to determine those procedures which will minimize the sum
during the period o, - t}). NT(t) can be determined by monitoring the component for a
stated period of time, or from the maintainability function.
of the costs of:
1.
2.
Running out of stock (production
Replenishing stock (cost of items)
loss due 10 stoppage)
For constant failure rate ),,(f)and wh~reNrrt) is constant in the period o. - t}), a good
estimate of the spares requirement is given by
3. Holding stock (interest on capital, insurance, depreciation)
Inhere, two basic theories are discussed. The first is based on the determination of the number
of expected failures for a given period in the life of the equipment for which a spares holding
is to be determined; and the second is the Economic Order Quantity.
Example

12.5 Spares Provisioning for a Desired Confidence Level

In a system there exists a very critical unit which requires spares to attain a specified unit
reliability of 0.99 for a period of 256 h. The unit has an MTBF of 1250 h and exhibits a
The number of spare parts required for a particular component for a specified period of time
constant failure-rate characteristics. How many spare parts would be required if the unit is
can be determined from the expected number of failures of the component for that period. The
easily accessible and replaceable almost: immediately by plugging in an identical spar part when
expected number of failures is determined from the failure rate of the component. The
the functioning unit fails to increase its reliability to 99%?
expected number of failures during the period from f} to f2, Nf(f2 - fl), is given by the
equation
Solution

Nf(f2 - fl) = r=«

This equation applies to :iliy type of failure rate for which the number os spare parts
.
IS to be
To determine the spares requirement, we need to answer the question 'How many failures are
tolerable to attain the reliability of99~''D?'. The number of failures is equal to the number of
determined.
spares required. This is obtained from Poisson distribution.
 1-'1 •

Spares Inventory Control 191

190 Maintenance of Machinery
3. Stock is not allowed to go ne:~ative
The number of failures k which yields the reliability R(t) is obtained from the Poisson ·4. Constant rate of demand per unit.
probability term given by
R
R(t) = E/-l 'j -
e -AI. (At))
jl
-_;r_--...--- EOQ

Or,
R (t) = e -,ll( 1 + At + (At) 2 + ... + (), t) k)
21 k!
T
Forthisproblem R(t) = 0.99
'-.-~ Ordering point
1 1 Interval between J
A =-- --- orders
MTBF 1250
Fig. 12.1 The simple economic order quantity
At = __ I _ xt = _1_ x250 = 0.2
MTBF 1250

Hence the reliability is obtained from Let: Demand per unit time q
Replenishment Quantity R
R(t) = e -fJ2( 1 + 0.2 + (0.2)2 + ... + (0.2)k) Ordering cost a
21 kl
Holding cost per item per un:t time b
R (t) for 0 failures is e -).r = e -0.2 = 0.818 Total expected cost per unit time C
Number of replenishment orders per unit time = q/R
R(t) for 1 failure is e -,lI(1 + At) = 0.982 Replenishment cost (qa)/R

R(t) for 2 failures is e -A{ 1 + At + (A;;2) = 0.998 Total Cost per unit time C is
C = qa
R
From the above Poisson of reliability terms, to attain a reliability of 99% two spare parts are where
required for the unit. Rb = average holding cost per unit time.
2

12.6 Simple Economic Order Quantity To determine the replenishment quantity R,

-dC = 0 =>
3(~ + k = 0
The simple Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) determ ines the size of replenishment order which dR R) 2
minimizes the sum of holding and re-ordering costs. For a simplified approach the following
assumptions are made. From which the economic order quant ty R can be determined to be

1. Stack is re-ordered at regular intervals R = ~ 2ia

2. The lead time between order and delivery is negligible
 192 Maintenance of Machinery ~pl'" """"'~'."".J
C;-~ _ __

Example Replenishme Replenishment cost Holding cost Total cost

a
nt quantity, q- R-
R 2
R
In a certain plant, to replenish the spares stock of a particular component the following data i:;
obtained. 1 3000.00 60.00 3060.00
Replenishment quantity 150 items a year 2 1500.00 120.00 1620.00
Ordering cost $20 per order
4 750.00 240.00 990.00
Holding cost $120 per item per year
6 500.00 360.00 860.00
i) On a diagram sketch
8 375.00 480.00 855.00
a) the replenishment cos versus the replenishment quantity;
b) the holding cost versus the replenishmem quantity; 10 300.00 600.00 900.00
c) the total cost versus the replenishment quantity. 12 250.00 720.00 970.00
14 214.29 840.00 1054.29
ii) Determine the economic order quantity and inciicate it on the diagram in part (i).
16 187.50 960.00 1147.50
Solution 18 166.67 1080.00 1246.67

20 150.00 1200.00 1350.00

i) A replenishment quantity of 20 at an increment of 2 is used to solve the problem.
The values in columns 2, 3, and 4 are plotted against the values in column 1. And the plot is
Replenishment quantity is q = 150 items / year shown the figure below.
Ordering cost is a = $20 / order
Holding cost is b = $120 .item / year

The following table is filled to give the replenishment cost, the holding cost and total cost for
different replenishment quantities.
 12.7 Safety Stock
3500
Random variability of demand and lead time are some of the factors which are not
~
rc
CD
>-
accounted for in the simplified modelof Efn).
~
CD
a.
3000
I
I
<J> There are some methods of providing ;afety stock.
.•.. 2500
Ul

r
0
u
12.7.1 Two-bin system
2000r A fixed replenishment order is placed whenever stock reaches a pre-set re-order level.
This could be seen as storage in two bin in which replenishment order is placed when
I
first bin is empty and service is carried from second bin until order is received.
1S00r
EOQ =7 The value of r depends on
1000 - the rate of demand and its variability,

~:f
the lead time and its variability, and
- the cost of stock out.
replenishment cost
12.7.2 Periodic Review system
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
!

In the two-bin system continu al monitoring of all stock changes is required which is
14 16 18 20
difficult without help of computers. The most common and popular method is the
Replenishment quantity
traditional method which is tho periodic review system. At fixed intervals of time the
T.herefore, the economic order quantity is obtained from the figure to be the number which inventory is reviewed and sto .k is re-ordered in quantities decided as a result of the
grves the least overall cost. i.e., the economic order quantity is 7 items. review.

ii) Th e economic order quantity is obtained the equation for EOQ

EOQ = R = ~ 2!a

EOQ 2x150x20
= 7.07
120
 As can be noticed from the interconnec tion, logic diagram preparation and activity duration
determination can be done in parallel. Network analysis and management applications then
follow, respectively.

