Modern Approach To Maintenance in Spinning Compress

Modern approach to
maintenance in spinning
Modern approach to
maintenance in spinning
Neeraj Niijjaawan
and
Rasshmi Niijjaawan
WOODHEAD PUBLISHING INDIA PVT LTD

New Delhi ● Cambridge ● Oxford
Published by Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd.
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First published 2010, Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd.

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Contents
Preface xiii
1 Need of maintenance 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Modes of failure 1
1.3 Role of maintenance 8
2 Role of maintenance 10
2.1 Introduction 10
2.2 Maintenance 11
2.3 Planned maintenance 12
2.4 Unplanned maintenance 17
2.5 Quality-based maintenance 18
2.6 Role of maintenance department in spinning mill 19
3 Proactive maintenance 21
3.1 Introduction 21
3.2 Preventive maintenance 22
3.3 Condition-based monitoring 24
3.4 Benefits of condition-based monitoring 34
3.5 Implementation of condition-based maintenance 34
4 Planning and scheduling 37

4.1 Introduction 37
4.2 General principles of planning 37
4.3 Procedure of planning 38
4.4 Scheduling 40
4.5 Principle of standardization of frequencies and jobs 40
4.6 Principle of cyclic schedule for the maintenance team 41
4.7 Principle of interlinking spare part planning with
maintenance plan and schedule 41
4.8 Operators must act as machine keepers 42
4.9 Maintenance schedule 44
vi Contents
5 Maintenance audit 50
5.1 Introduction 50
5.2 Methodology 50
5.3 Preparation of maintenance audit report 53
5.4 Presenting the report to management 54
6 Role of manpower in maintenance 55

6.1 Introduction 55
6.2 Factors affecting manpower planning 55
6.3 Manpower norms 57
6.4 Maintenance organization structure 58
6.5 Concept of common gang 59
6.6 Responsibilities at various positions 62
6.7 Human error in maintenance 66
6.8 Crew size required for various activities in maintenance
department 68
7 Maintenance repair inventory and its control 71

7.1 Inventory 71
7.2 Types of inventory 71
7.3 Inventory carrying cost 72
7.4 Material and repair inventory 73
7.5 Different methods for controlling the inventory 73
7.6 How to implement the spare parts management? 83
8 Maintenance information systems 89

8.1 Computer-managed maintenance system 89
8.2 Benefits of CMMS 90
8.3 Components of CMMS 91
9 Safety while maintenance 133

9.1 Accident 133
9.2 Effects of an accident 134
9.3 Accidents and its related losses 134
9.4 Cause of accidents 135
9.5 How to prevent accidents? 136
9.6 Electrical safety 144
9.7 House keeping 144
9.8 Workshop/workplace 147
9.9 Machine guarding 147
9.10 Methods and procedure 148
Contents vii
9.11 Safety in shifting material 151

9.12 Safety while unpacking and cleaning 152
9.13 Precautions for handling machine under maintenance 153
9.14 Precautions during spinning operation 154
9.15 Safety tags 155
10 Lubricants 157
10.1 Types of lubricants 157
10.2 Functions of lubricant 160
10.3 Liquid lubricants 160
10.4 Semisolid lubricants 166
10.5 Solid lubricants 172
10.6 Lubricant used in spinning mill 173
10.7 Lubricants handling and storage 175
10.8 Conservation of lubricants 177
10.9 Summary 178
11 Belt drive and its maintenance 183

11.1 Introduction 183
11.2 Flat belt drives 184
11.3 Spindle tape 192
11.4 Flat pulley 197
11.5 V belts 199
11.6 V pulleys 211
11.7 Timing belts 213
12 Steel wire and chain 223

12.1 Steel wire rope 223
12.2 Construction 223
12.3 Design of wire 224
12.4 Classification of steel wire ropes 225
12.5 Measuring wire rope 225
12.6 Wire pulley or sheave 226
12.7 Lubrication 226
12.8 Reason for failure of wire 227
12.9 Chains 228
12.10 Construction of chain 229
12.11 Designation of chain 229
12.12 Chain lubrication 230
12.13 Chain installation 231
12.14 Maintenance of chains 232
12.15 British standard roller chain 233
viii Contents
12.16 American standard roller chain 235

12.17 Leaf chain 237
12.18 Silent chain 238
13 Temporary fasteners 242

13.2 Screwed joint 242
13.3 Different types of bolt/screw 247
13.4 Washer 251
13.5 Nut 252
13.6 Locking device 252
13.7 Key 254
13.8 Tension element 255
13.9 Pins 256
13.10 Retaining rings 256
13.11 Taper lock 257
13.12 Universal joint 258
13.13 Screw hose clamps 259
14 Oil seal and gasket 261

14.2 Material selection 262
14.3 Why garter spring is needed? 265
14.4 Shelf life 265
14.5 Procedure for installation 266
14.6 Reasons for seal failure 268
14.7 Gasket 268
14.8 Effecting a seal 269
14.9 Installation of gasket 270
15 Gears 272
15.2 Spur gear 272
15.3 Helical gears 276
15.4 Worm gears 279
15.5 Bevel gears 282
15.6 Gear trains 284
15.7 Black lash 287
15.8 Lubrication 288
15.9 Reasons for the failure of gear teeth 289
Contents ix
16 Compressed air 290

16.2 Compression of air 291
16.3 Free air or atmospheric air 291
16.4 Analyzing compressed air needs 293
16.5 Production of compressed air 294
16.6 How to specify the right compressor type, capacity and
pressure? 297
16.7 Receiver or tank size for air compressor 301
16.8 Moisture 302
16.9 Quality of water required for compressor 305
16.10 What is oil free compressed air? 306
16.11 Air distribution systems 306
16.12 Pneumatic cylinder 309
16.13 Regulator 313
16.14 Lubricator 314
16.15 Moisture separator 316
16.16 Minimum pressure switch 317
16.17 Filters 318
16.18 Safety valves 319
16.19 Non-return valve 320
16.20 Quick release valve 320
16.21 Micro valve 321
16.22 Speed control device 321
16.23 Time delay valve 322
16.24 Port flow control valve 323
16.25 Silencer 323
16.26 Piping 323
16.27 Pressure hoses 324
16.28 Push-type fitting 324
16.29 Threaded connector 325
16.30 Barbed-type connectors 325
16.31 Solenoid valve 326
16.32 Dial indicator 326
16.33 Compressed air system leaks 328
16.34 Leak detection 329
16.35 Pressure drop and controlling system pressure 330
16.36 Compressor air system economics 331
16.37 Maintenance of pneumatic system 332
17 Bearing and its maintenance 333

x Contents
17.2 Bearing 333

17.3 Types of bearing 337
17.4 Roller bearings 342
17.5 Bearing designation 346
17.6 Internal clearance 348
17.7 Withdrawal sleeves with nut and locking washer 349
17.8 Bearing characteristics 350
17.9 Lubrication of bearing 351
17.10 Mounting of different bearings 353
17.11 Dismounting method of different bearing 359
17.12 Reason for failure of bearings 361
17.13 Examinations of bearing in service 362
18 Tools 365
18.1 Open-ended spanner 365
18.2 Ring spanner 366
18.3 Sockets and accessories 367
18.4 Torque wrench sockets 367
18.5 Allen key 368
18.6 Try square 369
18.7 Steel rule 370
18.8 Feeler gauge 372
18.9 Hammers 373
18.10 Soft hammers 375
18.11 Dial gauge 375
18.12 Spirit level 376
18.13 Vernier calliper 378
18.14 Digital vernier calliper 380
18.15 File 381
18.16 Chisels 384
18.17 Screw driver 384
18.18 Vices 386
18.19 Punch 387
18.20 Hacksaw 388
18.21 Taps 389
18.22 Die and die stock 391
18.23 Grinding wheels 393
18.24 Pliers 394
18.25 Stud extractor 395
18.26 Kit for mounting of bearing 396
18.27 Pullers 398
18.28 Micrometer 400
Contents xi
18.29 Drill 401

18.30 Step ladder 402
18.31 Oil cans 403
18.32 Grease gun 404
18.33 Chalk line 404
18.34 Knife 405
18.35 Plumb bob 405
18.36 Requirement of tool for erection, installation and maintenance 406
19 Tips to fine tune the spinning machinery 408

19.2 Blow room 408
19.3 Card 413
19.4 Drawframe 416
19.5 Comber 417
19.6 Speedframe 419
19.7 Ringframe 421
19.8 Automatic cone winder 426
19.9 Two-for-one twister 432
20 Tips to improve energy saving in spinning mills 435

20.1 Energy 435
20.2 Textile production process 436
20.3 Energy consumption in spinning mill 436
20.4 Maximum cost effectiveness in energy use 438
20.5 Energy conservation measures 438
Index 446
Preface
In every spinning mill the performance of the plant depends on the

reliability, availability and maintainability of the machines, all of which
are of primary importance for ensuring an excellent and affordable product.
Maintenance of equipment is still a challenge due to factors such as size,
cost, complexity and competition. There is a definite need for effective
maintenance practices that will positively influence critical success factors
such as safety, product quality, speed of innovation, price, profitability,
and reliable delivery. Maintenance cost is the major part of the total
operating costs of all manufacturing or production plants. The goal of
maintenance is to keep the production system in good working order at
minimal cost. It is observed in the industry that maintenance functions are
difficult to control due to the following reasons: maintenance work is very
diverse, extent of job unknown, workers have different abilities, and job
can be dependent on the part availability.
The maintenance function of a company run on modern principles, gives
major weightage to production availability performance rates, to cost of
operations and maintenance. Maintenance of machines includes all efforts
directed to keep health of the machine (maintaining at minimum cost),
which leads to the smooth and efficient working of an industrial plant,
thus helping to improve the productivity and hence the profitability of the
company. Effective maintenance is defined as the activity that gives ‘the
maximum level of availability as well as performance of plant’. This is
achieved through maintenance management, involving planning,
organizing control and execution directed at specified objectives that ensure
the company achieves its business objectives. The role of maintenance is
changing and that means the role of maintenance personnel (managers/
engineers) should also change in order to provide competitive products
and services in global economy. Competencies of maintenance personnel
(people and processes) must be enhanced in order to meet the new global
challenges.
The book is written keeping in mind the practical needs of the
maintenance engineer in a textile mill. Sufficient theory is included for a
proper understanding of the principles involved. This book would help to
implement the maintenance management program successfully, which
xiv Preface
includes activities such as work-order scheduling, preventive maintenance,

condition-based maintenance and inventory management.
Students doing diploma and degrees in Textile Technology will find
that the fundamental principles of the subject are given in a simpler way.
This book would help these students as a practical guide when they will
join manufacturing concern.
Comments and suggestions for the improvement of this book from my
wife Dr Rasshmi Nijjaawan are gratefully acknowledged. I am very
thankful to, my daughter Kritika, my mother, my both elder sisters, my
brother-in-law, my younger brother and his wife for their co-operation in
bringing out this book.
Neeraj Niijjaawan
Rasshmi Niijjaawan
1
Need of maintenance
1.1 Introduction
Most of the equipments and machines fail in the spinning industry due to
various types of loads acting in one form or another exceed their limit
value in terms of size or time. These forces helps to initiate the deterioration
process, which leads to failure of the function of component or complete
failure of the component depending upon the intensity of the forces. This
process may be quick or it may take relatively long time; it may be
predictable or unpredictable. These failures may be due to the deficiencies
in the design of the equipment, poor maintenance, negligence’s of the
operator and due to over life of the equipment.
Component Failure
10–15 due to accident 70–80% due to water 10–15% due to design
1.1 Reasons of component failure.
The only reason for the failure of machine components is wear. Wear is
unavoidable and inevitable. The twin task of good management is to keep
wear at the lowest permissible level, and also to detect in right time the
level of wear which can cause failures and then replace the worn out part
before it fails. To do so effectively requires some understanding of the
failure mechanism or process of deterioration that leads to failure.
1.2 Modes of failure

The eleven aspects of failure mechanism are briefly outlined to show how
condition of machines can be monitored using this knowledge.
1.2.1 Wear
Wear can be defined as the progressive loss of material from the surface
of body. The primary cause for wear is a relative motion between two
1
2 Modern approach to maintenance in spinning
surfaces in contact with each other and forces like friction interacting
between them. Wear is a phenomenon in which small particles of material
get removed from the component, eventually producing in observable
decrease in dimensions leading to breakdown or malfunction. Several
factors influence the rate of wear in a complex manner, which makes
theoretical prediction of the extent of wear almost impossible. These factors
are material hardness, material combination, material structure,
temperature, load, speed of relative movement, movement duration, surface
layer (oxides), lubricant and its properties, surface roughness, contaminants
such as particles on surfaces, etc.
Stages of wear
Under normal operating parameters, the property changes during usage
normally occur in three different stages as follows:
● Primary or early stage or run-in period, where rate of change can be
high.
● Secondary or mid-age process, where a steady rate of aging process
is maintained. Most of the useful or working life of the component
is comprised in this stage.
● Tertiary or old-age stage, where a high rate of aging leads to rapid
failure.
Example
The primary cause for wear of wire is due to the work done by the vital
leading edge of metallic wire tooth point in coping with the opposite forces
needed to obtain carding action which separates from fibre to fibre (forces
like fibre/fibre friction and fibre /metal friction interacting between the
relative motion of two rotating parts at this stage). Wear is a phenomenon
in which small particles of material get removed from the component,
eventually producing in observable decrease in dimensions leading to round
edge of wire. Due to this round edge there is a loss of carding power
because the point condition has deteriorated to an extent where they can
not hold on the fibre against carding resistance between two revolving
parts. This ultimately leads to fibre becoming rolled into nep results into
the deteriorating of carding sliver.
Several factors influence the rate of wear of wire, which makes
theoretical prediction of the extent of wear almost impossible. These factors
are metallic wire hardness, material used for making wire, type of fibre,
temperature, setting, speed of relative movement, movement duration,
production rate surface roughness, contaminants such as dust and trash
particles on surfaces, etc.
Need of maintenance 3
New lickerin wire Worn wire
1.2 Worn wire due to fibre processing.
1.2.2 Adhesive wear

Adhesive is that form of wear, which occurs when metallic surfaces of
two components have a relative motion, which may be sliding, rolling or
reciprocating type. In a spinning mill friction occurs because of textile
materials – fibre, sliver, roving or yarn – coming in contact with metallic
or ceramic surfaces.
Even the smoothest surfaces have crest and valleys at micro-levels.
Relative motion causes crests of mating components to shear and thereby
cause loss of material.
Example of friction in spinning processes are of two kinds: inter-metallic
friction like shaft rotating in a brush in bush bearings or ball bearings,
ring with travellers, two gears meshing; and textile material to metal friction
such as of cotton with beaters in the blowroom, yarn with the travellers or
with thread guides, etc.
The amount of friction depends on the coefficient of friction between
two surfaces in contact, active load, surface finish of mixing component,
lubrication, nature of motion-sliding, rolling, reciprocating, etc.
1.2.3 Abrasive wear

Abrasion occurs due to grinding and rotating action of foreign metal and
dust particles on base metal surface. Minute particles dislodged from the
component also again act as foreign particles.
Abrasion occurs in metallic wire during grinding, i.e. rotating action of
grinding roller on the wire points of metallic wire. Minute particles of
wire dislodged from the wire thus reduce the height of wire in every
grinding.
The extent of abrasion depends on the type of abrasives, i.e.
hardness, shape of particles, size of particles, speed of impact,

direction of flow, pressure at which particles strike, operating
conditions (mainly pressure of abrasive material on the component),
hardness of wire, and manufacturing material of wire. Figure 1.3
shows the effect of grinding.
New wire Worn wire Resharpen wire
1.3 Effect of grinding.
1.2.4 Impact wear

An impact is a high force or shock applied over a short time period. Such
a force or acceleration can sometimes have a greater effect than a lower
force applied over a proportionally longer time period. These types of
wear act mostly when some foreign material comes between the metallic
wires of two surfaces along with fibre.
The extent of impact wear depends on the amount of load, frequency
of blows, hardness of component hitting the base metal, ductility of base
metal and duration of impact. The major three reasons for impact wear
are sudden very high load, repetitive high load and repetitive low load
resulting in chipping, cracking and fatigue, respectively, as shown in the
Fig. 1.4.
Damaged tooth
of wire
1.4 Result of impact wear.

1.2.5 Fatigue
Fatigue comes into effect on metal due to repeated cycles of stress. In this
type of failure there is no obvious warning but cracks form without
appreciable deformation of structure making it difficult to detect the
presence of growing cracks. Fractures usually start from small nicks or
scratches or fillets which cause a localised concentration of stress. Failure
can be influenced by a number of factors including size, shape and design
of the component, condition of the surface or operating environment.
Fatigue initiates and aggravates cracking and ultimately results in
breaking the material leading to breakdown of the machine. The main cause
for fatigue failure is dynamically acting loads which cause a normal stress
below the plastic flow level of metal. A corrosive atmosphere may
accelerate the fatigue process due to interaction with the crack propagation
process. Acceleration also may take place at elevated temperatures due to
combined effect of crack propagation and plastic flow.
Several factors causing fatigue are operation related effects, i.e. vibration
and dynamic load; environmental related effects, i.e. corrosive exposure in
addition to load; and influence of high temperature; design related effects,
i.e. notches in critical cross-section and unfavourable material selection.
Factors that affect fatigue life

● Cyclic stress state. Depending on the complexity of the geometry
and the loading, one or more properties of the stress state need to be
considered, such as stress amplitude, mean stress, biaxiality, in-phase
or out-of-phase shear stress, and load sequence.
● Geometry. Notches and variation in cross-section throughout a part
lead to stress concentrations where fatigue cracks initiate.

● Surface quality. Surface roughness cause microscopic stress
concentrations that lower the fatigue strength.

● Material type. Fatigue life, as well as the behaviour during cyclic
loading, varies widely for different materials, e.g. composites and

polymers differ markedly from metals.
● Residual stresses. Welding, cutting, casting and other manufacturing
processes involving heat or deformation can produce high levels of

tensile residual stress, which decreases the fatigue strength.
● Size and distribution of internal defects. Casting defects such as gas
porosity, non-metallic inclusions and shrinkage voids can

significantly reduce fatigue strength.
● Environment. Environmental conditions can cause erosion, corrosion,
or gas-phase embrittlement, which all affect fatigue life. Corrosion

fatigue is a problem encountered in many aggressive environments.
● Temperature. Higher temperatures generally decrease fatigue strength
1.2.6 Corrosion
Corrosion can be defined as the disintegration of a material into its
constituent atoms due to chemical reactions with its surroundings. In
the most common use of the word, this means a loss of electrons of
metals reacting with water and oxygen. Weakening of iron due to
oxidation of the iron atoms is a well-known example of electrochemical
corrosion. This is commonly known as rusting. This type of damage
typically produces oxide(s) and/or salt(s) of the original metal.
Corrosion can also refer to other materials than metals, such as ceramics
or polymers. Although in this context, the term ‘degradation’ is more
common. Corrosion can be concentrated locally to form a pit or crack,
or it can extend across a wide area to produce general deterioration.
While some efforts to reduce corrosion merely redirect the damage into
less visible, less predictable forms, controlled corrosion treatments such
as passivation and chromate-conversion will increase a material’s
corrosion resistance.
1.5 Pin corroded due to atmospheric condition.
1.2.7 Erosion
Erosion takes place due to fluids which are in the form of colloidal
suspension. The resultant abrasive flow at high speed grinds on particles
from base metal surface, e.g. in textile mill this process occurs in wet
processing such as bleaching and dyeing.
1.2.8 Cavitation
When a liquid flows on a metal surface at high speed, minute bubbles are
formed which explode on the surface. This generates shock waves giving
rise to fatigue spots and then to removal of the spots causing pits on the
base metal surface, e.g. in textile mills such pitting occur in wet processing
such as bleaching and dyeing.
1.2.9 Mechanical over load

The failure or fracture of a product or component in a single event is known
as mechanical overload. It is a common failure mode and may be contrasted
with fatigue, creep, rupture, or stress relaxation. Failure may occur because
either the product is weaker than expected owing to a stress concentration,
or the applied load is greater than expected and exceeds the normal tensile
strength, shear strength or compressive strength of the product.
1.6 Belt broken due to overload.
1.2.10 Ozone
Ozone is a modified version of normal oxygen available in atmosphere.
Normally oxygen referred as O 2 contains two oxygen atoms where as ozone
contains three atoms O 3. Ozone is highly reactive and has a strong
bactericidal action on various substances.
Ozone is present everywhere. The atmosphere of the earth has an ozone
layer at about 40–50 km which absorbs ultraviolet rays from the sun.
Usually the concentration of ozone in the atmospheric air varies from 0 to
7 per hundred million. In the spinning department, repeated air changes
are responsible for producing ozone little more than atmospheric
concentration. The effect of ozone will be severe on the rubber, especially
when it is in stretched condition by over 5%.
Ozone has high reactivity. Every ozone molecules react with a chain of
polymer molecules and break the chain. Rubber under stress is an easy
target for ozone reaction. Aprons used in the spinning mill consist of
polymeric chain and they are in the stretched condition on the machine.
Hence they are prone to reaction with ozone.
Factors that influencing ozone concentration in the department:
1. Modern spinning plants have generally the facility of changing the
air as high as 45 per hour. With more air changes, the ozone attack
on the apron will be higher.
2. Over-head cleaners increase the volume of air discharge on the drafting
zone of ring spinning, this increases the possible reaction by ozone.
3. If the apron is coated by some foreign matter like wax, it gets protected
from ozone attack. This can always be seen in an apron that has
worked for long time. The ozone crack always starts from the corners.
In the middle portion of apron, it will be minimum as the traverse
area is protected by wax coating from cotton.
4. Cleaner the atmosphere, higher will be the chances for ozone reaction.
Generally the dust particles present in the air react with ozone. If the
air is clean, more ozone is available for reaction with rubber.
1.2.11 Heat
Surfaces exposed to cyclic high temperature get changed in microstructure
resulting in thermal fatigue. This results in micro-cracks or scaling, e.g.
wearing of rings and travellers and development of cracks in the belt due
to high temperature.
1.7 Cracks are developed due to improper ventilation.
1.3 Role of maintenance

Any in-effective management in the spinning industry results to a big loss
to the company as poor maintenance directly affects the quality of the
products. It affects the reliability of the plant due to high production down
time, low production availability, high overtime labour cost and
maintenance cost.
Effective maintenance management system helps to reduce the cost of
spare parts, minimizes the repair time and associated labour cost. Ultimately
it helps to attain the goal of company as it reduces the negative impact of
expedited shipment and loss of production at the minimum maintenance
cost. Good effective maintenance means improving product quality,
productivity and overall effectiveness of the manufacturing and production
of the spinning plant, hence the profitability of the plant.
Good maintenance system is the attitude that uses the actual condition
of the actual operating condition of the plant equipment and system to
optimize the plant operations. It uses the cost-effective tools to obtain the
actual operating condition of the critical plant system and based on this
actual data scheduled its maintenance activities. Further it helps to identify
and quantify the root cause of failure mode and make the system to
eliminate and improve the overall equipment effectiveness. Hence good
management system helps to improve or eliminate the following six
crippling shop floor losses:
1. Machine breakdown
2. Setup and adjustment slowdown
3. Idling and short-term stoppages
4. Reduced capacity
5. Start-up losses
6. Quality-related losses
References
1. NIJHAWAN N . (2006) Comprehensive Hand Book of Maintenance in Spinning
Part-1, The Textile Association (India).
4. NSK Roller bearing catalogue and operating manual (Cat no. E1101e).
5. Operating instruction for the high production card C1/3 issued in
November 1987.
6. Rieter Card C-61 Instruction manual, year 2002.
7. S.K.F Machine Analyst CD version 1.00.
8. S.K.F Bearing Maintenance Hand Book, year 1992.
9. Industrial Engineering and Management Science by T. R. BANGA, N. K. AGARWAL,
S . C . SHARMA , Edition 1993.
10. Maintenance Management in Spinning by South India Textile Research
Association, Coimbatore, Edition 1999.
11. A Text Book of Machine Design by DR . P .C . SHARMA and DR. D.K. AGARWAL.
12. Proper Installation and Maintenance Can Prolong the Life of V-Belts, by JOHN
C . ROBERTSON, maintenance reliability specialist.
13. Timing belt from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
14. V belt and Timing Belt installation and maintenance, by BANDO .
15. GatesFacts™ Technical Information Library (Gates Compass™ Power
Transmission CD-ROM version 1.) The Gates Rubber Company Denver,
Colorado USA.
16. Basics of belt drive by JOSEPH L . FOSZCZ , Senior Editor, Plant Engineering
Magazine – Plant Engineering.
17. Take the right steps to ensure proper drive belt alignment, by DAN PARSONS, Senior
Project Engineer, Gates Corp., Denver – Plant Engineering, 6/1/2006.
18. The Complete Guide to Chain, Tsubakimoto Chain Co.
19. Instruction Manual Connect/Disconnect Instructions for Silent Chain Published
by the member companies of the American Chain Association.
2
Role of maintenance
2.1 Introduction
In a spinning mill the profitability of plant depends on the reliability,
availability and maintainability of the machines. In a spinning mill, the
present trend is to use most sophisticated and automated machines with
complicated process control systems. All the machines work around the
clock in an environment comprising dirt, dust, high relative humidity and
high temperature. Hence, it puts an additional responsibility on the
maintenance department as good maintenance ‘Patches out’ the work
thereby decreasing the number of disruptions leading to the maximization
of availability of machines for output. Spinning is a continuous process
and failure of one machine can disrupt the production of whole plant.
Good maintenance permits maximizing the production rate without causing
difficulties or without needing more attention from operators.
Maintenance role is changed substantially in the spinning mills since
the last two decades. In 1970, management believed in taking action only
after the failure of machine or equipment. In this type of mechanism cost
is very high. The major expenses involved in this type of maintenance are
high spare inventory cost, high overtime labour cost, high machine down
time and low production availability, as no body anticipate the maintenance
requirements. In 1990 the trend changed to preventive maintenance. This
type of maintenance system intended to prevent the unscheduled down
time and premature equipment failure. This type of system is a time-driven
schedule and involved recurring tasks such as lubrication, cleaning and
adjustments that are designed to maintain the acceptable level of reliability
and ability of machine. In 2000 the maintenance involved predictive
maintenance, in addition to preventive maintenance. In this system, instead
of relying on average life statistics to determine the schedule activities,
one uses direct monitoring system of the mechanical condition, system
efficiency and other indicators to determine maintenance activity of each
machine in the spinning plant.
Hence, maintenance is changing its role in the spinning mill as it plays
a major role in contributing the profitability of plant by supplying consistent
quality products and services and thereby adding value.
10
Role of maintenance 11
Third Generation
Preventive Maintenance
+
Second Generation Predictive Maintenance
Techniques
+
Hybrid (Best of
Preventive Mainte- Preventive and
First Generation nance Predictive Maintenance)
+ +
Unplanned Mainte- Failure modes and effect
nance analysis
+ +
Run to life Systems for Expert systems
Maintenance Planning and +
Controlling work Multiskill and Teamwork
2000 on ward
1970–80 1990–2000
2.1 Changing role of maintenance department.
2.2 Maintenance
The maintenance function of a company run on modern principles, i.e. not
to attend the problem after the breakdown but to prevent all the problems,
in advance, created by the machines and systems. The mission of
maintenance department is to optimise availability of machine for
production at the best operating condition, to reduce the cost of operations
and maintenance by maximum utilization of maintenance resources.
Maintenance of machines can be defined as those activities which are
required to keep the good health of the machine to have original productive
capacity.
A sound maintenance policy should have the following objectives in a
spinning mill.
1. Optimum availability – to maximize the service life of all assets, i.e.
production machinery, ancillary equipments, etc.
2. Optimum operating condition – to permit the highest production rates
consistent with good yarn quality.
3. Safety – to ensure full safety of personnel dealing with machinery
and equipments.
4. Maximum utilization of maintenance resources – to produce the good
quality yarn at the optimum maintenance cost.

5. Optimum equipment life – one way to reduce the maintenance cost
is to increase the useful life of plant equipment.
6. Minimum spare inventory – reduction in the major inventor is the
major goal of maintenance department.
7. Ability to react quickly – maintenance department must be able to
attend the unexpected failure in least time.
Hence, maintenance may be defined as the work necessary to maintain
and preserve the machines and accessories in a suitable condition.
Maintenance
Planned Maintenance Unplanned Maintenance Continuous Improvement

Eliminates breakdown Dealing with problems Modification, Improvement
and disruptions through and breakdown when in design
a program of lubrication they occur
and adjustments in
machines hence ensure
continous process
2.2 Structure of maintenance.
2.3 Planned maintenance

Planned maintenance is used to prevent or delay failures from developing.
Planned service is carried out with the explicit additional objective of
detecting weak points and ensuring perfect functioning by replacing the
defective parts. Thus, after every service, a machine becomes as good as
new and acquires high degree of reliability till the next cycle comes.
Planned maintenance employs statistical methods to determine the life
expectancy of parts and materials and it thereby establishes more accurate
measurement. Planned maintenance requires planning of workload for the
maintenance team in advance. This entails both a planning effort, which
may be considerable, and a faithful implementation, and of course proper
record-keeping.
Planned Maintenance
Preventive Predective Proactive Evaluation Quality Computer Analysis

of Based Managed
Maintenance Maintenance
2.3 Types of maintenance.

In order to obtain the greatest benefit from the system and to operate at
maximum economy, planning should be thorough and recording must be
followed up. Analysis of recorded data would assist in manpower
scheduling and maintenance planning by indicating servicing time. Past
failures may point to inferior parts or materials that need to be avoided in
future. In addition, analysis of reasons for breakdown may indicate the
need for action concerning fitter training, materials used for spares and
machine itself.
2.4 Flow chart of planned maintenance.
2.3.1 Preventive maintenance

Preventive maintenance is a periodic or time-based maintenance to ensure
the reliability of any machine to run on with its original capacity, and to
focus primarily on maintaining the machine based on its known condition.
Preventive maintenance tasks should be done where failures cannot be
detected in advance. This mechanism provides as much attention as the
equipment requires to the best judgment and ability of the planner.
Scheduling is done on the basis of maintenance guidelines and
recommendations of manufacturers. The shorter the interval and the more
detailed the service, the better is the assurance we have against breakdowns.
As more experience becomes available, the periods may be stretched and
some items of work may be omitted to achieve maximum economy. Timing
may be based on the days, intervals and hours of use. A time-based
preventive program is subdivided into planned activities, which include
replacement of machine parts or accessories on time basis, i.e. daily
maintenance, weekly maintenance, monthly maintenance, quarterly,
biannually and annually.
The most important requirement of preventive maintenance is
procedures and discipline. Procedure means that appropriate actions are
taken at right time and in a proper way as per the work instructions.
Discipline means all the activities are planned and controlled so that
everything is done at a proper time interval, i.e. as per established program.
For good programming and control, following things are essential.

1. List of all the machines and activities to be carried out.
2. A master schedule for a year that breaks down the tasks on the daily,
weekly and monthly basis.
3. Assignment of responsible fitter or foreman to do the work.
4. Updating of records to show when the activity is done and when
next preventive task is due.
Preventive maintenance has the following disadvantages:
1. High moderate maintenance cost.

2. Over-maintenance creates more problem than corrected one.
3. Repetitive repair because of no root-cause analysis.
4. Production loss.
2.3.2 Predictive maintenance

Predictive maintenance is another method used for planned replacement.
This can be used wherever the failure development process can be
predicted; where the failure mechanism gives some form of early warning
signal through detectable changes in the condition of the machine part. In
this system, one regularly monitors the actual mechanical condition of the
machine and process system that provides the data required for deciding
the machine to be taken under maintenance.
Three demands must be fulfilled for the use of condition monitoring
process.
1. The rate of deterioration must be slow enough to permit detection of
failure development, and then to make use of the result to plan and
rectify the fault before failure occurs.
2. The deterioration process must exhibit sufficient (detectable) change
in condition parameters that are relevant.
3. Proper measuring equipment/tool or adequate competence must be
available to detect and interpret the condition.
In predictive maintenance, maintenance is still scheduled, but is based
on the individual components’ proven needs, rather than a recurring
schedule. Condition is usually determined by a combination of non-invasive
techniques: oil analysis, vibration, electronic system testing, operational
data recording (temperature, speed load, working time verses idle time),
etc. The data are evaluated in terms of trends and/or deviation from normal
trends. The basic principle of condition monitoring is to select one or more
suitable measurements which are sensitive to component deterioration and
then to take regular reading of this measurement so that any deteriorating
upward or downward trend can be detected and taken as an indication that

a problem exists in the machine. Condition-based maintenance is ideal for
spinning machinery, which contains components that fail progressively
rather than suddenly; such as wires, cots and aprons.
Condition monitoring is an intelligent and efficient tool with the help
of which one can do need-based planning for corrective action before
failure. To monitor the condition of item in spinning plant, it is necessary
to find some characteristics of its behaviour, which can be measured, and
which gives an indication of deterioration such as nep removal efficiency
in card, yarn end breakage in ringframe, etc.
2.3.3 Proactive maintenance

In this system management, hybrid of the preventive and predictive
maintenance is ideal for spinning plant because most of the vital components
earmarked for planned replacement are such that they fail gradually and
progressively. Here failures are not mechanical failures, i.e. the machine
does not stop but the quality of material processing on the machine
deteriorates. For example, the metallic wire on cards, half lap and top comb
needles on combers, and synthetic cots on ringframes do not break but give
poor working. Fortunately, most of the major repair and replacement activities
can be made condition based rather than arbitrarily fixing their service life
by choosing suitable measurement methods which are sensitive to component
deterioration and/or to poor performance of the concerned machine parts.
Routine and simple activities like cleaning, lubrication and maintenance
of pneumatic components are also done at regular intervals for advantage
of establishing a routine. These are not appropriate for condition-based
monitoring. Condition-based monitoring procedure would become very
inconvenient and rather costly if we go for making a condition-based
procedure for such small activities also.
2.3.4 Evaluation of maintenance program

Audit and review of existing maintenance program not only informs about
the current situation, but provides guidelines for future improvement –
being a superb tool for identifying and implementing improvements that
lead to greater profitability.
Machinery audit should generally cover the following aspects:
1. Review the viability of the machine

Carry out the depth analysis of all the critical components, including
electrical and mechanical, which influence the productivity and quality of
machine, and suggest replacement of parts or machines based on obtained

economics.
2. Review the system of maintenance and inventory

A critical review of current maintenance programs, such as method of
operations, maintenance schedule, inspection procedure, staff employed
and organization, should be done. A detailed investigation of the machine
condition in different departments, like machine alignment, wear and tear
of components, damages, etc., should be conducted. General aspects,
relating to maintenance tidiness, housekeeping, tools and equipments used,
should be reviewed.
3. Optimizing machine settings and processing parameters

All the steps right from mixing to ring spinning, such as cleaning efficiency,
nep removal efficiency, imperfection and breakage, rogue spindles, ideal
spindles, etc., should be studied for balancing production and quality of
product. This will improve the quality of product which in turn will increase
the profitability.
2.3.5 Computer-managed maintenance system

Good maintenance is followed by proper record keeping. Computer-
managed maintenance system is the best solution for record keeping and
proper follow-up. CMMS is a computerized method of controlling the
planning of all tasks involved in maintenance. CMMS schedules, tracks
and monitors maintenance activities, and also provides cost, component
item, tooling, personnel and other reporting data and history.
1. CMMS analysis determines the critical item which needs maintenance.
2. CMMS package can assist the users in tracking materials in storeroom
and allows the work-order administrators to choose from a list of
materials needed to do the work.
3. CMMS package helps manage the whole process of purchasing and
tracking all the costs associated with it.
4. Eliminate the nightmare of paperwork.
5. Helps maintenance department to shift from corrective maintenance
to preventive maintenance, which not only keeps the organization
running more smoothly but also impacts safety and quality of life.
6. Makes work force more efficient; it helps workers plan their effort.
7. It also helps in planning/revising the maintenance schedule for next
year and thus to forecast the budgetary requirements.
2.3.6 Analysis
Maintainability of the plant needs to be assessed through analysis after every
one or two years, and must be improved further on the basis of such analysis.
The purposes of analysis are as follows:
1. To reduce the down time.
2. To reduce work load.
3. To assure product quality.
4. To improve work environment and safety of maintenance personnel
during the performance of maintenance.
Important points to be considered during annual analysis are
1. To uncover any special needs for the system for streamlining the
performance of maintenance.
2. To identify tools and remedies necessary for improved maintenance.
3. Such detailed analysis would assist in determining the overall
effectiveness of maintenance efforts and for planning subsequent
maintenance schedule in a better way.
2.3.7 Continuous improvement

Maintenance management has two major components:
1. Maintenance
2. Improvement
The objective of the maintenance function is to maintain the present
technological, managerial and operating standards. Continuous improved
management means improvement in standard functions continuously.
Continuous improvement principle can be implemented by a gradual move
from the culture of dealing with regular failure to a changed culture of
continuous monitoring, diagnosis and prevention of failure so that one can
achieve process stability. Under the improvement function, management works
continuously towards revising the current standards, once they have been
mastered, and establishing higher ones. Improvement function can be divided
into innovation and Kaizen. Innovation involves a drastic improvement in the
existing process and requires large investments. Kaizen signifies small
improvements as a result of coordinated continuous efforts by all employees.
2.4 Unplanned maintenance

Concept behind the unplanned maintenance is that maintenance doesn’t
take place until the machine fails to work. The operator lubricates or cleans
the machine externally only. The maintenance department comes into

picture only after machine stops working completely. This maintenance is
also known as breakdown maintenance. The plant does not spend the money
on maintenance until a machine or system fails to operate. In this system
management follows no-maintenance approach. This is the most expensive
method of the maintenance. The major expenses associated with this system
are (1) high machine down time, (2) high production loss, (3) high overtime
and (4) high inventory cost.
This type of maintenance approach results in B grade quality product
and impacts negatively on expediting the delivery schedule of end product.
Generally, in this kind of maintenance approach, cost is three times higher
than the planned maintenance.
Unplanned Maintenance
Down Time
Preparing Repairing Waiting Spare Repairing
Planned Maintenance
Down Time
Preparing
Repairing
2.5 Comparison of down time.
2.5 Quality-based maintenance