13.2 Stage 1 - Logic Diagram Preparation

Chapter 13
Network Analysis for the Planning and Control of Maintenance Work
Network analysis is a valuable technique, widely used, for planning and controlling
maintenance works, overhauls and major shutdowns. Network analysis is primarily meant
to minimize time but it is also used for overall resource optimization.
The preparation of the logic diagram is probably the most crucial step in network planning.
Schedule of work listing all the job.: linked to the shutdown and startup in a logical
sequences is the central activity of thi.: stage.
Two methods/systems are currently a' 'ailable for preparing logic diagrams:

13.1 The Basics of Network Planning 13.1.1 Activity on node

The overall procedure as applied to maintenance activities, networking has four stages:
Stage 1 - Logic Diagram Preparation
Stage 2 - Activity Duration Determination
Stage 3 - Network Analysis
Stage 4 - Management Applications

These stages are interconnected as shown in the figure below.

[~ Fig. 13.: ~ Activity on node

13.1.2 Activity on arrow

I
IDummy
I
Fig. 12. I1nterconnection of network acti vities for maintenance work

Fig. 13. ~ Activity on arrow

 Network Analysis J or Planning and Control of Maintenance Work 199
13.3 Stage 2 - Activity Duration Determination
13.5 Logic Diagram
, I
A maintenance organization must have a comprehensive records system for storing
information on the "standard times"for particular jobs. The activities in the network must . d'Iagrams sh ow the sequence 0:' events in undertaking the maintenance action. In
L OgiC 0 • • •

be assessed for their work content from the jobs and their standard times. At this stage the determining the sequence of events, some activities are arr~ged m senes, while ~thers are
duration for an activity is established. arranged in parallel. The preparation (If logic diagrams require good understandmg of and
experience with the system.
13.4 Stage 3 - Network Analysis (Adding Activity Duration to the Logic Diagram)
The preparation of a logic diagram isoest demonstrated by an example.
At this stage, the duration of each activity is added to the logic diagram from which the
shutdown duration and degree of criticality of the activities within the network are Example
determined. To perform this activity, activity on node method is used.
In a certain chemical plant, it is desired to repair a vessel with its major components. The
The basic node is shown in the figure below. repair work and the time required for' each job are indicated in the table below. °

Referen,~e i) Draw a logic diagram ofthe activities.

Number ii) Compute ES, LS and TF for tach activity.
iii) Indicate the critical path.
I
Earliest Start", f
X Earliest Finish Reference No. Job (Activity) Duration [h]

100 Issuance of insurance certificate 1

101 Open lip vessel and inspect 6
Latest Start ( t )
,0 •
I 0,,,, Latest Finish 102 Overhaul bottom run-off valve 3

103 Re-fit bottom run-off valve 1

,
Activity 104 Repair damaged agitator 10
duration
105 Fit nev V-belts to drive 2
a) Every activity has two possible start dates/times: the earliest and latest start 106 Reassemble up vessel 3
dates/times.
107 Issue clearance certificate 1

b) Every activity has two possible finish dares/times: the earliest and latest finish
dates/times The logic diagram for the repair works shown in the figure b~l~w.. In preparing. the logic
diagram, sequence of events as require Iby the maintenance activity I~ fir~t underlined. For

c) The degree of criticality of a particular activity is defined as the total float (TF) where examp Ie, Jiob reference no. 102 cannot be handled without completing Job reference d dno.
i
10l. Job reference no. 100,102 and f O'I, which do not affect each other, are han Ie m
TF = LS - ES parllel.
In the event that TF = 0, then the activity is crit.cal.
 Maintenance of Machinery

13.6 Stage 4 - Management Applications

The network analysis can be used as en aid to management in two ways.

13.6.1 Unlimited resources and limited time

- Distribute manpower in order of criticality.

- Reduce duration of the shutdown by adding overlaps.

13.6.2 Limited resources limited time

- TF is used to control the use of resources objective of this step is to obtain a

smooth build- up of resources to the peak working level.

!I:"

The arrows joining the activities are dependency lines and indicate the sequence of
activities.

Calculation of the total float

a) The frrstpart of the calculation is to work through the network from left to right filling
in the topboxes. i.e. ES and EF .
.Note that activity 106 cannot begin until activities 102, 104, and 105 are finished,
i.e. until 17,h is complete.

b) The bottom boxes are completed working from right to left.

c) The last part of the calculation 'is the determination of the criticality of the various
activities in the network. This is done by determining TF.

Therefore, the critical path is defined as that chain of activities which has the least TF.
For this case the chain of activities 100, 101, J 02, 106 is the critical path.

d) The critical path establishes those activities which must start at their earliest start and
finish at their earliest finish if the shutdown is to be completed on time.

e) To reduce the shutdown duration, it is the critical path activities which require
shortening.
 Reconditioningof Equipment 203

Replacement of all parts which have a residual life less than some critical useful life
and replacing by matching parts. In marty industrial applications the critical residual
life is 5 to 7 years.
Chapter 14
Replacement of all mandatory components.
Reconditioning of Equipment Inspection and repair of aJIcastings.
Grinding of guide-ways, etc and hardening.
~econditi~ning of eq.uipment plays a significant role in maintenance of equipment, particularly . Assembly and testing of all sub-assemblies.
in d.evelopm~ countries where increasing cost of new equipment makes the acquisition of new Reassembling the machine and achieving specified standards of alignments.
equipment difficult, The need for reconditioning arises from Load testing of machine to specified standards.
a) aging machinery with rapidly decreasing reliability and high risk of failure: Repainting and change of name plate where necessary.
b) increasing and prohibitive cost of new equipment; , Inspecting machine.
c) scarce capital;
d) lack of adequate foreign exchange. Maintenance management is often fac ed with the dilemma of replacement versus reconditioning
of an existing equipment. Rule of thumb that can be applied in this case is:
14.1 Definition
1) Parts which require a corn .iderable degree of specialized skills and costly processes
Re~o.nditio~ng of a worked out equipment after long use may be defined as a systematic planned are best replaced.
~CtIVIty desIg~ed to rest.ore an equipment to its original performance condition. This prOCI!SS 2) If the repair facility available is limited then replacement of certain machines with
mvolves~ renaI~s. t~ certam problem areas in an equipment that may include: technologically superior equipment must take precedence over reconditioning .
.grinding app scrapping; 3) If cheap and fast replacement parts are available, reconditioning is not a right
remo,~~l of slacw€,s~ due to wear; and alternative.
replacement of certain parts .
., ~
.•.~
. ' .... \,~- In general, maintenance management should resort to reconditioning if the following situations
a ~niJ:~e arise.
Reconditio~g;s
.',."t