In a spinning mill, planed maintenance also includes setting and adjustment
of the machine depending upon the fibre to be processed. A cotton fibre is
a peculiar object and has not truly fixed length, width, thickness, shape
and cross-section. Such variations exist because of the large number of
varieties in cultivation which not only differ widely in several key properties
but also grown under divergent agro-climatic conditions. Besides inter-
seasonal variations, the same variety displays variation at different locations
and even in the same season. This is due to the fact that, apart from the
genetic constitution of variety, the quality of cotton is influenced by various
factors such as soil, climate, moisture levels of soil and atmosphere during
crop growth, nutrient supply, pests, disease infestation, picking time and
method, post-harvest handling. Hence, it is a known fact that cotton fibre
characteristics vary from bale to bale. In order to process the cotton fibre
in a spinning mill, the machines need adjustments like roller settings, gauge
and speed settings in drawframes, speedframes and cards from time to
time in order to optimize the process with respect to fibre.
2.6 Role of maintenance department in

spinning mill
In every spinning mill, the performance of the plant depends on the
reliability, availability and maintainability of the plant, all of which are of
primary importance for ensuring an excellent and affordable product. The
concept of maintenance has changed substantially over the years; its main
function now is to prevent mechanical and quality breakdowns. Quality
breakdown does not mean that the quality of whole lot is low; but it means
the lot is rejected due to poor quality of yarn on few bobbins or cones.
Hence to maintain excellent quality, one must be capable of judging spindle
to spindle variations in ringframes, speedframes and winding, and machine
to machine variations in preparatory. Thus, maintenance department plays
the following roles in the spinning mill:
1. To prepare a policy statement for the maintenance department, which
would explain the basic objectives based on the organizational
objectives, and to write standard maintenance procedures,
maintenance schedules, lubrication charts, etc.
2. To prepare maintenance charts for individual equipments and to train
the maintenance personnel in implementation of these.
3. To coordinate with the production people to ensure that a regular
maintenance will be implemented without affecting important
production schedules.
4. Carry out the scheduled preventive maintenance programs and ensure
that plant is available for production for the maximum duration.
5. Carry out the overhaul of the machinery at the scheduled time without
fail.
6. Calibrate various instruments put at various points in the plants.
7. Record all the work systematically in the record books, with details
of work done, material used, work force applied, time taken to
complete the job and expenses made.
8. Maintenance records should be reviewed from time to time so that
any corrective actions to be taken and be implemented in the future.
9. Try to standardized equipments, purchased items, tools, fixtures based
on the prior experiences.
10. Always keep a close watch on inventory of spare parts and

maintenance materials. Coordinate with stored and procurement
department to initiate new demands in time.
11. Start energy-saving programs in the plant and also teach the operators
and maintenance staff about various energy-saving techniques.
12. Recruit and train new maintenance staff and workers in place of
skilled personnel who have retired or left.
13. At the start of financial year, prepare a budget for maintenance.
Include all major or minor repair replacement jobs in it.
14. Ensure that the provisions in the budget are being utilized as per
schedule and keep a close watch on the expenses.
15. Start the cost-reduction and cost-control projects in the plants.
16. Develop a management information system giving all the relevant
details about the maintenance and replacement techniques.
17. To adjust the different machines in the process according to the fibre
processed
References
1. BANGA T . R ., AGARWAL N . K ., SHARMA S . C. (1993) Industrial Engineering and
Management Science, Khanna Publishers, Delhi. .
2. South India Textile Research Association (1999) Maintenance Management in
Spinning.
4. SHARP J ., Maintenance Planning and Scheduling, University of Salford, UK.
5. HIGGINS L . R. (Ed.) (1988) Maintenance Engineering Handbook, , McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York.
6. NIEBEL B . W . (1994) Engineering Maintenance Management, Marcel Dekker,
Inc., New York.
7. MOBLEY R . K . (1999) Maintenance Fundamentals, Butterworth-Heinemann, Inc.,
Boston.
8. MOBLEY R. K . (2002) An Introduction to Predictive Maintenance, Butterworth-
Heinemann, Inc., Boston.
9. DHILLON B. S . (2002) Engineering Maintenance: A Modern Approach, CRC Press,
Florida.
10. KELLY A . (2006) Maintenance Systems and Documentation, Butterworth-
Heinemann, Inc., Boston.
11. CATO W . W . and MOBLEY R . K . (2002) Computer-Managed Maintenance System,
Butterworth-Heinemann, Inc., Boston.
3
Proactive maintenance
3.1 Introduction
This helps to improve maintenance through better design, workmanship,
installation, scheduling, and maintenance procedures. The characteristics
of proactive maintenance include practicing a continuous process of
improvement, using feedback and communications to ensure that changes
in design/procedures are efficiently made available to item designers/
management, ensuring that nothing affecting maintenance occurs in total
isolation, with the ultimate goal of correcting the concerned equipment
forever, optimizing and tailoring maintenance methods and technologies
to each application. It performs root-cause failure analysis and predictive
analysis to enhance maintenance effectiveness, conducts periodic
evaluation of the technical content and performance interval of maintenance
tasks, and integrates functions with support maintenance into maintenance
program planning. It is the hybrid of both the preventive- and condition-
based maintenance.
Daily Checks
TBM Periodic Checks
Periodic Inspect
Proactive Periodic Service
Maintenance
Visual
CBM
Instrument
TBM = Time-based Maintenance

CBM = Condition-based Maintenance
3.1 Kinds of proactive maintenance.
21
3.2 Preventive maintenance

Preventive maintenance is a time-based maintenance. Timing may be based
upon the use of hours and pre-determined interval. This kind of
maintenance anticipates failures and adopts necessary actions to check
failures before they occur. It heavily depends on the prior knowledge that
certain parts do need replacement in specific time interval. It is carried
out with specific objectives like detecting and locating weak areas and
ensuring perfect functioning, by even replacing certain critical parts which
could still be used. Planned preventive maintenance is regular, repetitive
work done to keep equipment in good working order and to optimize its
efficiency and accuracy. This activity involves regular, routine cleaning,
lubricating, testing, calibrating and adjusting, checking for wear and tear
and eventually replacing components to avoid breakdown.
3.2.1 Fundamental requirements of preventive

maintenance
Establishing intervals of maintenance
After determining what has to be done, the frequency of the task must be
decided. A heavily used item must be cleaned and checked more frequently
than one which is used less often; however, minimum standards must be
set. The frequency suggested in the manufacturer’s manual can be used as
a guide, but the actual usage should determine the maintenance procedure
required.
Maintenance schedule
Maintenance schedule consists of the instructions required while doing
routine maintenance of equipments with the frequency specified. A typical
schedule card will give the following information:
1. Name of the equipment.
2. Type of labour required.
3. Nature of activity to be done with details.
4. Time required to complete the work.
5. Frequency of operation.
6. Any special instructions.
Thus schedules will specify which equipment has to be maintained,
what work has to be done, how often it should be done, who should do it
and what is the standard time to do it. A separate schedule should be
prepared for each type of equipment.
Proactive maintenance 23
Work order release system

This is the trigger to start the maintenance activity at the correct
frequencies. It is a sort of authority given to the maintenance worker to do
the maintenance as per schedule. The release of work order can be done
by the supervisor to workers in the morning so that he can talk to workers
and discuss the jobs.
Personnel
Individuals who are qualified and available to do preventive maintenance
must be identified. A list should be drawn up of personnel who are readily
available. Once the personnel have been listed, specific responsibilities
should be assigned, perhaps in the form of a work order, giving clear
instructions for the task. Each person should have a clear knowledge of
his or her responsibilities. Job assignments must correspond to the training,
experience and aptitude of the individual.
Liaison with production department

An effective system should be made to ensure that there is a complete
agreement between the user of machine and maintenance department as to
when the maintenance work can be done.
Technical library
A full technical library should be available. Installation and recommended
spare parts manuals, annotated with the number of the corresponding
machine, should be kept.
Feedback of information
The success of control system depends on proper feedback. All efforts
should be made to develop an effective management information system
so that the maintenance manager gets correct and timely information about
all activities of maintenance.
Cost control
There are two basic costs involved with maintenance work. One of them
is labour cost, the other being material cost. To reduce the labour cost, we
must employ proper motivation, encouragement, appreciation of good work
done, impartial treatment, good training programs and humanly treatment
to all.
Quality of work
Checking of quality during the job is one of the main functions of control
system. The foreman or supervisor of that section must check the machine
before handed over the machine to maintenance department.
Spare part inspection

Spare part in terms of import trade control is “a part of machine which
because of wear and tear need replacement”. Spare parts play a major role
in maintenance of equipments as without appropriate spares no equipment
can be restored to original condition for correct functioning. The spare
parts should be first inspected to check whether it is as per the specifications
or not. Some of the methods to inspect the spare parts are as follows: If
the supplier is old and reliable and has own inspection department, which
inspects the spares before delivery the user, then the inspecting authority
can accept the whole lot without any inspection. The best method is to
choose a sample of the lot based on the various sampling techniques
developed in Statistics. Check each part of the sample and then based on
results decide weather to accept/reject.
Work completion report

A formal record is desirable for every inspection and preventive
maintenance job. If the work is at all detailed, a checklist should be used.
The complete checklist should be returned to the maintenance office on
completion of the work. Any open preventive maintenance work orders
should be kept until the supervisor checks the results for quality assurance
and signs off approval.
Recording and analysing

All the maintenance work done must be recorded systematically in
respective record book with details of work done, material used, work
force applied, etc. Review the records of maintenance work done from
time to time so that any corrective actions to be taken and be implemented
in future. Based on the experience gained from the past records, try to
standardize equipments, purchased items, tools, fixtures, etc.
3.3 Condition-based monitoring

Predictive maintenance is one of the four tactical options available to ensure
the reliability of any asset to ensure it fulfils its function, and it focuses
primarily on maintaining the equipment based on its known condition. In
modern spinning mills in India, the loss of production time for maintenance
work is controlled within a small range of 0.5–1.0% for ringframes and
2–3% for other machines, of which unscheduled maintenance stoppages
are less than 0.1% for ringframes and less than 0.5% for other machines.
With regular preventive maintenance, there is however a problem in
determining the optimum maintenance interval. No machine component
fails at really regular intervals and the criteria for ‘failure’ are not well-
defined. A mechanical breakdown such as a broken tooth of a gear is easy
to identify; but when exactly does a worn out bearing bush would fail is
difficult to define. If the maintenance interval is made too short, there will
be no failure in the service; but on most occasions the replacement will be
found unnecessary. If, on the other hand, the maintenance interval is
increased to avoid unnecessary replacement, then there will still be some
service failures resulting in lower production rates, more downtime, or
greater incidence of faulty production.
Condition-based monitoring is the right way to optimize maintenance
interval for inspection/repairs and also for replacement of parts/accessories.
The machine will be shut off only when it needs to be, and most service
failures during actual operation can be avoided. To be able to do
maintenance in this way, however, it is necessary to have means of knowing
the condition of the machine part or accessory. Condition monitoring helps
to maintain the spinning machinery with minimum cost and minimum total
down time while ensures high level of productivity and low incidence of
faults.
3.3.1 Principle of condition-based monitoring

The basic principle of condition-based monitoring is to select a suitable
measurement (or a set of measurements) which is sensitive to component
deterioration, and then to take regular readings of this measurement so
that any upward trend can be detected and taken as an indication that a
problem exists in a machine.
Figure 3.2 shows how this general principle operates. If the measure of
deterioration is the magnitude of vibration of a gear box, the ‘mechanical
failure’ would be the breakage of a gear tooth somewhere. If the measure
is ‘neps per gram’ and the neps increase sharply after a certain time interval
after grinding, either another grinding or replacement of cylinder and doffer
wires is called for.
Another way of looking at mechanical troubles which lead to machine
stoppages is to consider the time that elapses between successive machine
failures. No failure at all takes place for a long time on any machine. Then
the frequency of breakdown starts increasing till it reaches the peak level
Mechanical Failure Level
Deterioration
Lead
Time
Running Time
3.2 Machine deterioration versus Time.
and then starts decreasing. After a certain time every machine would fail
at least once. The bell-shaped curve in Fig. 3.3 represents this behaviour.
If the period after which the machine has to be overhauled to prevent
breakdown is selected ‘short’ then it is safe but is expensive. If the period
is selected ‘long’, then too much failure would occur. Therefore a
compromise period is usually selected for preventive maintenance or for
condition-based maintenance. When the items as well as time intervals of
cyclic- and condition-based preventive maintenance are chosen optimally,
the breakdown become rare and the cost effectiveness of total system is
maximum.
Long Overhaul Period
Many Failures Occur

Frequency of
Failure
Compromise Period
Short Period
Time between machine failures
3.3 Frequency of failure time.

3.3.2 Use of condition-based monitoring in

a spinning mill
Condition-based maintenance and its associated condition monitoring
procedures are ideal for spinning plant because most of the vital
components earmarked for planned replacement are such that they fail
gradually and progressively. These failures are repairable. Some failures
are not mechanical failures i.e. the machine does not stop working but the
quality of material processed on the machine deteriorates. For example,
the metallic wire on cards, half lap and top comb needles on combers, and
synthetic cots on ringframes do not break, but give poor working.
Fortunately, most of the major repair and replacement activities can be
made condition-based rather than fixing arbitrarily their service life.
Routine and simple activities like cleaning, lubrication and maintenance
of pneumatic components are also done at regular intervals for the
advantage of establishing a routine. These are not appropriate for condition-
based monitoring. Condition-based monitoring procedure would become
very inconvenient and rather costly if we go for making a condition-based
procedure for such small activities also. Hence our maintenance system
must include three basic maintenance strategies.
(a) Cyclic maintenance – In this type, machine is checked at regular
intervals for overhauling and replacing the major components.
(b) Break down maintenance – In spite of preventive and condition-based
maintenance, unexpected machine breakdowns do occur and need to
be repaired.
(c) Condition-based maintenance – In this type, repairment and
replacement is done when there is an indication of future wear and
tear.
3.3.3 Condition-based monitoring methods

To monitor the condition of a part of a machine or an accessory, it is
necessary to find out some characteristics of its behaviour which gives an
indication of deterioration and which can be measured. Several basic
methods are used for checking component function: visual inspection of
surfaces for wear and leakage, measuring temperature, and vibration and
noise, wear debris and system performance.
Visual inspection
In many cases, function checking involves some form of visual inspection
either directly or by using some means of visual assistance such as
microscope or magnifying glass to observe the condition of the components.
The metallic wire of cylinder and lickerin is an example of such an

inspection. Visual inspection is a powerful technique because of the
extreme effectiveness of the human eye but has some limitations if it is to
be used for trend monitoring. Trend monitoring requires some recording
of what has been seen, preferably with some numerical measure associated
with it, so that changes with time can be properly assessed and permanently
recorded. Fortunately, visual observation can be converted into numerical
measures by assigning grades to severity or extent of damage with reference
to 3 or 5 standard levels. Such gradation is done by at least 5 observers
and the average value becomes quite a reliable numerical measure of
deterioration.
Examples of using ’visual inspection’ for judging the service life of
components of carding and ringframes are given below:
3.4 (a) Condition of cylinder clothing; (b) Tooth of wire after grinding.
With some experience, the condition of cylinder clothing can be correctly

judged using a magnifying glass. Figure 3.4(a) shows a worn tooth point
which indicates the need to grind the wire.
Figure 3.4(b) shows the tooth of the wire after grinding and helps to
decide how many passages are needed to grind the cylinder wire. Normally,
for the first grinding 2–4 passage are needed; second grinding needs
10–12 passage, third grinding needs 20–25 passages.
New Worn
3.5 Lickerin wire.

Wear is clearly visible running in traces on the edge of teeth. For

comparison the edge parts of lickerin, which are not in contact with the
fibres, may be used.
New Tooth Point Worn Out Tooth Point

3.6 Combing segment.
In the worn out tooth, running in traces are clearly visible on the edge
of tooth. One should take teeth at the end of the segment which are not in
continuous contact with fibres for comparison with those in the middle of
the segment which are always in contact with fibres.
Doffer wire
3.7 Worn out tooth point.
With some experience, the condition of doffer clothing can be well-

assessed using a magnifying glass. Figure 3.7 shows a worn tooth point
which needs grinding.
3.8 Tooth re-sharpened with TSG.

Figure 3.8 shows the tooth of the wire as seen after grinding and indicates
how many passages are needed to grind the doffer wire. Normally, 2–4
passages are needed.
Flat tops
New Worn Out Resharpened

3.9 Flat tops.
Figure 3.9 shows the difference between the new flat tops and worn out
flat tops. It helps to decide the number of rounds needed to obtain prefect
grinding.
Stationary flat clothing
New Clothing
Worn out clothing
3.10 Stationary flat clothing.
3.3.4 Leakage
For seals, leakage is the obvious indication of a breakdown of their
function apart from surface stains which often give a good indication of
leakage. It is a good practice to look at the seals occasionally and also
every time bearing is removed for inspection and cleaning. The purpose
of a seal is not simply to keep out moisture and dirt but also to retain the
lubricant in bearing. A leakage in seals or elsewhere should therefore be

investigated immediately. The reason for leakage may be that one of the
seals has worn out, or that the joint between the mating surfaces of bearing
has become slack, or that the grease has broken down, thereby releasing
free oil.
3.3.5 Thermal
Temperature measurement is an ideal and simple monitoring method
for checking the components like bearing or electric motor. The
temperature of bearings should be checked regularly. If it is high, it
indicates the bearing is operating in abnormal condition and should be
examined immediately, because high temperature in itself may be
detrimental to the bearing of lubricant. Temperature over 150°C reduces
the hardness of the bearing material and has a detrimental effect on the
load carrying capacity and the life of bearing. The material does not
regain its original hardness even when the temperature drops; hence
the damage is permanent. Overheating of bearing can be for different
reasons.
1. Excessive quantity of lubricant is used, or lubricant of high viscosity
is used.
2. Internal clearance is not sufficient for the application which in turn
overloads the bearing in running condition.
3. Misalignment during mounting may cause overloading, hence more
heat generation.
The bearing used may not be the only cause of overloading. It is quite
possible for heat to be transmitted through the shaft of other component
which may be the cause of trouble.
3.3.6 Vibration
The movement of a component of machine generates vibrations and the
measurement of such vibrations can be used to indicate the condition of
machine and its component. Vibration is generated at the moving
component and the vibration signal therefore contains information on
how the component is moving including any inconsistencies in the
movement associated with components defect. For example, if a roller
bearing is pitted due to fatigue, the rolling element will no longer rotate
in a uniform and steady way. It will bounce in and out of the surface
defects. This effect will be reproduced in the vibration signal generated
by this faulty bearing.
The vibration generated by the machine component travels out through

the machine structure towards the outer surface. An appropriate transducer
can therefore be fitted on the machine to pick up the vibration and convert
it to an electrical signal for the measurement and analysis. Unlike visual
gradation with reference to ‘standards’, the vibrations felt by human touch
cannot be rated on the measurement scale. Instrumentation becomes a
necessity.
3.3.7 Noise
Vibration may cause the outer surface of a machine to generate some noise
which can be picked up by the human ear. While this provides a direct
means of detecting faults, it is not as sensitive as picking up the vibration
directly using an appropriate instrument and to interpret it correctly. Human
hands touching the surface can feel vibrations of even small amplitudes
and very high frequencies. Much higher amplitudes and small range of
frequencies can be heard by the human ear.
Rotating the blade of a Stethoscope can easily check the running of
bearing and make the noise audible which is transmitted. If everything is
satisfactory only a soft pouring sound will be heard. A squeaking noise
may be caused by inadequate lubrication. A metallic tone sometime
indicates that the clearance is not sufficient. A smooth but clear tone may
be produced by outer damaged bearing. When the sound varies regularly
with each revolution, it indicates the inner ring is damaged. This variation
occurs when the damaged portion passes through alternately loaded and
unloaded zone. A bearing noise which occurs intermittently may indicate
that the ball is damaged: the noise occurring when the ball rolls on its
damaged area.
3.3.8 Wear debris

Parts of a machine that move relative to each other tend to generate wear
debris from their interactions, particularly if their operation is not entirely
smooth and well-lubricated or if the surfaces are highly stressed and prone
to local fitting or pitting. If the components are flushed with the fluids
such as lubricating oils, the wear debris that is generated tends to be carried
away by fluids and can be extracted from them. By examining the quantity
and type of wear debris that has been generated, one can assess the
condition of two mating parts. The amount of debris generated gives an
indication of the existence of a problem and its severity. Loss in weight is
also a measure of wear and can be used in situations where debris cannot
be collected. The wear of travellers rotating on a ring is a good example
of how loss in weight helps to assess the extent of wear.
3.3.9 System performance

Another method of monitoring the condition of a machine is to check
important aspects of its performance at intervals of time so that any
deteriorating trend can be detected and taken as an indication that a
problem has started to build up. In situations where the cost of
replacement is high and also the adverse impact on the machine
performance from worn out component is large, it is worthwhile to assess
the machine performance before taking a replacement decision. Visual
inspection alone is usually not sufficient or reliable in such cases.
Important components for such assessment are card wires, rings and cots
and aprons at ringframes. An illustration of how system performance
assessment can help a spinning mill to reduce maintenance cost is given
below.
Carding machine performance

A carding department consists of group of cards. The components of same
make of each card can wear differently from others working on same
material. This fact is helpful in implementing condition-based monitoring
system in carding. Neps in card sliver can increase over a period of time
as card wires on lickerin cylinder and doffer wear out because of passage
of fibres. A control chart should be generated to measure carding
performance in terms of nep generation and used also for determining the
timing of maintenance action. The control chart for each card has neps per
gram on Y-axis and time in weeks on the X-axis. Card sliver should be
tested once per week and the result should be posted on the chart for
particular week. When the nep level exceeds the upper control limit on
any particular card, the card needs maintenance i.e. either grinding or
replacement is due. The upper control limit for each card group/mixing is
given by:
Average neps/gram + 2 average neps/gram
where averaging is done over all cards of once make working on a

given material by taking reading for 6–8 weeks. When level of neps on
one or two cards in the group card rises beyond the upper control limit
but the level on the cards in the group and the group average level are
not changed, it shows that the cause of increase is not due to any change
in the quality of fibre materials. The card showing higher neps than the
limits should be taken for cylinder and doffer wire grinding. Use of
average level of neps in card sliver and the control chart together for
scheduling maintenance can reduce the overall cost of carding
maintenance. Mill studies have shown that it is possible to process 900–

1000 tons of cotton instead of the 450 tons recommended by
manufacturers as a safe general guideline. Moreover, grinding schedules
can be extended and full setting schedules can be relaxed from once in
six months to even up to once in a year if neps in the carded sliver do not
exceed the desired preset upper limit for nep count. Cost for card wires
is one of the largest expenses in a spinning mill. Extension of grinding
and full setting intervals in cards helps to improve the utilization of
machine as well as in to reduce labour cost.
For measuring system performance of rings cot and apron etc, the right
measure is the percentage of defectives. Defective rings would give more
breakage and defective aprons and cots would give more uneven and/or
weak yarn.
3.4 Benefits of condition-based monitoring

It is important to note that the general guidelines provided by machinery
makers have perforce to err on the ‘safer’ side, therefore condition-based
monitoring usually succeeds in lengthening the intervals to suits the quality
need of a spinning mill.
1. Machine running time can be increased by maximizing the time
between overhauls. The time needed for overhauling can also be
reduced since the nature of problem is known and the spares and
men can be kept ready before opening the machine.
2. The service life of replaceable parts is optimized i.e. it is maximized
without letting the quality of the product deteriorate.
3. The lead time given by condition monitoring permits machines to be
stopped before they reach a critical condition and suitable corrective
action can be taken.
4. Measurements on machines when new, at the end of the guarantee
period, and after the first overhaul give useful comparative values
for reference.
5. The experience of the operation of present machinery is recorded in
numerical scales and thus become useful for future.
3.5 Implementation of condition-based

maintenance
Condition-based maintenance is applicable in the following spinning
sections on selected components as shown in the Table 3.1. The actual
replacement has to be done on the basis of condition monitoring.
Table 3.1 Spinning components on which condition-based maintenance is applicable
S. Components Conditionbased Schedule

No. assessment (tons)
Department – Blow room
1. Beater wire rep Visual 2000–4000
lacement inspection/machine
performance
2. Combing seg Visual 2000–4000
ment replace inspection/machine
ment performance**
Department – Carding
3. Cylinder wire Visual 450–1000
replacement inspection/machine
performance **
4. Doffer wire Visual 450–1000
replacement inspection/machine
performance **
5. Flat tops repla Visual 450–1000
cement inspection/machine
performance **
6. Cylinder and Visual inspection 160–200
doffer grinding machine performance **
7. Flat grinding Visual inspection 80–100
machine performance **
Department – Comber
8. Unicomb Nep removal efficiency 1000–2000
and combing efficiency
9. Nipper Physical checking 10–15 years
Department – Ringframe
10. Rings replace Visual inspection/ End 2–4
ment breakage/ hairiness *
11. Bottom and top Visual inspection/ Uster 1–1.5
apron imperfection and evenness
trend*
**
Neps/gram
*
Percentage defectives determined as those lying outside the normal variation
References
1. NSK Roller bearing Catalogue and operating manual (cat no. E1101e).
2. Operating instructions for the high production card C1/3 issued in November
1987.
3. S.K.F interactive engineering catalogue, CD version 2.0.
4. Fag catalogue CD version 3.1.
5. Trutzschler Card DK 903 instruction manual, second edition year 1999.
6. Rieter Card C-61 instruction manual year 2002.
7. S.K.F Machine Analyst CD version 1.00.
8. S.K.F Bearing Maintenance Hand book, year 1992.
9. Technical Catalogue NBC Bearing, edition 2001.
10. Comprehensive hand book on maintenance by NEERAJ NIJHAWAN.
Planning and scheduling 37
4
Planning and scheduling
4.1 Introduction
Planning is the heart of good inspection and preventive maintenance. The
first thing in maintenance is to work out which machines need maintenance,
what kind of maintenance activity should be carried out, how much human
resource is needed, how much time is required and what should be the
best procedure to carry out this task.
The following points must be considered while planning:
1. Every instruction for maintenance must be clearly defined.
2. The purpose should be outlined.
3. Tools, reference documents, and any parts should be planned in
advance.
4. Safety and operating cautions must be considered.
The objectives of planning and scheduling the maintenance activities

in a spinning mill are as follows:
1. To achieve optimum productivity from the machines at lower

production cost.
2. To ensure that expected quality of the product is achieved.
3. To eliminate delays caused by lack of materials, manpower and
equipments at the job site i.e. during scheduled and breakdown
maintenance.
4. To provide management with appropriate information on status,
effectiveness and cost of maintenance work and to use the information
as a guide to prepare subsequent maintenance schedule.
5. To control maintenance expenditure to the maximum.
4.2 General principles of planning

In order to get a good result from the maintenance team, following
principles must be followed by the planning head or by the planning team.
37
1. Centralized control.
2. Insistence on specific, definite and complete information from all
contributing sources.
3. Continuous active and close supervision of maintenance work.
4. Standardised forms, procedures and paper work should be kept as
few and as simple as possible, consistent with adequate control.
5. The planning effort should be directed towards aiding, complimenting
and strengthening the supervision of the maintenance department for
excellent performance.
6. Detailed information on costs of maintenance should be available.
7. The plan should lay specific emphasis on preventive maintenance
rather than on break down maintenance.
8. The plan should be flexible to meet any emergency and to take
corrective actions as quickly as possible.
4.3 Procedure of planning

One must follow the following steps for good planning in the maintenance
department:
1. Estimating the work

Maintenance engineer must plan all the work to be carried out in the
maintenance. He should make the list of all work and must hand over this
to the foreman of particular department to avoid confusion. Foreman, in
advance, must plan everything required for the maintenance work to avoid
idle time during the maintenance process.
2. Estimating the time

Since most of the maintenance activities involve standardized procedure
with little variation, the tasks and time required can be accurately estimated.
Methods to be considered while estimating the time required are:
(i) Equipment manufacturers’ recommendations,
(ii) Industrial engineering time-and-motion studies,
(iii) Experience.
3. Estimating labour cost

One should estimate, in advance, the human resource needed to carry out
the activities. If any help is required from other department, it should be
informed to the concerned department in advance. If there is any delay
due to lack of workers, it should be immediately reported.
4. Estimating the material

Most equipments and materials that are used for preventive maintenance
are well-known and can be identified in advance. Consumables such as
lubricating oil, emery paper should be on their consumption pattern. No
inventory should be kept for planned replacement and overhauling spares.
Based on the planned replacement and overhauling schedules, indents
should be prepared at the beginning of year and delivery should be
demanded one month before the scheduled time.
5. Feed back from actual

The time and cost required for every work order should be reported and
analyzed to provide guidance for more accurate planning in future. It is
important to determine what causes the time and cost to change. Blindly
assuming that the future would be like past, or that the past was perfect
may be an error. Comparisons should certainly be made between different
individuals doing the same tasks to evaluate results in the amount of time
required, what was accomplished during that time, quality of workmanship,
and equipment performance as a result of their efforts.
6. Co-ordination with production department

There are cases when machine is not available for preventive maintenance
as per the schedule. So, a cooperative attitude should exist between the
production and maintenance departments. This is best achieved by a
meeting between the maintenance manager and production manager so
that everything gets planned and coordinated in advance. The cooperation
of the individual machine operators is of prime importance. As they are on
the spot and most able to detect unusual events that may indicate equipment
malfunctions in case of any machine problem. Maintenance department
must give the list of all equipments that are needed for inspections and
preventive maintenance. As soon as the work is complete, the maintenance
person should notify the production supervisor so that the machine may
be put back into use.
7. Ensuring completion of work

A formal record is desirable for every inspection and preventive
maintenance job. If the work is at all detailed, a checklist should be used.
The completed checklist should be returned to the maintenance office on
completion of the work. The collected data should then be entered into a
computer system for tracking.
4.4 Scheduling
A mill must organize the preventive maintenance activities in a systematic
manner. The secret of success of maintenance system in the company lies
in its simplicity. The entire system should be structured on three principles
that have validity for any industry.
These principles are as follows:
1. The frequency of inspection rounds and jobs to be taken up or done
during each inspection must be standardized.
2. Fixed cyclic schedule for inspection must be planned.
3. Spare parts planning must be linked with maintenance plans and
schedules.
4.5 Principle of standardization of frequencies and

jobs
This is a major decision to be taken by a maintenance manager. To fulfil
the actual needs of different equipments, the frequency of inspection rounds
as well as jobs to be completed during the rounds should be standardized.
Three frequencies most commonly used for inspection are as follows:
(a) Daily for routine inspection (after taking charge of department)
(b) Cleaning schedule
(c) Preventive maintenance
4.5.1 Daily routine inspection

This is for external inspection of equipments for noise vibration, bearing,
seal leakages and checking all stop motions. Inspection should be done as
per checklist/format. Minor jobs, such as tightening of loose parts, topping
of gearbox oil, etc, should be attended immediately.
Major jobs involving replacement of parts or the major repair work are
identified. After completion of round, a brief report should be made
mentioning:
(a) List of minor jobs attended, and
(b) List of major parts to be attended.
Above report should be shown to the concerned supervisor with suitable
instructions for follow up.
4.5.2 Cleaning schedule

Inspection during this round is very detailed and involves checking of
gears, shafts and bearings, etc. and replacing and repairing of above items
in case of unacceptably high wear. Replacement of all such minor items

reduces random, unexpected failure and thus improves utilization. Another
objective should be to clean and lubricate the machine as per the schedule.
4.5.3 Preventive maintenance

This is mostly clubbed with the cleaning schedule in order to avoid
duplication. In this inspection parts are dismantled and checked fully. If
needed they are replaced. Different settings of machine are checked and
corrected. In this inspection standard parts which have a fixed life are also
replaced if their life is due.
4.6 Principle of cyclic schedule for the

maintenance team
In cyclic schedule, manager gives a fixed cycle of work in detail for each
working day of each month to every foreman and his team to attend specific
machines. The foreman and his team inspect the machine and do preventive
maintenance according the fixed cycle of work. The list of machines to be
taken and work to be done each day of month is fixed. Such cycles must
be religiously followed, without permitting any dislocation since jobs to
be done on each machine in each cycle are standardized beforehand. In
this way it is possible to utilize the worker of maintenance team in a better
way. The maintenance manager is able to control the performance of his
maintenance team effectively as he has the cyclic schedule on his table.
He should involve himself once in a while in the inspection of machines
and cross-check/ supervise the work of his subordinates/ juniors.
4.7 Principle of interlinking spare part planning

with maintenance plan and schedule
Always link the spare parts planning with maintenance plan and schedules.
All spare parts are classified into three categories:
(i) Emergency spare,
(ii) Planned replacement and overhauling spares, and
(iii) Consumables.
The last two categories are clearly defined and service life is estimated.
The consumables are indented as per estimated consumption pattern. This
helps in planning of procurement and in control of inventory. The cost of
consumable items is negligible as compared to durable spare.
No inventory should be kept for planned replacement and overhauling
spares. Based on the planned replacement and overhauling schedules,
indents should be prepared at the beginning of year and delivery should

be demanded one month before the scheduled time so that these items are
utilized during their respective schedules.
This simple decision leads to low levels of inventory and, at the same
time, to reduce the chances of stock-outs. Spares are available, whenever
needed, as a result of linking spare part planning with maintenance plans
and schedules.
Cyclic schedule results in the following benefits:
● Improvement in the condition of equipment.
● Reduction in the cost of maintenance.
● Accurate forecasting of labour and material needs.
● Accurate analysis of cost and maintenance level.
● Eight hours of productive work by each worker.
● Availability of actual data required for evaluation of performance.
● Timely corrective action.
4.8 Operators must act as machine keepers

Machine operators are expected to manage the machines on which they
work and the equipment they use. Through these they manage production
of quality output with zero defects. To produce defect-free product every
time, the operators need to have good knowledge of the process they are
responsible. They must be thoroughly familiar with routine maintenance.
Operators must act as machine keepers also. Operators must be encouraged
to work closely with maintenance staff in carrying out the routine-
maintenance activities that help to keep the machine in good health.
In a spinning mill, the quality of products delivered by machine depends
mostly on machine parameters set by the spinning staff. The main role of
the machine operator is to follow work practices (taught to him during
training) single time and avoid any faulty work such as bad piecing, etc.
He should also look for and identify defectively functioning machine parts
or accessories so that maintenance persons can replace the defective items
at the earliest (e.g., worn out apron, eccentric roller, etc). A major part of
good work practice for machine operators in a spinning mill is the cleaning
of machine. If the fibres and other materials which keep accumulating on
different machine parts are not removed timely by the machine tenter, faults
of different kind – mainly thick places get generated in the sliver, roving
or yarn. Standardised cleaning schedules are given here for spinning
machines starting from ringframes. Spinning supervisor should ensure that
these are followed properly by all operators of all machines.
Table 4.1 Cleaning schedule for ringframe
Parts to be cleaned Frequency (hours)

Cradle neck 8
Front roll 8
Front top roll 8
Back top roll 8
Front roll bearing 8
Tension pulley 24
Back roll 24
Knee brake 24
Cradle patti 24
Top clearer 24
Under clearer 72
Jockey pulley 48
Table 4.2 Cleaning schedule for speedframe

Drafting zone cleaning 2
Creel 24
Flyer At every doff
Bobbin rail At every doff
Back cover At every doff
Waste fan At every doff
Back side of machines At every shift
Under clearer At every shift
Top clearer 1
Table 4.3 Cleaning schedule for pre-comber drawframe

Drafting zone cover cleaning 2
Machine cover cleaning 4
Top clearer cleaning 2
Bottom roll stripper cleaning 8
Fan waste 1
Scanning roll 8
Top roll interchange 1
Top roll cleaning by water 2
Creel cleaning At every batch
Table 4.4 Cleaning schedule for comber

Top nipper cleaning 4
Feed roll cleaning 24
Top comb cleaning 1
Table 4.5 Cleaning schedule for drawframe

Drafting zone cover cleaning 2
Fan waste 1
Scanning roll 8
Top roll interchange 1
Table 4.6 Cleaning schedule for unilap

Table cleaning 4
Top clearer cleaning with water 8
Fan waste 4
Machine cleaning 8
Cover cleaning 1
Drum cleaning At every batch
Table calendar roll cleaning 2
Table 4.7 Cleaning schedule for card
Activities Frequency (hours)

Calendar roll stripper cleaning 1
Card can cleaning 24
Web checking 24
Cover cleaning 2
4.9 Maintenance schedule

The maintenance person undertakes cyclic schedule for maintenance which
includes thorough cleaning on a stopped machine, oiling/greasing to
lubricate running parts, resetting the different machines parameter at
desired level and also improving the mechanical condition of worn out
parts by means such as polishing, grinding, etc. Schedule is given
department wise here from blowroom to doubling. These schedules are
meant for cotton spinning; for manmade fibres the replacement intervals
may become 20% shorter.
Table 4.8 Maintenance schedule
Activities Frequency (month)

Cleaning and greasing of all 1
machines in blowroom
Grid bar polishing 6
By pass valve checking 6
Ventilator checking and greasing 6
Saw tooth beater wire 20,000–40,000kg
Disc beater 20,000–40,000kg
Pin roller beater 100,000 kg
Oil change Manufacturer recommendations
Activities Frequency (months)

Cleaning 2
Full setting 6
Greasing 6 or manufacturer recommendations
Oil change Manufacturer recommendations
Flat gauge checking 1
Activities Frequency (Tons)
Flat grinding 80–100
Cylinder grinding with TSG 160–200
Doffer Grinding with TSG 160–200
Cylinder wire replacement 800–1000
Doffer wire replacement 800–1000
Flat tops 400–500
Lickerin wire 150–200
Stationary flat above lickerin 160
Stationary flat above doffer 450
Stationary flat below lickerin With lickerin
Redirecting roll wire 2000
All cleaning roller brush 450
In case of three lickerin
I lickerin 2000
II lickerin 450
III lickerin 450
Schedule Frequency (months)

Cleaning and greasing 0.5–1.0
Cots buffing 0.5–1.0
Oil change Manufacturer recommendation
Cots 6–12
Can plate opening and cleaning 1

Cleaning 0.5
Cots buffing 3
Overhauling 8–10 years
Full setting 6
Proximity switch setting checking 6
Cots change 36
Table 4.12 Maintenance schedule for comber

Cleaning 0.5–1
Greasing Manufacturer recommendation
Nipper gauge checking 6
Unicomb gauge checking 6
Brush gauge checking Three
Oil change Manufacturer recommendation
Drafting gauge checking 6
Proximity switch setting 6
Nipper pin change 36
Overhauling 96–120
Detaching top roll 6
Drawbox cot buffing 3
Detaching top roll 18
Drawbox cot change 36
Brush change 36
Top comb 12
Unicomb 60–72

Cleaning 1
Saddle gauge and bottom roll gauge checking 6
Oil change Manufacturer
recommendation
Bobbin trough levelling 4
Flyer cleaning 1
Top apron and bottom apron washing 6
Top apron change* 1.5
Bottom apron change* 1
Arbour greasing 6
Overhauling 96–120
Lifter shaft bearing greasing 6
Reversing gear play clutch gauge checking 2
Finger checking 1
Pressure checking in case of pneumatic 6
Top roll buffing 4–6
Cot change 24–27
False twister 24
Front and back arbour greasing 6/36**
Middle arbour 6/life time
*In case of imported apron one can increase the life of aprons.
**Applicable for TG-5 grease.
Table 4.14 Maintenance schedule for ringframe

Bottom roll greasing 1
Cleaning 1–6
Oil change manufacturer recommendation
Drum shaft bearing greasing 4

Saddle gauge checking 12
Spindle oil change 6
Separator washing 18
Suction tube washing 18
Top apron washing 6
Bottom apron washing 6
Jockey pulley greasing 12
Spindle gauge, ABC ring centering, 12 /With ring change/need base
lappet hook centering and height
level of all these thing
Ring change* Very coarse count – 18
Coarse count – 24
Middle count – 30–36
Fine count – 40–48
Hose pipe and ribs 60
Piston O.H. 60
In case of G5/1 ringframe
Top variator pulley O.H. 9
Bottom variator pulley O.H. 12
Machine over hauling 120
Gear box opening and checking 12
Front cot buffing 1–1.5
Back cot buffing 4
Front arbour greasing 2 /36 **
Middle arbour greasing 12/ Life time**
Back arbour greasing 12 /36 **
Cots change 12
Top apron change
– Indian 12
– Imported 24
Bottom apron change
– Indian 12
– Imported 24
Spindle tape 12–18
Lappet hook 48–60
Bottom roll eccentricity checking 12
** Applicable for TG-5 grease
Table 4.15 Maintenance schedule for Autoconer 238/338
Schedule Frequency (month)

Machine cleaning 1/2
Splicer head cleaning and lubrication 6
Tension assembly cleaning and lubrication 12
Cam cleaning and spray 2
Locking device cleaning 2
Cradle adopter greasing 6
Cradle adopter silicon oil 2
Auto doffer cleaning and spray 1
Auto coner overhead travelling cleaner O.H. 12
Table 4.16 Maintenance schedule for Machconer 7-V

Cleaning 1/2
Winding head over hauling 6
Reduction motor oil change Manufacturer
recommendation
Cam shaft cassette gear, housing, suction 3
motor drive greasing
Cradle adopter bearing, conveyor pulley greasing 3
Auto doffer cleaning and spray 3
Auto coner overhead travelling cleaner O.H. 12
Conveyor belt pulley O.H. 12
Dust collector checking 1
Ballcon alignment checking 1
Table 4.17 Maintenance schedule for Two-for-one twister

Cleaning 2/3
Gear box oil change Manufacturer
recommendation
Inner pot bearing/protection pot/guide roll 6
Spindle oil change/spindle greasing 6
Belt guide roll greasing 6
Centering disc greasing 3
Table 4.18 Maintenance schedule for Cheese winding

Cleaning 1
Drum shaft bearing greasing 3
Cradle adapter bearing greasing 6
Oil change Manufacture
recommendation
Over head blower over hauling 12
References
1. NIJHAWAN NEERAJ , Comprehensive Hand book on Spinning Maintenance.
2. Operating Instruction for the high production card C1/3 issued in November
1987.
3. Trutzschler Card DK 903 instruction manual second edition year 1999.
4. Rieter CardC-61 instruction manual year 2002.
5. Murata Machconer /Linkconer No. 7 instruction manual revised May 1988.
6. Kirloskar Toyada Ringframe RXI240 instruction manual year 1999.
7. Rieter Ingolstadt Drawframe RSB 951 year 1996.
8. Rieter Unilap E32 operating instruction manual10055921.
9. Rieter Comber E62 operating instruction manual 10013753.
10. Lashmi Speedframe LF 1400 operating instruction manual year 1990
11. Lashmi Ringframe G5/1 operating instruction manual year 1990
12. Roving Frame Instruction Manual FL-16 By Toyada Automatic Loom Works
edition 1997, Toyada FL 100 Roving Frame Instruction manual seventh edition
Augus 2001
13. PRERNA LEEWHA , Two For One Twister for spun yarn PRN –140- LW Instruction
manual.
14. Texmaco zinser ringframe instruction manual issued in January 1969 reprinted
april 1973. Zinser Speedframe 660 instruction manual year 1990, Zinser
Drawframe 720 instruction manual year 1990, Zinser Ringframe 321 instruction
manual year 1990.
15. High Speed Simplex Fly Frame instruction manual RME Howa Machinery
Limited Edition august 1993
16. Drawframe Cherry DX –500 – E2 instruction manual, Drawframe Cherry D–
400 MT instruction manual
17. Savio Orion instruction manual, manual code 11645.0004.1/0 revision index
:01 date of issue : 06.01
18. Two for one Twister instruction manual Leewha LW 560 SA
19. Rieter Unifloc A11 instruction manual edition 2000, Ringframe G33 instruction
manual year 2001, CardC-61 instruction manual year 2002.
20. Murata Process Coner 21-C instruction manual revised October 2002,
21. Schlaforst Autoconer 338 instruction manual year 2003.
5
Maintenance audit
5.1 Introduction
Maintenance audit helps in improving the existing maintenance system. It
also helps in early detection and prevention of mechanical faults, which
may remain undetected and unidentified for too long if one relies only on
instrumentally testing of the product. Machinery audit may be defined as
“Methodical in-depth examination of the total operating system with
relevance to the maintenance of the machinery.”
Maintenance audit includes the physical inspection of the machine parts
that have a large effect on the productivity of the machine and/or on the
quality of the product delivered by machine.
The overall objective of the maintenance audit is to review and critically
assess the existing maintenance system to judge the reliability and
maintainability of the plant with a view to suggest improvements.
The specific objectives of maintenance audit are as follows:
1. To study the existing systems and procedures with respect to
maintaining health of machines and safety of workers.
2. To review the implementation status of the existing maintenance
systems, procedures, plans and programs/schedules.
3. To carry out physical inspection of the machines with regard to safety,
standard and uniform setting, and mechanical condition of individual
parts of machines.
4. To recommend measures for improving effectiveness of
implementation of the total maintenance system, for improving the
existing procedures and for setting up of new procedures if required.
5.2 Methodology
The overall methodology consists of the following five stages:
5.2.1 Preliminary information gathering

Collection of preliminary information regarding the maintenance system
through a questionnaire developed by auditor before undertaking actual
field work.
50
Maintenance audit 51
5.2.2 Examination of maintenance system

Types of maintenance system:
1. Unplanned maintenance,
2. Planned maintenance includes preventive maintenance,
3. Planned maintenance includes both preventive and predictive
maintenance. Now-a-days, modern mills having 50% of the
maintenance activities must be based on the condition-based
monitoring system.
The auditor should go through all the maintenance records like schedule
register, history register corrective action and preventive action register,
etc form a tentative judgment on the efficiency of the maintenance system
and of the condition of the machines.
5.2.3 Safety audit

The objective of a general safety audit in maintenance is to review and
assess the safety methods employed to prevent and control hazards in the
plant with a view to suggest improvements wherever necessary.
(a) Are working surfaces even, free from dust, wastes, spillages, loose
objects, cables/hoses lying around?
(b) Are floor openings kept covered or guarded with rails while working?
(c) Is there a schedule for periodic floor cleaning? Has man power been
assigned or time allocated for this work?
(d) Are tools and fixtures kept on racks instead of machine?
(e) Are platforms, benches, seats in good condition?
(f) Are drip trays provided and regularly cleaned?
(g) Is material properly stacked in racks?
(h) Is there a schedule for depositing the scrap to the scrap yard?
The specific safety precautions connected with each machine are covered
in the maintenance checklists for physical inspection of the machines.
5.2.4 Inventory system audit

The object of auditing the inventory system is to check how they are linking
the spare part management with the maintenance schedule. Auditor must
check the following points:
1. Downtime was high due to part shortages.
2. Spare parts were kept haphazardly in cabinets and on open shelves.
3. Maintenance technicians wasted time looking for parts.
4. Parts were often not labeled, mislabeled, obsolete or unidentifiable.
5. Emergency purchase orders were frequent and expensive.

6. Automatic reordering capabilities were not used.
7. Ordering practices were loosely defined, leading to incorrect
inventory levels.
8. No one knew what items had been or needed to be ordered.
9. No one knew when items were due to arrive or if they had already
been received.
10. Received parts were frequently lost, resulting in unnecessary and
expensive reorders.
11. Inventory records are created for all parts with the following details:
(a) Item number
(b) Description
(c) Inventory type
(d) Quantity on hand by location
(e) Minimum and maximum stock level
5.2.5 Maintenance effectiveness

In maintenance is there any system that records the number of failures and
then analyses the root cause of failure. To see the effectiveness of the
maintenance department, one must check the following points:
1. Number of failures,
2. Root cause of failures,
3. The maintenance cost associated with no. of failures,
4. The production cost associated with no. of failures, and
5. The ratio of planned maintenance work to unplanned maintenance
work.
Secondly, maintenance system must have key performance indicators
for maintenance cost, utilization loss and overtime hours for each machine,
etc.
5.2.6 Maintenance budgeting and cost control

Maintenance cost is defined as the cost associated with maintenance
activities. Maintenance budgets including expenditure budget and
utilization budgets are made on the basis of assessment of activities they
expect to perform. One must check how many report the actual cost against
the budgeted activities.
5.2.7 Daily scheduling and job control

There should be a system that determines how the work is allocated to the
6
Role of manpower in maintenance
6.1 Introduction
“The process by which management determines how the organization should
move from its current manpower position to its desired man power position.
Through planning management endeavours to have right number and right
kind of people at right place at right time, doing things which result in both,
the organization and the individual receiving maximum long run benefits”.
Manpower planning deals with the computation of the least but the most
effective manpower requirement in any organization considering job
analysis, job description and job evaluation. These principles apply also
to the planning of manpower for maintenance of machinery and equipments
in spinning mills.
Job analysis consists of observing and recording the time required to
do each detailed element of maintenance activity. With the help of this
technique, the standard time required to complete each element of activity
is determined. The job descriptions of different categories of maintenance
workers are also standardized. Based on these two, number of persons
needed to complete the total job in the shortest time is determined. Job
evaluation is used to decide the wages/salaries to be paid to maintenance
workers of different job descriptions and corresponding responsibilities.
After determining the time needed for each activity, and the worker
requirements, the total man power requirement for the predetermined cyclic
schedule of maintenance is finalized.
6.2 Factors affecting manpower planning

The factors which need to be considered for planning of maintenance man
power in spinning mills are: product mix, worker performance, man hours
lost, type of machines, and schedules laid down for maintenance.
6.2.1 Product mix

Product mix means the production program based on the production
capacities at different stages of processing and in the market requirement.
55
The type of fibre used plays a major role: cotton, manmade fibres, such
as polyester acrylic, viscose acrylic or their blends, fibre dyed or dope dyed,
or grey and single or ply yarns etc are differences in the product mix that
influence the number of maintenance worker needed. Synthetic yarn plant
of same capacity require more man power than cotton yarn: for example,
cleaning needs to be done more frequently and several spares/ accessories
etc need to be replaced after shorter service life. Even changes in the
production program i.e. the number of different counts being produced and
their quantities may be more frequent with synthetic and blended yarns.
6.2.2 Skill of worker

The rate of performance of maintenance workers has direct effect on the
man power requirement. If the workers are skilled and their performance
is good, fewer workers will be needed. In addition, suitable incentive plans
also help to improve the efficiency of skilled workers. If the existing
performance rate is seen to be low, appropriate training needs to be given
to improve the skill and the work methods of those who bring down the
average. If some workers fail to improve to the standard level, they need
to be given other jobs and more efficient workers should replace them.
This way a mill can put the right man at right job, and employ the least
possible no of workers for the maintenance activity.
6.2.3 Idle time

The less the productive man hours lost, the more are the available
productive hours of the maintenance workers for their real job. Productive
hours are lost due to the following reason:
1. Time wasted in searching for tools and equipment.
2. Due to non availability of proper tools and spares.
3. Waiting for instruction; getting unclear instructions.
4. Rectification and rework due to poor workmanship.
5. Idle time due to waiting for machine to be available for maintenance.
6. Due to poor production planning, i.e. market requirements are not
cleared.
Good maintenance manager ensure that the causes 1, 2, 3 do not exist,
take care of 4th through retraining workers and co-ordinate with the
production supervisors to eliminate 5 and 6. The man power planning
should be and normally is done with the assumption that no undue man
hours will be lost. Extra losses due to changes in production programme
need to be lived with i.e. accepted as unavoidable since they represent the
mills response to market demands.
Role of manpower in maintenance 57
6.2.4 New generation machine

The latest spinning mill have high production and Automated machines,
which are required in smaller numbers to produce a given quantity of yarn
as compared to machines of earlier models and makes. Moreover, the
modern machinery is designed to need much less maintenance and to
provide easier access to machine parts which need maintenance. A modern
mill therefore will need less manpower for the same production capacity
than a mill with machinery of earlier generation.
6.2.5 Type of maintenance

It also depend whether the organization follow only preventive maintenance
or the hybrid of both preventive and predictive maintenance. The cyclic
schedules developed for preventive maintenance normally result in over-
maintenance. Hence it requires more man power.
6.2.6 Absenteeism
After deciding upon the required manpower strength on the basis of the 5
factors mentioned above, it is necessary to ensure that such standard
strength is available everyday, all through the year. To ensure this the
Maintenance Manager has to take into account the absenteeism rate and
the permitted leaves of maintenance workers. Usually the absenteeism of
maintenance workers is less than that of machine operatives, and ranges
between 5% and 15% so keeping about 10% extra staff in semi-skilled
categories is worthwhile. Similarly, the turnover rate of the maintenance
staff of different categories needs to be taken into account. Planned
retraining, upgrading the skills, and giving internal promotion is usually
better for keeping the morale and the work efficiency high. New recruitment
every time when a vacancy occurs takes away the enthusiasm of existing
maintenance team. Of course, new recruitment is desirable when the right
skill is not available amongst the existing workers/staff.
6.3 Manpower norms

The standard for maintenance man power in cotton spinning industry
producing single yarn is 1 worker per 1000 spindles including winding.
For synthetic yarn spinning mills it is 1.0–1.2 workers per 1000 spindles
including winding.
Spinning mills consist of 4 sections

The man power distribution for each section is given below for a 25000
spindle spinning mill working 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.
Section Maintenance workers/day

Cotton Synthetic
Blowroom and card 4 5
Preparatory area 7 8–9
Spinning area 10–12 10–12
Winding area 4–6 6
Total 25–28 29–32
The standard strength given above does not include extra staff needed
to cover absentees and workers on leave.
6.4 Maintenance organization structure

The head of maintenance department should always report to the technical
head or to the chief of the operating officer of the unit. The operation
chief is responsible for the total performance of the spinning mill and
usually does not deal the finance and marketing etc. he is technical head
for the spinning mill. It would be un-desirable to place the maintenance
function under the supervision of the person in charge of production
function. Maintenance function is totally different from production.
Production is a line function where as maintenance is a service function.
Performance of the production department is measured in terms of
fulfilment of production targets. Performance of the maintenance
department is measured in terms of trouble free service it renders at
minimum cost and minimum utilization loss. It has to achieve standards
of reliability, machine availability and longer life of equipment. In case
the maintenance were to be organized as a sub-function of production, the
availability of production machines for maintenance work is likely to be
sacrificed to meet the production targets. Since maintenance is a vital
service function, the Maintenance Head should preferably report to same
level to which production in charge also reports in that mill. In that position
he is able to enlist co-operation from the heads of other departments to the
maintenance program. In modern spinning mills the top managements
ensures that both production and maintenance head understand the
important roles each has to play, and built system to reduce the apparent
conflict between the two functions. Production person realize that any
temporary advantage gained by not stopping maintenance for due
maintenance results in much longer losses in long terms through poor
productivity and the greater proportion of defects
The organisation structure and strength of staff in each category are

shown in chart 6.1., 6.2 and 6.3
Chief Executive
Head of Maintenance Department
Maintenance Engineer
Maintenance Blowroom & Preparatory Spinning Post Spinning

Clerk Card Foreman Foreman Foreman Foreman
Fitter Fitter Fitter Fitter
2 cleaner Running Fitter Runnig Fitter 2 cleaner
4 cleaner Roller Coverer
6 cleaner
6.1 Manpower required for cotton mill with 25000 spindles.
Chief Executive
Maintenance Engineer

2 Fitter 2 Fitter 2 Fitter 2 Fitter
6 cleaner 2 Running Fitter 2 Runnig Fitter 6 cleaner
8 cleaner 2 Roller Coverer
12 cleaner
6.2 Organization chart for cotton mill with 50000 spindles.
6.5 Concept of common gang

The concept of common gang is the need of the hour in maintenance:
With increase competition owing to globalization the need is to minimize
the manpower need for maintenance without adversely affecting the
effectiveness of maintenance in any way. The term common gang refers to
the deployment of common members in cross-functional areas of the
maintenance department, as distinct from the conventional system of
keeping distinct separate teams for the 4 different spinning sections.
Chief Executive
2 Maintenance Engineer

3 Fitter 3 Fitter 3 Fitter 3 Fitter
10 cleaner 3 Running Fitter 3 Runnig Fitter 10 cleaner
10 cleaner 3 Roller Coverer
16 cleaner
6.3 Organization chart for cotton mill with 75000 spindles.
The concept has evolved over the past decade or so. The conventional
working in 1980s consisted of deployment of man power section-wise and
each person from a section confined to working in that particular section
as shown in Fig. 6.4.
Maintenance Department
Blow Room Card Comber Speedframe Ringframe Automatic Non

& winding Automatic
Drawframe winding
6.4 Conventional working pattern in 1980s.
As competition between mills increased due to pressure from domestic

and international markets, mills experimented with the idea of reducing
the manpower costs of maintenance by multiskilling and grouping. The
structure that emerged in 1990s is shown in Fig 6.5.
Maintenance Department
Blowroom & Comber Ringframe Automatic & Non

Card Speedframe & automatic winding
drawframe
6.5 Working pattern in 1990s.
Blowroom was merged with card; speed frame, drawframe and comber
were merged and conventional winding and autowinding together was
considered as one section. Such grouping required considerable
multiskilling of maintenance operatives.
The next appropriate step for the 21st century, is to make a single
common maintenance team for the entire spinning mill.
This Common Gang concepts means deployment of same man power
team for all machines in a spinning mill. Any compartmentalization of
spinning department is completely abolished. The entire emphasis is on
multiskilling of all the maintenance workers. Each of them should be able
to do maintenance jobs on several different kinds of machines from
blowroom to winding. Such multiskilling and making of Common Gang
for the entire mill permits and encourages job rotation for the team
members.
The objective of making a Common Gang is not just the most efficient
utilization of manpower through rationalisation. When properly formed
and implemented, it helps to avoid monotony in jobs, to enhance knowledge
and to give opportunities for career growth to individuals. Use of Common
Gang means much reduce dependency on few individuals. It leads to
enhancement of team spirit amongst the maintenance staff, while reducing
production losses due to machine down time to the minimum.
6.5.1 Implementation of the common gang concept

The Maintenance Manager supported by the top management and the
production manager should take following steps to implement Common
Gang concept in the maintenance department:
1. Training of maintenance staff to help them to develop multiple skills
and to learn technology of different machines. The training program
has two components: class training program for imparting
technological information and practical training on machines other
than which they have been working earlier.
2. Develop the concept of common gang in the workers: through lectures
and question answer sessions. No maintenance ‘section’ should be
mentioned on worker’s card, only maintenance ‘department’ should
be indicated.
3. One foreman and one fitter should be made the head of the planning
gang and the rest of the team should work under their leadership.
Importantly this process must be on rotational basis and the rotation
cycle should be minimum of one month.
4. Each section will be named as maintenance room no. 1, 2, 3, 4 and
not by their section name their section name.
5. All foremen and fitters should meet in the evening to plan their next
day work and to allocate work as required by the predetermined
schedule of the mill accordingly.
6. Leaves of cleaners should be sanctioned by the foreman and fitter
who head the Common Gang for that month and the leaves of foreman
and fitter should be sanctioned by the maintenance engineer.
7. Every cleaner must be given a chance to work as a running fitter in
different departments. Every cleaner works for three months as
running fitter
8. Running fitters should be two: one for blowroom to speedframe, and
another for ringframe to winding section.
9. Work manual for different machines should be prepared in local
language to standardize the training of workers.
10. Checklist should be designed to evaluate the skill of foremen, fitter
and seniors workers in performing maintenance activities on different
machines, and to determine their individual training needs.
Table 6.1 Manpower for common gang
S ize o f mi ll 25000 50000 75000

spi ndles spindl es spindl es
Maintenance worker /day
Maintenance head 1 1 1
Maintenance engineer 1 1 2
Maintenance clerk 1 2 3
Foreman 4 4 4
Fitt er including rol ler coverer 5 10 15
R unni ng fit ter 2 4 +2 6+ 2
C leaner 9 18 27
Total 23 42 60
6.6 Responsibilities at various positions

The role to be played by each level of the hierarchy shown in the
organization chart is explained in terms of responsibilities
6.6.1 Head of maintenance department

1. The Maintenance Head is responsible for planning execution of all
maintenance functions. Once the policies regarding scheduled
replacements, corrective maintenance, preventive maintenance, etc.
have been decided in consultation with the technical head, the
responsibility for preparation of plans & for executing the plans
effectively and efficiently rests with him.
2. His responsibilities are to prepare schedules for routine and preventive
maintenance, consistent with the maintenance budget of civil work
according to the plant layout and drawing.
3. To supervise actual maintenance work & check the work being done
by the maintenance team.
4. To plan for the timely replacement of worn out spares & subsequently
raise the indent in order to ensure the procurement of scheduled
replacement item well in time through the materials department.
5. To raise the indent for spares on machine manufacturer as per the
machine, catalogue number, drawing number.
6. To procure local items samples/specimen/dimensions should be given
as and when required.
7. To correspond with accessory, tool, material, and machine
manufacturers and help seniors/colleagues with regard to finalizing
orders for the above.
8. To prepare the maintenance budget for the financial year and to
control the maintenance cost accordingly.
9. To arrange for calibration of all equipment (like micrometer, vernier
callipers, leaf gauges etc.) Used for maintenance purpose.
10. To implement of the concepts like task force, Q.I.P. and Kaizen in
the maintenance department.
11. To recruit trainees and skilled workmen in maintenance department
in close co-ordination with industrial relation department.
12. To modify machine cleaning schedules, maintenance schedules,
process standards etc if needed, after consulting with the technical
head and production head.
13. In case the mill undertakes expansion i.e. addition to capacity etc, to
take up the responsibilities of project planning, erection and
commissioning of plant and technical evaluation.
6.6.2 Maintenance engineer

The maintenance engineer new the wok of foreman/fitters and ensures
implementation of planned work:
1. Highlights any non-conformity in cleaning and maintenance schedule
to Maintenance head and suggest corrective action.
2. He carries out inspection of the machines/equipment himself to ensure
that his team adheres to high technical standards all the time.
3. He prepares and implement the monthly plan for preventive
maintenance and overhauling within allocated budgets.
4. He ensures that effective methods are used and repairs are done
economically while carrying out the maintenance activities.
5. He is responsible along with the concerned foreman to attend to any
breakdown as and when it occurs.
6. Raises material issue slips for procuring from the mill stores all the
items required for the planned maintenance work.
7. Raises indent for spares to be bought from machine manufacturer as

per catalogue number, drawing number etc.
8. Provides samples/specimen/dimensions as and when required for
procuring local items.
6.6.3 Maintenance clerk

He is responsible for documentation and for keeping track of maintenance
items coming to use by the maintenance department.
1. Maintaining various documentation of maintenance department and
preparing reports asked for by his seniors.
2. Filling the issue slip as per the requirement of respective department
and get it duly signed by maintenance head/maintenance engineer.
3. Keeping track of monthly requirement of various departments.
4. Writing memos to the purchase and store department regarding
procurement of pending items as directed by maintenance head/
maintenance engineer.
5. Keeping track of material coming to the receipt section of the main
maintenance store and intimating such arrivals to his concerned
6.6.4 Senior foreman/foreman

He shall be responsible for:
1. Planning and execution of the maintenance work of his department.
2. Ensuring conformance with the specified maintenance schedules of
his department.
3. Giving Instruction for work to his juniors.
4. Intimating his seniors if any part is in short supply or is urgently
needed.
5. Co-ordinating with the engineering department foreman for any repair
in the workshop, or any other work related to engineering department.
6. Giving practical training to his subordinates when needed.
7. Reporting to Maintenance Engineer departmental problem and
resolving them based on suggestions/maintenance engineer advice.
8. Inspecting materials coming to the receipt section of stores and
giving feedback to maintenance engineer about their suitability or
otherwise.
9. Bringing all materials which are required for maintenance from Store.
10. Going through the checklist, charge register and running reports and
taking appropriate actions.
11. Inspect the records maintained by fitters and to take suitable actions
if luccane are found.
6.6.5 Sr. head fitter/head fitter/astt. head fitter/sr. fitter

1. Carrying out the maintenance activities correctly as per standard work
instruction relevant to respective department/machines.
2. Completing his job in the specified given time schedule.
3. Checking that tools, gauges etc. are kept and maintained well.
4. Informing the foreman of any breakdown or any delay in time
schedule and giving feed back on corrective actions taken
5. Guiding his juniors in doing these jobs.
6.6.6 Fitter/astt. fitter /cleaning fitter/sr. cleaning fitter/

jr. fitter
1. Cleaning the machine, changing the damaged spare part and
conveying any problem related with his machines to his foreman.
2. To carry out planned replacement and preventive maintenance if
required with the help of his seniors.
3. Guiding his juniors regarding work.
4. Rectifying any fault in found to occur on running machines.
6.6.7 Running fitter

1. Taking charge of each and every machine in his section and showing
the report to fitter/ foreman and getting it signed by shift officer and
2. Attending to minor items such as idle spindles etc.
3. Making changes on machines – gear and settings as per requirement
of the production department.
4. Making a written report of the work done by him and showing it to
the foreman.
6.6.8 Senior machine cleaner/cleaner

1. Cleaning of all assigned machine parts as explained to him by his Fitter.
2. Changing the oil & grease in various parts as told by his Fitter.
3. Changing parts/accessories as a part planned replacement with the
help of Assistant Fitter/Fitter.
4. Reporting to fitter in case of any non-conformity related to machines
during his work.
6.7 Human error in maintenance

Humans play an important role during the equipment life cycle in the
design, production, and operation and maintenance phases. Even though
the degree of their role may vary from one type of equipment to another
and from one equipment phase to another. Human error may be defined as
the failure to perform a specified task (or the performance of a forbidden
action) that could lead to disruption of scheduled operations or result in
damage to property and equipment. Some of the causes of human error
include poor work environment, poor work layout, improper work tools,
inadequate training, and poorly written equipment maintenance and
operating procedures. Human error may be classified into five categories:
assembly, inspection, installation, operation, and maintenance.
Maintenance error occurs due to incorrect repair or preventive actions.
Two typical examples are incorrect calibration of equipment and
application of the wrong grease at appropriate points of the equipment. It
is usually an accepted fact that the occurrence of maintenance error
increases as the equipment ages due to the increase in maintenance
frequency.
6.6 Most common reasons for human failure.

6.7.1 Reason for maintenance error

There are many reasons for the occurrence for the maintenance error. Some
of these are listed as:
1. Poor work layout
2. Poorly written maintenance procedures
3. Complex maintenance tasks
4. Improper work tools
5. Poor environment (i.e., temperature, humidity, lighting, etc.)
6. Fatigued maintenance personnel
7. Outdated maintenance manuals
8. Inadequate training and experience and
9. Worker’s negligence
6.7.2 Guidelines for reducing human error in

maintenance
1. Ensure, as much as possible, that standard work practices are followed
all across maintenance operations.
2. Periodically review documented maintenance procedures and
practices to ensure they are accessible, realistic, and consistent.
3. Periodically examine work practices to ensure that they do not differ
significantly from formal procedures.
4. Evaluate the ability of checklists to assist maintenance persons in
performing routine operations.
5. Offer periodic refresher training to maintenance professionals with
emphasis on maintenance procedures.
6. Do not keep the person on overtime more than four hours.
7. Supervisors oversight need to be strengthened, particularly in the
final hours of each shift as the occurrence of errors becomes more
likely.
8. Shift handover can be a factor in maintenance error. One particular
guideline concerns ensuring the adequacy of shift handover
practices by carefully considering documentation and
communication, so that incomplete tasks are transferred correctly
across shifts.
6.8 Crew size required for various activities in

maintenance department
Department – Blowroom
Acti vity Schedule Crew size Time

(m = month; t = tons) (F = fitter; C = cleaner) requ i re d (h )
Uni fl oc cle ani ng 1 m 1 F and 2 C 1–2

Uni cle an cle ani ng 1 m 1 F and 2 C 0.5
Bl en do mat 1 m 1 F and 2 C 1.5
Axi flo w 1 m 1 F and 2 C 0.5
Uni mix 1 m 1 F and 2 C 2.0
MC M and C VT3 1 m 1 F and 2 C 2.0
ER M 1 m 1 F and 2 C 1.0
L VSA / Co nd en ser 1 m 1 F and 2 C 1.5
Be ater de -mounti ng 20 00 –4 00 0 t 1 F and 2 C 3.0
mounti ng
Beater replacement 2000–4000 t 1 F and 2 C* 4.0
* One foreman
Department – Card
A cti vity Scheduled C rew size Time re qu i red

(m= mo nth ; ( F = fi tte r; ( h)
t= tons) C = cleaner)
Card cl eaning
C onventi onal cards 1 m 1 F and 2 C 1.5
New generati on cards 2 m 1 F and 1 C 1.5
F ull se tti ng
C onventi onal cards 6 m 1 F and 2 C 8.0
New generati on cards 6 m
Flat de- mounti ng 450 –800 t 2 C 4.0
Flat mounti ng 450 –800 t 1 F 24
C yl in de r an d do ff er 450 –800 t 1 F and 2 C 32
mounti ng
C yl inder gri ndi ng As per schedule 1 F and 1 C 1.0
Dof fer grinding As per schedule 1 F and 1 C 1.0
Flat grinding As per schedule 1 F and 1 C 2–4 de pend on
no. of r ounds
Oil change As per schedule 1 C 0.5–1
Lickerin de-mounting 200 t 1 F and 1 C 3.0
mounting
Department – Drawframe
A ctivi ty S che du le d C rew s iz e T im e re qu i re d

( F = fi tte r; ( h)
C = cle ane r)
Drawframe cl eaning
On e de li v e ry 0 .5 m 1 F and 2 C 0 .7 5
T wo de li v ery 0 .5 m 1 F and 2 C 1 .5
Oil change As per schedule 1C 0.5
Department – Unilap
Activi ty S che du le d Cre w si ze T im e re qu i re d

( m = mon th; (F = fitt er; ( h)
t = to ns) C = cl ean er)
Unil a p c le a ni ng 0 .5 m 1 F a nd 3 C 1 .5 – 2. 0
Department – Comber
Activi ty Sch ed ul e d Cre w si ze T im e

(m = mo nth; (F = fitt er; re qu i red
t = ton s) C = cl ean er) ( h)
Comb er cle ani ng 0. 5 m 1 F and 3 C 1 .5

Nipp e r g a ug e As pe r s c h edu le 1 F a nd 1 C 1 .5
Unico m b gau ge As pe r s c h edu le 1 F a nd 1 C 1 .0
Unico mb bru sh gau g e As pe r sch edu le 1 F and 1 C 0 .5
Department – Speedframe
Activi ty S che dul e d C rew size T im e

( m = mo nth ; ( F = fi tte r; re qu i red
t = to ns) C = cle ane r) ( h)
Spe ed fram e c l ea n in g 1 m 1 F and 6 C 2 .5

Top arm pressur e A s p er sch ed ul e 1 F an d 1 C 2 .0
checki ng
Sadd le g aug e A s p er sch ed ul e 1 F 2 .0
Bob bi n tro u gh l ev e ll i ng A s p er s c h ed ul e 1 F and 1 C 1 .5
Collar cleaning and foot step As per schedule 1 F and 4 C 3.0
oil change
Department – Ringframe
Acti vity S che du le d C rew size Ti me

( m = mon th; ( F = fi tte r; req u i-
t = to ns) C = cle ane r) red ( h)
Ri ng frame cle ani ng 1 –6 m 1 F an d 8 C 1. 5
Gui de pu ll ey be ari ng chan ge A s p er sched ul e 1 F an d 2 C* 2. 5
Gui de ring and be arin g A s p er sched ul e 1 F an d 6 C* 7. 0
change
Sp in dl e o il ch ang e As p er sched ul e 1 F an d 5C 1. 5
T op arm p ressu re ch eckin g As p er sched ul e 1 F and 1 C 2. 0
Ri ng ch ang e As p er sched ul e 1 F an d 5C 4. 0
Ri ng rai l, l app et ho o k, A BC As p er sched ul e 1 F an d 4 C* 6. 0
ring hei ght setti ng an d
the i r ce nt rin g
T op variato r p u ll ey O.H. A s p er sched ul e 1 F an d 1 C 1. 0
Bo ttom variato r p u ll ey O. H. A s p er sched ul e 1 F an d 2 C 1. 5
Jocke y p ul le y g reasi ng A s p er sched ul e 6 C 1. 0
Drum shaft greasing As per schedule 2C 1.0
Department – Winding
(a) Automatic winding
A ctivi ty S che du le d Cre w si ze T im e req u ire d

( m = mon th; ( F = fitt er; ( h)
t = to ns) C = cl ean er)
M a c hc o ne r c l ean in g 1 m 1 F a nd 4 C 3 .5
Winding head O.H. 6m 1 F and 2C 4 winding head/4 h
(b) Two-for-one twister
A ctivi ty Schedul ed C rew si ze Ti me requi red

( m = month; ( F = fitt er; (h)
t= tons) C = cl eaner)
TFO cleani ng 1 m 1 F and 4 C 3. 5
Spindle oil change 6m 1 F and 4 C 4
References
1. Industrial Engineering and Management Science (1993) by T. R . BANGA, N. K.
AGARWAL , S . C . SHARMA .
2. Maintenance Management in Spinning (1999) by South India Textile Research
Association, Coimbatore.
3. Industrial Management and Operation Research (1993) by PROF K. K. AHUJA.
4. Comprehensive Hand Book on Spinning Maintenance by NEERAJ NIJHAWAN.
7
Maintenance repair inventory and its control
7.1 Inventory
Inventory is an unused asset, which lies in stock without participating in
value adding process. Unused equipment, raw material, WIP and finished
goods, consumables, spare parts, bought out parts, tools and tackles, gauge
and fixtures, etc.
7.1.1 Symptoms of poor inventory management

1. An increase in the number of backorders, indicating too many stock
outs.
2. Dead stock of items starts increasing.
3. Inventory of slow moving item is very high.
4. Rising inventory investment.
5. An increasing number of cancelled orders.
6. Insufficient storage space – too much inventory in hand.
7.2 Types of inventory

Inventory is normally of four types:
1. Raw materials
Raw material inventory has been purchased, but not processed. The items
can be used to separate suppliers from the production process.
2. Work-in-process (WIP)
WIP exists because of the time it takes for a product to be made (called
cycle time). Reducing the cycle time reduces inventory.
3. Finished goods
Finished goods inventory is completed and awaiting shipment. Finished
71
goods may be inventoried because customer demands for a given time

period may be unknown.
4. Maintenance, repair and operating (MRO)

MROs are inventories devoted to maintenance/repair/operating supplies.
They exist because the need and timing for maintenance and repair of
some equipment are unknown.
In this we deal with only maintenance repair and operating inventories.
7.3 Inventory carrying cost

1. Material costs of inventory
These are the costs of purchasing the goods including transportation and
handling costs.
2. Ordering costs
Any manufacturing organization has to purchase materials. In that event,
the ordering costs refer to the costs associated with the preparation of
purchase requisition by the user department, preparation of purchase order
and follow-up measures taken by the purchase department, transportation
of materials ordered for, inspection and handling at the warehouse for
storing. At times even demurrage charges for not lifting the goods in time
are included as part of ordering costs.
3. Carrying costs
These are the expenses of storing goods. Once the goods have been
accepted, they become part of the firm’s inventories. These costs include
insurance, rent/depreciation of warehouse, salaries of storekeeper, his
assistants and security personnel, financing cost of money locked-up in
inventories, obsolescence, spoilage and taxes.
4. Cost of funds tied up with inventory

Whenever a firm commits its resources to inventory, it is using funds that
otherwise might be available for other purposes. The firm has lost the use
of funds for other profit making purposes. This is its opportunity cost.
Whatever the source of funds inventory has a cost in terms of financial
resources. Excess inventory represents an unnecessary cost.
Note: The inventory carry cost comes out to be normally 20-25 % of
total inventory.
Maintenance repair inventory and its control 73
7.4 Material and repair inventory

Spare parts management needs special treatment, somewhat different
from the inventory management of regular items. This is because the
purpose of keeping a stock of these items are different – to serve as a
replacement to the worn-out parts in the machinery. One of the realities
of the spare parts management scene is stockouts of spares in the midst
of high stock levels. Even when the shelves of a spinning mill’s stores
are overflowing, the maintenance engineers would not get some desired
spares when needed. The word spare or spare part is used here as a general
term for indicating all kind of items needed by the maintenance
department. Spares would include all spare parts of machines, accessories
used on machines, lubricants and miscellaneous items such as emery
paper and chalk powder. The problem arises because management of
spare parts inventory is essentially different from management of raw
materials and in process inventory. The techniques applicable to managing
direct materials are not applicable to managing spare parts. The most
visible characteristic of spare parts inventory is the large variety. There
are several thousand items each with different specification, for different
requirements and different behavior in terms of consumption rate etc. If
any technique is applied blindly without consideration of the nature of
their behavior, a mill would end up with huge stocks of non-moving
items.
How much inventory one mill should have?