14.2 Reconditionih'g-I!rocess '"

. version of the original equipment manufacturing
~ .'
process.
a) Whenever the machine is imported, reconditioning
foreign exchange as well as ensuring economy in consumption
is made compulsory for saving
of spare parts.
b) Critical components like :;hafts, gears, valves, pumps, etc. must retain dimensional
The process. of reco~ditioning is similar to the manufacture of a new machine and should be and structural integrity so that the desired performance is attained for maximum
ap~r~~ched m a logical and scientific manner. Reconditioning process involves the following period of time before re placement becomes necessary due to breakage. Such
actrvities:
components even if they' vear out, they should be reconditioned and reused as long
Stripping of existing machine component-wise. as possible.
De-greasing and cleaning of equipment parts. c) Supply of machines/spare 3 is unreliable.
Inspection of component parts and determining their residual life. d) Equipment/part manufacture is discontinued and hence no supply is possible.
e) Replacement of machine i.s costly and new machine introduces compatibility problem
with existing set-up.
f) Budget shortage for replacement.
204 Maintenance of Machinery
\14.4.1 Infrastructure
For proper reconditioning adequate infrastructure facilities must be available. These
g) Original equipment is a special purpose machine and cannot be reordered.
h) Rejection of output, reworking and scrap is beyond a predetermined level. include:
i) Reconditioning of an equipment should be considered at the end of a predetermired reconditioning shop;
trouble-free operating life of equipment. machines
skilled manpower
coordination between design, planning, purchase, inspection, sales and
14.3 Cost Analysis of Reconditioning
engineering
In general, some organizations consider that cost of reconditioning up to 30% of the price cfa training of personne l
new machine to be acceptable, where the reconditioning cost should include: material, labour,
depreciation and any other contracted service required in the reconditioning process. This level 14.4.2 Technical Requirements:
is acceptable if there are no other adverse effects on the performance of the machine after For proper reconditioning of an equipment the technical level must be commensurate
reconditioning. The performance after reconditioning can be assessed through with the practical aspect.
_ Involved engineers should be conversant with the design features of the
equipment which include: equipment performance, assemblies, components,
trouble-free service hours after reconditioning
out-put rate lubrication system, material specifications, etc.
Adequate machine history should be available which includes operating
expected life of equipment after reconditioning.
conditions and workmg shifts, maintenance system, frequency of breakdowns,
In cost analysis of reconditioning, the reconditioning process will be approved only if a critical etc.
cost-benefit analysis favours reconditioning to replacement. In performing cost-benefit anal) sis
one to consider the cost of replacement versus that of reconditioning.

Replacement costs should include: spares cost; installation; service costs; cost of ordering end
transporting; labour; utilities, etc.

Reconditioning costs should include: material, labour, depreciation, outside contracted services.

Inhere, one thing should be noted which may not be quantified in terms of dollars; and that is,
the experience gained locally in the process of reconditioning. Performing a reconditionng
activity develops local capabilities which leads to increased design and fabrication capability.

14.4 Requirements for Reconditioning Undertakings

There are two aspects to the requirements that must be fulfilled to undertake a recondition ng
action. These are the infrastructure and technical requirements.
 References
Appendix
1. A Kelly, M.J. Harris, Management of Industrial Maintenance, Butterworths & Co.
(Publishers) Ltd., London, 1978.

2 M. J. Neale, The Tribology Handbook, 2nd ed., Butterworths - heinmann Publishing Ltd.,
1995.

3. S. Halpern, The Assurance Sciences, an Introduction to Quality Control and Reliability,

Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1978.

4. John Moubray, Reliability - Centered Maintenance, 2nd ed., Industrial Press InC., NY,
1997.

5. Dimitri Kececioglu, Maintainability, Availability, and Operational Readiness, Vol. 1,

Prentice - Hall PJR, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1995.

6. P. Gopalakkrishinan. A.K. Banerji, Maintenance and Spare Parts Management, Prentice

Hall ofIndia Private Limited, New Delhi - 110001,2002.

7. Lindley R. Higgins, P.E., Editor-in-Chief, Maintenance Engineering Handbook, 5th ed.,

McGraw-Hill Inc., 1995.

8. J. Cladwell, R. Bradley, Industrial Vibration Modelling, Martinus NijhoffPublishers,

Dordrecht, 1987.

9. LB. Gertsbakh, Stastistical Reliability Theory, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1989.

10. Charles O. Smith, Introduction to Reliability in Design, McGraw - Hill Inc., 1976.

11. Harry Frank, Steven C. Althoen, Statistics: Concepts and Applications, Cambridge
University Press, 1994.
Table 1- Values of the descending exponential
Table 1- Contd.