A spinning mill should have a store inventory of about 20–30 % of total
annual year consumption. Any inventory of more than 30% value of yearly
consumption is considered ‘abnormally high’ by today’s standards.
The equipment suppliers could be unwillingly responsible for huge stock
of spares. In order to ensure that they err on the safer side they usually
recommend a large number of spares. If one follows their recommendations
blindly, one ends up with a huge stock level – large part of which becomes
non-moving or slow moving in due course of time.
7.5 Different methods for controlling the inventory

In industry different organization are using different methods like VED
analysis, ABC analysis, control limits, etc., for controlling the inventory
but all these methods are useful mainly for the raw material inventory or
finished goods inventory. In this chapter we explained some of them briefly.
The most useful method is the FISPO method which we have explained in
detail.
7.5.1 Using control limits

Many mills try to introduce maximum and minimum control limits to
control inventory levels of spare parts. This standard technique, however,
is not truly applicable in the case of a spinning mill which has to take
account of insurance spares and of planned replacement of accessories
and parts.
The maximum and minimum control limits are decided based on two
factors: namely, the rate of consumption and the procurement lead-time.
Neither of these two factors can be predicted with any degree of confidence
for spare parts. The rate of consumption fluctuates widely in the case of
most of the spares even with good machinery maintenance. The
procurement lead-time depends on the urgency of need and the extent of
follow-up actions. It can vary from one week when an item is closely
followed-up to as high as three months when no follow-up action is taken.
Such is the case, how can one predict lead time and consumption rate and
how can one fix the maximum and minimum control limits for machinery
spare parts?
Fortunately the commonly needed store consumption items are only
few: such as old dhoti, emery papers, chalk powder, bottle cleaning brush,
lubricants, and also the monthly requirement of four or five consumable
accessories items like skived apron, lappet hook and roving guide, etc.
We can apply maximum and minimum control limits for such items where
lead time is also stable for a mill in any locations. But all these items are
low cost items which contribute only a small portion (10%) of the total
inventory cost and do not need close inventory control at all.
7.5.2 ABC analysis method

The ABC analysis of inventory class ‘A’ is made up of inventory items
which are either very expensive or used in massive quantities like metallic
wire, apron and cots, electronic circuit board, etc. Thus these items, though
few in number contribute a high proportion of the value of inventories.
Class ‘B’ items like bearing and belts are not so few in number, but also
they are not too many either. Value wise also, they are neither very
expensive nor very cheap. Moreover, they are used in moderate quantities.
Class ‘C’ contains a relatively large number of items. But they are either
very inexpensive items or used in very small quantities so that they do not
constitute more than a negligible fraction of the total value of inventories.
The control of inventory through ABC analysis is exercised as follows:
‘A’ class items merit a tightly controlled inventory system with constant
attention by the purchase and stores management. A larger effort per item
on only a few items w ill cost only moderately, but the effort can result in
large savings.
‘B’ class items merit a formalized inventory system and periodic
attention by the purchase and stores management .For ‘C’ class items still
relaxed inventory procedures are used.
For ‘A’ class items, the inventory policy, i.e. order quantity and re-order
point should be carefully determined and the close control over the usage
of materials is desirable. For ‘B’ class items, the economic order quantities
and reorder level calculations can be done and larger stocks can be
maintained. The review of these items may be done quarterly or half-yearly.
In case of ‘C’ class items, generally one year supply can be maintained.
Periodic review once a year may be sufficient.
The technique tries to analyze the distribution of any characteristics by
stock values of importance in order to determine its priority. This technique
can be applied in all facets of organisation. Many organisations are applying
this technique in materials management and spare parts management to
identify the contribution made by the materials/spares in the total inventory
value. On the basis of stock value, materials procurement strategy and
consumption strategy is decided.
7.5.3 VED classification

Experts for the classification of spares give different models. Some of
these are of academic interest and have no practical value in the case of
machinery spares in a spinning mill. Take the example of VED
classification. In this technique all spares are classified as
V = Vital
E = Essential
D = Desirable
From the maintenance engineer’s point of view even a small item like
bolt is vital or critical since equipment cannot function without it. Even
when some one considers some items more critical and vital than others,
but their degree of criticality is not clearly defined. Thus, it is confusing
to classify the spares as per above classification.
As if this is not enough, some textbooks recommend simultaneous
application of ABC and VED classifications by developing matrix as shown
below. All these items are classified into nine categories and for each
category, decision rules in terms of desirable inventory levels are specified.
For example, if an item is in A class as well as vital (1), such items are
kept as, say one-month requirement.
V E D
A 1 2 3
B 2 4 6
C 3 6 12
But such systems are of little use to the maintenance manager because
these systems do not link the spare part requirement with maintenance.
7.5.4 Recommended method of classification

Any rational classification of spares must permit the maintenance
department to carry out indenting, periodic review and annual budgeting
of spares. A good classification system should enable us to link maintenance
plans and schedules with inventory levels. It should integrate the needs of
maintenance engineers with those of the stores manager.
All the stores items required for a spinning mill should be classified
into 5 categories shown below as FISPO.
1. F – Fast moving spares
2. I – Insurance items or vital items
3. S – Standard ‘open market’ consumables
4. P – Planned replacement spares
5. O – Overhauling spares
The rules for stock levels and the period of review for each of the above
categories are different.
1. Fast moving items

Maintenance spares
The rate of consumption or usage of spares can be derived from historical
data regarding failure of the different components in the machinery. Failure
statistics is an important basic information for this analysis. If the failure
times show a negative exponential distribution, the failure rates are
distributed by means of Poisson distribution.
If the failure times show a normal distribution due to aging or wear,
then the failure rates will also show a normal distribution. From the failure
statistics one can know the mean consumption rate of these spares and
also find the level of consumption expected with a corresponding
probability of its occurrence. These are usually relatively low cost
accessories or spares. Normally, they are well-stocked in stores. The
desirable levels of inventory to be maintained in this class of items depend
upon the previous record of consumption. For example belts, bearing and
lubricants and gears, etc.
Table 7.1 An illustrative list of maintenance spares
Machine Fast moving items
Ringframe Anti-balloon control rings

Lappet hooks
Gears
Skieved aprons
Spindle tape
Spindle lock
Separator holders
Rubber gaskets
Ring Travellers
Separators
Spindle buttons
Spacers
Roving guide
Top synthetic clearer
Speedframe Skived aprons
Gears
Inlet condensers
Spacer
Unilap Drawbox Strippers
Drawframe Drawbox Strippers
Carding Gears
Flat safety keys
Carding leaf gauges
Flat emery paper
2. Insurance items
The purpose of these spares is to provide an insurance against the
relatively remotely possible breakdown or failure of an equipment/
component. The probability that such a component/equipment will
survive the life-time of the machinery or plant is quite high. The
reliability of such spares has been observed to be as high as 95–99%
over the life-span of the machinery. These spares are sparingly needed.
Insurance items are costly items and are stocked to ensure against
probability of failure. If such a vital item is not readily available, the
entire machine would remain out of production till the time it is
supplied. If the concerned production machine is critical for ensuring
continuity in production chain, then the importance of the spare part is
still higher. Each such item should be stocked depending on the lead-
time of procurement and its cost. Many of these spares are, also, high
value items. These spares are, by and large, procured along with the
capital equipments. At the time of the purchase of the capital equipment
itself a decision regarding the purchase of the insurance spare is also
made. Generally, the decision with regard to insurance spares may be

to buy either no spare or to buy a spare. It is desirable to make a common
sub-store for all the Insurance items at the corporate level, when a
business group operates several spinning mills even when located on
different regions.
Table 7.2 An illustrative list of insurance items for different machines
S. no. Machine Insurance items
1. Unifloc A-11 Running roller

2. Horizontal Cover tape
3. Vertical cover tape
4. Impeller wheel
5. Blendomat Horizontal Cover tape
6. Vertical cover tape
7. Rope
8. Supporting roll
9. Uniclean Perforated sheet
10. Unimix B7/3 R Conveyor lattice
11. Inclined lattice
12. Mixing bale opender Conveyor lattice
13. Inclined lattice
14. Card c-4/c-10 Cylinder undercasing
15. Flat cyclo gear
16. Flat brush cyclo gear
17. Fluid coupling
18. Unilap Seal kit of pistons
19. Joint shaft
20. Fine adjusting valve
21. Booster pump
22. Electromagnetic clutch
23. Combers Nipper
24. Unicomb
25. Top comb holder
26. Differential gear
27. Nipper supports
28. Speedframe Differential gears
29. Conderum
30. Machconer Impellers
3. Standard consumables
These items are reviewed according to a review calendar fixed by the store
and purchase department. Desirable inventory levels are maintained in
this class of items. The control limit mentioned in mentioned in Table 7.1
should be used for these items.
Table 7.3 An illustrative list of consumable items
S. No. Store consumable items
1. Old dhoti
2. French chalk powder
3. Glue for joining skieved apron
4. Washing powder
5. Bathing soap
6. Emery paper
7. Bottle cleaning brush
8. Brass wire brush
9. Steel wool
10. Torch cell
11. Torch bulb 3.8 v
12. M seal
13. Nylon hammer head
14. Fevicol
15. Teflon tape
16. Painting brush 5 cm
17. Braso
18. Palm broom
19. Hexa blade
20. Araldite
21. Knotter blade
22. Johnson buds
4. Planned replacement items

These items have a known specific service life decided in advance
depending upon the production rate. Delivery schedule should ensure
availability of each item one month prior to the date fixed for replacement.
Procurement of all such items is to be planned immediately after finalization
of maintenance schedule for given year.
Table 7.4 An illustrative list of planned replacement items
Machine Item name Life
Unifloc Impeller 6m
Cover tape 5 y/ nb
Running roller 2y
Chain 1y
Beater 12000 t
Blendomat Cover tape 7 y/ n b
Rope 2y
Beater 12000 t
Unimix Conveyor lattice 7 y/ n b
Inclined lattice 7 y/ n b
Beater 4000 t
Stripper of evener roll 4 y/ n b
Grid bar 5 y/ n b
Feed roll 5-7 y/ n b
ERM Beater 4000 t
Feed roll 12 y/ n b
Grid bar 12 y/ n b
Traverse plate 12 y/ n b
CVT-3 Pin beater 3y
2nd beater 4000 t
3rd beater 400 t
Feed roll 7y
Inclined conveyor lattice 2y
Conveyor lattice 5y
Combing segment 4000t
MCM-6 Conveyor lattice 7 y/ n b
Uniclean Beater pins 8y
Card C-4/ C10, Cylinder wire 600-1000 t
C-51, C-61
Doffer wire 600-1000 t
Flat tops 600-1000t
Lickerin wire 200 ton
Stationary flat above lickerin 160 t
Stationary flat under lickerin With lickerin
Stationary flat above doffer 450 t
Flat chain 7y
Flat cleaning brush With wire
Flat post cleaning brush With wire
Redirecting roll wire 2000 t
Redirection roll cleaning brush With wire
Cyclo gear for flat 10 y/ n b
Cyclogear for flat cleaning brush 10 y/ n b
Card DK 903/803 Cylinder wire 600 -1000t
Doffer wire 600-1000 t
Flat tops 600-1000t
Stationary flat above lickerin 160 t
Stationary flat under lickerin With lickerin
Stationary flat above doffer 450 t
Flat belt 5y
Flat cleaning brush With wire
Flat post cleaning brush With wire
Redirecting roll wire 2000 t

Redirection roll cleaning brush With wire
1st lickerin 2000 t
2nd lickerin 450 t
3rd lickerin 450 t
Drawframe Cots 6–12 m
SB-2/ RSB-1, RSB-951,
RSB-851
Arbour with end bush 5 y/ n b
Guide roll for can change 10 y/ n b
Slides for bottom roll 10 y/ n b
Bottom roll 15 y/ n b
Waste screen 5 y/ n b
Arm 5 y/ n b
Trumpet 7 y/ n b
Funnel 7 y/ n b
Coiler 10 y/ n b
Drawframe Do/6 Drawbox cot 1y
Stripper 2y
Drafting roll membrane 3–4 y
Bearing saddle 6y
Drafting roll plunger 6y
Pressure bar 4–5 y
Bottom roll 12–13 y
Trumpet 2–3 y
Coiler tube and plate 1012 y
Top roll with end bushes 7–8 y
Speedframe Top apron 1y
Lf 1400/FL16,FL 100
Bottom apron 1y
Bottom roller 12–15 y
Top roller 6–7 y
Cradle 7–8 y
Nose bar 12–15 y
False twister 2y
Pressure finger 6–7 y
Pressure hose 10–12 y
Top arm 7–8 y
Bottom roll needle bearing 8–10 y
Top and bottom roll clearer cloth 2y
Guide tube 12–15 y
Guide tube key 5–6 y
Cots 2y
Flyer 15 y
Bobbin wheel pin 8y
Ringframe G5/1 Top apron 1y
2y
Bottom apron 1y
2y
Cots 1y
Bottom roller 10–12 y
Needle bearing 7–8 y
Cradle 12–15 y
Arbour 5–6 y
Pressure hoses 5–6 y
Lappet hook 6y
ABC ring 10–12 y
Rings 2–5 y
Spindle tape 1–1.5 y
2.5–3 y
Spindle assy 12–15 y
Bobbin holder 5y
Drive pulley 12–15 y
Jockey pulley 12–15 y
Drum shaft 45 NPB bearing and 10 y
guide ring
Separator 5–7 y
Guide pulley bearing 7y
Creel rod 10 y
PVC tubing 10–12 y
Comber E62, E60, E7/5 Nipper 15 y
Half lap 6y
Top comb 1y
Ratchet 6y
Nipper pin 6y
Detaching roll cot 1.5–2 y
Drawbox cot 2–3 y
Draw box top roller with 8y
end bushes
Detaching roller with end bushes 8y
Detaching roll stripper 3–4 y
Drawbox stripper 1–2 y
Table trumpet 10 y
Detaching top roll clearer 1y
Winding Machconer no. 7 Splicing cutter ceramic 8–10 y
Shutter cutter ceramic 8–10 y
Bearing center 6–7 y
Bearing center bearing bushes 2y
packing
Brake shoes 4–5 y
Thread guide Nb
Drum belt 2–3 y
Empty conveyor belt 5–6 y
Package conveyor belt 8–10 y
C.B.F. cylinder small stroke length 6m
C.B.F. cylinder large stroke length 2y
PU tubing 5–6 y
CBF guide lever 2–3 y
Empty tube 3y
Winding Splicing cutter steel 5–6 y
Autoconer 238/338
Tension cutter 5–6 y
Wax shaft 5y
Opening arm 4–5 y
Suction arm 4–5 y
Suction tube clamp 4–5 y
Exhaust channel 4–5 y

Brake liner 6–7 y
Drum 15–20 y
Package conveyor belt 5–6 y
Empty tube conveyor belt 5–6 y
T.F.O. Tangential belt 3–4 y
Guide roll 4–5 y
Capsule 4–5 y
Brake shoe 4–5 y
Multiple tension device 8–10 y
Separator 6–7 y
Pig tail thread guide 10 y
Stop motion wire 8–10 y
m = month, y= year, nb = need base, t = tons

Note: The life of planned replacement shown in the table are guidelines; the actual
service life would vary from mill to mill depending on the production rate, fibres
processed and effectiveness of maintenance.
5. Overhauling items
These items are wear and tear items needed once in two or three years
when a machine or an equipment is taken up for overhauling. The total
quantity procured is as per overhauling program. No stocks are maintained
and every item procured is expected to be consumed. Review of overhauling
items is done four to five months prior to overhauling schedules and indents
are raised at that time. Most often the different types of bearings and shafts,
keys, gears, etc, constitute overhauling items.
6. Repairable spares
These are the reusable spare parts, which after their breakdown can be
reconditioned and re-used. Typical examples are the reconditioning of
motors and repairing of PCB and shafts etc. Since these have more than
one life, the cycle of their various lives needs to be taken into consideration
in the analysis of their inventory policy.
7.6 How to implement the spare parts

management?
The best way to plan and execute spare parts management is to make an
expenditure budget at the start of financial year, based on the above
classification of spares. The budget enables the maintenance department
to link spare part with maintenance plan and schedule.
The budget is of real practical value in spare part management. It is a
management tool which helps in spare part planning, review, indenting,

procurement and inventory control. A proper use of budgets eliminates
emergency indents, adhoc indents and rush and super rush orders; each of
which cause undue stress on persons and unnecessarily large expenses for
the mill.
7.6.1 Expenditure budget

The maintenance expenditure budget is prepared with objectives of
(a) Making a planned and timely execution of maintenance activities.
(b) To ensure availability of spares at the right time and thus to prevent
disruption in normal working of the production department and also
to plan for additional investments required for acquiring new
equipment and/or tools for improving the effectiveness of
maintenance.
Procedure for making expenditure budget

The procedure for budgeting for next year begins in the last month of
the current financial year i.e. in the beginning of March each year. The
final budget for the coming financial year is ready by the end of March.
Budget provisions are made for expenditure under the same heads as
given under the recommended FISPO method of classification. These
are
1. Fast moving spares

These are small items which get broken during the normal working like
spindle tapes, lappet hooks, ABC rings, spares, bearings belts, etc. Based
on the previous consumption pattern, a provision is made for all such items
in the coming financial year.
Oils and lubricants

Based on the requirement of lubricants of each machine as recommended
by the manufacturer, an estimate is made for the requirement of all type of
lubricants and accordingly a provision is made.
Ball bearings and belts

Based on the past consumption data and some future requirement, an
estimate for the coming year is made.
2. Insurance spare
Keeping in mind stock position in stores and sub-store and the departments
and the estimated requirement of the department, a provision is made for the
purchase of such items which have to be procured during the financial year.
Comber nipper, conveyor belts and major components fall under this category.
3. Planned replacement
This head cover all such items which have a definite life cycle like card
wire, cots aprons, rings, etc. The life cycle of these parts is determined by
the production rates and the type of material running on the machine.
Modification
Modifications and innovations should be the way of life in modern mills who
wish to grow in spite of fierce competition in the globalize market. Therefore
depending on the size of the mill and the budget of respective departments, a
provision for some amount should be made, and efforts put in to install
incremental modification and innovations to improve quality and productivity,
or to permit manufacture of specialty yarns of different kinds.
4. Store consumable stores

This head covers all those items which are consumed on day-to-day basis
such as detergents, adhesive etc. Based on their previous consumption
pattern and considering the estimated future requirement, provision is made
for these also.
5. Contingency
Even the best estimates may not actually be able to meet all the requirements
of as departments as the year proceeds. Some provision must be made in
the budget to take care of such exigencies. Usually about 10% of the total
budget would be sufficient as contingency amount. The budget prepared
by the maintenance department is sent to the top management for approval.
Once the budget is finally approved, procurement of spares is planned
and indents are placed accordingly.
7.6.2 Review of maintenance budget

After finalization of the maintenance program and the expense budget, it
is imperative to ensure that maintenance activity is carried out as per budget
and expenses are incurred within the budgeted limits.
Review of budget helps in identifying any deviation from the plan termed
variance, in determining its cause. It further helps in deciding corrective
actions to eliminate or to minimize variance and also to avoid its recurrence.
If these happen to be genuine reason for a variance – either the lower or
on higher side from the budget, it should be considered and the specific
variance should be accepted as worthwhile. The future budget exercised
should be planned accordingly.
1. Benefits of reviewing budget

A properly implemented budgetary control on maintenance expense helps the
management in controlling the total expense on maintenance in an optimum
manner. It acts as a tool for the administration to control the expenses being
incurred from time to time over the year, without risking to compromise on
production efficiency. It indicates where and when executive action is required
to obtain the desired result in quality and productivity. Budgetary control
periodic comparison of actual with planned aids the measuring of the
performance of each maintenance team and each production department.
2. Essential requirement for applying budgetary control

In small mills, the preparation of budget is the responsibility of the cost or
management accountant. In large spinning mills, the budget committee is
entrusted with this task. The budget committee is composed of executives
in charge of major functions; purchase manager, maintenance manager
and production manager. The chief executive acts as a chairman and the
cost accountant acts as a secretary. The maintenance budget will be
prepared by the maintenance manager and submitted to committee for
approval. The committee makes necessary amendments after discussions.
The main functions of committee are as follows:
1. To help the maintenance manager by providing past information to
prepare budgets.
2. Proper targets. There should be adequate check and safeguards against
adoption of too high or too low targets.
3. Continuous monitoring of budget. Although the budgets are prepared
for a year, these must be reviewed at quarterly intervals or at least
one in six months.
4. Provision for flexibility. Budget should always be flexible to meet
changed conditions like major shift in customer demands etc.
However, flexibility should not be taken by the maintenance manager
as an excuse for lowering the standards set for performance unless
specific reasons are identifiable. Any desired change should be made
with the approval of budget committee.
Table 7.5 Form to keep the budget versus outstanding orders date
Budget versus outstanding orders date
Budget Sancti one d
Total bu dge t used
Budget i n hand
Purchase orde r rel eased till date

Balance budget aft er consid erin g
purchase ord er
Invento ry stock
7.6.3 Other points which help in controlling inventory

1. Set up vendors list and list all items supplied by each vendor.
2. Create inventory records in for all parts with the following details:
(a) Item number
(b) Description
(c) Inventory type
(d) Quantity in hand
(e) Location
(f) Substitute parts
(g) Minimum and maximum stock level
3. Track all inventory transactions regularly.
4. Perform a physical inventory every six months.
References
2. Industrial Engineering and Management Science (1993) by T . R . BANGA ,
N . K . AGARWAL and S . C . SHARMA .
3. Maintenance Management in Spinning (1999) by South India Textile Research
Association, Coimbatore.
4. Operating Instruction for the high production card C1/3 issued in November 1987.
12. Lakshmi Speedframe LF 1400 operating instruction manual year 1990
13. Lakshmi Ringframe G5/1 operating instruction manual year 1990
14. Roving Frame Instruction Manual FL-16 By Toyada Automatic Loom Works
August 2001.
15. Prerna Leewha Two-for-one Twister for spun yarn PRN –140- LW Instruction
manual.
in April 1973. Zinser Speedframe 660 instruction manual year 1990, Zinser
manual year 1990.
Limited Edition august 1993.
18. Drawframe Cherry DX –500 – E2 instruction manual, Drawframe Cherry
D –400 MT instruction manual.
:01 date of issue : 06.01.
20. Two for one Twister instruction manual Leewha LW 560 SA.
manual year 2001, CardC-61 instruction manual year 2002.
22. Murata Process Coner 21-C instruction manual revised October 2002.
8
Maintenance information systems
8.1 Computer-managed maintenance system

Presently most of the mills in India are running without the computer-
managed maintenance system. Without computer-managed maintenance
system, maintenance manager faces lots of problems regarding the analysis
of feed back received from the maintenance department. It is seen in most
of the systems prevailing in textile industry that too much paper work
would burden the maintenance manager; too little makes him operate in a
vacuum. When a manager is flooded with mass of information and control
data, he gets tied down to the table. He gets little time to provide attention
to the equipment and to the ongoing maintenance work. Likewise without
an adequate information base, the manager is likely to take a wrong or a
non-optimum decision, which may cost the company dearly. It is a pity
that the discussions on information systems for maintenance are associated
only with the job orders and work orders. These documents are essential
but they should be last on the list of priority. They are useless without
supporting information such as method followed on the job, check list
and frequencies, list of tools and tackles, crew-size, job standards and list
of spares with consumable pattern. All such information is included in an
effective maintenance information system (MIS). Such MIS should be
developed and installed by the maintenance manager and placed within
hand’s reach of each engineer. Only then can he become an effective
supervisor who takes the right decisions at the right time.
The primary objective of the maintenance management is to achieve the
optimum balance between the plant availability and maintenance resource
utilization. The effective matching of labour and material resources for
maintenance planning and control is a dynamic activity. The latest approach
has concentrated on supplying management with reliable information on
both the equipment performance and cost that would allow them to make
the informed decision. Thus, it becomes essential to adopt to technique that
would provide adequate and timely information for making the maintenance
function more meaningful. The implementation of computer-managed
maintenance system is one of the successful ways for achieving the goal.
89
The main objective of the maintenance department is to

(1) provide a quality of effective maintenance services that support
facility operational requirement,
(2) reduce unscheduled equipment down time through effective maintenance
planning,
(3) utilize CMMS report generator to provide meaningful management
report that will enhance the control of maintenance,
(4) utilize CMMS to ensure that maintenance is performed efficiently
through organized planning, coordinated use of material, manpower
and time, and
(5) create and maintain measurement of maintenance performance within
CMMS.
Objectives
Demand Control Resources
Work Feedback
Systems to be Maintained Execution Maintained Systems
8.1 Flowchart of computer-managed system.
One of the highest priorities of the maintenance manager is to keep the

machine around the clock, i.e. reduce down time. With CMMS system, we
can enter and track the down time. We can retrieve the down time of any
machine compared with the last month, last year and last week. With this
information one can take the right decision in future in short span of time
as more facts are available to him.
8.2 Benefits of CMMS

Improved planning – easier scheduling of work orders, balanced workloads
and a focus on preventative maintenance.
Better quality reporting and ease of access to historical information –
real-time data collection ensures that professional information is captured
and shared between team members. This collective bank of information is
unaffected by staff changes.
Clearer, more useful reports – flexible, user-defined, reporting can both
alert to issues and provide insights to their cause.
Maintenance information systems 91
Reduced management overhead – the CMMS aids planning, scheduling

and communication; it also encourages collective responsibility reducing
the strain on management.
Fewer breakdowns – a focus on planned, preventative maintenance
reduces equipment downtime.
Less time at the stores counter – real time, online stock management
means that you don’t need to make multiple journeys to check, book or
obtain parts.
Reduced stock-outs – better inventory management keeps you one-step
ahead to minimize disruption and downtime.
8.3 Components of CMMS

The basic components of good MIS are given below:
8.3.1 Asset register

The plant register is a list of all production machinery and equipments
owned by the mill. Its purpose is to give bird’s eye view on the equipments,
their type, location, age etc. It is obvious that too much information should
not be crowded in the plant register. Again the equipments should be
properly grouped in the register. The sole purpose of the register is to
present elementary information in a summarized form. The format of plant
register is given below. This information is necessary when some problem
occurs in the machine and complaint has to be lodged to the machine
manufacturer and at the time of indenting as it is necessary to give the
machine no. and year of manufacturing.
Format of asset register

Machine Make Model M/c no. Year of manufacture Commissioning date
8.3.2 Technical file

The purpose of technical file is to record technical specifications and
commercial information about each production machines such as speeds,
kW, productive capacities, accessories, etc; and purchase price installation
cost, depreciation charges, etc. The foundation diagram, having detailed
information like exhaust opening, electrical and pneumatic holes, etc, is

provided for each machine. All such information is directly reproduced from
manuals supplied by the equipment suppliers and placed in the equipment
file to make it readily available to all maintenance engineers. This information
is required when any shifting of production machine is required.
8.3.3 Preventive maintenance procedure library control

Maintenance manuals are needed to plan, monitor and control maintenance
activities. Manuals give in detail the sequential steps to carry out the job,
crew size, allowed time, frequency and guide lines to attend to different
problems arising on the different machines. If the above information is
kept up-to-date, authentic and readily available, it is useful in a number of
ways. Since all information is available at one place, unnecessary delays
in receiving instruction, in collecting the needed tools and tackles are
eliminated. Since the engineer knows the details of the job to be done, the
quality of his supervision improves. These manuals provide a base from
which improvement and refinement of the existing methods and practices
can be taken up. It is necessary that every company develop its own
manuals. Although the exhaustive manuals are provided by equipment
suppliers to give the above information, it is found to be in a scattered
form. Therefore, it becomes very difficult and time consuming to retrieve
the required information. In making these in-company manuals, information
must be of course borrowed from supplier’s manuals but the past experience
must be used to ensure that the information is arranged to suit the needs
of maintenance engineer, as defined by the culture of company.
8.3.4 Spare part catalogue

The spare part catalogue supplied by the equipment supplier is of limited
use. This is because all the spare parts – most of which do not need regular
replacement are listed in them. Only fraction of 5–15% of spares need regular
replacement. In such 80% cases the indents of the items gets repeated. Most
of the mills, therefore, follow the practice of giving a different material
code no. which is to be filled along with part no. of the spare part while
issuing the material from store or while indenting. Items are classified
according to consumption pattern estimated from the past experience gained
within the company. Maintenance engineers prepare their own spare part
catalogue by eliminating large number of spare items, which are not needed.
The indenting of spares becomes easy as well as accurate when engineers
have spare part catalogues made as above. Availability of the catalogues
allows proper inventory planning and budgeting of maintenance expenditure.
Format for spare part catalogue

Department :
Model :
Part name Catalogue no. Part no. Material code no. Quantity per machine
8.3.5 Scheduling of planned maintenance

In this plan total work is prescribed with suitable allowances for holidays
so that given targets are completed in each month. Weekly schedules of
routine inspection and monthly, quarterly, half-yearly and yearly
schedules of preventive maintenance are planned in such a manner that
a fixed work cycle is established for the maintenance team of a particular
section. Since cleaning schedule is the schedule which is repeated most
often, so as many other schedules should be clubbed with the cleaning
schedule in order to reduce the machine down time to the minimum.
CMMS must include maintenance scheduler. When scheduler run its scan
each machine department wise and check the period when maintenance
is required, it then looks at the last maintenance date for each period and
if due create a planned maintenance work instruction for the machine.
The planned maintenance schedule rolled forward work instruction for
each weak and adding them to the list of outstanding work. User may be
required to decide whether they should prefer the scheduler run
automatically or intervention at a particular time, i.e. each day, weekly
or monthly. This monthly plan should be given to the foreman of each
department at the start of every month so that he follows it without having
to be given daily instructions. The system should allow the planned work
orders to be separated into various departments, units and location before
they printed. Most of the companies like to design their own work order
format. The work order format is given below for ready reference.
Schedule plan format with example

Unit no. 1
Department: Ringframe
Month: June
Cleaning schedule Maintenance activity, i.e. to be clubbed with machine

cleaning
Machine Date Activity Machine no.

no.
4 1.06.00 Top variator pulley O.H. 2, 4
5 2.6.00 Bottom variator pulley O.H. 5, 10
10 3.6.00 Spindle, lappet hook ABC gauge 15, 16
14 4.6.00 Spindle oil change 20
15 5.6.00 Top apron change 2, 25
16 6.6.00 Bottom apron change 5, 10
20 8.6.00 Jockey pulley greasing 26, 27
25 9.6.00 – –
26 10.6.00 – –
27 11.6.00 – –
1 12.6.00 – –
2 13.6.00 – –
8 15.6.00 – –
9 16.6.00 – –
The above format clearly shows which machine has to be taken for
cleaning on which date and which activities are to be clubbed with
cleaning.
8.3.6 Viewing the outstanding maintenance schedule

Maintenance manager and supervisor are expected to quickly check the
pending schedule. The system should support a quick and easy method
selectively displaying the list of the schedules, which are outstanding,
machine wise and department wise.
8.3.7 Corrective action register

This register is a system for tackling breakdowns or reducing them
over years. All the breakdown jobs undertaken within each department
are recorded. The information listed in the corrective action register
includes description of the breakdown, name of the mechanic who
attended the problem, time started, time completed, list of parts replace,
corrective actions taken. This register has to be maintained by the
running fitter and duly signed by his senior on day-to-day basis. This
register helps to take suitable preventive actions so as to avoid repetition

of breakdowns.
Format for corrective action register

Department:
Machine no.:
Date Description of Time Time List of spare Action Sign.

breakdown started completed replaced taken of
fitter
8.3.8 History registers

These registers are to record major events that occur on each equipment
or machine. This is a very important document because it provides vital
information about the criticality of machine behaviour and the
performance of its components so that suitable steps can be taken to
eliminate recurring causes of failure. History registers are maintained in
two ways:
1. Component history register – Component or spare part wise for
selected items.
2. Breakdown history register – Department wise, with causes of failure,
for each machine.
Over a period of time, useful information gets collected in these

registers. Analysis of history registers can lead to solutions of many
problems which have proved to be major headaches for the plant. These
registers are helpful in following ways:
1. Identifying the built-in-design defects within the equipment and

getting them corrected.
2. Analysing the performance of critical spare parts of the machine.
3. Identifying the department/machine of plant or part of the equipment

where frequent service is needed.
4. Offering help in resolving the conflicts between production and
maintenance regarding uses and abuses of the equipment.
In view of their usefulness, mills should make it a practice to review
history records of each part/department at least once/twice a year.
Formats of component and breakdown history record registers are given
below:
Components/Spare part history format

Unit no. .............................
Part name .........................
Department .....................
Specification ..................
Part no. .........................
Machine no. Quantity Date Quantity Date
Breakdown history formats of various machines are given below:
Blowroom break down history register format

Month : ..........................
Machine name : ..............
Model : ...........................
Unit : ...............................
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Machine no./ Date
5
Legend
A – Beater jam
B – Feed roll jam
C – Pipe line chocked problem
D – Belt broken
E – Chain broken
F – Bearing damage
G – Rich waste problem
H – Beater damage problem
Card break down history register format

Month : ................................
Machine name : ....................
Model : .................................
Unit : ....................................
Ma- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
chine
no./
Date
Legend
A – Sliver coiling problem
B – Web cut problem
C – Web falling from doffer
D – Fan jam
E – Flat loading
F – Flat jam problem
G – Flat cleaning brush jam problem
H – Lickerin jam problem
I – High C.V. problem
J – Belt broken
K – Gear broken
L – Coiler jam problem
M – Rich waste problem
N – Aero feed problem
O – Material not coming from aerofeed
P – Fluid coupling oil leakage problem
Q – Coiler cover piston problem
R – Cylinder jam problem
Drawframe break down history register format

Month :........................
Machine name : ...........
Model : ........................
Unit : ............................
Ma- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
chine
no./
Date
Legend
A Coiler jam problem
B Web cut problem
C More fan waste problem
D Belt breakage problem
E Sliver cut problem from feed table
F Peak problem in spectrogram
G Creel earthing problem
H Breakage at trumpet
I Filter screen chocking problem
J Cot burnt problem
K Lapping problem
L Fly accumulation at scanning roll
M Coiling disturb problem
Speedframe break down history register format

Month : ........................
Machine name : ...........
Model : .......................
Unit : .........................
Machine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
no./
Date
5
Legend
A – Rail jam at reversal position
B – Doff spoiled problem
C – Creel vibration problem
D – Creel jam
E – Rail jam in the middle position
F – Fluid coupling oil leakage
G – Doff overfilled problem
H – Cone drum belt broken problem
I – Dead weight wire broken of conundrum
J – Roving loose at doff
K – Gear damage problem
L – Suction tube chocking problem
M – Conundrum belt does not reset
N – Dead weight chain broken
O – Lifting chain broken
P – Air leakage problem
Q – Undrafted problem
Ringframe break down history register format

Month : ...............................
Machine name : ...................
Model : .................................
Unit : .....................................
Ma- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
chine
no./
Date
Legend
A – Side cut after power fail
B – Additional drive problem
C – Bottom roll shifting problem
D – Speed variation problem
E – Fan jam problem
F – Doff spoiled
G – 71/32 T Gear damage
H – Pressure down
I – Main drive belt broken
J – Timing belt broken
K – Undrafted problem
L – Lappet tilting before spindle stop
M – ABC Ring locking and unlocking problem

N – Doff over filled problem
O – Ring rail jam after doffing
P – Pressure regulator bowl breakage problem
Q – Lifting tape broken problem
R – Start up position problem
S – Pressure leakage problem
T – Bottom roll jerk problem
U – Coarse wrapping problem
V – Ring cut problem
W – Hose pipe leakage problem
Z – High or less back winding problem
AA – High or less under winding problem
AB – Underwinding is not at proper position
AC – Side cut at every doff
Comber break down history register format

Month : ....................................
Machine name : .......................
Model : ....................................
Unit : .......................................
Ma-chine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
no./ Date
Legend
A – Side cut after batch change
B – Cut problem
C – Drawbox top roller jam problem
D – Detaching top roll jam problem
E – Feed roll jam problem
F – Can changer problem
G – Pressure leakage problem
H – Main drive belt broken
I – Coiler jam problem
J – Coiling disturb problem
8.3.9 Daily report

At the end of the day each foreman should prepare a daily report. The
information listed in the daily report are the description of the jobs
done, name of the fitter and team to whom the jobs were entrusted,
time started, time completed and list of major spares replaced. The
attendance of members of maintenance team and the overtime given
are also recorded. This gives at glance information about on-going and
pending job as well as projected workload on each fitter. It also gives
information about how the priorities are set and decision made regarding
the deferral or cancellation of planned work in order to incorporate the
daily breakdown.
Daily report format

Department : ........................................
Foreman : .............................................
Date : ....................................................
Unit Job description Corrective action Down time Attendance –

no. Leave –
Absenteeism –
From To
Overtime –
Break down
Preventive maintenance work
8.3.10 Overtime maintenance record

The maintenance engineer should regularly inform the industrial relation/
timekeeper office about the man-hours engaged in each department as
overtime. Workers need to work late hours due to four type of work in a
spinning mill: erection work, backlog of maintenance work, changing work
(production plan) and machine break downs. The management should be
informed at the end of month by the maintenance head the man-hours
engaged in the different department as overtime for each type of work. This
is possible only when a separate register is maintained by the maintenance
engineer for recording the overtime engagement. This helps the management
to control the total amount overtime payment. Such a control is also an
indirect control over the performance of a particular department or of each
maintenance team.
Overtime record format

Department : .............................
S. No. Name of Production Maintenance Erection Break Total

worker down man
hours
Total man
hours
8.3.11 Maintenance cost

Even with the best of efforts to maintain the actual maintenance cost within
the budgeted cost, it may exceed sometime. At the end of the financial
year maintenance incharge should compare the actual maintenance cost
with the budgeted maintenance cost. If the incurred maintenance cost
differs substantially (>10%) from the budgeted cost on any item, then he
should provide explanation/justification for excess cost as well as for
reduced cost. Using the new understanding generated from these
explanation, he should propose the next year budget and then present this
sheet to the top management.
Format for comparing the actual cost with budgeted cost
Cost centre Budgeted cost Actual cost Budgeted cost

(last year) (last year) (new year)
Oil and lubrication
Belt
Bearing
Machinery repair
Planned replacement
Store consumption
Total maintenance cost
Note: Explanations/justification for large differences (>10%) if found

between budgeted cost and actual cost of any of the items.
8.3.12 Utilization loss

Machine utilization gets reduced due to the maintenance activities.
Maintenance aims to secure economical manufacture of product by maximum
utilization of the production facilities through a smooth operation. This means
that the down time for maintenance activities should be minimum. Therefore,
the computation of utilization loss helps to assess the performance of a
particular department. At the end of year, the maintenance incharge will
compare the actual utilization loss with the budgeted. If the utilization loss
exceeds the budgeted loss, then he provides an explanation for excess loss
and the same sheet is presented to management.
Format for comparing actual loss to budgeted loss

S. Loss centre Budgeted loss Actual loss Budgeted loss
no. (last year) (last year) (new year)
Avoidable loss
1. Break down
Unavoidable loss
2. Cleaning
3. Maintenance work
4. O.H. work
Total utilization loss
8.3.13 Condition monitoring

Condition monitoring is a form of predictive maintenance where continuous
monitoring of the performance of machine or condition of the specific part is
monitored which will affect the quality of the product. Condition-based
maintenance and its associated condition monitoring procedures are ideal for
spinning plant because most of the vital components earmarked for planned
replacement are such that they fail gradually and progressively. These failures
are truly serviceable. Failures are not mechanical failure when the machine
does not stop but the quality of material processing on the machine deteriorates.
For example, the metallic wire on cards, half lap and top comb needles on
combers, and synthetic cots on ringframes do not break, but give poor working.
Fortunately most of the major repair and replacement activities can be made
condition-based rather than fixing arbitrarily their service life by choosing
suitable measurement methods which are sensitive to component deterioration
and/or to poor performance of the concerned machine parts.
8.3.14 Linking of spare part with schedule

Monthly or weekly scheduling system permits the allocation of job on the
machine on a particular day so that spare can be delivered just in time so
that equipment can be taken for maintenance prior before the spare part
arrived. This helps to reduce the inventory. CMMS also help in taking the
effective decision.
8.3.15 Stock control and purchasing

It helps to access the maintenance person to the store data base allowing
him to find out the spare part number and checkout the stock level of
maintenance spare. Before making the purchase order one can check that
spare is available in the store or not. Secondly, it gives the last price of
spare and when it is purchased. This helps in reducing the repeated order.
8.3.16 Preventive maintenance checklist

It is the tool which gives the maintenance engineer detailed information about
the health of each machine. Checklists help to make sure that no inspection
point is overlooked and give information on who is responsible for each specific
activity and its frequency. It helps in identifying the need of suitable corrective
action for the discrepancy or faults that get revealed through inspection. The
preventive checklist must be filled on the machine by the fitter at the time of
preventive maintenance or inspection. The completed checklist should be
returned to the maintenance incharge for information and follow-up action.
Model checklists for machines of 1or 2 models of each department are given
at with necessary explanation at the end of this chapter. Mills should take
these checklists as guidelines and make their own checklist depending upon
the type and the mechanical condition of the machine.
8.3.17 Engineers weekly report

At the end of every week the supervisor/engineer should prepare a weekly
report which includes the time taken by the mechanics over different jobs
and remarks on quality of work, any fault repetition and remarks relating
any breakdown with the preventive maintenance. He concludes whether
the man-hours spent were productive/justified or non-productive/not
justified. Later, group meeting of fitters should be held in engineer’s cabin
to discuss the report and to help the fitters to improve their performance.
Such meetings help fitters to give useful feedback to the engineer.
Preventive checklist for full setting of card DK 803/903

Here fitter is responsible.
S. no. Activity Standard Δ R.H. M L.H.

setting and
condition
Gauges
1. Feed roll lickerin 12–40 4
2. Mote knife to 1st lickerin 48 2
3. Combing segment to 1st 22 4

lickerin
4. Mote knife to 2nd lickerin 71 2
5. Combing segment to 2nd 22 4

lickerin
6. Mote knife to 3rd lickerin 80 2
7. Combing segment to 3rd 22 4

lickerin
8. Between 1st and 2nd 7 1

lickerin
9. Between 2nd and 3rd 7 1

lickerin
10. Wing setting for 2nd 0-3

lickerin
11. Wing setting for 3rd 0-3

lickerin
12. Lickerin to cylinder 7 1
13. Back bottom plate 20–48 4
14. Web cleaner lickerin side 14–16 4
15. Back suction hood 30–60 4
16. Back mote knife 20–40 1
17. Flat gauge all points 4/6 8–14 1
18. Front top plate 18–60 4
19. Front top suction hood 9–25 1
20. Front bottom suction 9–25 1

hood
21. Web cleaner doffer side 8–10 4
22. Front bottom plate 20–40 4
23. Doffer to cylinder 4–5 1
24. Doffer to redirecting roll 5–7 2
(Contd.)

setting and
condition
25. Redirecting roll to cross

roll
26. Between to cross roll 4–20 4
27. Web late to cross roll 20–40 4
28. Between two calendar 4–8 1

roll
29. Flat and back side of front 28 4

top plate
30. Flat and back side of back 28 4

top plate
31. Check the basic setting At 0° it is 28 1

gauge for wing 1
32. Check the basic setting At 0° it is 28 1

gauge for wing 2
33. Cylinder under casing 60–72 4

gauge at back
34. Cylinder under casing 60 4

gauge at back
35. Tongue gauge 40–160 4
Condition of spare parts
36. Cylinder
37. Doffer
38. Flat
39. Stationary flats
40. Front bottom plate
41. Front top plates
42. Back bottom plate
43. Back top plates
44. Cylinder under casing
45. Redirecting roll wire
46. Doffer under casing
47. Redirecting roll

undercasing
(Contd.)

setting and
condition
48. Flat cleaning brush
49. Flat stripping brush
50. Redirecting roll cleaning

brush
Safety
51. Machine will not start if

any cover is open
52. Machine will not start if

waste suction pressure is
low
53. Cylinder speed

monitoring
54. Lickerin speed monitoring
55. Double lap monitoring
56. Magnetic substance

monitoring
Speeds
57. Cylinder speed It should be same in all

cards
58. Lickerin speed It should be same in all

cards
59. Flat speed It should be same in all

cards
60. Aero feed beater speed It should be same in all

cards
Belts and pulley
61. Condition of belts
62. Belts are properly aligned
63. Condition of pulleys

Preventive checklist for Drawframe RSB-851

S. Activity Standard setting and Date Respon- Frequency
no. condition sibility
Actual
report
1. Bottom roll gauge Gauge 1 mm Fitter Schedule
2. Top roll gauge Gauge 1 mm Fitter Schedule
3. Pressure bar gauge Gauge 1 mm Fitter Schedule
4. Bottom stripper Condition of bottom and top Cleaner Cleaning

roll stripper
Gauge of bottom stripper Cleaner Cleaning

paper should not pass
between the bottom roll and
stripper.
5. Cots Check for any crack in the Cleaner Cleaning

cots.
Check for channelling Cleaner Cleaning

formation in the cots.
6. Gear box oil Use only servo system 68 Fitter Schedule

no.
Check oil level, i.e. in the Fitter Cleaning

middle of the glass.
Check for oil leakage. Fitter Cleaning
7. Belts Check the condition of belts. Fitter Cleaning
Alignment Fitter Cleaning
Tension of the belt is proper Fitter Cleaning

or not.
8. Filter screen Check the condition of filter Fitter Cleaning

screen.
Check for any air leakage. Fitter Cleaning
9. Bottom roll
Check for any damage Cleaner Cleaning

needle bearing.
Check for bearing cover to Cleaner Cleaning

properly fit.
Check all the bearings should Cleaner Cleaning

have grease nipple.

Actual
report
Check for any bearing has Cleaner Cleaning

red grease.
10. Trumpet It should not wear out. Fitter Cleaning
Its diameter suits to the hank Fitter Cleaning

of delivery sliver.
11. Web guiding tube It should not wear out. Fitter Cleaning
12. Pressure bar It should not wear out, i.e. its Fitter Cleaning
surface should not be wavy.
13. Top arm It should not wear out, i.e. Fitter Cleaning
there should not be play in
top arm.
Both side of the arm should Fitter Cleaning

be properly levelled.
Pressure should be of 64 kg. Fitter Cleaning
14. Bottom roll slides It should not wear out. Fitter Cleaning
15. Suction hoses These should not crack. Fitter Cleaning
16. Coiler It should not wear out, i.e. Fitter Cleaning

there should not be any
scratches on the surface of
coiler which comes in
contact with the sliver.
Coiler speed should not be Fitter Cleaning

too high to create false draft.
Sliver coil should be of 20 Fitter Cleaning

mm less than the diameter of
can.
17. Guiding roll for can It should not wear out. Fitter Cleaning
changer
18. Scanning roll Its size must suits the weight Fitter Cleaning
of feeding sliver.
It should not wear out. Fitter Cleaning


Actual
report
The gauge between two Fitter Cleaning

scanning roll should be
proper, i.e. the upper
surfaces of two scanning roll
should not touch each other.
The loading should suit the Fitter Cleaning

type and weight of sliver.
19. Calendar roller Its size must suits the weight Fitter Cleaning
of delivery sliver.
Gauge between the calendar Fitter Cleaning

roll is 0.05 mm.
20. Safety Machine will not start if any Fitter Cleaning

cover is open.
Machine will not start if waste Fitter Cleaning

suction pressure is low.
Top roll lap monitoring Fitter Cleaning
Creel stop motion, i.e. sliver Fitter Cleaning

should not go in drafting if
sliver breaks at the creel.
Coiler stop motion, i.e. Fitter Cleaning

machine should stop if there
is any jam in the coiler.
Web guide stop motion, i.e. if Fitter Cleaning

sliver breaks at the bottom
front, roll machine should stop.
Check list for speed frame LF 1400

Actual
result
1. System pressure 0.6–6.5 bar Fitter Cleaning
2. Drafting pressure 0.8–1.0 bar Fitter Cleaning


Actual
result
3. Braking pressure 1.8 bar Fitter Cleaning
4. Minimum pressure Check that machine stop Fitter Cleaning

switch for system when pressure reduces
pressure to 5.5 bar.
5. Safety valve for drafting Air start leaking the Fitter Cleaning
machine when drafting
pressure increases more
than 1.3 bar.
6. Regulator and dial Check regulator for Fitter Cleaning

indicator proper working.
Check dial indicator for Fitter Cleaning

proper working.
7. Top apron and bottom Check apron for cracks. Cleaner Cleaning
apron
Check the apron for Cleaner Cleaning
channelling.
Check the bottom apron Cleaner Cleaning

for shifting wrt top apron.
Check the bottom apron Cleaner Cleaning

tension.
Apron tension pulley Cleaner Cleaning

should not be jammed
with flies.
Remove the bottom Cleaner Cleaning

apron and check the
tension pulley for smooth
movement.
8. Top roll Check for more play in Roller Buffing

the arbour. coverer
Check for noise in the top Roller Buffing

roll bearing. coverer
Check cots for crack. Roller Buffing

coverer
Check cots for Roller Buffing

channelling. coverer
9. Suction tube Check for suction tube Fitter Cleaning

setting.

Actual
result
Check suction tube for Cleaner Cleaning

scratches inside the tube.
Check suction for fly jam. Cleaner Cleaning
Check suction tube Cleaner Cleaning

holder breakage.
Check for suction tube Fitter Cleaning

pressure 20 mm, 30 mm
and 40 mm at the gear
end, middle and off end.
10. Top arm Check for top arm Fitter Schedule

pressure. It should be 22,
13.2 and 16 kg at front,
middle and back.
Check for saddle spring. Cleaner Cleaning
Check all the top arm Fitter Schedule

should be tightened with
0.9 Nm torque.
Check for top arm Fitter Schedule

centring.
11. Bottom roll Check for bottom roll Fitter Schedule

eccentricity, i.e. it should
not be more than 3 points
on each spindle.
Check for any damage Cleaner Cleaning

needle bearing.
Check for bearing cover Cleaner Cleaning

to properly fit.
Check all the bearings Cleaner Cleaning

should have grease
nipple.
Check for any bearing Cleaner Cleaning

have red grease.
12. Cradles and nose bar Check for wear of any Cleaner Cleaning
cradles and nose bar.
Check for missing of Cleaner Cleaning

spacer.

Actual
result
13. Gears Check gear for damage of Fitter Cleaning

teeth and meshing
between two gears.
14. Filter screen Check the condition of Fitter Cleaning

filter screen.
Check for any air leakage. Fitter Cleaning
15. Belts Check the condition of Fitter Cleaning

belts.
Check tension of the belt Fitter Cleaning

is proper or not.
16. Cots Check for any crack in the Roller Buffing

cots. coverer
Check for channelling Cleaner Cleaning

formation in the cots.
17. Greasing point Used grease AP-3 Fitter Cleaning/s

chedule
18. Starting position 30mm 1mm Fitter Cleaning
19. Cop diameter Flyer diameter –10 mm Fitter Cleaning
20. End position 30 mm 1mm Fitter Cleaning
21. Gear box oil Use only servo system Fitter Cleaning
100 no.

Check for oil leakage Fitter Cleaning
22. Fluid coupling Use only servo spin 32 Fitter Cleaning

no.

Check for oil leakage. Fitter Cleaning
23. Top and bottom clearer Check that all clearer Cleaner Cleaning
should be moving
properly.

Actual
result
Check that cleaning comb Cleaner Cleaning

of all clearer clean the
clearer.
24. Spindle Check that spindles are Cleaner Cleaning

not hot.
Spindles are not jammed. Cleaner Cleaning
25. All spindles are fitted on Fitter Cleaning

the same height.
Spindles are not Fitter Schedule

eccentric.
26. Flyer Flyers are not jammed Cleaner Cleaning

with flies.
Check for any wear out in Cleaner Cleaning

any twist master.
Check if the twist master Cleaner Cleaning

is not loose on the flyer.
Check that pressure Cleaner Cleaning

fingers are not bended.
Check that pressure Cleaner Cleaning

fingers are not wear out.
27. Bobbin trough Bobbin trough is properly Fitter Schedule

levelled.
28. Conedrum Check for the condition of Fitter Cleaning

conedrum.
Check the condition of Fitter Cleaning

rope.
Check that belt is moving Fitter Cleaning

smoothly on conedrum.
29. Reversing clutch Check the gauge of Fitter Schedule

reversing clutch.
30. Balancing of bobbin Bobbin rail should be Fitter Cleaning

trough properly balanced.
Check the condition of Fitter Cleaning

slides for bobbin rail.
31. Bottom roll gauge Gauge 1 mm Fitter Schedule


Actual
result
32. Top roll gauge Gauge 1 mm Fitter Schedule
33. Top arm guide tube For 27 mm bottom roll Fitter Schedule
setting 36 mm cage = 288.6
43 mm cage = 289.6
50 mm cage = 290.0
59 mm cage = 290.6
For 30 mm bottom roll

36 mm cage = 290.6
43 mm cage = 291.6
50 mm cage = 292.0
59 mm cage = 292.6
34. Condensers All the condensers should Cleaner Cleaning

be tight fit.
35. Stop bridge Setting of stop bridge Fitter Cleaning

should be proper, i.e.
machine should not stop
at reversal point in case
of any stoppage.
36. Over run safety It is working properly; Fitter Cleaning

limit switch b19 and b20.
37. Cone belt relief safety Only when cone is fully Fitter Cleaning
lifted, reversing motor
can be switched on.
38. Door safety Machine is not started if Fitter Cleaning

any cover is open.
40. Creel There is no jerky motion Fitter Cleaning

in the creel.
All the rows of the creel Fitter Cleaning

should move.
The guide roll of the creel Fitter Cleaning

should be properly
aligned.
Checklist for Unilap E-30/E32

S. Activity Standard Date Respon Frequency
no. setting/conditions -sibility
Actual report
1. Distance between tube 1 mm Fitter Cleaning

and lap roller with
loading
2. Take up monitor, i.e. if Standard time is 7 Fitter Cleaning

the battery is not seized second
by the new tube after lap
change. The yoke remain
in bottom position the
machine must stop after
some time.
3. Gauge of holding plate Standard setting = Fitter Cleaning

for the tube feed, i.e. 380 mm
check the distance
between the edge of the
holding plate and the top
edge of the base plate
4. Check the distance Standard setting = Fitter Cleaning

between calendar roll 1 mm
and lap roll
5. Check when the Proximity switch Fitter Cleaning

calendar roll is pressing b59 and b60 must
be on
6. Check gauge between Standard setting = Fitter Cleaning

the calendar roll and 0.2 mm
guide and guide plate
7. Check for pneumatic Standard = 10 bar Fitter Cleaning

pressure for lap flange
8. Check for drafting 4.5–4.8 bar Fitter Cleaning

pressure
9. Check for calendar roll 2.5–3.0 bar Fitter Cleaning

pressure
10. Check the setting for Conicity is not Fitter Cleaning

pressure bar more than 6 mm.
Width of upper
position of pressure
bar = 75 mm
Bottom position
pressure bar width
= 79–81 mm

Actual report
11. Check for contact In bottom position Fitter Cleaning

pressure of yoke maximum
= 2.0–2.5 bar
In upper position of
yoke maximum = 4
bar
12. Check for drafting Machine must stop Fitter Cleaning

pressure monitoring when drafting
pressure reduce to
3.5 bar.
13. Check for lap contact Machine must stop Fitter Cleaning
pressure monitoring when pressure
reduces to 0.7 bar.
14. Suction pressure With tube insertion Fitter Cleaning

it should be 600 pa
15. Suction pressure Machine must stop Fitter Cleaning

monitoring when pressure re-
duces below 550 pa.
16. Check for bottom roll There should not be Fitter Cleaning
gauges variation of more
than 1 mm.
Range:
Break draft = 40–60
mm
Intermediate draft
= 40–60 mm
Main draft = 40–60
mm
17. Top roll diameter Max 40 mm and Roller Buffing

minimum 37 mm coverer
18. Clearer cloth Check the condition Fitter Cleaning

of clearer cloth.
Its movement is Fitter Cleaning

smooth.
19. Stripper under bottom Check the condition Cleaner Cleaning

roll of stripper.
Contact surface Cleaner Cleaning

must be angle of
90 degree to the
direction of material
flow.

Actual report
20. Sliver guide Setting should be Fitter Cleaning

such that sliver lie
close to one
another.
21. Tension bar Setting of tension Fitter Cleaning

bar should be
proper.
22. Drafting stop motion Machine must stop Fitter Cleaning

in case of lap up.
Pasttle must be set Fitter Cleaning

at 0.5 mm from
stop flap.
23. Table calendar roll When a thick place Fitter Cleaning

monitoring in sliver occurs or
there is a lap on
calendar roll
machine must stop.
24. Sensors on feed frame Machine should not Fitter Cleaning

start if the sliver is
not present on feed
table.
25. Belts Check the condition Fitter Cleaning

of belts.
Tension of the belt Fitter Cleaning

is proper or not.
26. Gear box oil Use only servo Fitter Cleaning

system 150 no.
Check oil level, i.e. Fitter Cleaning

in the middle of the
glass
Check for oil Fitter Cleaning

leakage
27. Filter screen Check the condition Fitter Cleaning

of filter screen
Check the condition Fitter Cleaning

of rotary drum
Check the condition Fitter Cleaning

of play of piston
and proper working
Check list of comber E7/5A and E60/E62

S. Activity Standard setting Date Respon- Fre-
no. sibility quency
Actual
1. Main door drive Limit switch S26, i.e. machine Fitter Cleaning
safety is not operated at fast speed
after opening the main drive
door.
2. Back door safety Limit switch s23 and s22 Fitter Cleaning
machine is not after opening
the back drive.
3. Detaching top roll Limit switch s24 s25 machine Fitter Cleaning
cover safety is not operated after opening
the detaching roll cover.
4. Detaching top roll Diameter of top detaching roll Roller Buffing

should not be less than 23.5 coverer
mm and the diameters of all
detaching roll in the same
machine are equal.
Condition of top detaching roll, Cleaner Cleaning

i.e. groove formation is not
there.
5. Bottom stripper and Condition of bottom detaching Cleaner Cleaning

clearer roll stripper
Gauge of bottom stripper paper Fitter Nipper

should not pass between the gauge
bottom roll and stripper.
Condition of clearer roller Cleaner Cleaning
6. Vacuum gauge It should between 14–18 mm Fitter Cleaning
7. Ratchet wheel No. of teeth of ratchet wheel Cleaner Cleaning

should be same on all heads in
the machine.
Condition of ratchet wheel, i.e. Cleaner Cleaning

teeth have worn out condition
or ratchet is cracked or not.
8. Feed amount 4.3, 4.7, 5.2, 5.9 Fitter Cleaning
9. Feed change gear 52–73 Fitter Cleaning
10. Lap tension Tension should be between Fitter Cleaning

8% and 12%.
11. Feed Forward feed and backward Fitter Cleaning

feed

no. sibility quency
Actual
12. Ratchet pawl Condition of ratchet pawl Fitter Cleaning
Condition of torsion bar, i.e. Fitter Nipper

rubber on which ratchet pawl is gauge
fixed
13. Brush Condition of brush Fitter Brush

gauge
Diameter of brush 95–110 mm Fitter Brush

gauge
Speed of the brush 1000 or Fitter Brush

1200 mm gauge
Brush gauge should be Fitter Brush

perfectly OK gauge
14. Table draft 0.2–68 standard is 3.8 Fitter Cleaning
15. Table funnel and Size of table funnel: 3.7–6.5 Fitter Cleaning
table calendar roll
Condition of table funnel Cleaner Cleaning
Table funnel stop motion Cleaner Cleaning
Condition of table calendar roll Cleaner Cleaning
16. Circular comb Type of circular comb 5015 or Fitter Cleaning

5014
Condition of circular comb
17. Circular comb gauge It should be 27 1 mm at index Fitter Unicomb

36 if circular comb working gauge
angle is more than >90 .
It should be 27 1 mm at index
38 if circular comb working
angle is more than <90 .
18. Nipper Condition of nipper, i.e. they Fitter Nipper

are not bended. gauge
There should not be play Fitter Nipper

between nipper pin and nipper, gauge
i.e. nipper pin should not wear
out.

no. sibility quency
Actual
Check the supporting ring in Fitter Nipper

the top nipper. It should be gauge
same in all the heads and
depends upon the feed as it
affects the movement of
ratchet wheel.
19. Nipper gauge Nipper gauge should be proper; Fitter Nipper

it should be checked at index gauge
24 and waste index 5 with go
and no gauge.
20. Cam eccentrics to It should be done at index 24 Fitter Nipper

check the spring and waste index. Both the gauge
power gauge will touch each other.
The setting between cam and Fitter Nipper

bearing should be 0.2 mm. gauge
21. Gauge between It should not be less than 0.2 Fitter Nipper
circular comb and mm at index 38. gauge
nipper
22. Top comb Condition of top comb should Cleaner Cleaning

be good, i.e. needles are not
bend and rusty.
Specifications of top comb Cleaner Cleaning

should be same on all the
heads, i.e. 26/30 needles per
cm.
23. Top comb gauge and Top comb penetration should Fitter Nipper
front position be same on all the heads, i.e. – gauge
1 to 1
The distance should be 0.1 mm Fitter Nipper

between the top comb and gauge
gauge fitted on the bottom
detaching roller.
24. Safety for Check at index 39; the gauge Fitter Nipper
penetration depth between the top comb and gauge
unicomb is never less than 0.5
mm.
25. Draw box gauge 41–60 mm; it should be same Fitter Nipper
on all the machines running on gauge
the same count.
26. Bottom roll Check the eccentricity of Fitter Nipper

bottom roll. gauge

no. sibility quency
Actual
27. Drafting top roll Diameter of top draw box roll; it Roller Buffing
should not be less than 44 mm coverer
and the diameter of all top roll
in the same machine is equal.
Condition of top roll, i.e. groove Roller Buffing

formation and cut is not there. coverer
28. Fleece guide gauge Lap weight Gauge 0.1 mm Fitter Nipper
1.8 gauge
65 2.0
70 2.2
75 2.4
80
29. Control dial setting It should be between –2 and 2 Fitter Mixing

as it affects the overlapping of change
fibre during piecing.
The appearance of fleece Fitter Mixing

should be good. change
30. Fly duct setting It should vary from 16 to 28 Fitter Nipper

mm from head 1 to 8. gauge
31. Sliver coiling The sliver coiling should be 8 to Fitter Cleaning

10 mm less than wall can.
32. Sliver tension or Check the gap between the Fitter Cleaning
sliver coiling variator pulleys.
appearance
33. Calendar roller It should be 0.05 mm; there is Fitter Cleaning

gauge a play between the calendar
roller without material.
34. Calendar roller Fitter Sliver

pressure hank
change
35. Centring of lipped Lipped funnel should be in the Fitter Nipper

funnel in relation to centre of two stepped roll. gauge
stepped roll Check washer is provided it or
not.
36. Can turnable gauge There is a gauge of 2 mm all Fitter Cleaning

round.
37. Centring roll There is a distance of 5mm Fitter Cleaning

between the can and can
centring roll.

no. sibility quency
Actual
38. System pressure 6 kg Fitter Cleaning
39. Top detaching roll 2.5–4 bar Fitter Cleaning

pressure
40. Drafting system 2.5–3 bar Fitter Cleaning

front top roll
41. Drafting system 2nd 3.5–4 bar Fitter Cleaning

and 3rd roll
42. Minimum pressure 2.1 bar Fitter Cleaning

for top detaching roll
The machine should stop when Fitter Cleaning
the top detaching roll pressure
falls below the 2.1 bar.
43. Funnel arm of Condition of funnel Fitter Cleaning

drafting system
Safety shut down proximity Fitter Cleaning
switch b50.
44. Basic setting of It should be such that there is a Fitter Cleaning

funnel arm distance of 1 mm between the
conveyor belt and funnel.
45. Stripper of calendar Condition of stripper of Cleaner Cleaning

roller calendar roller.
46. Gear box (1) Oil used should be mobil oil Fitter Cleaning
SCH 629
(2) Check oil level
(3) Check for oil leakage
47. Belts Check the condition of belts Fitter Cleaning
Tension of belts Fitter Cleaning
48. Pulley Check the condition of pulleys Fitter Cleaning
Check list for Ring Frame RXI240

S. Activity Standard setting and Date Responsibility Frequency
no. condition
Actual
report

no. condition
Actual
report
1. Spindle Oil (a) Used servo spin EE-10 Fitter Cleaning

no. oil
(b) Check oil level, i.e. 50 Fitter Cleaning
mm minimum – 100
mm maximum in 10
spindles
2. Greasing point (a) Grease used – reco- Fitter/cleaner Cleaning

mmended grease or not
3. Starting 10 1 mm from bottom of Fitter Cleaning

position bobbin
4. Cop diameter Ring diameter – 3 mm Fitter Cleaning
5. End position 10 1 mm from top of Fitter Cleaning

bobbin
6. Chase length 8–12% of ring diameter Fitter Cleaning
7. Lappet hook 2 × d +5 mm Fitter Cleaning

setting
8. Thread (a) It should be 8–10 mm. Fitter Cleaning

traversing (b) It should be in the
middle of cot of each Cleaner Cleaning
spindle.
9. Under winding (a) Underwinding should be Fitter Cleaning

setting 2–3 coils after doffing.
(b) Underwinding position Fitter Cleaning
should be 5 1 from
bottom of bobbin.
10. Ring rail (a) Ring rail should rise Fitter Cleaning
motion slowly and fall slowly.
(b) There should not be Fitter Cleaning
any jerky motion.
(c) Check the condition of
heart cam and follower. Fitter Cleaning
11. Separator (a) Check for the separator Cleaner Cleaning

holder breakage.
(b) Check for separator Cleaner Cleaning
wear out at the bottom
and catching the fly.

no. condition
Actual
report
12. Anti balloon (a) Check for any scratch Cleaner Cleaning
ring on inner diameter of
anti-balloon ring.
(b) Check for the centring
of the anti-balloon ring Fitter Schedule
w.r.t. spindle (tolerance
0.5 mm).
(c) Check for height
setting of anti-balloon
Fitter Schedule
ring.
13. Lappet hook (a) Check for any scratch Cleaner Cleaning
and cut in the lappet
hook.
(b) Check for the centring
of lappet hook with Fitter Schedule
plumb w.r.t. spindle.
setting of lappet hook. Schedule
Fitter
14. Gears (a) Check gear for damage Fitter Cleaning

of teeth and meshing
between two gears.
(b) Check for oil
circulation.
15. Rings (a) Check for any wear out Fitter Cleaning
of rings.
(b) Check out for centring
of rings w.r.t. spindle
Fitter Schedule
tolerance 0.5 mm.
setting of ring rail.
(d) Check for missing of Fitter Schedule
fly catcher.
(e) Check for loading of Cleaner Cleaning
flyer.
(f) Check for fly catcher
Cleaner Cleaning
gauge 0.1 mm.

no. condition
Actual
report
16. Cradle (a) Check for breakage of Cleaner Cleaning

any cradle.
(b) Check for missing of Cleaner Cleaning
spacer and mix spacer.
(c) Check for missing of
spring of cradle. Cleaner Cleaning
17. Foot step Check for load on foot Fitter Cleaning

step by slight
hammering.
18. Sensor Check for sensor setting Fitter Cleaning

px10, px11, px14,
px15, px16 and px12.
19. Top arm (a) Check for top arm Cleaner Cleaning
pressure. It should be
green.
Cleaner Cleaning
(b) Check for saddle spring.
(c) Check all the top arm
should be tightened Fitter Schedule
with 0.7 Nm torque.
(d) Check for top arm Cleaner Cleaning
centring.
(e) Check for height gauge. Fitter Schedule
20. Spindle bolster (a) Check spindle and Cleaner Cleaning

bolster for heating.
(b) Check spindle and Cleaner Cleaning
bolster for vibration.
(c) Check spindle for
button. Cleaner Cleaning
(d) Check spindle and

bolster for shortage of Cleaner Cleaning
breaks.
(e) Check for spindle locks. Cleaner Cleaning
(f) Check whether by
applying break spindle
will stop or not.
Fitter Schedule
(g) Check spindle for
speed variation with
stroboscope.

no. condition
Actual
report
21. Bottom roll (a) Check for bottom roll Fitter Schedule
eccentricity, i.e. it should
not be more than 3
points on each spindle.
(b) Check for any damage
needle bearing. Cleaner Cleaning
(c) Check for bearing
cover to properly fit. Cleaner Cleaning
(d) Check all the bearings
should have grease Cleaner Cleaning
nipple.
(e) Check for any bearing Cleaner Cleaning
have red grease.
(f) Check for gap between
sensor and deflection
plate. Fitter Cleaning
22. Top roll (a) Check for more play in Roller coverer Buffing
the arbour. -do-
(b) Check for noise in the Buffing
top roll bearing.
-do-
(c) Check cots for crack.
-do- -do-
(d) Check cots for
channelling. -do-
23. Top apron and (a) Check top apron for Fitter Cleaning
bottom apron cracks.
(b) Check the apron for
channelling.
(c) Check the bottom
apron for shifting w.r.t. Cleaner Cleaning
top apron.
(d) Check the bottom Cleaner Cleaning
apron tension, i.e. it
should be 2 or 3 and
Cleaner Cleaning
setting should be same
in all the section.
(e) Apron tension pulley Cleaner Cleaning
should not be jammed
with fly.
(f) Remove the bottom
Fitter Schedule
apron; check the
tension pulley for
smooth movement.

no. condition
Actual
report
24. Lappet hook (a) Check for proper lappet Fitter Cleaning
tilting hook tilting after doffing.
(b) Gap between sensor Fitter Cleaning
and deflection plate.
25. G.E. box (a) Oil used should be 320. Fitter Schedule
change (b) Check oil Fitter Cleaning
level.(c)Check for oil Fitter Cleaning
leakage.
23. Suction tube (a) Check for suction tube Fitter Schedule
setting, i.e. it should be
of 0.5–1.5 mm from
bottom roll.
(b) Check suction tube for Cleaner Cleaning

scratches inside the
tube.
(c) Check suction for fly Cleaner Cleaning

jam.
(d) Check suction tube is Cleaner Cleaning
not touching the yarn.
(e) Check suction tube
holder breakage. Cleaner Cleaning
(f) Check for suction tube

pressure 12, 15, 17 at Fitter Cleaning
the gear end, middle
and off end.
24. Worm gear (a) Oil used should be 320. Fitter Schedule
box (b) Check oil level. Fitter Cleaning
(c) Check for oil leakage. Fitter Cleaning
25. Building gear (a) Oil used should be 320. Fitter Schedule
box (b) Check oil level. Fitter Cleaning
(c) Check for oil leakage. Fitter Cleaning

no. condition
Actual
report
26. Spindle tape (a) Check condition of Fitter Cleaning
spindle tape.
(b) Check the position of
jockey pulley lever
Cleaner Cleaning
weight in case of
single jockey pulley.
(c) Check for the condition
of jockey pulley lever Cleaner Cleaning
weight.
(d) Check the condition Cleaner Cleaning
drum pulley.
(e) Check jockey pulley for
Cleaner Cleaning
movement.
(f) Check the spindle tape
for centring on jockey Cleaner Cleaning
pulley and drum pulley.
27. Filter screen (a) Check condition of Fitter Cleaning
filter screen.
(b) Check for air leakage Fitter Cleaning
and seals of the door.
28. Main drive belt (a) Check for the alignment Fitter Cleaning
of main drive belt.
(b) Check the condition of Fitter Cleaning
main drive belt.
29. Creel (a) Check for creel Fitter Cleaning

alignment alignment.
(b) Creel height should be Cleaner Cleaning
same in all ring frames.
(c) Check bobbin holder
for free movement, i.e.
creel breakage.
30. Timing belt Check for the condition Fitter Cleaning

and tension setting and
alignment of timing
belt.
31. Back roller Check for safety. Fitter Cleaning

twist
prevention
32. Over lifting or Check for safety check for Fitter Cleaning
lower lifting the sensor of setting
px3 and px6.
Checklist of Machconer winding head overhauling

Here the responsibility is of fitter.
S. Activity Standard setting and Actual
no. condition report
1. Is the friction of unit cassette type gear

joint appropriate?
2. Are the parallel and longitudinal positions

position of the cradle on each spindle is
appropriate?
3. Increase setting of cradle is same on all

the spindles
4. Drum feeler
Drum feeler with respect to drum is 1 0.5 mm

same on all the spindles
When the drum feeler with drum winding

is operated, does the yellow button
extend?
5. Drum brush on each spindle contact the

drum evenly
6. Is the end missing prevention cover 30.5 mm

properly positioned on each spindle?
7. Drum cover gauge with respect to drum 1 mm

is same on all spindles
8. Is the suction mouth gauge is prefect on When cone diameter is

all the spindles? 150–200 mm, the gauge
should be of 1–3 mm
9. Is the suction mouth pad suited the 3 20’ 4 20’ = N

particular type of adopter on each
5 57’ 9 57’=L
spindle?
10. Is the sufficient wax adhered to the yarn?
11. Does the waxing device operate

smoothly?
12. Is the distance between the retie pipe 128–130mm

and unit is same on all the spindles?
13. Is the opening of the retie clamp is Upper position = 5 mm

prefect when retie pipe is stopping and Bottom position 2–4 mm
descending?
14. Drum belt is in prefect condition or not.
15. Is the distance of gate feeler appropriate? 4–4.5 mm
16. Does the gate feeler correctly sense the


joining and the bobbin change?
17. Dose the tensor rotate properly?
18. Does the tensor open sufficiently?
19. Does the tensor disc rotate normally?
20. Is the drum starting time appropriate?
21. Are the spinning bobbin and balloon

breaker aligned?
22. Is the height of balloon breaker 15 mm from bobbin tip

appropriate?
23. Is the distance of pre-clearer appropriate? 5–7 times the diameter

of yarn
24. Does the drum rotate smoothly?
25. Does the cradle lifter operate normally?
26. Does the package brake operate?
27. Is the initial pressure setting is same on

all the spindles?
28. Is the holding position of kink removing

wire is appropriate?
29. Does the splicing appear normal?
30. Opening and splicing pressure is same

on all the section.
31. Setting of s10 screw is same on all 4–5 turn

spindles.
32. Length lever Ln setting is same on all 1–8

spindles.
33. The setting of untwisting pipe should be

same on all spindles.
34. Prism should not be broken.
35. Holding lever setting should be same on

all the spindles and suited to particular
type of lever.
36. Front plate separator and holding lever

should be same on all the spindles.
37. Condition of splicer cutter should be

good.
38. Is not the screw for splicer cutter is

loosened?

39. Does the shutter cutter close smoothly?
40. Is the stroke of yarn trap appropriate?
41. There should be no air leakage in

mechanical valve.
42. Is the bunch winding guide positioned

properly?
43. Is the peg centred properly?
44. Is the chute door centred? Properly
45. Is the trap door centred properly?
46. Does the magazine rotate smoothly?
47. Does the magazine suction operate

properly?
48. Does the bobbin chute operate

accurately?
49. Does the bobbin plow operate

accurately?
50. Does the trap door opened and close

smoothly?
51. Does the chute door open and close

smoothly?
References
1. Trutzschler Card DK 903 instruction manual, 2nd edition year, 1999.
2. Murata Machconer /Linkconer No. 7 instruction manual revised, May 1988.
3. Kirloskar Toyada Ringframe RXI240 instruction manual, 1999.
4. Rieter Ingolstadt Drawframe RSB 951, 1996.
5. Rieter Unilap E32 operating instruction manual 10055921.
7. Lakshmi Speedframe LF 1400 operating instruction manual, 1990.
8. Lakshmi Ringframe G5/1 operating instruction manual, 1990.
All figures, tables and graphs are sourced from the above references
9
Safety while maintenance
9.1 Accident
The danger to life of humans is increasing with scientific development in
spinning industry. The importance of industrial safety was realized because
millions of industrial accidents occur which result in either death or
temporary/permanent disablement of employees and involve large amount
of losses to property and working hours.
Technology helps an industry to grow but it is a proven fact that
technology can give the best results only when people are ready to achieve
the best out of it. People can and will give their best only when their
personal welfare is well attended, i.e. when safety is ensured at work.
Studies have shown that accidents occur mainly due to unsafe actions,
unsafe conditions and negligence. Today, the textile industry is equipped
with complicated and fast-moving production machines; so it is necessary
that everyone has the correct information and knowledge about these
machines, and that everyone follows safety precautions in order to prevent
accidents. Hence, an accident is an unplanned and unexpected event that
causes (or is likely to cause an) injury to a person and/or damage to property
and environment.
Moreover, from managerial perspective, the importance of safety during
work in any organization may be concluded by following facilitation:
1. Treatment – the industrial safety management provides treatment for
injuries and illness at the work place.
2. Medical examination – it carries out medical examination of staff
joining the organization or returning to work after sickness or
accident.
3. Hazard identification
4. Provision of protective devices
5. Consultancy – it provides medical advice on conditions that affect
human health e.g. works canteen etc.
6. Education – it provides safety and health training.
133
9.2 Effects of an accident

There are three types of effects of any accident:
1. Personal effects.
2. Social effects.
3. Other effects.
1. Personal effects include –
(a) Death,
(b) Disability,
(c) Physical suffering,
(d) Psychological suffering,
(e) Loss of ability for efficient working,
(f) Loss of earning capability.
2. Social effects include –
(a) An asset in the form of earning hand becomes a liability.
(b) Social status may get lost.
(c) Family humiliation of disability is prolonged or permanent.
3. Other effects are
(a) Loss of man hours
(b) Loss of machine hours
(c) Loss of material
(d) Damaged machinery
(e) Damaged property
(f) Loss of capital
9.3 Accidents and its related losses

Accidents occur as a result of unsafe actions or exposure to unsafe
mechanical and/or physical conditions. Accidents can also happen due to
human failures. Accident levies heavy cost as it includes loss directly or
indirectly and the losses that are visible and invisible. The latter ones are
immeasurable and cannot be valued in monetary terms. Whenever an
industrial accident occurs, it gives rise to pain for the victim and his family
and further de-motivate the other employees. It results in financial losses
to the employee and the employer..
We can classify the losses to any company due to the accidents in term
of direct loss and indirect loss.
(a) Direct loss is the wage of employee because of the loss of working
hours, compensation and the cost of medical aid; the cost incurred
on training a new worker; loss due to waste of raw materials and loss
of production and quality arising out of the inexperienced new
employee.
Safety while maintenance 135
(b) Indirect loss includes the following:

1. The government has to incur more cost to employ more number
of factory inspectors to check accidents and spend more on
the employee’s health insurance and other social security
benefits.
2. The loss of working hours of the injured worker.
3. The loss of working hours of other employees who assisted
the injured worker.
4. The loss due to the cost incurred on the machine or tools that
might have been damaged and/or the cost incurred on the
spoilage of material because of the accident.
9.4 Cause of accidents

To prevent accidents, one should examine how they are caused and what
the causes are and then take appropriate actions to eliminate the identified
causes. Two major factors can give rise to accidents
1. Unsafe mechanical and physical conditions

The biggest reason for the accident is defective equipments, tools,
materials, etc. These can be termed “Technical causes”. They arise when
there are
1. improper or inadequate safety guards on machines;
2. when improper personal protection equipment is installed;
3. when mechanical designs of machine are defective and unsafe;
4. when control devices, which have been installed to make the operation
of machines safe and accident free, are lacking or defective;
5. when there is an absence of proper maintenance and supervision of
these devices.
2. Unsafe actions
Unsafe actions may be the result of lack of awareness or knowledge about
the right practices or lack of skill on the part of a worker. Quite often,
however, wrong attitude is the main reason: even workers with the good
knowledge ‘take chances’ or ‘take it easy’ and do not follow the correct
practices. Below are some of the ignorance practices followed by the
workers:
1. Operating without authority,
2. Failing to secure equipments, or warning other employees of possible
danger,
3. Failing to use safe attire or personal protective equipment,

4. Throwing materials on the floor carelessly,
5. Operating or working at unsafe speed, either too fast or too slow,
6. Making safety devices inoperative by removing, adjusting and
disconnecting them,
7. Using unsafe equipments, or using equipments unsafely,
8. Using unsafe procedures in loading and placing,
9. Taking unsafe positions under suspended loads,
10. Lifting improperly,
11. Carelessly cleaning, adjusting, oiling, repairing and moving an
hazardous equipment,
12. Distracting, teasing, abusing, startling, quarrelling and daydreaming
horseplay.
9.5 How to prevent accidents?