....
, •• At· 0.260
(I - At·••:o.OQO
. II· At - a,249
;.." ~.<
,-at At At ,-at
At
0.250 0.77880 0.300 0.74082' 0.350 0.'10469 0.400 0.67032 0.450. 0.63763
0.000, ,1.0‫סס‬00.. .o.0~.o,Q.9~m. 0.100.0.90484 o.J,o .o:.a601I.o~200 .0;111873 .' 0.251 .0.77802 0.301 0.74008' 0.351 0.7OJ98 0.401 0.66965' 0.451 0.63699
0.001, .0.99900.. : 0.0$1 .0.95.028' 0.JQL.P.90~9:J ,.0.1$) ;-:<t.8$98S<:O.~l)),·:fj.81~J:' ..' 0.252 0.71724 0.302 0.73934 0.352 0.10328 0.402 0.66898 0.452 0.63635
.0.002 .0.99800.' 0..of2;;.o.949ll· .0.1.02.0.9030~ . ' O.m Qi8$8~: 0.202' '-O.8t109,·. 0.253 0.77647 . 0.303 0.73860 0.353 0.7025, 0.403 0.6683I , 0.453 0.6"72
0.003, 0.99700.,-, o..o~3,..o.94~3g,,; .o.H)30.9Q213" > O. m Q.8m~ . "i 0.20, "'&;Sf.5..28: ' 0.254 0.77569 0.304 0.73786 0.354 0.70187· .0.404 0..6764' 0.4" 0.63S08
.0.004; 0.9961);1
.,.. .o.0$fk,O.94141, o. 104 ,O.9Ql23..' 0. r $4 .0.8$727< .0.204"''0 8~'" ' "
0.255 . 0.77492 0.305 0.73112 U5' 0.70Jl7 0.405 0.66698, 0.455 0.63445
o.OOS..o.9950J.:, o..o55rO.9~9' 0.1050.~3~ ,·o.rss: Q.85642. ,. O;2Q5."'~8;4(i(~ 0.256 .: 0.774t4 . 0.306 0.73639 0.356 0.70047 . 0.406 0.66631'
0.006' 0.9940~. ' o~o~;",O.91$S:( ~ .o.JQ6.o.89942:., .o.B6, ~O.8SS'6' 0.206. iQ.813U' . 0.456 0.63381
0.2570.77337 '0.307 0;73565 0.357 0.'69977 0.407 U6564 , 0.457 0.63318
0.007. .0.993.02 0.9~!' .0,944.59 . 0.1.07 .();898'3'" .0.15'7:"0;85'170' .o.20'j".o.81j()i"
0.00.8 .0.99203 0.0580.94U3 .o"J08' 0.89763 ,O.J~' :.o.8~38f . .o.2Q8:"O.8t221"
0.258 O. m.«» 0.301 0.734920,358 '0.$907 0.408 0."98! 0.458 0.63255
0.259 0.77182 0.3090.73418 0.3D 0.69837. 0A09 O.66·m
o.oos .o.99!04 I 0.0$9 0.94271' . .o.lo9"b.89.6n. .o.1~9~:85:~· .0.209:'.0.8 '*<> . !} 0.459 0.63192
•0.260, 0.77105 0.310 0.73~5 0.360. 0.69768 0.410 0.66365: 0.460 0.63128
O.O.H) . .o.9~~;,..o.06O Q.91.l76. 0.110 ..o:89,5~3 .0.160 0.8.5ZH .0.21.00.81058
.0.26110;77028 0.311 0.73271 0.361 0,69696 0.41J 0.66299:
0.01I " .0.98906.. 0.06.1. O.940~2 0.111 0.89494 0.161. O.S~129 o.zn ;~.8G91'l' 0.262 0.76951 0.312 0.73J98 0.3620.69628 0,412 0.66232;
0.461
0.462
0.63065
0.63002
0.Oi2 . 0.98801" .0.062 0.93988. .0.112' 0.89404 0.J~2 'O;85~ '. 0.212·O,s089~
6.0B .o.987.oS·, 0.063 0.93,894' 0.113 .0.89'315 0.1~3' .0,84'959' .o.2I'j"0.8OB16 0.263 0.76874 0.313 0.73125 0.363 0.69559 0.413 0.66166 0.463 0.62939
0.014 0.98610 .o.~ (}.93800. .0.1'14, 0.89226 .0.164'0.84'874' .o.2i4:' .08073',5' 0.264 0.76797 0.3140.73052· 0.364 0.69489 ·0.414 0.66100 0.464 0.62876
0.265 . 0.76nl 0.315 0.72979 0.365 '0.69420
o.ois o.sssn 0.06' 0.93707 . .0.115 0.89137 .0.165 .0.84789: 0.2J.S' O:s06S4' 0.266 0.76644 0.316' 0.12906 0.366 0.69350
0.415
0.416
0.66034
0.6'968.
0.465
0.466
0.62814
0.62751
0.()16 . 0098413 0.066· 0.93613. 0.U6 ..0.89047. .0.166' 0.8470} 0,2f6' '.0.:80574.
0.017 ,0.98314 .0.067 0.9)520. O.1l7 .0.88959 .o.i67'().84620· 0.21:7''i).80493'· , 0.267 0.76567 0.317 0.n833 0.367 0;69281 0.417 0.65902 0.467 0.62688
0:0)8 0.98216 0.068 0.9342.6 0.1180.88870 0.1.68.·.O.8453~ .' 0.218:'0.80413' 0.268 0.76491 0.318 0.n760 0.368 0.69212 0.418 0.65836 0.468 0.62625
0.01~ .o.9SU8 0..069 0.93333 0.119 0.88781 0.149,"0.84451 .~.0.219: 0.80332 0.269 0.76414 0.319 0.72688 .. 0.369 0;69143' 0.419 0.65770 0.469 0.62563
,0.020 .0.98020' 0.070.0;93239 0.1200.88692 .0.1,70-;0.84366 . 0.220' 0:802'2' ..' 0.270 0.76338 0.320 0.7261' 0.3700.69073 0.420 0.65704 0.470 0.6:mo.
a.oil· -0.97922 6.0'71 0.9.3146. 0.121' .o.88(j'(}j 0.1710.8421;Z ." 0.221 O.s<U:"?2'·:: 0.271 0.76262 0.321 0.72$42 0.3710.69004 0.421 0.65639 0.471 0.62438
0.272 0.76185 0.322 0.72433 0.372 0.68935 0.422 0:65573 0.472 0.62375
0;0220.97824 .0.072 0.930~3.· .0.122 .0.8.8515. 0.112 J>,84\98·.. 0.2~2' q.~6!)$:i<': 0.273 0.76109 0.323 0.72397 0.3730.68867 . 0.423 0.65$08
o..o~3 0.91726 0.~no;n9~ 0.123 O.884.l6 0.173 ,.p.S4114 .o,2l3 0.8~t.r 0.473 0.62313
0.274 . 0.76033 0.324 0.nn5 0.374 0.68798 .0.424 Q.6S442 0.474 D.6ZZ~1
0.024' .0.97629 0.074 .0.9.,2867. 0.t24.o.88338; 0.174 0.84010' 0.224.0.79932 '.'
0.025. 0.975:31., 0.075 ·.0.92774 .0.125 0.8825.0 ... ". .....<' 0.275 0.75957 0.325 0.72253 0.375 0.68729 0.42' 0.6'377 0.475 0.62t89
0026· . e.97434 0.076 ,.0;92682 0.126..0.8'8'161 0.175 :0.83946 .o.2.ZS . .().19~52 ·0.276 0.75881 0.326 O.nlBl . 0.316 0.68660 0.426 0.65312, 0.476 0.62126
O•'Q""' 9 0.l16.0.838~ 0.226 . 0.1977:1. . 0.277 0.75805 '0.327 O.nIOB 0.371 .0.68592 ..0.427 0.65246 0.477 0.62064
",v .0.. 7336. .0..077-·.0.92589 0.127 ..b.8807j.· 0.177' 0.83118 0.2210.796.92.
.0.628 0.97239 0,0780.92496 0.128' 0.87985 0.178' Q,S3~94, 0.2W 0.796.2'. 0.278 0.75730 0.328 0:72036 0.3780;68523 '0.428 0.65181 0.478 0.62002
0.029 0.97142; .0.079 0.92404 ,0.129 0.87897.' 0.1}9, .0.8360 0.229..0.19533'. '0.279 0.75654 0.329 0.71964 0.379 0.68454 0.429 0.65116 0.479 0.61940
.0.030' 0.9.7045: .0.080,..0.923'12 . 0.130 0.87810 .0180 .083~27 023' < -: 0.280 0.75578 0.3300;71892 . 0.380 '0;68386 0.4300.65051 0.480 0.61878
00 . . . J. • ',0. 0.79453 0.281 0.75503 0.331 M1821 '0.38'10;68318 .'0;431 ;0.64986 : 0.481 0.61816
.3h .0,96948 .0.081 .0.9-2219 0.131 .0.87122 0.181 0.83444' 0.23tO.19174'
o.on 0.96851 . 0.082 0.92127 .0.132 0.S,7634· . .0.182, 0.8~36O.' .0.232. 0.7~9~. 0.282 0.75427 0.332 0.1'749 0.382 iO:682SO o.<t32 0:64921 ; 0.482 0.61755
0.033 0,96754 . ~.0830.92035 0.133 0.87$47 0.1.83 O.Snn· 0.233 0.192lS' 0.283 O.7S~U '0•.333 0.7rlm U83 '0:68181 0.433 0.648~ 0.483 0.61693
0.034 0.966'''7 .0.084 0.91943 .0.134 :0.87459;. 0;184 0.83194 0.234 0.791~6 0.284 0.15'117 '0.334 ·,·0.116050.384· '0.68113 0.4340;64791 ' 0.484 0.61631'.
.:

0.035 0.;96561 0.085 .0.91851 0.135 0.81371 0.185 0;S3110 .0.235. .0.79057 0,285 O.15lOt 0.3350.71n.... 0.3850:6W45. 0.4350.64726 ! OAS5 0.61570
.o.Q36 0.96464 0.086 0.91759 0.116, 0.87284. 0.186 0.83Q21 0.236 ".0,78918 .0.286 0.m26 '0.3360.11462 :O~3~ ~9:67~77 0.436 0:64662 ! 0.486 0.61508
0,()3.7< 0.96368. 0.087 0.91666 0.l37 0.87197 0.187. :0.82944 0.237 .0.18899" ·0.287 . 0:7~J 'O.337·0.7tnl OJ87 l«67909 '0.437 '0.64597'; 0.4870.6J447 .'
0.03.8 _J).96211 .0.08.8.0.91576 0.i38.0.871iO., 0.18~.O;82$61 O.23S·0.til820'.c 0.2880.14~76 '0.338 0;1UlO- :0.3~ :0;67841. 0.438' 0.64533 : 0.488 0.61385 ~;
0.039 0,96115 0.089 0.91485' 0.J.39 .o:8·1Q23 0.1~9 '0,~2119 0.239;~.o;?il74( 0.289 0.74901 0.339 .0.1Im· 0.'389 '0.67773 0;439 .~:64468 0.489 0.61324;
.o.04q 0;96079 0.090 0.91393 0.140 0.8693.6 O.i90, .0.82696 .0.240.'.o.,z·8§63 .0.290 0.74826
g:g:~ 0.95983'
0.9;588.7
0.091, .0.91302
0.092'0.91211
.0.141 0.86~Oj'
.0·1420.86162
0.f91 ',0.$2613
0.192, ·,O.82~31·.
.o.24J· .o.iS584
.0.242 '0:18506
0.291
0.292
0.14152
0.74677
0.340 0.71171
0.341 0.71106
0.342 .0.71035
0.390j:i~67706
0.39J0.61638
0.392: 0.67570
0.440
0.441
0.442
.0.64404
0.64339
0,64275
,0.490
0.491
0.492
0.61263 "~
0.61201 "~
0.61140::
0.043 0.9'791
0.044 ·0.95695.
0.093 0.91119
0.094,.0.910~8
0.143 0.86675
.o.,l440.86~89
.0.1.93 0.82448
0.1940.$2~66
0.24Lo:78!li7'
.0.244: 0.7834~
·0.293
0.294
0.74602
,0.74528
0.343 .0.70964
0;3440.70193
0.3~ ~O:61S03
0.394 q.67435
0.443
0.444
0:.64211·
0.64147
0.493.
0.494
0.61079 't
0.61018 '.~
. ;.-, ", " .. '.. '
0.04' 0.9S6oQ, 0.095 0.909.37 .0.145 0.86502 .0.195 0.8228) O.24L 0.78270' .0,295 . 0.7445.3 of
0.345 0.70822 o.J95 O.i7368 0.445 0~64082 0.495 0.60957·
0.046 .o.95S04· 0.096. 0,90846. .o~l46, .0.86416 0.1.96: 0.82201. 0.246' 0.7'8191 0.296 - 0.74379 0.346 0.70m 0.396 ,~.6.7301 0.446 0.64018 0.496 0.60896 .;
0.047 .o.9~90.097. 0,9Q.710, 0.147 0.86;13(} 0.1.97 0.82U9 0.:24.1.',0.'781Iil 0.297 0.74304 0.347 O.~I 0.397U7~3 0;447 Q;6393'" ,0.497 0.60835:
0.048.' 0.953.]3 0.098 0.90665 0.148 0.86243 0.19.8. 0.8203.7' .0.248,0.780311 0.298 0.74230 0.348 0.70610 0,3.98.0.67166 ,0.448 0.63890 0.498 0.60774 i
0.049'- .0.95218 p.099 .o.90S74 o.wi 0.86151 0..199. 0.8(95." 0.t49'''Q.17~8 0.299 0.74156 0.349 0.70539 0.399' 0.67099· .0.449 0.63827 0.499 0.60714 .
-- - (
LIV
uJ --

-
Table 1- Contd.
r
Table 1- Contd.