9.5.1 Training
Training and retraining of employees to follow ‘safety’ guidelines has been
traditionally recommended as a means for improving safety performance.
Investigations into most of the accidents – which took place on the shop
floor, irrespective of whether they arise out of unsafe physical working,
prevailing conditions or actions of person – reveal underlying causes which
relate to inadequacy of lack of training. Needs for safety training program
are
(a) Training activities indirectly demonstrate company’s interest in
employees. This leads to good human relations at work.
(b) Gaining knowledge and skill helps to improve perceptions and hence
improves safety performance.
(c) Training saves the time spent by the supervisor to instruct and correct.
(d) Training helps to change the attitudes of persons.
9.5.2 Motivating
By motivating the employee we can reduce accidents in a mill. Reward
and disciplinary applications are two simple methods for motivating the
workers to follow safety guidelines for self, others and equipments.
9.5.3 Habits of safety

Despite all the safety measures adopted by far, the best and the most
successful method is the creation of habits to follow safety guidelines.
Such habits can be developed through training and other similar methods.
9.5.4 Personal factors

Some of the personal factors responsible for accidents in a mill are
1. Underage
2. Ill-health
3. Lack of knowledge and skill
4. Improper attitude towards work
5. Fatigue
6. Carelessness and recklessness
7. Emotional instability, e.g. jealousy
8. Mental worries
9. Improper use of safety devices
10. Working at unsafe places
11. Improper use of tools
9.5.5 Safe workplace layout

Although most of the accidents take place because of unsafe acts of the
employees, the role of the workplace layout cannot be ignored in
determining the cause of accident. To prevent accidents, the layout should
be such that every employee has enough space to move and operate.
Passageways between working places, roads, tracks and alleys (narrow
passage way), etc., must never be obstructed. Worker operating on the
machine should have easy access to the safety switches provided on the
machine/near workplace. Windows should be of adequate dimensions in
order to make full use of natural daylight.
9.5.6 Working conditions

If accidents are to be prevented, then the working conditions should be
improved. The temperature, air purity and humidity of air in the working
premises should be as required so that it may not lead to discomfort because
these affect directly on the workers health as well as to some machines
also.
9.5.7 Proper speed of work

Accidents frequently occur when the work is performed at a speed much
greater than the desirable. Therefore, the pace at which the worker is
working in a mill should be controlled. Workers should be encouraged to
work at such a speed that they can maintain their efficiency and work
throughout the day without unnecessary fatigue.
9.5.8 Illumination
The performance of a worker also depends upon his eye vision and the
available illumination level. Good lighting always helps the worker to be
more alert and to concentrate, leading to quicker fault detection and to better
quality of work. Poor lighting is one of the main causes of accidents in
Indian textile mills. A study has shown that about 40% of the accidents can
be prevented if the illumination level is increased only by 50 to 100 lux.
Good lighting means adequate illumination, uniform lighting,
appropriate contrast, no glare and avoidance of flickering and stroboscopic
effect. In many cases it has been seen that the mill is equipped with adequate
lighting equipments but these are not properly maintained. Dust is
accumulated on the tubes and other artificial lighting equipments, and half
the light emitted is absorbed by severe dust accumulation. Therefore,
regular cleaning is required. Secondly, lighting equipment needs
replacement at regular intervals to maintain the planned level of
illumination.
Table 9.1 gives good value of illumination recommended for spinning
mills, which are implemented by all modern mills in India.
Table 9.1 Illumination levels for spinning mills (Colour of ceiling should be white)
Area type Height Il lumination level Type of roof
So rti ng ro o m 4 .3 50 0 AC F
Fi ni shed goods godown 6.1 10 0 AC S
Bl ow roo m 4 .3 20 0 AC F
Preparatory 4.3 250 AC F
Spinni ng 4.3 300 AC F
Post spinni ng - I 4.3 300 AC F
Post spinni ng - I I 4.3 300 AC F
Yarn conditi oni ng 4.3 200 AC F
Inspection and packing 4.3 300 AC F
Humi di ty plant 6.1 100 R. C. C
Compressor room 4.4 150 R. C. C
Mai nte nan ce ro om 4 .4 20 0 R. C. C
Store 4.4 150 R. C. C
Waste godown 6.1 – AC S
To il ets 4.4 10 0 R. C. C
Drin king wate r 4.4 10 0 R. C. C
Office 4.4 300 R. C. C
S. Q.C . 4 .3 30 0 AC F
D.G. house 6.1 150 ACS
9.5.9 Personal protective equipment

The primary goal of every mill management is the total removal of hazards
at the source but 100% removal has not been possible. In many situations,
such as sudden failure of equipments and machineries, and during

scheduled preventive maintenance, workers do get exposed to hazards.
Under such circumstances, we are left with no alternative but to use
personal protective equipments (PPEs). These equipments do not eliminate
injury but help to minimize injury. PPE is defined in the Regulations as
‘any equipment (including clothing affording protection against the
weather) which is intended to be worn or held by a person at work and
which protects him against one or more risks to health or safety’, e.g.,
safety helmets, gloves, eye protection, high-visibility clothing, safety
footwear and safety harnesses.
Personal protective equipment must be selected depending upon the
following requirements:
(a) Nature of the hazard
(b) Severity of the hazard
(c) Type of contaminant
(d) Concentration of the contaminants
(e) Duration or work
(f) Location of the contaminated area with respect to a source of
respirable air
(g) Expected activity of the wearer
(h) Operating characteristic and limitations of the equipment
(i) Reliability of the equipment
(j) Acceptance of the wearer
1. Worker dress
Proper working dress is an important factor for safety while working on
any machine because many accidents occur owing to loose clothing and/
or hanging sleeves getting caught into the moving parts. Long hair, rings
and jewellery items can also get caught and cause accidents while working
on the machine. It is always better to have a dress with short sleeves, shirt
tucked in, no loose cuff on shirt or trousers. If one has a long hair, one
must roll it up or put it under a cap so that it does not get entangled in any
machine.
2. Eye and face protection

Eyes are exposed to a variety of hazards in a spinning mill. Some of them
are
(a) Impact of flying particles during chipping, grinding, scaling and other
similar operations.
(b) Dust and mist while cleaning of machines in blowroom, cards and
winding, etc.
(c) Splashing of liquids such as any adhesive or lubricants.
(d) Harmful radiation, glare, reflected light during gas or arc welding
and cutting work.
Most commonly used equipments for eye protection are gas tight rubber
goggles, plastic face shield and welding hand shield.
3. Ear protection
Noise has become a major problem in modern mills.
Noise not only impairs hearing but also affects the nervous system. Ear
protectors fall in two groups: ear plug and ear muff. These, when properly
fitted and used, can reduce noise level by 30–40 dB.
Plug Muff
The severity of noise pollution depends upon the intensity of noise

and its duration. High speed machines produce lot of noise which affect
working efficiency and may cause deafness if exposed to it for long
duration. Noise increases the blood pressure, the heart beats and the
breathing rate which may lead to heart disease. Exposure to sound level
below 70 dBA can assumed to be safe. Table 9.2 gives exposure limit for
noise levels.
Table 9.2 Exposure limit for noise levels
Sound level Durati on ( h)

(dBA )
90 8
92 6
95 4
97 3
1 00 2
1 02 1.5
1 05 1
1 07 0.75
1 10 0.5
115 0.25
Exposure to sound of more than 115 dBA to unprotected ears is harmful.
4. Head protection
Safety helmets provide very good protection to the head from injury from
falling bodies, flying objects, electrical shock, etc. Helmets not only protect
the head but also protect the neck, the face and the back to same extent.
Helmets are made of various materials like reinforced plastic, aluminium
alloy, etc. Spinning mills, mainly, use HDPE helmets because of their
superior resistance. All such helmets are designed for an impact load of
40 foot pounds. Secondly, protective caps are used to protect the hair from
coming in contact with the moving parts of machinery. They also protect
the hair from dust, dirt and other undesirable contacts.
5. Hands and arm protection

1. Hand protection is next in priority, since this part of the body is
employed in carrying out most of work. Gloves are commonly used
as protective equipment. They are generally made of rubber, PVC,
leather or cotton canvas. Hand gloves must be used in handling a
lubricant, detergent or any thing that can damage the eye or the skin.
If any of these come in contact with eye or skin, wash immediately

the affected part with water as first aid and then get proper medical
treatment.
6. Foot protection
One must wear shoes with non-skid soles, as foot injuries are mostly caused
by falling objects while handling heavy materials, or by puncture from
nails or by sharp objects, etc.
7. Respiratory protection
One should put on face mask while cleaning dust with compressed air to
avoid inhaling of dust particles.
8. General protection
For working at heights of more than 10 ft, one should wear safety belts.
Belts are generally made of cotton webbing and leather. Resistance to
impact loading on webbing is three or four times greater than leather of
the same size. All safety belts should be capable of withstanding a tensile
load of 1800 kg without breaking or without causing permanent
deformation.
9.6 Electrical safety

Failure to take precautions against electrical hazards may lead to serious
injuries. Statistics show that 15–20% of electrical accidents turn out to be
fatal. The most common electrical injuries are shock or burn.
Electrical shock is “The flowing of current through a human body”. A
person may lose his balance on receiving shock or may be thrown away
causing bodily injury. If strong electrical current passes through the heart
then the shock may become fatal.
Burns are caused when some part of the body comes within the flashing
distance of a high voltage current of a short circuit.
9.6.1 Tips on electrical safety

1. Permit only qualified persons to undertake electrical repairs.
2. Do not take short cuts, follow safe procedure.
3. Ensure that extension wire is free from cuts, damaged insulation,
kinks or joints.
4. Check that the pins of socket are not loose.
5. Ensure easy access to shut off power supply.
6. Use switches which clearly indicate ON or OFF; and of proper amperage.
7. In case of a short circuit, put off the main switches immediately.
8. While using any portable electrical equipment, ensure that it is
properly earthed and there is no leakage of current through the body
of the equipment.
9. Disconnect equipment when not in use.
10. Never over load electrical equipment.
11. Do not have any unsafe temporary connections, naked joints/wiring.
12. Do not stand on wet area when using electrical equipment, or don’t
use electrical equipment with wet hands.
13. Do not use trial and error methods with electrical circuits.
14. Avoid tampering with fuses. Do not replace a blown fuse until the
fault is detected and rectified.
15. Do not use water for extinguishing electrical fire, instead use dry
sand, CO2 or DCP extinguishers.
16. Periodically wipe off flies accumulating around the electrical motors
to avoid fire.
17. Periodically clean the area around the panel or control box of fibre
fly bar to avoid fire.
9.7 House keeping

Excellent house keeping contributes greatly to safety at work and reflects
on the work culture of the organization. Indian statistics reveal that 15–
20% accidents like falling, striking and slipping on the objects are mainly
due to poor house keeping. Poor house keeping means objects or
equipments lying out of place, improperly stacked material, accumulation
of waste and empty containers, dusty windows–walls and dirty floors. Good
house keeping can be achieved by proper planning. This includes a well-
planned process layout, orderly arrangement of equipments, systematic
material storage and systematic waste disposal coupled with day-to-day
maintenance of clean and neat work place.
All levels of personnel in maintenance have a role to play in ensuring
high standards of housekeeping: management in providing the necessary
arrangements and assigning responsibilities, workers maintaining order
and cleanliness daily at their work locations, and supervisors ensuring
that the non-complying workers are not allowed to get away with sloppy
practices.
Care should be taken of the following aspects.
1. All floor/working surfaces should be even and free from dust and
wastes of any kind.
2. All floor openings are adequately filled and/or kept secured by
covered or guarded with rails.
3. All trenches/pits are free from accumulation of rubbish.

4. Parts must be washed in a water proof tray so that the floor is not
stained, thus reducing the possibility of persons from slipping and/
or falling. There must be a schedule for periodic floor cleaning.
5. There must always be a clear and safe access to switches, fire

extinguishers and emergency exits.
6. Power cables and air inlet piping should be installed in a proper way
so that falling of person by striking/entangling with them is avoided.
7. All tools must be kept in racks in an arranged state to prevent

accidental falling.
1. All platforms, work benches and seats must be in good condition: no

uneven surfaces, sharp protrusions, etc. should exist.
2. All trays provided for work must be regularly cleaned.
3. Material must be piled and stacked in containers or on racks.
4. All scrap must be collected in containers which are located at
convenient places.
Scrap
5. There must be a schedule for disposal of waste from the workplace/

workshops. It must be cleared at least once a week.
9.8 Workshop/workplace
Workshop is a place where a maintenance worker performs different tasks
for a long period of time. It must be designed based on the reach, the size,
the muscle strength and the visual capabilities of those who are there to
work. The dimensions should be so chosen that any unnecessary job stress
is eliminated, and productive work increases.
9.9 Machine guarding

The main aim of guarding is to prevent workers coming in contact with
dangerous and moving parts of machines. Today, most machines
manufacturers provide good safety and provide guards in the machines to
prevent accidents. But in many cases, fitters and technicians bypass the
safety precautions provided by the manufacturers. They think that they
can thus reduce maintenance cost, or keep the machine running while
repairing it, etc. Everyone must understand that safety devices are not at
all a hindrance to production but are a good help to do certain operations
without any fatal accidents.
Following conditions are considered while designing machine guards:

1. To provide complete protection, and to make danger zones
inaccessible.
2. Not to unnecessarily interfere in the production processes.
3. Not to cause discomfort or inconvenience to the operator.
4. Not to constitute a hazard by itself.
The supervisor/senior fitter/foreman must ensure that the guards
provided by manufacturers are used properly all the time.
9.10 Methods and procedure

The methods and procedures according to which various routine activities
are carried out in the course of industrial work are covered here.
9.10.1 Safety in material handling

Accidents like fracture, back pain, slip disc, strains and sprains are the
typical cases of injuries which occur due to poor way of material handling.
About 25–40% of industrial accidents are caused during material handling
activity. Therefore, there is a great need to improve material handling and
re-handling techniques for better efficiency and higher productivity. Safe
methods have been identified that are helpful for shop floor workers and
to workers involved in loading and unloading, where lifting and laying
down of heavy objects is involved.
1. Place your feet correctly 25–30 cm apart close to the load with one
foot ahead of the other in the direction of movement. This position
helps to give a good balance and a wide enough base to perform the
lift.
2. Bend knees, keep back straight and tighten your stomach muscles to
help support your back. A straight back keeps the spine, the back
muscles and other organs of human body in right alignment. Keep
the load close to body. Place your arm and elbows into the side of
body.
3. Get a good hold on the object, i.e. take a firm grip on the object
using palm and not the finger tips. The fingers and hands should be
extended around the object you are going to lift.
4. Hold the chin up so that spine remains in straight position. Avoid

bending your head down, up, forward, back, side-ways or in twisted
position.
5. Lift the load by straightening the leg by giving an upward thrust, and
reverse the process while lowering the load.
6. If the weight exceeds 20 kg, always lift jointly by two or three persons,
as the volume or shape so require.
9.11 Safety in shifting material

1. Before starting the work always check the machine or equipment to
make sure that they are functioning properly.
2. Never stand between the wall and the load during transportation.
3. While transporting material from one place to another, never lift it

more than 200 mm from the floor surface.
4. Always fix the load with a rope or any other means so that it prevents
the load from falling during transportation.
5. When carrying a load with hand, pilot truck or hand trolley, always
push it and never pull it.
6. While inserting wooden block under the load, never place fingertips
between the load and the floor.
7. While lifting the material with rope, please ensure the rope is in good
condition.
Rope is
breaking at
this point
9.12 Safety while unpacking and cleaning

1. Any received new spare part is always coated with rust preventive
oil. Take care while carrying such part to avoid slippage from hand.
2. When washing parts in kerosene, make sure to put a tray underneath

to prevent the floor from staining.
3. Carefully handle unpacked boxes, fixtures such as metal plate, steel

bands and nails. Do not step on them or touch them carelessly so as
to avoid injury.
9.13 Precautions for handling machine under

maintenance
The safety precautions, which need to be taken whenever any machine is
under maintenance, are listed here.
(a) Keep the machine, under maintenance, switched off and put some
safety caution plate that says ‘the machine is under maintenance’.
This plate must be removed after the work is completed.
Machine under
maintenance
(a) Select location for placing the dismantled parts and ensure good
passage area so as not to obstruct the operators of other machines.
(b) Select and inspect the tools suitable for the specific job.
(c) Never place a tool or any other object on the machine frame.
(d) Use proper tools and personal protective equipments.
(e) Use proper ladder for operation. Never try any work which is out of
range, i.e. never try to do any work by stretching the hands fully,
instead use ladder.
(e) Never place any part of the body under the item of work while ducting
or piping.
(f) Put a gauze mask or wear safety goggles in the work shop or
maintenance shop while grinding or brazing.
(g) Never stain the floor with oil or grease to prevent accidents by slipping.
(h) Clear away all bolts, tools, other objects, around the machine frame
before re-starting the machine.
(i) Confirm tightening of all bolts, etc., of the machine, and that the
safety cover, etc., is re-installed.
(j) Never start the machine without signalling to other members of
operating team and without obtaining or getting the return signal.
9.14 Precautions during spinning operation

1. Do not touch the running portion of any machine.
2. Never open or remove safety covers of running machines.

3. Do not wear loose clothing – loose jackets, long sleeves, etc.
4. Never put any tool, scissors or comb, etc., in an open-type chest
pocket to avoid any chance of falling on a running machine while
cleaning, etc.
5. Never try to remove yarn or fly from any rotating part.
9.15 Safety tags

These tags are a temporary means of warning all the persons of an existing
hazard till appropriate measure has been adopted to eliminate the hazard.
Tags must be printed in the language so that the majority of workers can
read and understand.
Machine under
maintenance
(a) Exhibit the above tag before starting the maintenance work.
(b) Shut off the power supply as a precautionary measure before
commencing maintenance work.
(c) Take all the necessary precautions to guard against any hazard,
existing or likely to occur.
(d) Remove the tag when maintenance work is completed before starting
the machine.
Machine under
maintenance
(e) Use one of the plates depending upon whether machine is out of
order or under maintenance.
References
1. PANDEY D., Industrial Health and Safety.
2. Roving Frame Instruction Manual FL-16, Toyada Automatic Loom Works (1997),
Toyada FL 100 Roving Frame Instruction Manual (2001), seventh ed.
3. PRERNA LEEWHA . Two for One Twister for Spun Yarn PRN –140-LW Instruction
Manual.
4. Toyada Fl –16 Roving Frame Instruction Manual.
5. Texmaco Zinser Ringframe Instruction Manual (1969), reprinted in 1973. Zinser
Speedframe 660 Instruction Manual (1990), Zinser Drawframe 720 Instruction
Manual (1990), Zinser Ringframe 321 Instruction Manual (1990).
6. High Speed Simplex Fly Frame Instruction Manual (1993), RME Howa
Machinery Limited.
7. Drawframe Cherry DX–500–E2 Instruction Manual, Drawframe Cherry D–
400 MT Instruction Manual.
8. Savio Orion Instruction Manual (2001), manual code 11645.0004.1/0 revision
index:01.
9. Two for One Twister Instruction Manual, Leewha LW 560 SA.
10. Operating Instruction for the High Production Card C1/3 (1987), Lakshmi
Machine Works Ltd.
11. Rieter Unifloc A11 Instruction Manual (2000), Ringframe G33 Instruction
Manual (2001), CardC-61 Instruction Manual (2002).
12. Murata Process Coner 21-C Instruction Manual (2002), Murata Machconer /
Linkconer No. 7 Instruction Manual (1988).
13. Schlaforst Autoconer 338 Instruction Manual (2003).
14. Trutzschler Card DK 903 Instruction Manual (1999).
10
Lubricants
10.1 Types of lubricants

In all types of machines, resistance is offered when one moving surface
slides over the other. Such resistance offered to any movement is called
friction. Due to this friction, a large amount of energy in the form of heat
is dissipated. This heat damages the machine parts and results in welding
of two parts.
The above bad effect can be reduced by using a thin layer of substance
between two moving surfaces. Any substance which is used to reduce
the frictional resistance between two moving parts is called lubricant.
The process or technique employed to reduce wear of one or both
surfaces in close proximity and/or moving relative to each another by
interposing a substance called lubricant between the surfaces to carry
the load (pressure generated) between the opposing surfaces is called
lubrication. The interposed lubricant film can be a solid, (e.g. graphite,
MoS 2), a solid–liquid dispersion, a liquid, a liquid–liquid dispersion
(e.g., greases).
10.1.1 Boundary lubrication

This type of lubrication occurs when a complete fluid film does not develop
between two rubbing surfaces, and the film thickness may be reduced to
permit the contact between friction surfaces at micro asperities. In this
kind of lubrication, the thickness of lubricating film between two moving
surfaces is so thin that it cannot stay there for long time. This condition
occurs due to low viscosity lubricant as compared to high temperature.
High friction and heat generation result when two surface move with or
against each other. This heat generation further results in welding of two
metals. The most common example of boundary lubrication is on a bearing
which normally operates at the principle of fluid film lubrication but
experiences boundary lubrication at the stopping and starting of the
equipment. The most common boundary lubricants are probably greases.
Greases are so widely used because they have the most desirable properties
of a boundary lubricant. They not only shear easily but also flow. They
157
also dissipate heat easily; form a protective barrier for the surfaces,
preventing dust, dirt, and corrosive agents from harming the surfaces.
Boundary Lubrication
Direction of load movement
Lubricant Film
Direction of load movement

Lunricating film is too thin to provide
total surface separation. Contact
between surface asperities occur
10.1 Boundary lubrication
10.1.2 Hydrodynamic lubrication

When a thick lubricating film is applied between two moving surfaces,
causing complete separation of two surfaces such that there is no contact
and less friction, it is called hydrodynamic lubrication. This thick lubricant
film prevents direct surface-to-surface contact so that the friction can be
reduced to great extent to prevent wear and tear. The small friction would
Hydrodynamic Lubrication
Direction of Load movement
Lubricating Film
Direction of Load Movement
Lubricating film separate the surfaces

hence there is no metal to metal contact
10.2 Hydrodynamic lubrication

Lubricants 159
remain only due to the internal resistance between the particles of the
lubricant moving over each other. In such a system, friction depends on
the thickness and viscosity of the lubricant and on the relative velocity
and area of the moving/sliding surfaces; the co-efficient of friction is as
low as 0.002–0.03 for fluid film lubricated system. The most common
method of lubrication of sleeve bearing is hydrodynamic method. When
two surfaces of bearing and shaft move rapidly relative to one another
then the oil is carried along the shaft to fill the gap between shaft and
bearing. When the moving components become separated completely by
a cohesive film of lubricant, hydrodynamic lubrication occurs.
Hydrodynamic lubrication prevents wear as there is no metallic contact
between the two surfaces.
10.1.3 Elasto hydrodynamic lubrication

This type of lubrication is implemented when the bearings are under
heavy load and when the balls roll along the raceway at the point of
load. The ball is deflected and flattened slightly (elastic deformation). It
may be due to the lubricant that would be forced away from the point of
contact and the surface would be in direct contact with the other, and
also viscosity increased dramatically. When the ball passes the point of
load, it returns to its original shape and viscosity returns to original
condition.
Rolling
Element
Lubricant Lubricant
race area
Direction of race movement
Area of defromation
10.3 Elasto hydrodynamic lubrication

10.2 Functions of lubricant

Functions of lubricants are as follows:
1. It reduces the maintenance and running cost of the machine.
2. It reduces unsmooth relative motion of the moving surfaces.
3. It reduces the loss of energy in the form of heat, i.e. it acts as a
coolant.
4. It reduces waste of energy, so that the efficiency of machine can be
increased.
5. It reduces surface deformation by avoiding the direct contact between
the moving surfaces.
6. It reduces the expansion of metals by local frictional heat.
7. Some times, it also acts as a seal, preventing the entry of dust and
moisture between the moving surfaces.
8. It minimizes corrosion.
Lubricants are broadly classified into three categories: liquid lubricants,
semisolid lubricants and solid lubricants.
10.3 Liquid lubricants

Oils of different kind are commonly used as liquid lubricants. Use of oil
minimizes the friction and wear by providing a thin layer of continuos
fluid film between the moving or sliding surfaces of a machine. They also
act as a cooling medium and as a sealing agent. Oil keeps the parts clean,
reduce formation of deposits and dissipation of heat, and eliminate
corrosion.
Liquid lubricants are further classified depending on the origin: animal,
vegetable or mineral oil. In early days, only animal and vegetable oils
were used as lubricants.
10.3.1 Animal and vegetable oil

Animal and vegetable oils are glycosides of higher fatty acids. They have
very good oiliness. However, they are costly, undergo oxidation very easily,
and have a tendency to hydrolyze when contact with moist air or water.
These oils undergo decomposition on heating without distilling, and hence
they are called “fixed oils”. They are used as additives to improve the
oiliness of petroleum oils. Some of the commonly used vegetable oils are
olive oil, palm oil and coconut oil. Most common animal oils used as
lubricants are tallow oil and neal foot oil.
Lubricants 161
10.3.2 Petroleum oil

The foremost amongst mineral oil is the petroleum oil. It is obtained by
fractional distillation of crude petroleum oil. The length of the
hydrocarbon chain varies from C12 to C50. It is inexpensive and is
available in abundance. But this oil contains lot of impurities, like wax,
asphalt, etc., which prevent it from being used as single oil. No single
oil possesses all the properties needed to be a good lubricant. In order to
use petroleum oil as a good lubricant, some additives must be added to
obtain certain desirable properties. Such oils containing additives are
called blended oils.
Blended petroleum oils are further classified depending upon their
constituent hydrocarbon chain. Any petroleum happens to be mixture of
paraffin (CnH2n+2), naphthalene (CnH2n) and aromatics (CnH2n-6). The presence
of aromatics is undesirable. So industrially used petroleum oils mainly
consist of paraffin and naphthalene types of hydrocarbons. Depending upon
the major constituents, the lubricating oil is called either paraffinic oil or
naphthalenic oil.
A comparison of these two types of lubricant is given in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1 Paraffinic oil versus Naphthenic lube oil
Paraffi n (C n H 2n+2 ) Naphthal eni c ( C n H 2n )
Less prone to oxidation More prone to oxi dati on

Vi scosi ty i ndex is hi gh Vi scosi ty i ndex is low
High pour point due to presence of Low pour point
wax *
Poor sol vency characteri stics High sol vency characteri stics
Appl icati on
Used mostly as a lubricant and as an Used as refrigerator, and transformer oil
industrial oil
* Render to use it to low temperature.
10.3.3 Lubricating oil

Lubricating oil is the base oil with high paraffin content and additives
blended together under controlled conditions. The proportion of the
base oil ranges from 75 to 100%, while that of the additives ranges
from 0 to 25%.
10.3.4 Synthetic oil

Mineral oils cannot be used effectively as they tend to get oxidized at very
high temperature, while wax separation will occur at very low temperature,
so synthetic lubricants have been developed, which can meet the severe
operating conditions such as in aircraft engines. The same lubricants may
have to be in the temperature range –50–250 °C. Polyglycol ethers, fluoro
and chloro hydrocarbons, organophosphates and silicones are the most
common base fluids used for synthetic lubricants.
10.3.5 Additives
Any substance that is added to oil in order to improve the lubricating
properties of the oil is called an additive. Additives are chemical
compounds added to lubricating oils to impart specific properties to the
finished oils. Some additives impart new and useful properties to the
lubricant; some enhance properties already present, while some act to
reduce the rate at which undesirable changes take place in the product
during its service life.
(a) Pour point depressants

Certain high molecular weight polymers function by inhibiting the
formation of a wax crystal structure that would prevent oil flow at low
temperatures. Two general types of pour point depressants are used.
(i) Alkylaromatic polymers adsorb on the wax crystals as they form,
preventing them from growing and adhering to each other.
(ii) Polymethacrylates co-crystallize with wax to prevent crystal growth.
The additives do not entirely prevent wax crystal growth, but rather
lower the temperature at which a rigid structure is formed.
(b) Viscosity index improvers

Viscosity Index (VI) improvers are long chain, high molecular weight
polymers that function by causing the relative viscosity of an oil to
increase more at high temperatures than at low temperatures. Generally
this result is due to a change in the polymer’s physical configuration
with increasing temperature of the mixture. It is postulated that in cold
oil the molecules of the polymer adopt a coiled form so that their effect
on viscosity is minimized. In hot oil, the molecules tend to straighten
out, and the interaction between these long molecules and the oil
produces a proportionally greater thickening effect. Among the principal
VI improvers are methacrylate polymers and copolymers, acrylate
polymers, olefin polymers and copolymers, and styrene butadiene
copolymers.
Lubricants 163
(c) Defoamants
The ability of oils to resist foaming varies considerably depending on type
of crude oil, type and degree of refining, and viscosity. In many
applications, there may be considerable tendency to agitate the oil and
cause foaming, while in other cases even small amounts of foam can be
extremely troublesome. In these cases, a defoamant may be added to the
oil. Silicone polymers used at a few parts per million are the most widely
used defoamants.
(d) Oxidation inhibitors

When oil is heated in the presence of air, oxidation occurs. As a result of
this oxidation, both the oil viscosity and the concentration of organic acids
in the oil increase, and varnish and lacquer deposits may form on hot metal
surfaces exposed to the oil. In extreme cases, these deposits may be further
oxidized to form hard, carbonaceous materials. Two general types of
oxidation inhibitors are used: those that react with the initiators, peroxy
radicals, and hydroperoxides to form inactive compounds, and those that
decompose these materials to form less reactive compounds.
(e) Rust and corrosion inhibitors

Corrosion can occur due to organic acids that develop in the oil itself and
due to contaminants that are picked up and carried by the oil. Rust inhibitors
are usually compounds having a high polar attraction toward metal surfaces.
By physical or chemical interaction at the metal surface, they form a
continuous film that prevents water from reaching the metal surface.
Typical materials used for this purpose are amine succinates and alkaline
earth sulfonates.
(f) Antiwear Additives

Antiwear additives are used in many lubricating oils to reduce friction,
wear, and scuffing and scoring. Fatty oils, acids and esters are mixed with
lubricating oil to reduce the friction.
(g) Extreme pressure additives

At high temperatures or under heavy loads, compounds called extreme
pressure (EP) additives are required to reduce friction, control wear and
prevent severe surface damage. These materials function by chemically
reacting with the sliding metal surfaces to form relatively oil-insoluble
surface films.
Extreme pressure agents are usually compounds containing sulphur,

chlorine or phosphorus, either alone or in combination. The compounds
used depend on the end use of the lubricant and the chemical activity
required in it. Sulphur compounds, sometimes with chlorine or phosphorus
compounds, are used in many metal-cutting fluids. Sulfur–phosphorus
combinations are used in most industrial and automotive gear lubricants.
These materials provide excellent protection against gear tooth scuffing
and have the advantages of better oxidation stability, lower corrosivity,
and often lower friction.
10.3.6 Properties of liquid lubricant
(a) Pour point

It is the lowest temperature expressed as a multiple of 3°C at which the oil
is observed to flow, when cooled and examined under prescribed condition.
(b) Cloud point

It is the temperature expressed as a multiple of 1°C at which a cloud or
haze of wax crystals appears at the bottom when oil is cooled under
prescribed condition.
(c) Kinematic viscosity

It is a measure of flowing characteristics of a fluid, caused by the force of
gravity. Kinematic viscosity may be defined as the force per unit area
required to maintain a unit velocity gradient (velocity difference of one
unit in the liquid layer which are unit distance apart). The unit of velocity
is stroke. The kinematic viscosity of fluid is measured in centistroke and
it is measured at 40°C.
Viscosity is the single most important property of lubricating oil, as it
is the main determinant of the operating characteristic of lubricating oil.
If the viscosity is too low then a liquid film cannot be maintained between
two moving surfaces, which could result in high wear of parts.
(d) Viscosity index

The viscosity of every fluid decreases with increase in temperature.
Lubricating oil becomes thinner as the operating temperature increases.
Viscosity index is an arbitrary number indicating the effect of change of
temperature on the kinematic viscosity of oil. A high viscosity index
signifies relatively small change of kinematic viscosity with temperature.
Lubricants 165
(e) Flash and fire point

Flash point is the lowest temperature at which a lubricant gives off enough
vapour that ignites for a moment when a small flame is brought near it.
Fire point is the lowest temperature at which vapour of oil burns
continuously for at least 10 s when a tiny flame is brought near it. All
lubricants have a flash point above 180°C, and the fire point is 5–40°C
above the flash point for different lubricants.
(f) Carbon residue

It is the amount of carbon residue left after evaporation and pyrolysis of
oil; so it signifies the coke forming tendency of oil.
(g) Aniline point

It is defined as “the minimum equilibrium solution temperature for equal
volume of aniline and oil sample”. A lower aniline point of oil means a
higher percentage of aromatic hydrocarbons in it. Aromatic hydrocarbons
have a tendency to dissolve natural rubber and certain types of synthetic
rubbers. Thus, good lubricating oil should have high aniline point. Aniline
point gives an indication of the possible deterioration of oil in contact
with rubber sealing, packing, etc. Aromatic hydrocarbons have a tendency
to dissolve natural rubber and certain types of synthetic rubbers.
Consequently, low aromatic content in the lubricants is desirable.
(h) Neutralization number

Lubricating oil’s acidity or alkalinity is determined in terms of
neutralization number. Comparing the total acid number and total base
number with the values of a new oil will indicate the development of
harmful products or the effect of additive depletion. If acid number is
greater, the oil is usually taken as an indication of oxidation of the oil.
10.3.7 ISO VG classification of industrial oils

This classification indicates lubricant viscosity in centistokes at 40°C. The
higher the grade and the more the viscous, thicker will be the flow of oil.
Viscosity grade
2
3
5
7
10
15
22
32
46 ⇐mean oil viscosity within 41.4–51.2 CST at 40°C
68
100
150
220
320
460
680
1000
1500
10.4 Semisolid lubricants

Semisolid lubricant is also known as grease. Grease is used in the machines
where frequent lubrication is not possible. The conditions under which
grease is the preferred lubricant are as follows:
(1) Where leakage and drippage is present
(2) In hard-to-reach places, where lubricant circulation is impractical
(3) Where sealing is required in a high-contaminant environment (i.e.,
water and air particles)
(4) To protect metal surfaces from rust and corrosion
(5) To lubricate machines that are operated intermittently
(6) To suspend solid additives such as molybdenum disulphide during
slow-speed, high-load sliding conditions
(7) For use in sealed-for-life applications such as electric motors
(8) To lubricate under extreme or special operating conditions
(9) To lubricate badly worn machines
(10) Where noise reduction is important
10.4.1 Composition of grease

Grease is a semisolid lubricant obtained by thickening lubricating oil with the
addition of a metallic soap. It is used where the temperature and the speeds
are not high and in sealing arrangements where oil does not offer satisfactory
results. Grease consists of a dispersion of soap in lubricating oil. By varying
the quantity and quality of soap, oil and additives, it is possible to produce
greases for a wide variety of applications. Hence grease is manufactured by
the combination of three components: oil, thickener and additive.
Lubricants 167
Composition of grease
(a) Base oil
Generally, mineral oil is used for the manufacture of grease in industries.
The viscosity of oil used depends upon the application of grease.
Synthetic oil is used as base oil when grease is used for high temperature
applications.
(b) Thickener
The thickener, such as metallic soap, is used in the grease. Most commonly
used metallic soaps are calcium, sodium and lithium.
(i) Calcium grease

These greases do not dissolve in water but cannot be used at a temperature
above 60°C. These greases also provide a protection against salt water.
(ii) Sodium grease

These are not water-resistant as these are soluble in water and can be used
at a temperature above 150°C.
(iii) Lithium grease

Their ability is to adhere to metal, and their stability at high temperature
is excellent. These greases are used in wet conditions where the temperature
is too high for calcium grease.
(iv) Synthetic-based grease

These consist of synthetic lubricating oil such as polymer alpha-olefins,
ester and silicon. They do not oxidise as rapidly as the mineral oils to
which the various thickeners such as lithium soap are added. These greases
are often used where the temperature is -7°C.
(c) Additives
These are added to the grease to improve the properties like oxidation,
rust inhibitors, pour-point depressants, extreme pressure additives, antiwear
additives, etc.; molybdenum disulphide and graphite may also be added to
grease to improve the load-carrying capacity.
Thickener
Based oil Additives
Additive
0-10%
Thickener
0-15%
Base oil
80-90%
10.4 Composition of grease.
10.4.2 How grease works?

The structure of lubricating grease is like a sponge with all pores filled
with water. The soap is a gelling agent that imparts interconnected structure
with cavities filled with oil. In almost 90% of cases, the thickener is a
metallic soap. Under operation, heat gets produced in greased bearing due
to friction between parts, which in turn results in a rise in temperature of
the grease. Due to this rise in temperature, the oil bleeds from the soap
cavities and reduces the friction between two parts. The rate of release is
called the bleed rate (or the oil separation rate). Typical oil bleed rates of
greases for bearing lubrication are 1–5%.
10.4.3 Grease characteristics

The type and quantity of thickener and a viscosity of base oil plays a
very important role in determining the characteristics of grease. The
following characteristics which affect the performance of grease are given
below.
(a) Consistency
Consistency is defined as the degree to which a plastic material resists
deformation under the application of a force. It is defined as the degree of
stiffness of grease and depends upon the type and the quantity of the
thickener used. It is expressed as NLGI number given by National
Lubricating Grease Institute. It is expressed as the depth of penetration in
1/10th of millimetre that a standard cone can penetrate vertically into the
sample under standard conditions (load 150 gram and temperature 25°C
and time 5 s).
Lubricants 169
Cone
Grease
Cup of
Grease
NLGI number Worked penetration index

000 445–475
00 400–430
0 355–385
1 310–340
2 265–295
3 220–250
4 175–205
5 130–160
6 85–115
(b) Mechanical or structural stability tests

The ability of grease to resist changes in consistency during mechanical
working is termed its mechanical or structural stability. This is important in
most applications because grease that softens excessively as a result of the
mechanical shearing encountered during service may begin to leak or get
hardened. Leaking of grease or hardening results in the failure of equipment.
(c) Oxidation properties

Resistance to oxidation is an important characteristic of grease as organic
acids usually develop and lubricant becomes acidic in nature; hence, this
affects the grease structure causing hardening and softening of grease.
Both the oil and fatty constituents in grease oxidise with temperature.
Oxidation increases with increase in temperature.
(d) Oil separation

The resistance of grease to separate the oil from thickener involves certain
compromise as bleeding of oil is necessary to perform the lubricating
function. If the oil separate too readily from the grease then a hard,
concentrated soap residue may accumulate which in turn would clog the
equipments and prevent the flow of grease.
(e) Water resistant

The ability of grease to resist water that may splash or impinge directly on
a bearing is an important property, especially in case of paper industry.
(f) Extreme pressure greases

These contain sulphur and phosphorus compounds. They are added to
increase the load-carrying capacity of the grease. Viscosity of the base oil
is less than 200 mm2 s -1 at 40°C. Their consistency corresponds to 2 on
NLGI scale. These greases should not be used at a temperature below -
30°C or above 110°C.
(g) Compatibility
Grease mixing of different greases could result in altering performance or
physical properties (incompatibility), which could lead to grease (mixture)
that exhibits characteristics inferior to that of grease before mixing. The
mixing of incompatible greases will alter properties such as consistency,
pump ability, shear stability, oil separation, and oxidation stability. Generally,
when two incompatible greases are mixed, the result is a softening, which
can lead to increased leakage as well as loss of other performance features.
10.4.4 Operating temperature

The consistency and the lubricating capacity of grease depend upon the
operating temperature at which it has to function. Therefore grease is further
classified into four categories by the temperature ranges in which they
can be used.
(a) Low-temperature greases

These are used when operating temperature or ambient temperature is
below 0°C, and used for bearing with light loads.
(b) Medium-temperature greases

These are used for bearings, which operate at a temperature between –3 to
80°C. The viscosity of the base oil of this grease type ranges from 75 to 200
mm2 s-1 at 40°C, and the consistency is normally 2–3 according to NLGI scale.
Lubricants 171
(c) High-temperature greases

These are used when bearings operate at temperatures above 80°C.
10.4.5 Temperature range of different greases

The temperature range over which greases can be used depends largely on the
type of base oil and thickener as well as additives used to prepare the grease.
The lower temperature limit, i.e. the lowest temperature at which the
grease allows the bearing to be started up (from the idle, rest position)
without difficulty, is largely determined by the base oil and its viscosity.
At upper temperature limit, the grease provides good lubrication for the
bearing and is governed by the type of thickener used.
Grease type Recommended temperature range
Li thi um base –30–110° C

Li thi um compl ex –20–140° C
Sodi um base –30–180° C
Sodi um complex –20–140° C
Cal cium complex base –20–130° C
Calcium lime base –10–60 °C
10.4.6 Re-lubricating interval of grease

The re-lubricating interval should be the same as given by supplier of
machine if temperature is below 70°C. But if the temperature exceeds
70°C then re-lubricating interval should be reduced to half for each increase
of 15°C. It is necessary to lubricate more frequently in applications where
there is a risk of heavy contamination and wet environment. Moreover for
bearings on vertical shaft, the interval should be reduced to half as compare
to the bearing on horizontal shaft.
10.4.7 How much grease should be used?

The formula, which determines the quantity of grease to be used, is as
follows.
G = 0.005 DW
where,
G = quantity of grease in gm
D = outer diameter in mm
W = width of bearing in mm.
10.5 Solid lubricants

Solid lubricants are solids applied to friction surfaces to reduce friction and
wear and prevent surface damage. They may be in the form of powders,
films or composite materials. They include substances with layered structures
such as molybdenum disulfide and graphite. These solid lubricants are highly
anisotropic, with weak bonding between particular crystal planes or
molecules. Their self-lubrication properties provide low-friction coefficients.
Solid lubricant are used where
(1) The lubricant film made by oil or grease cannot stay for sufficient
time.
(2) The operating temperature and load is too high even for semi-solid
lubricant.
(3) The surrounding atmosphere contains dust or grit particles in large
numbers per unit volume and therefore is unacceptable for lubricating
with oil and grease.
Main methods of application for solid lubricants include the following:
(1) They are mixed with fatty acid and fatty oil.
(2) Solid lubricants are applied directly to sliding surfaces.
The most common solid lubricants are graphite and molybdenum disulphide.
10.5.1 Graphite
It consists of a multitude of flat plates, which are held together by weak
vander Walls forces, so the force required to shear the crystals parallel to
the layers is low. It is used either in powder form or as suspension in oil
or in grease. Graphite powder is very soft to touch, is non-inflammable,
and does not get oxidized in air below 375°C. In the absence of air, it can
function as lubricant at much higher temperatures. . The size of the particle
should be 0.2mm. When graphite is dispersed in oil, it is called ‘oildag’,
and when graphite is dispersed in water, it is called ‘aquadag’.
10.5.2 Molybdenum disulphide

It has a sandwich-like structure: a layer of molybdenum atoms lies between
two layers of sulphur atoms. The weak vander Waals forces, acting in
between the layers, can be destroyed easily. It possesses very low coefficient
of friction and can work at a temperature of 800°C. It can be used in the
form of a paste or a fine dry powder or as suspension in oil and grease; its
size of particle should be 0.2mm. It is used in the racks of speed frame
bobbin rail.
Lubricants 173
10.6 Lubricant used in spinning mill

In the textile machinery used for spinning mill, consideration must be given
to three factors while selecting the lubricant: low power consumption,
protection against corrosion and resistance against staining of yarn.
In all machines a certain amount of power is required to overcome the
friction within the lubricating film itself. Friction of this kind is largely a
function of the viscosity of the lubricant. To minimize power consumption,
it is necessary to use oil with optimum viscosity; which means minimum
viscosity that is compatible with satisfactory lubrication and which suits
to other considerations such as splashing and oil consumption.
Oxidation tends to cause thickening of oil in use. So it is advantageous
to use lubricants with high oxidation stability, which would result in less
viscosity change as temperature increases.
Since the ambient atmosphere is always humid in spinning mills so the
lubricant used should be capable of protecting parts from corrosion.
Excessive lubrication has to be avoided to reduce chances of staining
the fibre material in process. Some staining is unavoidable even with less
lubrication. Therefore, oils which can be readily removed by scouring
should be used. In case scouring is not to take place in further processing,
highly stable colourless oils must be used.
The choice of oil to be used for lubricating gears depends mainly on the
tooth load and speed of gears. If the tooth load is more and the speed is less,
high viscosity oil is desirable. If the speed is more and the tooth load is less,
then oil with less viscosity is preferable. Low viscosity oil is preferable
over high viscosity oil as it gives better separation from water and other
insoluble contaminants and has a less tendency to foam. One can use less
viscosity oil with extreme pressure additives when the tooth loading is more.
Every one knows that viscosity of oil decreases with increase in
temperature. Mineral oil oxidises rapidly above 90°C. At low temperature,
paraffin crystallises out of the oil.
There is a thumb rule that the service life of oil is 30 years at 30°C and
it is reduced to half for each temperature increase of 5°C. Above 100°C
synthetic oil should be used.
10.6.1 Application of oil

Bearing and gear lubrication
Industrial gear may be of the enclosed type or of open type. In the enclosed
type, the level of oil is maintained at an optimum level. In the gearbox,
teeth of the bottom gear are dipped into the oil and gears are lubricated by
means of splash. The oil level should not be too high so as to prevent
excessive churning of oil which would result in consequent rise in oil

temperature and in power loss. The optimum depth to which the bottom
gear should be dipped is twice the tooth length: this level is just sufficient
for splash lubrication and for minimizing excessive churning.
Hand or manual lubrication

In this method, the application of lubricating oil is done by hand with an
oil can or through oil pumps. The application of lubricant by a hand spray
to open gears or to exposed gears is also considered as hand or manual
lubrication.
Centralized pump
In this system, the lubricant, stored in a centralised source or sump, is
supplied with pressure with the help of oil pump through system of pipes
and metering valves. These valves measure and deliver a precise quantity
of lubricant to each individual point of lubrication.
Air line oiler and oil mist lubrication

Air line oilers are used to deliver a mixture of oil and air in the form of fog
or mist. An adjustable feeding device controls the mixture of oil and air.
In general, the oil mist lubrication is atomized into a mist of microscopic
particles by means of an air stream and this mist is then carried by the air
stream through tubings to the different parts requiring lubrication. As the
fog strikes the part to be lubricated, the oil content from the mist collects
on the surface of the part as a film to be lubricated.
10.6.2 Important points in lubrication

1. Use the proper lubricating agent as required for temperature, load
etc and recommended by supplier.
2. Apply it at correct intervals.
3. Apply it in the prescribed quantity.
4. Ensure that it reaches the desired lubricating point.
5. Ensure that lubricating point is in the prefect state.
6. Take care not to mix grease of different base. (When greases of
different bases are used, the resulting base some times becomes softer
or thicker. If different grease with different base needs to be used,
then first drain out the old grease, and then re-lubricate at half the
normal interval for the first time then onwards the normal frequency
should be resumed.)
Lubricants 175
7. Always lubricate bearings with the recommended grade of grease or

oil. (If grease or oil of recommended grade of grease is not available,
then always lubricate the bearing with a lower grade grease/oil and
shorten the interval of re-lubricating the bearing.
8. Always follow the recommended schedule of re-lubrication given
by machine manufacturer.
9. Clean hands while lubricating to avoid any contamination.
10. Clear the grease nipple and the area around the grease nipple while
re-lubrication.
10.7 Lubricants handling and storage

Storage of lubricant plays a very important role in the lubrication as
everyone knows that contamination can drastically reduce the performance
and life of lubricant and components where it is applied.
(1) Inside storage

It is better that lubricants should be stored inside but with certain precaution
(a) The temperature of storage should remain moderate but should not
be subjected to wide fluctuation.
(b) The storage area should be located far from the industrial
contamination like industrial fume and dust.
(c) The storage area and tools used for distribution of lubricant should
be cleaned as per the cleaning schedule.
(d) Labels and markers on the containers and equipments should be
properly maintained to avoid cross-contamination and incorrect
application.
(e) Grease should be kept in the original container until used up and
should never be left uncovered or open to avoid contamination. After
taking out grease from container the cavities in the grease mass should
be levelled off.
(f) Storage and use of the container should be done as per FIFO (First In
First Out principle).
(g) Drums should be stored on wooden planks or in the racks well above
the grounds.
(h) Wooden paddles should never be used to remove the grease from the
drum or the container because of risk of contamination.
(2) Storage of grease inside the working area

Three types of grease storage problems are most common
(a) Separation of oil from bulk of grease

The tendency of the oil to separate is inherent in the nature of grease. It is
aggravated for those greases where there are voids – empty spaces in grease
where oil can accumulate. Oil separation also gets aggravated under high
temperature storage.
(b) Contamination with deburr

This problem occurs mostly when grease container are partially used and
then stored for long interval before further use. The situation is worsened
if the container is stored in an area where there is a high level of airborne
particles. If contaminants enter grease, they may be carried in lubricated
parts, where they can cause damage.
(c) Reaction of grease with atmospheric component

This less common phenomenon is usually noted after fairly long storage
periods. The most usual observation is oxidation of the surface layer of
grease. However, after more time, atmospheric component such as CO2 and
water vapour may also react with the components of particular grease
formulation. When containers are stored where they are exposed to warm
moist air, and then are subjected to cooling, accumulation of water in the
grease is possible.
(d) Outside storage

If the storage is unavoidable, then following precautions should be taken.
(i) Ensure that bungs on drum are screwed tightly.
(ii) Store the drum in horizontal position, this prevents the seal from
drying out and leaking.
(iii) Drum stored on the sides should be clear of the ground and preferably
rest on the wooden and steel beams.
(iv) Drums should be covered preferably with a plastic cover to get them
protect from contamination.
(vi) Outdoor storage locations should be away from dusty areas.
(vii) Smaller package sizes (e.g. pails) should be covered and examined
regularly and kept to a minimum to provide a quick turnover.
(viii) Lubricating storing place must be “NON-SMOKING AREA”.
(e) Handling of lubricant

Lubricating oils and greases are generally harmless materials but care
Lubricants 177
should be taken to avoid skin contact and inhalation of oil mist. Some
general guidelines for handling lubricating oil and grease are as follows:
(i) Fresh oil should be preferably filtered before supplying for
lubrication.
(ii) If lubricant needs to be transferred from a defective drum, one should
always use a recently emptied drum of same grade.
(iii) Proper supervision of ‘issuing’ is a must to ensure the delivery of
right product.
(iv) Never let any drum fall as it may burst at the seam causing
contamination/leakage.
(v) Use protective equipment to avoid skin contact. In case, quickly
remove it if it does get on the skin. Do not use gasoline, kerosene or
similar solvents to remove lubricants from the skin as they take the
natural oils from the skin and cause dryness. Use only mild soap and
warm water or a recommended hand cleaner to remove lubricating
oil and grease from the skin.
(vi) Clean-up lubricating oil and grease spill immediately, so dispose of
them quickly.
(f) Shelf-life
The properties of lubricating oil will remain intact for 5 years provided
they have been kept in protected storage and not exposed to temperature
fluctuation. Grease can be stored for 1 year in a protected storage without
affecting the lubricating properties.
10.8 Conservation of lubricants

Lubricants need to be conserved simply because of the basic need to use
any product efficiently. The annual expenditure of a spinning mill on
lubricant forms a substantial part of maintenance budget. Moreover,
conservation of it is the best alternative energy source because most of
these are petroleum products.
Steps for conservation

The steps to be taken for lubricant conservation are
1. Selection of right lubricant – Adhere to manufacturer’s recommendations,
adhere to oil/grease supplier’s recommendation, and follow the
recommended program of lubrication in terms of frequency, etc.
2. Prevention of contamination –
(a) Ensure that storage and handling practices are good.
(b) Do not allow water, fuel, solvents to contaminate the lubricant.

(c) Maintain the oil reservoir properly.
3. Avoiding early deterioration during usage – Most of the manufacturers
of the machine play safe by giving the early schedule for changing
the oil. The ‘quality’ of lubricants in use needs to be tested to develop
the most suitable frequency for any specific machine.
(a) Take assistance of the oil supplier for sampling and testing.
(b) Practice regular sampling of lubricating quality and adjust re-
lubricating schedule accordingly.
(c) Avoid mixing lubricants; mixture always deteriorates quickly
than expected.
4. Avoid pilferage and leakage – The biggest culprit responsible for
excessive consumption is leakage of lubricating oils from containers
and gear boxes. Looking for and stopping all leakages is preventive
maintenance. Keep the records of receiving and issuing of materials,
so that pilferage can be adjusted as ‘excess consumption over
expected from schedules’.
5. Extended useful life of lubricants –
(a) Monitor the lubrication system through testing samples of
lubricants in use and then conduct field trials to verify whether
the new cycles, whenever extended on the basis of testing, are
appropriate.
10.9 Summary
Conservation of lubricants at low cost
(a) Good storage conditions.
(b) Segregation of lubricants, grade wise.
(c) Stoppage of all oil leaks.
(d) Lubricants adjusted for the right feed.
(e) All losses systematically eliminated.
(f) No overfilling done.
(g) Topping up only when required.
(h) Not exposing oil to abnormal temperature.
(i) Avoiding oil contamination in service.
(j) Find alternate use for used oils.
Conservation of lubricants at high cost

(a) Using superior grades.
(b) System modification.
(c) Purification of used oils.
Lubricants 179
Table 10.2 Oil and grease grade used in Indian spinning mills
Oi l gr a de Vi s c o- Vi s co - M in . P o ur
s ity s ity fl a sh p o in t
Cs in d ex p oi n t
L ig h t g e a r 6 8±6 . 8 95 24 0 -6 Th i s o i l h as l on g s e r-
h y dr au l ic o i l v ic e l if e a n d e x c e-
ll en t l u bri c a ti on c ha -
He a v y g ea r o il 1 00 ±1 0 90 24 0 -9 ra c te ris t ic s . Th is oi l
1 50 ±1 5 90 23 0 -9 is b le n d ed wit h a d d i-
2 20 ±2 0 90 23 0 -9 tiv e s wh ich en d o w
3 20 ±3 2 90 23 0 -3 pr op e rti es l ik e a nti -
ru s t, a n ti fo a m, a n ti-
ox i d an t an d a n ti wea r .
L ig h t s p i nd le 1 0±1 90 18 6 -6 Th i s o il is bl e nd e d
o il w ith a dd i tiv e s g i v in g
2 2±2 90 18 6 -6 a nt io x id a n t, a n ti w e ar
a nd a nti ru s t pr op e r-
tie s . It i s u se d f or
th e lu b ric a ti o n of
hi g h s pe e d s p in dl e .
A dh e si v e o il 2 20 ±2 2 98 19 2 - 12 Antirust, antifoam addi-

tives and adhesive added
give less oil consumption
due to adhesive proper-
ties.
L ig h t E .P . oi l 6 8±6 . 8 90 21 4 -6 Th i s i s e x tre m e p re -
1 00 ±1 0 90 21 4 -6 s su re in d us tr ia l g e ar
1 50 ±1 5 90 21 4 -6 oi ls wh i ch c o n ta in s
s cu l pt ur e an d p h os -
ph o ru s c om p o un d s
a nd p os s e s se s be tt er
th er mal s ta b i li ty a n d
hi g he r o xi d a tio n re -
s is ta n c e a nd low
fo a mi n g te nd e nc y .
Pr ov i de ru s t and
c or ros i o n p ro tec t io n
to m et a l s u rfa c e s. It
is us e d fo r e nc l os e d
ge a r l u b ric a ti o n f or
te mp e ra tu re up to
10 0 °C .
Table 10.3 Grease
W ork penetra - NL GI Drop R emarks

ti on at 25 °C scal e poi nt
Mul tipurpose 265295 2 180 P ossesses excel lent

grease water resistance, high
220 250 3 180 o xidation stabi li ty, and
superior anti ru st proper-
ti es.
E.P. grease 265295 2 180 Extreme pressure grease is

lithium based, prevent welding
and seizure of moving parts
caused by shock loading and
presist water washout.
Table 10.4 Equivalent oil and grease of Indian manufacturers
Oi l t yp e Com pa ny na m e
Light gear and Indi a n o il ( I OC ) H in dus t a n Bha r a t Ind rol C a s tr ol

hydraulic oil P et r ol eum P et r ol eum
(HP) ( B P)
68± 6.8 S ER V O S Y S TE M 68 EN B L O 68 H Y D RO L 68 H Y S PI N A WS 6 8
100 ±10 S ER V O S Y S TE M 10 0 EN B L O 100 H Y D RO L 10 0 HYSPIN AWS 100
Gea r oi l
68± 6.8 S ER O M E SH 68 PA R THA N68 AM OC A M 68 AL PH A Z N68
100 ±10 S ER O M E SH 10 0 PA R THA N10 0 AM OC A M 100 AL PH A Z N10 0
320 ±32 S ER O M E SH 32 0 PAR THA N 320 AM OC A M 320 AL PH A Z N32 0
Gr ea se
N LG I 2 S ER V O G E M 2 U TH A N 2 TE X TR O L15 AP - 2
N LG I 3 S ER V O G E M 3 U TH A N- 3 TE X TR O- 22 AP - 3
E. P . g re as e
N LG I 2 S ER V O G E M E P 2 U TH A N E P - 2 LAN THA X - 2 EP-2
Ad hes iv e oi l
220±20 SERVOWAY220 WAYLUBE220 METAMOL220 MEGNACF2

Table 10.5 Equivalent oils and greases of foreign manufacturers
O il t yp e C o m p an y n a m e
L i g h t g e ar an d BP MO BI L SHE LL T O T AL T E X AC O CA S T RO L ES SO
h y d r au l i c o i l
6 8 ± 6. 8 E N E RG O L H L P 6 8 DTE26 TELLUS 68 – RA N D O N H D C- 6 8 HYS PIN AWS 68 NUTO H 68

1 0 0 ±1 0 E N E RG O L H L P DTE27 TELLUS 100 – RA N D O N H D - E 1 0 0 HYS PIN AWS 100 NUTO H 100
100
G e a r o il
6 8 ± 6. 8 G R- X P 6 8 626 – C A RT E P E P - 6 8 ME RO P A – 6 8 AL P H A S P 6 8 S P AT R A N E P 6 8
1 0 0 ±1 0 G R- X P 1 0 0 627 O M AL A1 0 0 C A RT E P E P - 1 0 0 ME RO P A – 1 0 0 AL P H A S P 1 0 0 S P AT R A N E P 1 0 0
1 5 0 ±1 5 G R- X P 1 5 0 629 O M AL A1 5 0 C A RT E P E P - 1 5 0 ME RO P A – 1 5 0 AL P H A S P 1 5 0 S P AT R A N E P 1 5 0
220±20 G R- X P 2 2 0 630 O M AL A2 2 0 C A RT E P E P - 2 2 0 ME RO P A – 2 2 0 AL P H A S P 2 2 0 S P AT R A N E P 2 2 0
3 2 0 ±3 2 G R- X P 3 2 0 632 O M AL A3 2 0 C A RT E P E P - 3 2 0 N ME RO P A – 3 2 0 AL P H A S P 3 2 0 S P AT R A N E P 3 2 0
G r e ase
NLGI 2 E N E RG O L L S - 2 MO BI L L U X - 2 AL V I N A R- 2 M U L TI S - 2 MU L T I F AK 2 0 S P H E E RO L AP - 2 BE A CO N - 2
NLGI 3 E N E RG O L L S - 3 MO BI L L U X - 3 AL V I N A R- 3 M U L TI S - 3 MU L T I F AK 3 0 S P H E E RO L AP - 3 BE A CO N - 3
E.P. Grease
NLGI2 ENERGOL LS-EP2 MOBIL LUX-EP2 ALVINAR-EP2 MULIS EP-2 MULTIFAK EP2 SPHEEROL EP-2 BEACON-EP2
Lubricants
181
References
1. Indian Oil catalogue.
2. Castrol catalogue.
3. Hindustan petroleum catalogue.
4. Bharat petroleum catalogue.
5. Operating instruction for ring spinning frames G5/1 by Lakshmi Machine Works
Limited Coimbatore, edition May 1996.
6. Comprehensive Hand book on Maintenance by NEERAJ NIJHAWAN.
7. The Lowdown on Lubricants For Rolling Bearings, written by JERRY MCLAIN,
SKF USA Inc. Wednesday 01 July 2009.
8. Grease Basics written by RAY THIBAULT, CLS, OMA I & II, Contributing Editor,
Wednesday, 01 July 2009.
9. Lubrication Theory by THOMAS YOON.
10. Book on Hydrodynamic Lubrication by YUKIO HORI, DR. Eng. Vice President,
Kanazawa Institute of Technology 7-1 Ohgigaoka, Nonoichi, Ishikawa 921-8501,
Japan Professor Emeritus, University of Tokyo.
11. Rolling Bearing Lubrication FAG OEM und Handel AG, a company of the FAG
Kugelfischer Group.
12. Lubricating Fundamentals by D . M . PIRO and A . A . WESSOL (Exxon Mobil
Corporation).
13. Lubricant Handbook 2005 by PETRO CANADA .
11
Belt drive and its maintenance
11.1 Introduction
Belts are used to transmit power from one part to another. The belt drive
consists of an endless belt which is wrapped tightly over two pulleys called
the driving and the driven pulley mounted on their respective shafts. The
motion from the driving pulley is transmitted to the driven pulley by the
frictional resistance between belt and the surface of the pulley.
There are three most common type of belt drive exist in the industry:
1. Flat belt drive – it works on the principle of frictional engagement
on the outer pulley.
Belt
Surface of
pulley
Flat Belt
11.1 Flat belt drive.
2. V-belt drive – it works on the principal of frictional engagement

between the lateral wedge surface of belt profile.
V belt
Wedge surface
V belt Drive
11.2 V-belt drive.
3. Timing belt – it gives the positive drive by engaging a gear like teeth
with mating gears in the pulley.
183
11.3 Timing belt drive.
11.2 Flat belt drives

Flat belt mostly consists of two outer layer made of elastomer called friction
cover and two intermediate layers covering the traction layer which absorbs
the force extended on the belt when power is transmitted. Friction cover
ensures the peripheral force acting on the belt pulley is transmitted to the
belt and vice versa.
Elastomeric
Friction Cover
Bonding Agent
Polyamide fabric Traction or Tension

member
11.4 Construction of flat belt.
Advantages
1. Flexibility, shock absorption and efficiency at high speed.
2. It allows long distances between the shaft.
3. Simplicity, low cost smoothness of operation, low maintenance cost
long life and noiseless as compared with gear transmission.
11.2.1 Types of flat belt drive

(a) Open belt drive
In this shaft are arranged parallel and rotate in the same direction. In this
drive the centre distance may be large and the tight side of the belt should
be on the lower side.
Belt drive and its maintenance 185
11.5 Open belt drive.
(b) Cross belt drive

In this drive the shafts are arranged parallel but rotate in the opposite
direction since the belt cross each other there will be too much wear and
tear hence only leather belts are used in this drive.
11.6 Crossed belt drive.
(c) Stepped pulley drive

This drive is used for stepped changing of angular speed of the driven
shaft when the angular speed of the driving shaft is constant. This type of
drive is used in rieter drawframe.
11.7 Stepped pulley drive.

(d) Cone drive

This drive is used where speed ratio constantly changes. This drive is used
for constantly changing of angular speed of the driven shaft when the
angular speed of the driving shaft is constant. This type of drive is used in
building motion of speedframe.
11.8 Cone drive.
(e) Compound drive

Compound belts are used when power is transmitted from one shaft to
another through a number of pulleys.
11.9 Compound drive.
(f) Belt drive with idler pulley

A belt drive with idler pulley is used with the shafts arranged parallel
and when the open belt drive cannot be used to small angle of contact
on the smaller pulley. This type of drive is provided to obtain high
velocity ratio when the required belt tension cannot be obtained by
other mean.
11.10 Belt drive with idler pulley.
11.2.2 Tolerances for flat belts

Belts should be tested for specification by thickness, length and width:
the lots received must confirm to be prescribed tolerance given for ready
reference.
Table 11.1 Belt tolerance in thickness
Thickness (mm) Tolerance (mm)
Leather belts
3.0 ±0.30
3.5 ±0.30
4.0 ±0.30
5.0 ±0.40
6.0 ±0.50
7.0 ±0.50
8.0 ±0.50
9.0 ±0.50
Nylon belt
1.5 ±0.20
2.0 ±0.20
2.5 ±0.20
3.0 ±0.20
3.5 ±0.20
4.0 ±0.20
Table 11.2 Belt tolerance in length
Flat belt length Tolerance

(mm) (mm)
Up to 500 ±2
5001000 ±4
10012000 ±8
20014000 ±14
40018000 ±22
800116000 ±34
More than 16000 ±0.2%
Table 11.3 Belt tolerance in width
Flat belt width Tolerance

(mm) (mm)
Up to 20 ±0.5
2160 ±0.9
61150 ±2.0
151300 ±3.0
301600 ±4.0
Exceeding 600 ±5.0
11.2.3 Installation of flat belts

The procedure for installing new flat belt is different from those old belts.
(a) New flat belt

1. Before installing the belt, check parallelism of shaft and alignment
of pulley and ensure that both are true/OK.
2. Make a mark 1000 mm apart on the un-tensioned belt. In case the
centre distance is small make a mark of 500 mm and 200 mm apart.
3. Mount the belt on the pulley.
4. Tension the belt by increasing the distance between the driving and
driven pulley till the distance between the measuring marks increases
to the value of initial tension.
For example if the initial tension was 2.30%, then the distance between
the measured mark on un-tensioned belt of 1000 mm should be increased
till the it reaches 1023 mm.
To verify that tracking of belt is proper give several full turns to pulley
and ensure that the belt does not run off.
Belt shifted Running in

to one side Center
11.11 Correct way to install belt.

5. Re-measure the distance, make it correct, (1023 mm in example) if

required.
(b) Reinstalling an old belt

1. Before relaxing the belt for reinstalling, measure the distance
between the existing measuring marks with the help of measuring
tape.
11.12 Reinstalling old belt.
2. Completely relax and demount the belt.

3. For reinstalling, mount the belt on, and increase the tension on
the belt until originally measured distance between the marks is
reached.
Caution
Never adjust tension of flat belt by feeling at by hand: this method is not
at all accurate and would lead to slippage of speed or to over tensioning
and consequent faster wear.
11.2.4 Jointing procedure of flat belt

(a) Type of belt joint
Mostly five types of joints are used in flat belts. In this chapter we are
going to explain thermofix which is most commonly used in the spinning
industry.
Thermofix
Flexproof
Quickmelt
Longitudal joining
11.13 Type of joints.
(b) Belt length calculation

The belt length is calculated by adding the joint length to the endless length
of the belt. Joint lengths for different thickness are given below:
Table 11.4 Joint lengths for different thickness
Thickness Joint length

(mm) (mm)
0.6 18
0.9 26
1.6 58
1.8 62
2.4 67
3.0 77
3.3 81
4.0 90
(c) Scarifying of splice laps

(i) Measured the belt length by placing the steel tape tightly on the belt.
Total length L = Endless length+ joint length.
(ii) Cut off the belt at an angle 60° by using a grinder to prepare for
splicing into an endless belt. The process of making a tapered portion
is called scarifying of splice laps.
(iii) Use a double faced adhesive tape to attach the belt end to the cam in
such a way that (the 60 degree) cut off edge runs flush with the front
end of the cam (Figure 11.2.5c)
(iv) Turn the cam in the direction B until it hits the stop. Swing the cam
fore and back in the direction A–B during the grinding process. While
doing so slowly adjust the eccentric lever in the direction as indicated
by the arrow. The splice edge of the belt is forced against the drum
until it has become wedge shaped ending in a very thin featheredge
as shown in Fig. 11.14.
Cam
Emery
Paper
11.14 Scarifying of splice laps.
(d) Application of adhesive

Apply the adhesive supplied by the manufacturer of the belt on to the two
jointing lengths that have been cleaned with trichloroethylene and then
dried.
(e) Joining two ends in hot press

An electrical hot press is used to join the spice laps firmly.
(i) Place a heat resistant foil between the lower press platen and belt.
(ii) Place both the joint part the splice laps that have been prepared and
applied with adhesive in the hot press. Mate the scarified laps on the
lower plate and align them before clamping them.
(iii) Cover the splice with heat resistant foil and a smooth piece of sheet
metal.
(iv) Close the press and tighten the nuts.
(v) Heat the press till the temperature reaches 100–110°C.
(vi) After heating time open the press and remove the splice without
bending it and let it cool off keeping it under pressure.
(vii) Trimming the edges around splice and the belt is then ready for
use.
Flat Belt placing in the

belt jointing machine
11.15 Placing of flat belt.
11.3 Spindle tape

Spindle tapes are essentially flat belts used to drive the spindles on a
ringframe and two for one twister. It is made up of fabric layer, nylon
fabric and thin rubber cover layer as shown in the figure 11.3b. Fabric
layer is used on spindle wharve side so that friction resistance between
spindle tape and wharve side is reduced when the knee brake is applied.
Fabric later is given special treatment so that it will not catch the fly while
running hence helps in the energy saving and reduce maintenance. Rubber
covering has a high coefficient of friction and that side is made to run the
drum shaft pulley so that high power transmission is ensured and rotation
is stabilized.
Drum Shaft Pulley
Jockey pulley
Spindle Tape
11.16 Spindle tape drive.
Fabric layer
Nylon Fabric
Rubber
covering
11.17 Construction of spindle tape.
11.3.1 Jointing procedure for spindle tape

1. Check the spindle tape length and correctness of joint length.
2. Connect the press to A.C. mains single phase –220 volts.
3. When the press is getting hot check the temperature with thermometer.
It should be between 100 and 130°C.
11.18 Checking the temperature of press.
4. Pass the tape over the tin pulley.

5. Twist the tape (either right hand twist or left hand twist in case of
single jockey pulley: no twist is necessary for the double jockey pulley
system) as required.
6. Apply a thin film of the joining adhesive supplied by the manufacturer
on rubber side of the skived portion.
Apply thin coat of fixol Fixol

with brush. Dry it for
two minutes
skieved surface
No adhessive
11.19 Applying fixol on rubber side of skeived surface.

7. Wipe out excess adhesive with a cloth leaving a thin trace of

adhesive.
11.20 Wiping excess adhesive.
8. Press the fabric side skived portion on rubber side skieved portion
on which the adhesive was applied.
9. Insert the joint portion in the spring plate in the press keeping the
rubber side on the top.
11.21 Inserting the joint portion.
10. Close the press and keep the tape for two minutes and then remove
it from the press.
11.22 Pressing the joint.
11. Do not pull the tape at the joint portion while it is hot.
12. Projected dry adhesive to be trimmed with scissors evenly.
11.23 Trimming the dry adhesive.
13. Install the tape keeping the rubber side touching the tin roller and
white face touching the spindle wharve.
14. Do not give any extra twist to the tape while mounting.
15. Ensure that the tape runs exactly in the centre of tin roller and the
jockey pulley and the spindle wharve without touching the spindle
lock.
* For two-for-one twister the mounting procedure is same but the time
is only 5 minute.
11.3.2 How to ensure long the life of tape?

Checklist on stopped machines
(i) No spindles should have broken spindle lock. Spindle locks/brakes
should be positioned properly so that they do not touch the tapes.
(ii) Jockey pulleys should rotate freely without wobbling (change the
bearings or provide nylon bushes if they wobble).
(iii) Jockey pulley arms/rods should not ‘dance’. If found dancing, provide
nylon bushes in the collars. Jockey pulley arms should swing only
back and forth – not sideward.
Checklist on running the machines

(i) Check all jockey pulleys for free rotation. Clean the accumulated
fluff. Fall out of tapes occurs mostly due to stuck up, jockey pulleys.
11.24 Accumulated stuff.
(ii) After every doff, ensure that all tapes are in position. If any fall out
is seen, remount that tape before restarting.
11.25 Free from unwanted stuff.

(iii) While remounting the rubber face of the tape should not touch the
tin roller and the white face should run touching the spindle
wharves.
(iv) Verify that no tape runs with more twists than needed i.e. single jockey
pulley – one twist either right hand or left hand; for double jockey
pulley –no twist.
(v) Ensure that tapes run exactly in the centre of jockey pulley, tin roller
and spindle wharves.
(vi) Wherever a tape gets cut, make a note in the register by spindle
number and report to the supervisor.
11.4 Flat pulley

Pulleys are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means
of the flat belt. Both the pulleys must be in prefect alignment in order to
allow the belt to travel in a line normal to the pulley faces. The pulleys
are made of cast iron or pressed steel. Cast iron has good friction
characteristic. Pulleys made from pressed steel are lighter than cast iron
pulley but in many cases they have low friction resistance, which results
in excessive wear. In order to obtain optimal frictional behavior between
the flat belt and the pulleys, the pulley surface is designed with roughness
Rz25.
11.4.1 Crowning of pulley

Flat belts running over cylindrical pulleys quickly wander off the pulleys.
To prevent this, at least one pulley is ‘crowned’, machined to a slightly
‘spindle’ shaped profile.
When the flat belt on such a pulley is off-center and the pulley
rotating, the belt quickly moves up to the largest radius at the top of
the crown and stays there. The crown is important to keep the belt
‘tracking’ stable, preventing the belt from ‘walking off ’ the edge of
the pulley. A crowned pulley eliminates the need for pulley flanges
and belt guide rollers.
The flat pulley is made with a rounded rim. The slight convexity is
known as crowning. Care must be taken to keep the crowning height at
optimum. Excessive crowning would cause intolerable strain on the
belt and would shorten its life. The recommended optimum crown height
is 0.5 mm per 100 mm of pulley width i.e. 0.5% to 0.75% of pulley
width.
Flat belt
Rim of
pulley
Crowning
of Pulley
Pulley Cross-
section
11.26 Flat pulley.
11.4.2 Relation of pulley width and diameter to crown
11.27 Crowning of pulley.
Table 11.5 Diameter to crown ratio of pulley width <250 mm
Diameter Curvature height h

(mm) (mm)
40112 0.3
125140 0.4
160200 0.5
200250 0.6
250400 0.8
400560 1.0
560800 1.2
8001000* 1.2
10001400* 1.5
For rim width greater than 250 mm, the height h is 1.5 and 2.0 mm.
(i) When the pulley is mounted on horizontal shaft, the big pulley must
be crown in shape. If the speed ratio is more than 1:3, then the small
pulley can be designed cylindrical (i.e. without crown).
(ii) When the pulleys are mounted on vertical shafts then both the pulleys
must be crowned shape.
11.4.3 Relation of belt width to pulley width

The width of the belt should be always less than that of the pulley.
Table 11.6 gives a guideline.
WP
Wb
11.28 Relation of belt width to pulley width.
Table 11.6 Relation of belt width to pulley width
Pulley width (mm) 75 100 150 200 300 400

Belt width (mm) 70 90 140 175 275 365
11.5 V belts
A V belt is required when a machine is driven by a separate motor located
very close to the driven pulley. Hence V belts are used to transmit power
from one pulley to another when the centre distance between two pulleys
is less. These belts are trapezoidal in cross-section and are manufactured
endless belts. These belts transmit power owing to wedging action between
the belt and V groove in the pulley. The included angle is α/2 = 40°. The
more power and load to be transmitted, the more is the number of belts. In
such multiple drives all the belts should get stretched at the same rate so
that the load is equally distributed on the belts.
11.5.1 Construction of V belts

The cover is made of fabric molded with rubber in order to provide strong
abrasion resistance on the pulley groove to protect the inner part of the
belt. The Flexible section: withstands bending stress without fatigue. In

the load carrying section, tension member polyester cords ensure the length
stability in storage as well as in the drive. It imparts high strength and
elongation. In the cushion section, adhesive rubber binds cord firmly and
acts as a binding force between topping and base section. The compression
section is a special compound to resist compression fatigue and heat there
by imparting a longer service life.
Flexible
b
Section
Load carrying Section
Cushion Section
Compression
Section
Cover
α
11.29 Cross-section of V belt.
11.5.2 Types of conventional V belts

V belts are made of five types A, B, C, D, E as shown in Fig. 11.5.2 a. and
their properties are given in Table 11.7.
7/8
1/2 21/32 (22 mm) 11/4 11/2
(13 mm) (17 mm) (32 mm) (38 mm)
11/32 7/16 9/16 3/4 1
(8 mm) (11 mm) (14 mm) (20 mm) (24 mm)
A B C D E
11.30 Cross-section of conventional V belts
Table 11.7 Detailed specifications of V belt
Sec- Top Thick- Angle Range Length Tensile Elon- Recommended

tion width ness (mm) strength gation Pitch diameter
(mm) (mm) (kg) at (mm)
break
%
A 13 8 40° A18-A74 493-4456 300 15 75

B 17 11 40° B25-B195 678-4996 425 15 125
C 22 14 40° C45-C235 1199-6101 806 15 200
D 32 19 40° D120-D390 3127-9985 460 5 355
E 38 25 40° E180 E418 4664-10709 460 5 500
Z 10 6 40° 200 15
11.5.3 Wedge belts

These belts are a modified version of the traditional V belts: They have
slightly deeper section and narrow cross-section; and are made from rubber
and special rubber compound. These belts can transmit greater power than
traditional V belts.
16 mm
10 mm 13 mm 25 mm
22 mm
8 mm 10 mm 13 mm 18 mm 23 mm
SPZ SPA SPB SPC 8V

11.31 Wedge belt.
Table 11.8 Dimension of wedge V belts
Belt Top width Thickness Recommended

type (mm) (mm) pitch diameter
(mm)
SPZ 10 8 63
SPA 13 10 90
SPB 16 13 160
SPC 22 18 224
8V 25 23 300
11.5.4 Quad power V belt

This raw edge high capacity belt transmits more power and handles greater
speed ratios with smaller pulleys than other conventional belt. They have
raw edge construction. Their molded notches reduce and evenly distributed
thermal and bending stress. While their deeper side walls give uniform
wedging action.
11.32 Quad power V belt.
Table 11.9 Dimension of quad power V belt
Belt type Width Thickness Angle

(mm) (mm)
XPZ/3VX 10 8 40°
XPA 13 10 40°
XPB/5VX 16 13 40°
11.5.5 Double V section belts

This construction enables the belt (Fig. 11.33 and Table 11.10) to drive on
both sides on serpentine drive. It is available in four categories:
Table 11.10 Dimension of double V section belts
Belt type Width Thickness Angle

(mm) (mm)
AA 13 10 40°
BB 17 14 40°
CC 22 17 40°
1/2 21/32 7/8

(12.7 mm) (16.5 mm) (22.2 mm)
13/32 17/32 11/16

(10.3 mm) (13.5 mm) (17.6 mm)
11.33 Double V section belts.
11.5.6 V belts for variable speed drives

These belts are used on variable speed pulleys. These belts adjust
themselves to the pulley groove without difficulty and provide a wide range
of speed and speed ratios.
11.34 V Belts for variable speed drives.

Table 11.11 Dimension for V belts for variable speed drives
Type Top width Thickness Angle

(mm) (mm)
W16 16.6 5 24°

W20 20.7 6.5 26°
W25 25.9 8 26°
W31.5 32.6 10 26°
W40 41.5 13 28°
W50 51.8 16 28°
W63 65.3 20 30°
11.5.7 How to store V belts?

1. All types of V belts should be stored in a cool and dry place, and
should not be subjected to direct sunlight.
2. Avoid placing these belts on the floor and ground in close coils. Hang
it on a wall to avoid any possibility of kinking or distortion.
3. Keep the belts away from grease, oil or dirt.
4. Damp storerooms are unsuitable. This leads to mildew formation
which affects the belt jacket.
5. V belts should always be without any stress and tension so as to
avoid permanent deformation and cracks.
6. Belts can be coiled on shelves or hung on pegs. Avoid sharp bends
and stresses that can cause permanent deformation and cracks. Stack
belts no higher than 12" to prevent damage to bottom belts. When
hanging, coil longer belts to prevent distortion from belt weight.
7. If V belt have been stored for long duration before being taken up
for use, then run the V belt without any load for 20–30 minutes.
Such free running helps in making the belt flexible again.
11.5.8 Installation of V belt

1. Check the dimension of the groove of the pulley if the belt is to be
mounted on a new pulley. All the grooves should be of same dimension.
11.35 Fit V belt with groove.

2. The groove should be free from burr, rust oil dirt and grease. V groove
of pulleys wear out in service: so, worn out pulley should be replaced
immediately.
Worn out
groove
11.36 Worn groove.
3. Too small diameter of pulley causes unnecessary flexing of the belt

and may lead to premature bearing failure on the machine. Too Large
pulley required more space and cost disadvantages.
11.37 Optimum pulley diameter.
4. If a tension pulley of groove type is being used for tensioning the

belt then it must be placed on the inside of belt and closer to larger
pulley.
11.38 Positioning of tension pulley.
5. Tensioning pulley diameter must be equal to that of the smaller pulley

of the drive.
6. If tension pulley of flat type is to be used then it should be placed on
the outside of the belt and at one third of centre distance from the
driving pulley.
11.39 Use of flat tension pulley.
7. Belts should not be subjected to extreme heat and cold. Standard

belt sustain temperature between –18 to 70°C without damage.
8. The base plate for the drive should be rigid to prevent variation in
the belt tension due to vibration.
11.40 Base plate.
9. The drives should not be totally enclosed. Grill covers should be

used for proper air circulation.
11.41 Grill covers.
10. Don’t mix used and new belts on a drive. Used belts will ride lower
in the sheave groove due to side wall wear and normal stretch. New
belts will ride higher in the sheave, travel faster, and operate at higher
tension. Running used and new belts together will overload and
damage the new belts. Used belts may be used elsewhere on a light
duty drive, or for emergencies.
11. Don’t mix belts from different manufacturers. Because dimensions
and constructions vary among manufacturers, running such
“mismatched belts” won’t give full service life.
12. Use correct type and cross section belt. Match the correct belt cross
section to the corresponding sheave groove — A to A, 3V to 3V, etc.
Don’t use a B section belt in a 5V sheave, or vice versa.
11.5.9 Mounting procedure

1. Check the bearings of shafts and pulleys on which the v belts are to
be mounted; replace bearing if worn.
2. Ensure perfect alignment of the shafts and the pulleys.
Pulleys are not parallel
Shafts are not in correct

allignment
Shafts are
parallel but
pulleys are not
alligned
Correct installation Both

pulleys and shaft are in
correct allignment
11.42 Figure Alignment of shafts and pulleys.
Alignment procedure
Using a piece of thread or a straight edge, place it along the face of one
pulley. If the pulleys are properly aligned, then the string or straight edge
will touch all the points
11.43 Correct way of alignment.