It - At:", 0:500 8-AI-0.750 <II = Ai - 0.999

'. a = M - 0.749 At e-Ar 1t a-)J ·At a-olt e-J.t It 8-).1

.AI 8-J.,
At e-:U .M
. At e-olt
0.500· . 6.601'53
.' At 8*"'A.1
At 8.-.~" 0,,750 6;41237 . 0'.800 0'.44933 O,8SO 0,42741 0.9QP 0.40657 Q;9SO' 0.38.674
6.5$6 0':;;7695 'O:6bO 0.47189 . 0.44888 0,851- 0;901 0.40616
O'.5Ql 0.60592 0.54881 O'.6~ 0;52205 0.751' O.SOL 0.42699 .0.951 0'.38635
'0:551 0.57631 0.601· .0,54826 . 0.1()()'O.49659 0:752 0.4.7142 0.802 0.44843 0.852 0.902 0.40576 0.38596
0'..562 0.60532 0'.651- 0.521$2. 0.42656 0.952.
0.532' 0.575.80 ' tl~602j 0:701 0.49609 0';753 0:47095 0'.80'3 0'.44798 0'.853 O'.426U O.!)()3 0.95.3 0.3'8558
0'.503. 0.60471 0.'553' 0.57522 0.$4712 ..0.652 0',52100 0.40535
i):603:: -0.54717 ',·0.702- 049359 0".754 0.41048 0.804 0;447'~4 0';854 0..904 0.40495-
0.:504 0.60411 . (j.6'S3 0:32048 0.42571 0.954 0.38520
0.554 0,57465 0'.664,' 0'.5.4662 '(9:~S4. \O~703;' 0.49.SIO
0.505 0.51996 . ti:i04· 0.49400 0,7'55· 0.47001 0'.-805 0.44709 0';855 0.42528 a.9OS 0.49454 0'.955 0.3848.1
0.60351 0.555 0.57407
0.506 '0.60'290 0.1505 0.54607 0.:655 0'.5-19044 ··.O~105 0'.49411 0.756 0';469$4 0.806 0.446"64 0',856 0.42486 :(J;906 0-.40414- .. 0,956 0.38443
0'.5"56 ();'5'7340 0':606 0;54553'
0:507 4;>.60'230' "'0.'656 0,51892 0~757 0.46907 0'.807 0.44619 0.857 0.42443' , 0':907 0.40373' 0.957 0.38404 >
0'.557 0.57293 -0.607 ','0.706 0;49361 0',158 0'.908
0.S08 0.60170 fB4498 ,0;657 0.5f840 0;7.0:'7' OA~lf2 0.46860 0.808 0'.44575 0.858 0'.42401 0,40333 0'.958' 0.38366
0.551f 0'57235 -0.608 0;54444-
0:50'9 0.60110 0.6$8 0-.'1789 .,.0.-'1.0S· 0'.759 "().46~13 0.809 0.44.530' 0.8$9 0.42359 '0'.90'9 0.40293 0:959 0.38.328
0;559 0:57178 0'.609 0.54389 0.49263
'0',652 0.51-137 .. ;0'.709 0.7.60 . 0'.81.0 0,44486
.0.510 0:600$0 '0'.560 0';$7111 0.492'14 0'.46767 0'.1l60 0-42316 0.910' 0'.40252 0.960 0.38289
o.sn 0'.59990 ·0.61Q 0.54335 '-0.660 0.761 0'.46720' 0'.811 0'.44441 0.:861 0'.42274 0'.911 0'.40212 0'.961 0.38251
0.561 0.57064 0'.611 O.51§85 G"lIO _0.49,164-
. 0 ..512 . 0.599"30 0.54281
00513.
0.514
0'.59870
0.59810
0.562
0.563
0.57007
0'.56950'
0'.612 0.54227
0.613 054i72
0.661 0.51663
0,662 0.5IS82
0.§63 0'.51530'
O:nl· 0;49115
0;712 0.49066
0.762
0'.763 .
0.7!>4
0;46673
0.46627
0'.46580
0'.812
0'.8-13
0.814
0.44397
0.44353
0,4430'8.
0.862
0'.863 ·g:!~i~~
0'.864 0'.42147
0';91l
0.91)
0.914
0'.40112
0.40U2
0.40092
0:9"62
'0.963
0';?64
0.38213
0.3,8175
·0:38136'
0.564 '0'.56893 0.614 ·0.7f3: ().49017.
0'.54118 Q664' 0.51479.
~.515 0.59750 0.565 0.56836 '·0.714 ().48~68 0.765 0'.46533 0.815 0'.44264 ,0.865 0'.42105 ,0.915 0.400.52 0.965 .0,38.0'98"-
0'.516 0.59690 0'.615 0'.5-4064 0.665 0;766 0.46487 0'•.816 0.44220' 0'.866 0'.42063 0'.916 0;966 0.38060'
0.566 0 •.56779 0.51427 '0.71$ 0.48919 0.4001;2
0.517 0'.59631 ·0.616 0.5-4010' '0,666 Q.767 0':46440' 0:.817 0.44175 0.867 0'.420'2i. 6.917 0.39972 0,967 0.38022
0;567 0.56722 0'.51376 0.716 0.48870
0.518 0.59571 0.617 0'.53956 0';6/;7 0'.51325 0~.768 0;46394 0'.818 0';44131 0.868 0'.41979 0.918 0~3993Z
0.568 6;56666 0'.717 0.48821 0.968 0.37984
0.519 0.59512 0.618 0.53902 0.668 0.51273. 0:769 0'.4f)348 0':8:19 0.44087 0.869 0.41937 O',3989Z
0.569 0.56609 0'.718 0.48113 0 ..919 0.969 0.37946
0'.619 0.53848 0'.669
0'.520 0.51222 0,719 0'.487,24 '0.770' 0.4630'1 0.:820 0.41895
0.59452 0.570 0.56553 0.44043 0.870 0.920' 0.39852 0.970 0'.37908.
0'.521 0.59393 0.·620 0'.53794
0.522
0,52-3
0.59333
059274
0'.571 0.56496
0':572 0.5&140
0.573
0'.621 0'.53741
0.622 . 0.53687
0.670 0'.51171
0.671 0'.51120
0'.672 0.510Ei9
0.720' 0.48675
0.721 0.486il1
0':171
0:772
0.773
0.46255
0'.46209
0.46163
"0.821
0'•8
. 22
0'.8"23
0:43999
0'.4395.5
Q.43911
0'.871
0'.872
0'.873
0',41853
0.41811
0.41770
0.921
0.922
0.923
g:;~~~i
0.3})73:3'
0'.971
'0.972
0;971
0'.37870
0.3'1833
0.31795
0,524 0.56383 0.623 0.53633 0".722 0.48578
0.59215 0:574 0;56327 0'.673 0':5:1018 '()..123 -0.48529 0:714 0';4611.6 0'.824 0'.43867 0.874 0.41728 0.924 0'.39693 0.914 0.37757
0.624 0~S3580' 0.674 0'.$0'967
0.525 0'.59156 0.575 0'56270' O.7U 0.4&421 0.775 ' 0.46010' 0'.825 0.43823 0.875 0.41686 0':925 0.396.53 0'.97.5 0'.17719
0.526 '0.625 0.53526 0.675 0'.50916
0.5999(1 0.576 0'.56214 '-0.'626 0:,53473 0.125 0';48432 0.776 0.4601;4- 0'.826 0'.43780 0.876 0'.41645 0'.926 0'.39614. 0'.976 0'.37682
0';527 0:59037' 0.577 0';676 0.50865 0..777 0'.45978 0'827 0.4-3736 0',871 0.41-603
0:5,6158 0'.627 0'.53419 0.726 0.48384 0.927 0'.39574 0.977 0.37644
0:528 0'.S8978 0'.$78' 0,56102 0.677 0.50814 0',727 0.483"36 0;778 0..45932 .. 0.828 0~4~692 0.87\! 0.41561 OA92.8 0.39534 0'.978 0'.3160.6
0',529 0'.58919 0.628 0';53366 .0'.678
0.579 0.56046 . 0:629 0;53312 0.50163 0'.728 0.48287 0';779 0.458.86 0'.829 0'.43649 0.879 0'.41520' ,Q.929 0.3')495 0.979 0.37569
0'.530' 0;'679 0'.50712 '··0';729
0.58860 0;580' 0;55990 0;48239 0.780' 0:45841 .0'..830 0.43605 0';880 0.41478 .0.930 0'.39455 0;980 0'.37531
0.531 0,58802 0.630 0.53259 0.6ilO 0.50662
0.581· 0,55934 0'.63'1 ·0,,730 0.481'91 0~781 0'.45795 0.831 0.43561 0.•881 0.41437 0'..931 0'.39416 :0',981 0'.37494
0.$32. 0'.58743 0'.53206 'O':-6IU 0'.5061.1
0.582 0,53878 0',632 0.53153 0.731 0.48143 '0.782 0.45749 0.832 0.43517 0.882 0.4Q95 6.932 O'.~9377 0:982. 0'.;n~56
0.533 0.58684 0.583 0.682 0.50560 0'.41354- 0'.-933
0:55822 0.633 '0.732 0.48d95 0.783,. 0.4.57.03 0',83'3 0'.43474. .0.883 0'.39331 0.983 0'.3.1419
0 •.53"4 0.58626 0.584 0.53100 ' 0.683 0.50510
0'.55766 9;634 0:53047 0.733 OAS047 0.784- 0'.456'58 6.834- 0'.43431 0.884 0.413.13 0.934 0.39298' 0.984- 0'.37381
0.53".5. . 0';684 0.50439
0'.58567 0'.585 0:55711 -0.734 {).47999
0.536 0.635 0',52994 . '-0'.685- 0.5Q409 0'.785 0'.45612 0'.1135 .6,43387 0'.885 0'.41271 0';935- 0.39259 .0.985 0.3'7344-
0.5850'8 0.586 0;55655 0,7;35 0'.47951 0;786 ' 0.45566 :O.83t; 0.433044- OJ~81S 0'.41130 0.3'9219 Q.986 0.37309
0;53.7 0.58450' 0.636 0'.52941 ..
0;686 0.50'359 0'.936
0'.58,7 0'.55599 0'.637 . 0.7-36 0,47903 0.787 0'.45520' 0.837 0.4330'1 0',88'7 0.41189 0.937 0.3.9180 O.9S} 0,37269
0:538 0.58391 0:52888 0.687 0.50'30'8
0;.'539 0.588 0'.55544 0 ..<i3"8 0.52835 0.737 0.47.855 O';J88 0.45478 .0.838 0.43~7 0'.8&8 0.41148 0.938 {j,39141 . 0.988 0'.37323
0.58333 0;589 0.5.5488. 0.688 0'.50'2'58 "0.7'38 0.4780'7 ·0'.4543.0' ();989 '0'.37195
0..6;l9 0.52782 . 0.68'9 0.50'208 0.789 (t839 0.43214 0'.889 0'.4110'7 0.939 0.3910'2
'0.540 0.58275 0':739 0.477.59
0':590 0';55433 0'.640 0'.52729 0.790' 0,45384 0.840 0.43171 0'.890 0'.41066 0.940 0.39063 0,990 0.37158
0.541 0:58217 0.591 0.690 -0.50158
0.542 0:'55377 0'.641 0.52617 0.740 0.477J1 0.791 0'.45339 0.84-1 0.43128 0.891 0041025 0.241 0.390'24- 1);991 0.37i21
0.58]58 0.592 0.~5312 0.<i91 0.50107
0.543 0.642 '0.5262..4 0.·741 0.47664 0.792, 0.45294 0';8.42 0.43085 '0..89'2- 0'.40984 0';942 0"'38985 0'.992 0'.37083
0'.58100 6;593 0,5526.7 0.692 -0.50057 "0:742
0.544 '0.58042 0.643 0.52571 0'.693 0.47616 a.793 OA.524~ 0~8.4~ 0.43042 0'.893 0.40943 0.943 :0.38946 0';993 -0,37046
0.594 0',55211 (f644 .. 0;50007 'Q:74~ 0.47568 0'.42999 0;994 0.37009
0'.52519 0.694- 0.794 0.4520'3 0';844 0'.8~4 0.40902 0.944 0.38907
'0.545 0.57984 0.49957 . '0.744 0.47321
0.595 Q~.55'15·6 0.645 0.52466 0'.45158 0':995 0.36972
0.546 9·57926 0;695 0.49907 0.795 0':845 0.42956 0.895 0'.401;161 0;945 0'.3'881)8
0~596 :0:'5510'1 0'.646 0';745 0.'<1''1473 0.79.6 . 0.4.51i3 -0.42913 ,0,996 0.3'6935
0.547 '0'.57868
'.'
0.52414 0:'69.6 0.49858 ·0.846 0'.896 0.40320' .' 0.:946 0.38829
0:597 0':55046 0."647 0.52361 '. 0'7~ 0:47426· C}'79.7 0.45068
0.548 0'~57810' 0~697 0.4980'8' 0':847 0.42870 0.891 0.40.779 ·0';94'7 6.38790 0.997 0.3~898
0'.549' 0:598 0:54991 0'.648 0.5230'9 ' ·0:698 "0;747 0.'47379 0'045023 .0.'998 0.36861
0.57753 . 0'.599 '0.54936 0:49758 0,798;' 0.848 0.42827 0.898 0'.40738 . 0'~948 0.38752
0:'649 0;52257 :..
' <Q;-'748 0.47331 0.3'6825
0.699 0.49708 CY.799 0.44978 0.849 0.42784 0 ..8.99 Q40698 0.949 0:38713 0.999
().749 0'.47284 .,"'

-
212 Maintenance of Machinery

Table 2 - Table of areas under the normal curve from (J to Z

z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 .0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 '0.09

0.0 0.‫סס‬00 0.0Q40 0.0080' 0.0120 0.0159 0.0199 0.023.9 0.0279 0.0319 0.0359
0.1 0.0398 0.0438 0.0478 0.0517 0.0557 0.0596 0.0636' :..0.0675 Omt4 0.0753
0.2 0.0793. 0.0832 <t0871 0.0910 0.0948 0.0987, 0.1026 0.1064 0.1103 ' 0.1141
0.3 0,1179 0.1217 0.1Z35 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368 0.1406 0.1443. 0.1480 '0.1517'
0.4 0.1554 0.1~1 0.1628 0.1664 0.1700 0,1736 0.1772 0.1808 0.1844 0.1879.
-0.5 0.1915 0.19,50 0;1985 0.2019 0.2054 0.2088 0.2123 0.l157 0.2190 . 0.2224
0.6 0.2257 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0;2422 0:2454 0.2486 0.2518 0.2549
0.7' 0.2580 0.2612 .0;2642 0.2673 0.2704 0.2734 0.2164 0.2794 0.2823 0.2852
0.8 0.2881 0;29,10 0.2939 0.2967 0.2995 .0.3023 0.305} ,0.3078· 0.3106 0.3233
0.9 0.3159 0.3i86 0.3212 0.3238 '·0.3264 0,3289 0;3315 0.3340 0.3365 0.3389
1.0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 a.3485 0.3508 0.3531 0.3554 0.35n 0;3599 0.3621
1.1 0.3643 0.3665 0.3686 0.371-8 0.3729 0.3749 0.37700.3790 . 0.3810 :. 0.3830
U 0.3849 0.3869 0.3888 0.3907 0;3925 0.3944 0,3962 0.3980 0.3997 0.4015
1.3 0.4032 0.4049 0.4066 0.4083 .0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4162 0.41n
1.4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0.4279 0.4292. 0.4306 .0.4319
1.5 0.4332 0.4345 0.4357 .0.4370 0.4382 0.4394 0.4406 0.4418 0.4430 0.4441
1.6 0.4452 0.4463 0.4474 0.44&5 ' 0.4495 0.4505 0.4515 0.4525 0.4535 0.4545
1.7 0.4554 0.4564 0.4573 0.4582 0.4591 0.4599 0.4608 0.4616 0.4625 0.4633
1.8 0.4641 0,4649 0.4656 0.4664 0.4671 0.4678 0.4686 0.4693 0.4699 0.4706
1.9 0.4713 0.4719 0.4726 0.4732 0.4738 0:4744 0.4750 0.4758 0.4762 0.4767
2.0 0.4713 0.4778 0.4783 0.4788 0.4793 0.4798 0.4803 0.4808 0.4812 0.4817
2.1 0.4821 0.4826 0.4830 0.4834 . 0.4838 0.4842 0.4846 0.4850 0.4854 0.4857
2.2 0.4861 0.4865 0.4868 0.4871 0.4875 '0.4878 0.4881 0.48!!4 0.4887 0.48~
2.3 0.4893 0.4896 0.4898 0.4901 0.4904 0.4906 0.4909 0.4911 0.4913 0.4916
2.4 0.4918 0.4920 0.4922 0.4925 0.4927 0.4929 0.993'l 0.4932 0.4934 0.4936
2.5 0.4938 0.4940 0.4941 0.4943 0.4945 0.4946 0.4948 0.4949 0.4951 0.4952
2.6 0.4953 0.4955 0.4956 0.4957 0.4959 0.4960 0.4961 0.4962 :0.4963 0.4964
2.7 0.4965 . 0.49~6 0.4967 0.4968 0.4969 0.4970 0.4971 0.4972 0.4973 0.4974
2.8 0.4974 0.4975 0.4976 0.4977 . 0.4977 0.4978 0.4979 0.4980 0.49800.4981
2.9 0.4981 0.4982 0.4983 0.4984 0.4984 0.4984 0.4985 0.4985 0.49860.4986
3.0 0.49865 0.t9~7 0.4987 0.4988 04988 0.4988 0.4989 0.4989 0.4989 0.4990