3. Rotate the pulleys slowly and check for wobble and for bent shaft.
4. Never use old and new belts in the same set. This may reduce the life
of belts due to unequal tension.
5. Reduce the centre distance or slacken the tension roller so that belt
can be mounted without using any force.
6. After mounting the belt, it should be properly tensioned with the
procedure described below:
(i) Calculate the deflection distance as 16 mm deflection per meter
of centre distance.
deflection 16 mm
per meter of
center distance
Force
Force N
Center Distance
Upper Ring
Deflection mm
Lower Ring
11.44 Defelction.
(ii) Use a proper tool for tensioning the belt.

(iii) Set the lower marker ring at the desire deflection distance in
mm on the scale.
(iv) Set the upper marker ring against the bottom edge of the top
tube.
(v) Place the belt tension indicator on the top of the belt at the
centre of the span. Apply force at right angle to the belt and
deflect it to the point where the lower marker ring is level with
the top of adjusting belt.
(vi) Read off the force value indicated on the top edge of upper
marking.
(vii) Compare this value with that given in the Table 11.12 and adjust
the tension till it is equal to the value of force.
Table 11.12 Recommended tensioning force
Belt type Force required to deflect belt 16 mm per meter of span
Small diameter (mm) Newton Kgf

SPZ 5695 1320 1.32.0
100140 2025 2.02.5
SPA 80132 2535 2.53.6
140200 3545 3.64.6
SPB 112224 4565 6.68.7
236315 65115 8.711.7
SPC 224355 85115 8.511.5
375560 115150 11.515.0
8V 335 and above 150200 11.515.0
Z 56100 57.5 0.50.8
A 80140 1015 1.01.5
B 125200 2030 2.03.1
C 200400 4060 4.16.1
D 355600 70105 7.010.5
E 132183 13.218.3
11.5.10 Maintenance of V belt

1. In a multiple V drive belt, always replace the set of belts if one or
more belt breaks. Replacement of one belt only results in undue
stretching of the new belt and which moves with a different velocity.
This will reduce the life of new belt.
2. In multiple V drive, putting one or two belts less than the number
required, reduces the life of the belt by 30–50%.
3. Check the pulley for wear before putting the belt.
4. When the drives are expected to remain stationary for long period,
relax the operational tension.
5. Always give proper tension to the belt and check the belt tension
regularly.
6. Do not use sharp tools to mount the belt forcibly.
7. Keep the free from oil and grease and belt dressing lubricant should
never be used.
11.5.11 Reason of failure of V belt

The major reasons for failure of V belts, as observed in mill practice are
given in Table 11.13.
Table 11.13 Causes and remedy
Problem Reason Remedy

Side of the belt is Slippage of the belt due to less Re-tension the belt until the
worn tension belt stops slipping
Misalignment of pulley Realign the pulley
Bottom of the belt Belt slippage causes heat Re-tension to prevent slippage
cracks buildup and gradual hardening
of rubber base compound
Poor quality of belt Good quality belt should be
used
Tensioning roller is fitted on Always placed groove type
the wrong side of the belt pulley on the inside of the belt,
and flat type pulley on the
outside of the belt
Belt turns over and Misalignment of pulley Realign the pulley

run out Foreign material in the groove Remove foreign material
Incorrect pulley groove section Use correct size pulley
or excessive groove wear
Tension is less Re-tension the belt
Problem Reason Remedy
Belt snaps off Tension is more Reduce the tension

In multiple V drive less no of Mount correct no. of belts
belts are used
In step pulley drive, groove Put the belt in the correct
alignment is wrong groove in both the pulleys
Extreme shock load Remove cause of shock loads
Belt coming out of the drive Align the pulley
Noise Drive misarranged Realign

Incorrect belt tension Retention
Overload drive Redesign drive
Unbalanced pulleys Use balanced pulleys
Excessive belt Insufficient belt on drive Check drive design and modify
vibration Center distance too long Reduce center or use inside
idler on the slack side
Low belt tension Re-tension
Unbalanced pulley Use suitably balanced pulley
High shock loading Re-design drive
11.6 V pulleys
These are used to transmit full power along with V belts without undue
wear.
V pulleys must have correct groove dimensions. Other important factors
are listed below.
1. V pulleys should be free from porosity or blow holes in the groove
faces.
2. Sides of the grooves should be free from burrs.
3. Top corners of all grooves should be rounded.
4. Worn out pulleys should be replaced by new pulleys.
5. Any V pulley smaller than the recommended minimum pitch diameter
should not be used.
6. Side wobble and runout should be within tolerances given below:
Pulley diameter Tolerance

(mm) mm/m
Up to 500 1
500 to 1500 1.5
Over 1500 2
11.6.1 Pulley groove dimension

The specifications for pulley dimensions are shown in Fig. 11.45 a are
given in Table 11.14 for V pulley with different cross-section.
FACE WIDTH
e w
f
A° IP
b
R D
11.45 V pulley groove dimension.

Table 11.14 Specifications for V pulley with different cross-sections
Groove Pulley pitch Groove Minimum Minimum Center Edge of Pitch Minimum
cross- diameter angle top width groove to the width height of
section (mm) (A) of groove depth (D) center pulley mm groove
W +0.03, of to (lp) above
(mm) +0.0 groove centre (mm) pitch line
(mm) (e) of (b) mm
+0.15 groove ±0.13
(mm) (f) ±0.3
(mm)
SPZ UPTO 80 34 9.7 11 12 8 8.5 2.0
OVER 80 38 9.9
A UPTO115 34 13 13.8 15 10 11 3.3

OVER 115 38 13.3
SPA UPT0118 34 12.7 13.75 15 10 11 2.75

OVER 118 38 12.9
B UPTO 190 34 16.6 17.5 19 12.5 14 4.2

OVER 190 38 16.9
SPB UPTO 190 34 16.1 17.5 19 12.5 14 3.5

OVER 190 38 16.4
C UPTO 315 34 22.7 23.8 25.5 17 19 5.7

OVER 315 38 22.9
SPC UPTO 315 34 21.9 23.8 25.5 17 19 4.8

OVER 315 38 22.3
D UPTO 475 36 32.3 28 37 24 27 8.1

OVER 475 38 32.6
E UPTO 360 36 38.3 33 44.5 29 32 9.6

OVER 360 38 38.6
11.6.2 Adjustable pitch pulley

In this type of pulley the pitch diameter of pulley can be adjusted within
a limited range. Any adjustment is made only when the pulley is stationary.
It allows an adjustment to be made in speed of the driven/driver pulley to
suit change in operating condition. (This type of drive is used in the coiler
drive of drawframe RSB-1 and comber E60H.This pulley consists of two
flanges made of cast iron. The first flange is screwed on to the driving
part and has a finely extended boss which carries the adjustable flange.
After adjustment, second flange is locked by means of screws.
Max P.C. Dia.

Min P.C. Dia.
O.D. Dia
11.46 Construction of adjustable pitch pulley.
11.7 Timing belts

Timing belt is basically flat belt with a series of evenly spaced on the
inside circumstances, there by combining the advantage of the flat belt
with the positive grip feature of chain and gears drives. These belts are
used where positive drive is required. A timing belt is constructed with
gear like teeth to engage with mating teeth in the timing pulley giving or
a perfectly synchronous speed drive. Such belts are used for power
transmission or to interchange rotary motion and linear motion, where
either high loads or maintaining a specific drive ratio are important. A
timing belt does not stretch or slip; consequently, transmits power at
constant angular velocity with an efficiency of 97–99%. It requires no
lubrication and is quieter than gear and chain drive.
11.47 Timing pulley drive.
1. The positive drive characteristics provide exact synchronization

eliminating speed loss inherent in other belt drives. There is no
chordal rise or fall of pitch line as in case of roller chain hence no
belt creep and slippage.
2. They allow positive drive characteristics at speeds much higher than
those common to most chain drives.
3. When properly designed and installed, timing belt drives are less
critical to tension maintenance than V or flat belt drives due to the
positive drive characteristics and high modulus, low stretch tensile
cord used in their construction.
4. They need no lubrication or oil encasement.
5. Their thinner cross-sections reduce heat generation induced through
bending stresses.
6. The positive engagement of belt teeth in pulley grooves makes
synchronous belt drives less critical than V or flat belts to inadvertent
exposure to drive lubricants such as oil or water, although extended
exposure will result in premature belt degradation.
7. They are quieter than most chain drives.
Construction of typical timing belt is shown in Figure 11.7b. Tensile
member are made of fiberglass cord provided at the pitch line to impart
high tensile strength and resistance to elongation. The pitch remains same
it does not depend upon the thickness of backing. The backing is a durable
flexible sheet made from neoprene binding the tensile member. The teeth
are molded with neoprene rubber having good shear resistance. Tough
wear nylon fabric for the tooth facing gives low coefficient of friction
needed for smooth interaction with the toothed pulley.
Backing
Teeth
Tensile
Tooth Facing
11.48 Construction of timing belt.
11.7.1 Tensioning rollers

A timing belt requires tension rollers (also called jockey pulley to give
tension in the loose side of the timing belt. Jockey pulleys are required to
compensate for length difference to tension the timing belt and to increase
the angle of contact. They reduce the service life of timing belt because
they bend the belts at the point of contact.
Tension rollers are either internal tensioning roller or external tensioning
roller depending upon their placement in relation to the belt inside or
outside respectively (Figure 11.7.1).
Loose Belt
portion
Loose Belt
portion
External Tensioning Roller
Internal Tension Roller

11.49 Tensioning rollers.
Table 11.15 Details of tensioning rollers
Internal External
Placed closer to the larger pulley to avoid Placed closer to the smaller pulley in order
decrease of angle of contact of smaller to increase the area of contact of smaller
pulley. pulley.
The diameter of jockey pulley is equal to Jockey pulley diameter is at least 1.25
or greater than the smaller pulley. times the smaller pulley.
11.7.2 Conventional timing belts

These types of timing belts have trapezoidal tooth form and can transmit
power up to 150 KW and peripheral speed up to 80 m/s.
Six standard series are commonly used (Table 11.16).
Table 11.16 Dimension of conventional timing belt
Service Designation Pitch T (mm) B (mm)

(inch)
Mini extra light MXL 2/25" 0.51 1.14
Extra light XL 1/5" 1.27 2.3
Light L 3/8" 1.91 3.5
Heavy H 1/2" 2.29 4
Extra heavy XH 7/8" 6.35 11.4
Double extra heavy XXH 5/4" 9.53 15.2
These belts are designated by their length, pitch and width.

The length is shown in the first part of the belt designation. The pitch
length is given in tenths of an inch.
Example: 300L075 means 300/10 = 30 inches pitch length. The pitch
is the distance between the centre of one tooth to the center of another
teeth in inches measured at pitch line. It is designated by the second part
of the belt designation. In the above example belt is with 3/8” pitch. The
width is showed in the last part of designation in hundredths of inches.
The belt in the example is 75/100= 0.75 inch wide.
The number of groove, pitch and width are used in designating the timing
pulley. The only way of determining the pulley size is the no of groove
corresponding to the number of teeth on a gear or sprocket. This is shown
in the first part of the pulley designation.
Example: 20L075, this is a pulley with 20 grooves. The pitch and the
width are designated in the same way as that of the belt.
11.7.3 High torque timing belt

These belts have a curvilinear tooth form which gives a more distribution
of shear stresses within a tooth, (Figure 11.50) and better transition of
tooth load to the tensile member in the belt.
11.50 High torque timing belt.
There are five standard series.

Table 11.17 Dimension of timing belt
Service Pitch T B Width *

(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
3M 3 1.2 2.4 6,9,15
5M 5 2.1 3.8 9,15,25
8M 8 3.4 6 20,30,50,85
14M 14 6 10 40,55,85,115,170
20M 20 8.4 13.2 115,170,230,290
* Standard widths available commercially
These belts are designated by Length, pitch and width. The pitch length
in mm is shown in the first part of belt designation.
Example: In 1440-8M-20, here a 1440 mm pitch length. Pitch is the
distance between the centres of one teeth to the center of another teeth in
millimeter measured at pitch line. It is shown in the second part of
designation. 8M means pitch is 8 mm. Width is shown in the last or the
third f the designation 20 mm.
The pulleys are specified by the number of grooves, pitch and width.
The only way to determine the pulley size is to specify the numbers of
groove in the pulley.
Example: 30-8M-20 This is the pulley with 30 grooves, pitch of 8 mm
and width 20 mm.
11.7.4 Twin power

This belt possesses the double and directly opposite teeth. It can transmit
up to 100% load from either side of the belt alternately. It can transmit the
load on both sides provided the sum of the load does not exceed the
maximum capacity. It is available in XL, L, H, 5M, 8M and 14M Pitches.
It is designated as TP150 L075; here TP means – Twin Power L is the
pitch i.e. 3/6 inch and width is 0.75 means 3/4 inch.
11.51 Conventional series twin belt.
Table 11.18 Dimensions of conventional series
Type Pitch W T
(inch) (mm) (mm)
XL 1/5 0.508 1.27
L 3/8 0.762 1.91
H 1/2 1.372 2.29
11.52 High torque twin series
Table 11.19 Dimensions of high torque twin series
Type Pitch W T
(mm) (mm) (mm)
5M 5 1.143 2.1
8M 8 1.372 3.45
14M 14 2.774 6.02
11.7.5 Polyurethane synchro power belt

It is made of tough polyurethane compound of consistent quality. It consists
of steel tensile members. It is resistant to oils, ozone and abrasion. It can
function in wide temperature ranges form –30 to 80°C.
It is made in three standard series.
11.53 Teeth of polyurethane synchro power belt.
Table 11.20 Dimensions of Polyurethane synchro power belt
Belt type Pitch B W Width

(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
T2.5 2.5 1.3 0.7 4,6,8,10,12
T5 5 2.2 1.2 6,8,10,12,16,20,25
T10 10 4.5 2.5 10,12,16,20,25,32,50
Width, pitch and length designate the belt.
Example – PU 25T5-200
PU means polyurethane 25 mm, represent widthT5 represent 5 mm pitch,
whereas 200 gives the length in mm.
11.7.6 Double-sided polyurethane belt

These belts are available in two series.
11.54 Teeth of double-sided polyurethane belt.
Table 11.21 Dimensions of double-sided polyurethane belt
Belt type Pitch B T Width

(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
T5DL 5 3.4 1.2 6,8,10,12,16,20,25,32
T10DL 10 7 2.5 10,12,16,20,25,32,50
11.7.7 RPP polyurethane belt

The parabolic profile of the belt results in a very low interference between
belt and pulley during meshing. It has an angle of pressure that increases
from the base to the top of tooth.
Parabolic Shape
11.55 Teeth of RPP Polyurethane Belt.
H1 H
11.56 Dimensions of RPP Belt.
Table 11.22 Dimensions of RPP belt
RPP5 RPP8 RPP14

P 5 8 14
H 3.8 5.5 10a
H1 2.0 3.2 6
Standard Width mm 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50,
85, 100, 150 85, 100, 150 85, 100, 150
11.7.8 Installation of a timing belt

1. The teeth should be free from burr, rust oil dirt and grease.
2. If using a tension pulley of teeth type for tensioning the belt then it
must be placed on the inside of the belt and closer to the larger pulley.
3. If using a tension pulley of flat type, then it must be placed on the outside
of the belt and at one third of center distance from the driving pulley.
4. Provision should be made for adjustment of drive centre distance to
allow for the installation of the belt around the pulley.
Mounting
1. Check the bearings of the shaft and the pulley on which timing belt
is to be mounted.
2. Ensure perfect alignment of the shaft and pulley by using a piece of

string or a straight edge to touch the pulley. If the pulleys are properly
aligned, then the string or the straight edge will touch all the points
indicated in figure (refer Figure 5.3.9b). If the pulley is not properly
aligned rapid belt wear will occur due to misalignment.
11.57 Pulley alignment allowance.
Table 11.23 Dimensions of Pulley alignment
Belt width 10 mm 20 mm Over 30 mm

Allowance 1/200 1/400 1/600
Degree è 17 9 6
3. Rotate each pulley slowly and check for wobble and or bent shaft.
4. Never forced the belt over the pulley flanges because internal belt
damage will be caused.
5. Tensioned the belt properly by applying a force F in Newton at mid-
span to deflect the belt at a distance related to the length of centre
distance i.e. 20 mm per meter of span length.
S = Centre distance, d = deflection, F = force in Newton
11.58 Proper tensioning of timing belt.
Table 11.24 Dimensions of tensioning
Belt Force N
L050 2.7
L075 4.3
L100 6.1
H075 11
H100 15.6
H150 24.3
H200 33.4
H300 52.3
11.7.9 Maintenance
1. A Timing belt must be cleaned by wiping with rag slightly dampened
with a light, non volatile solvent.
2. Never sand and or scrap the belt with a sharp object to remove grease
or deburr.
3. Never push the timing belt on the disc with undue force or pull the
timing belt hard over the rim of the tension roller. Loosen the tension
roller sufficiently to ensure the installation of belt without any force.
11.7.10 How to store timing belts?

1. Belts should be stored in a cool and dry place and should not be
subjected to direct sunlight.
2. The belts should be kept away from grease, oil or dirt.
3. Damp storerooms are unsuitable. This leads to mildew formation
which affects the belt jacket
4. Belts should be stored in the original packing without any sharp bend
and crimping which would damage the belt.
11.7.11 Causes and remedy
Table 11.25 Causes and remedy for belts
Problem Cause Remedy

Broken Belt • Under-designed drive • Redesign drive
• Sharp bend cause • Follow proper
tensile cord damage installation guide
• Belt was forced on lines
the drive • Shield drive
• Foreign object in the • Align pulley
drive
• Belt rub on to the
pulley flange
Excessive side wall wear • Misaligned centers • Aligned drive
• Bent flange • Straighten flange
Cracks in Belt Backing • High temperature • Remove heat source

• Improve ventilation
References
1. OPTI belt catalogue.
2. ESCON v belts catalogue.
3. Rofolex belt catalogue.
4. Fenner belt catalogue.
5. Habashit belt catalogue, edition April 1996.
6. Siegleing belt catalogue.
7. Nitta belt catalogue.
8. Simta spindle tape catalogue.
9. Elgitex belt catalogue.
10. A Text Book of Machine Design by DR . P . C . SHARMA and DR . D. K. AGARWAL.
11. Proper Installation and Maintenance Can Prolong the Life of V-Belts by
JOHN C . ROBERTSON , maintenance reliability specialist.
12. Timing belt from Wikipedia.
13. V belt and timing belt installation and maintenance by BANDO.
14. GatesFacts™ Technical Information Library (Gates Compass™ Power
Transmission CD-ROM version 1). The Gates Rubber Company Denver,
Colorado USA.
15. Basics of belt drive by JOSEPH L. FOSZCZ, Senior Editor, Plant Engineering
Magazine – Plant Engineering.
16. Take the right steps to ensure proper drive belt alignment By DAN PARSONS, Senior
Project Engineer, Gates Corp., Denver — Plant Engineering, 6/1/2006.
17. Comprehensive Hand Book on Spinning Maintenance Part-3 by NEERAJ NIJHAWAN.
Steel wire and chain 223
12
Steel wire and chain
12.1 Steel wire rope

Wire rope is metal in its strongest form. It consists of a group of strands
laid helically around a core. The strands of a wire rope or cable consist of
a number of individual wires laid about a central wire. These ropes are
used when a large amount of power has to be transmitted over long distance
from one pulley to another, to guide, to tie down, to hold back, to
counterbalance, to lift the parts, etc. The wire ropes run on grooved pulleys
but they rest on the bottom of the groove and do not wedge between the
sides of groove. In spinning industry they are used in can changers,
blendomat for counter balancing the arm and speedframe cone drum area.
12.2 Construction
Wire rope is composed of wires, strands and a core. Wire rope is composed
of wires, strands and a core. Wire cores are made in two different forms.
Core
Wire
Center wire
Strand
Wire
12.1 Construction of wire.
223
The most commonly used is a wire rope of suitable size to serve as a core.
It is called as independent wire rope core (IWRC). The other type of wire
core is a wire strand structure (WSC or SC). This consists of multiple-
wire strand and may have the same construction as the main rope strands.
A wire rope is made of strands and each strand is made up from one or
more layers of wires. The number of strands means the number of group
of wires laid over the central core (Fig. 12.1).
12.3 Design of wire

Various types of wire rope have been designed to meet a wide range of
uses and operating conditions. These types are designated by the kind of
core; the number of strands; the number, sizes and arrangement of the
wires in each strand; and the way in which the wires and strands are wound,
or laid, about each other. The standard constructions of rope fall into four
general classifications: 6 × 7, 6 × 19, 6 × 37 and 8 × 19. In a numerical
classification of rope construction, the first number is the number of
strands; the second is the number of wires in a strand.
6×7 6 × 19
12.2 Designation of rope.
For example 6 × 19 refer Fig. 12.2 mean that wire rope is made of 6
strands and each strand is made of 19 wires.
Table 12.1 Most common type of steel wire ropes used in the industry
Wire type Nominal diameter (mm)
6×7 8, 9, 10.11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29,
31, 35
6 × 19 8, 9, 1013, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 35,
36, 38
6 × 17 8, 9, 1013, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 35,
36, 38
6 × 37 8, 9, 1013, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 35,
36, 38, 40, 44, 48, 52, 58
8 × 19 8, 9, 1013, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29
12.4 Classification of steel wire ropes

The classification of ropes depends on the direction of twist of individual
wires in the strand and that of the strands relative to each other.
In regular lay ropes the direction of twist of the wires in the strand is
opposite to the direction of the twist of strand. Ropes with regular lay are
easy to handle and have greater resistance to crushing than those with
lang lay.
In lang lay rope the direction of twist of the wire in the strand is same
as that the direction of the twist of the strand. In composite-type of rope
the wires in two adjacent strands are twisted in opposite direction. It results
in more resistance to same direction; more resistance to abrasive wear and
bending fatigue; easier abrasive wear and bending fatigue; easier to kink
and untwist, more difficult to kink and untwist, more difficult to handle.
Right Regular lay
Left Regular lay
Right lang lay
Left lang lay
12.3 Design of wires.
12.5 Measuring wire rope

Normally, manufacturers of wire keep the diameter of wire slightly more
than nominal diameter. The maximum tolerance is up to 4% as when ropes
are put in to the service, wire diameter slightly reduces due to load. Rope
diameter are always measured across the larger dimension from the outer
limit of the strand never across the flat.
Right Wrong
12.4 Measurement of rope.
12.6 Wire pulley or sheave

Wire rope can be damaged due to the sharp bend so the diameter of sheave
plays an important role in determining the life of wire. The thumb rule is
that the diameter of sheave should not be less than 20 times the diameter
of wire. On new equipment too small groove of the sheave pinch and bind
the rope causing excessive abrasion and fatigue. Too large pulley will not
fully support and guide the rope.
Sheave Groove Sheave Groove Sheave Groove

Matches Rope too Small too Large
12.5 Adjustment of sheave groove.
12.7 Lubrication
The role of the wire rope lubricant is to reduce scuffing wear on the outer
strands and sheaves, lubricate the rubbing between strands and importantly
to protect against corrosion. Lubrication plays a very important part in the
life of wire. Most of the ropes are lubricated during manufacture but after
putting into the service they loose their lubrication with time. While wire
ropes passes around sheaves and drums rubbing take place between wire
and pulley. The smaller the sheave diameter and multiple sheaves mean
the greater the wire adjusting movement and the more rapid that rubbing
and fatigue wear may occur. Fatigue life of ropes can also be greatly
extended by proper lubrication, when the wires can move freely to equalize
stress distribution caused by sheaves or drums. Finally, lubricant must

reach fibre cores or they will absorb moisture and encourage corrosion
from the centre. It is better to use NLGI 00 semi-fluid grease is a tacky,
water resistant, semi-fluid lubricant that penetrates all wire rope strands
ensuring smooth operation and extended cable life.
12.8 Reason for failure of wire

Wire fails due to the following reasons
1. Fatigue
A wire rope subjected to repetitive bending over a sheave will develop
cracks in individual wires with time. Broken wires develop primarily in
sections that move over sheaves. Once breaks are developed one must
replace the wire.
12.6 Valley break.
2. Abrasion
Abrasion is one of the most common destructive conditions affecting wire
rope. It usually occurs on drums and sheaves or whenever rope rubs against
itself or other material. Abrasion also occurs internally in the wire whenever
wire rope is loaded or bent and it weakens the rope simply by wearing
away metal from inside and outside wires. When excessive wear is
encountered in an operation, the problem frequently stems from faulty
sheave alignment, incorrect groove diameters, inappropriate fleet angles
or improper drum winding.
12.7 Worn out sheave due to abrasion.

3. Corrosion
It usually occurs in the wire due to the lack of lubrication. Corrosion cause
discoloration on the wire; it means wire need lubrication. If the wire is
running without lubrication for long time, it promotes premature failure
of the wire.
4. Diameter reduction
Diameter reduction of the wire is caused due to the following reasons:
1. Excessive abrasion of the outside wires
2. Loss of core diameter/support
3. Internal or external corrosion damage
4. Inner wire failure
5. A lengthening of rope lay
12.9 Chains
Chains give a positive drive like gears. A chain can be used both for short
as well as long distances up to 8 m approximately. A chain drive consists
of endless chain links running over two sprockets.
Advantages of chain drive are as follows:
1. Less load on the shaft as compared to the belt drive,
2. Transmit high efficiency as high as 97–98% when operate under good
ideal condition.
3. It is possible to transmit power to more than one shaft with one chain
and having a small compact size as compared to flat belt drive.
Disadvantages are as follows:
1. Due to wear of chain link joints, the chain gets stretched, and results
in a faulty drive.
2. It needs more maintenance than belts.
3. More complicated design, hence high production cost.
12.8 Roller chain.

12.10 Construction of chain

A chain consists of two rows of inner and outer plates. The outer row of
plates is known as pin link or coupling-link whereas the inner row of plates
is called roller link. Pins are fitted in the pin link and pass through a bush
which is press-fitted into the rollers thus joining them. The chain rollers
are mounted on the bushings and then roll over the sprocket during motion.
The pins are free inside the bush. The load transmitting capacity of chain
wheel depends on the larger pitch and larger sprocket. To avoid longer
sprocket chains, sprockets are made in double and triple -strand of width.
Connecting
Pin Link Roller Link
Link
Single Cranked Link Double Cranked Link
12.9 T ypes of chain link.
12.11 Designation of chain

Three dimensions are required to designate a chain: pitch, width and
diameter. Pitch is the distance from centre to centre of adjacent pin. Width
is the nominal width of the link or length of pin measured within the side
plates. Diameter refers to the actual diameter of pin.
Pitch
Roller Diameter
Width
12.10 Designation of chain.

12.12 Chain lubrication

Unlike the belts and ropes, chains need regular lubrication. The chain drive
consists of a series of pins connecting travelling metallic bearings which
need proper lubrication. If proper lubrication is not done, the chain gets
elongated due to wear. This lengthening of a chain during service results
from the wear on pins and the bushing surfaces. Chain also needs
lubrication for the following reasons.
1. To cushion impact load,
2. To dissipate heat that gets generated,
3. To flush away any foreign material,
4. To lubricate chain-spocket contact surface, and
5. To retard formation of rust, or corrosion.
12.12.1 Tips for lubricating chain

The main objectives of lubrication are to reduce wear between pin and
bushes, dissipate heat and prevent corrosion between the mating parts and
reduce chain impact with spocket, so care must be taken while selecting
the lubricant for chains.
1. If a lubricant has to be effective, it should be applied to the moving
parts, pins, bushing rollers, etc. This will help to avoid stretch due to
wear occurring between pins and side bars.
2. It is better to lubricate the chain on slack side so that the oil can
penetrate ore easily.
3. Too little lubricant applied to the chain cannot adequately provide
protection to moving parts while too much is wasteful and causes
abrasive material to collect. One must use right quantity of lubricant.
4. The lubricant should be applied at the right time to avoid wear.
5. Immersing of chain in oil bath:
Keep one set of chain extra for lubrication. After the period of operation
of one year, immerse the chain in oil bath for one day in an oil of viscosity
of 150. Clean the spocket chain before immersing it in oil bath. Move the
chain for sometime so that oil can spread fully in all the parts.
Chain
Oil
12.11 Immersing of chain in lubricant.

12.12.2 Qualities desired in lubricant

The lubricant should penetrate into the pin and bush area and form a
separating wedge film between the pin and bushing in the chain joint. The
viscosity of lubricant greatly affects its film strength and its ability to protect
the moving parts. The high viscosity of the oil which flows between the
chain link plates and fill the pin bushing area, provide the best wear life. Oil
should be such that it will minimize the metal to metal contact and also act
as cooling medium and minimize impact dampening at higher speeds.
12.13 Chain installation

Chain drive installation is relatively simple and good results may be
obtained when the following conditions are met:
1. The roller chain, sprockets and other components are in good
condition.
2. The sprockets are properly aligned as misalignment results in
uneven loading across the width of the chain and may cause
roller link plate and sprocket tooth wear.
12.12 Aligning spocket.
3. Roller chain should be free of grit and dirt. Wash chain in

kerosene before mounting.
4. Provision is made for adequate lubrication.
5. Fit chain around both sprockets and bring the free ends together
on one sprocket for connection, the sprocket teeth will locate
the chain end links. Install the connecting link cover plate and
the spring clip or coffer pins. On larger pitch chains or heavy
multiple strand, it may be necessary to lock the sprockets for
this operation. When press fit cover plates are used, be careful
not to drive the plate on so far as to grip the roller links. Stiff
joints can result if this is done.
6. The chain is correctly tensioned.
12.14 Maintenance of chains

All chain drives should receive regular maintenance. Each drive should
be inspected after the initial 100 hours of operation. Thereafter, most drives
may be inspected at 500 hour intervals.
1. Check lubrication
On slow speed drives, where manual lubrication is used, be sure the
lubrication schedule is being followed. If the chain is covered with dirt
and debris, clean the chain with kerosene and re-lubricate it.
2. Check chain tension

Check chain tension and adjust as needed to maintain the proper sag in
the slack span. If elongation exceeds the available adjustment, remove
two pitches and reconnect the chain.
3. Check chain wear

Measure the chain wear elongation; and if elongation exceeds functional
limits or is greater than 3%, replace the entire chain; or chain length
increases to such an extent that the chain can be raised to half the height
of the sprocket teeth. Do not connect a new section of chain to a worn
chain because it may run rough and damage the drive. Do not continue to
run a chain worn beyond 3% elongation because the chain will not engage
the sprockets properly and it may damage the sprockets.
4. Check for sprocket wear

Inspect the sprocket teeth for reduced tooth section and hooked tooth tips.
If these conditions are present, the sprocket teeth are excessively worn
and the sprocket should be replaced.
12.14.1 When to replace the chain

The effect of wear on a roller chain is to increase the spacing of the links,
causing the chain to grow longer. Note that this is not from any actual
stretching of any metal, as too many engineers and mechanics intuitively
believe but is due to the effect of wear at the pivoting parts. It could be
said that the roller chain loosens with wear. After a long period of running
time the pitch of the chain increases uniformly which results in an increase
in the length of the chain. It is advisable either to monitor the exact length
of a drive chain (the generally accepted rule of thumb is to replace a roller
chain which has elongated 3% on an adjustable drive or 1.5% on a fixed-

centre drive). The chain then runs over a greater reference cycle. When
the chain length increases to such an extent than the chain can be raised
to half the height of the sprocket teeth, i.e. when the meshing is reduced
to half then the chain needs to be replaced by a new one.
Time to change the Chain

New Chain
12.13 Worn out chain.
12.15 British standard roller chain

Simple chain
B A1
D2 D1
G
h h
12.14 Dimension of simple chain.
Table 12.2 Dimension of simple chain
Chain no. Pitch Inside Roller Pin Plate Conn. Average Approx
in mm width diameter diameter depth pin breaking mass
(h) in mm in mm in mm gauge length load (Kg/m)
(B) (D1) (D2) in mm in mm
(G) (A1)
04B-1 06.00 2.8 4.0 1.85 5.0 8.4 3000 0.123

05B-1 08.00 3.0 5.0 2.31 7.1 8.4 4520 0.18
06B-1 9.53 5.8 6.35 3.28 8.2 13.4 9025 0.37
08B-1 12.7 7.75 8.51 4.45 11.8 16.6 18150 0.7
10B-1 15.88 9.65 10.16 5.08 13.7 19 22560 0.95
12B-1 19.05 11.7 12.07 5.72 16.1 22.3 29.43 1.30
16B-1 25.40 17.02 15.88 8.28 21.0 35.1 64146 2.9
20B-1 31.75 19.6 19.05 10.19 25.4 40.5 113400 3.7
24B-1 38.1 25.4 25.40 14.63 32.3 53.1 193550 7.1
28B-1 44.46 27.94 27.94 15.90 37 65.1 226900 8.6
32B-1 50.80 29.21 29.21 17.81 42.2 63.6 295860 9.6
40B-1 63.50 39.37 39.37 22.89 52.9 79 400000 15.80
Duplex chain
D2
D1
B
A1 E
12.15 Dimension of double chain.
Table 12.3 Dimension of double chain
Chain Pitch in Inside Roller Pin dia- Plate Conn Avera- Approx. Tra-
no. mm width B diameter depth pin ge mass verse
mm meter in mm gauge length break- Kg/m pitch in
in mm (D2) mm (G) mm ing load mm (E)
(D1) (A1)
05B-2 8 3 5 2.31 7.1 17.4 8000 0.36 5.64

06B-2 9.53 5.8 6.35 3.28 8.2 23.1 17660 0.78 10.24
08B-2 12.7 7.75 8.51 4.45 11.8 30.6 36300 1.4 13.92
10B-2 15.88 9.65 10.16 5.08 13.7 35.75 45125 1.8 16.59
12B-2 19.05 11.7 12.07 5.72 16.1 41.8 58860 2.3 19.46
16B-2 25.40 17.02 15.88 8.28 21.0 68 129500 5.3 31.88
20B-2 31.75 19.6 19.05 10.19 25.4 79.7 226900 7.25 36.45
24B-2 38.1 25.4 25.40 14.63 32.3 101.8 387300 13.75 48.36
28B-2 44.46 27.94 27.94 15.90 37 124.7 453800 17.3 59.56
32B-2 50.80 29.21 29.21 17.81 42.2 126 590850 18.8 58.55
40B-2 63.50 39.37 39.37 22.89 52.9 154 805300 29.9 72.29
Triplex chain
D2
D1
B
E
A1
E
12.16 Dimension of triplex chain.

Table 12.4 Dimension of triplex chain
Chain Pitch in Inside Roller Pin Plate Conn Average Approx Traverse
no. mm width dia- dia- depth pin breaking mass pitch
in mm meter meter gauge length load kg/m in mm
(B) in mm in mm mm (G) mm
(D1) (D2) (A1)
06B-3 9.53 5.8 6.35 3.28 8.2 33 26500 1.18 10.24

08B-3 12.7 7.75 8.51 4.45 11.8 44.6 54450 2.10 13.92
10B-3 15.88 9.65 10.16 5.08 13.7 52.3 67700 2.60 16.59
12B-3 19.05 11.7 12.07 5.72 16.1 61.4 88300 3.40 19.46
16B-3 25.40 17.02 15.88 8.28 21.0 99.9 194250 7.8 31.88
20B-3 31.75 19.6 19.05 10.19 25.4 116.1 340300 10.85 36.45
24B-3 38.1 25.4 25.40 14.63 32.3 150.2 580500 20.50 48.36
28B-3 44.46 27.94 27.94 15.90 37 184.6 680700 25.75 59.56
32B-3 50.80 29.21 29.21 17.81 42.2 184.6 887600 27.95 58.55
40B-3 63.50 39.37 39.37 22.89 52.9 227.2 1208000 44.80 72.29
12.16 American standard roller chain

Single chain
B A1
D2 D1
h h
12.17 Dimension of single chain.
Table 12.5 Dimension of single chain
Chain Pitch Width Roller Pin Plate Conn. Average Approx.

no. in in diameter diameter depth pin breaking mass
mm mm in in gauge length load Kg/m
(B) mm mm mm in
(D1) (D2) (G) mm
(A1)
35 9.53 4.8 5.08 3.59 8.3 12.8 9300 0.3

40 12.7 7.9 7.92 3.96 11.5 16.3 16400 .60
41 12.7 6.4 7.77 5.08 13.7 15 8900 .41
50 15.88 9.65 10.16 5.94 16.2 20.45 27200 1.01
60 19.05 12.7 11.91 7.92 24 25.4 37800 1.40
80 25.40 16 15.87 9.53 29.6 33.05 64500 2.50
100 31.75 19.05 19.05 11.10 34.6 39.9 106500 3.90
120 38.1 25.4 22.22 12.70 42 49.9 151000 5.50
140 44.46 25.4 25.4 14.30 48.26 53.9 205000 7.4
160 50.80 31.8 28.58 17.46 53 63.9 258000 9.80
180 57.15 35.8 35.71 19.84 58 79.3 357000 13.50
200 63.50 38.1 39.68 22.89 79 78.1 422800 15.80
Duplex chain
D1 D2
B
A1 E
12.18 Dimension of duplex chain.
Table 12.6 Dimension of duplex chain
Chain Inside Roller Pin Plate Conn Average Approx. Traverse Traverse
no. width diameter diameter depth pin breaking mass pitch in pitch in
Pitch in in mm in mm gauge length load Kg/m mm (E) mm (E)
in mm (D1) (D2) in in
mm (B) mm mm
(G) (A1)
35-2 9.53 4.8 5.08 3.59 8.3 22.9 18600 0.74 10.13
40-2 12.7 7.9 7.92 3.96 11.5 30.8 33000 1.22 14.38
50-2 15.88 9.65 10.16 5.08 13.7 38.9 54300 13.92 18.11
60-2 19.05 12.7 11.91 5.94 16.2 48.3 75700 16.59 22.78
80-2 25.40 16 15.87 7.92 24 62.35 12900 19.46 29.29
100-2 31.75 19.05 19.05 9.53 29.6 75.7 213600 31.88 35.76
120-2 38.1 25.4 22.22 11.10 34.6 95.3 303000 36.45 45.44
140-2 44.46 25.4 25.4 12.70 42 102.8 410000 48.36 48.87
160-2 50.80 31.8 28.58 14.30 48.26 122.3 517000 59.56 58.55
180-2 57.15 35.8 35.71 17.46 53 145 714000 58.55 65.80
200-2 63.50 38.1 39.68 19.84 58 149.5 846000 72.29 71.55
Triplex chain
D2
D1
B
E
A1
E
12.19 Dimension of triple chain.

Table 12.7 Dimension of triplex chain
Chain Pitch Inside Roller Pin Plate Conn Average Approx Traverse
no. in Width diameter diameter depth pin breaking mass pitch in
mm in in mm in mm gauge length load Kg/m mm
mm (D1) (D2) in in
(B) mm mm
(G) (A1)
35-3 9.53 4.8 5.08 3.59 8.3 33 28000 0.80 10.13

40-3 12.7 7.9 7.92 3.96 11.5 45.3 49400 1.32 14.38
50-3 15.88 9.65 10.16 5.08 13.7 57 81500 2.10 18.11
60-3 19.05 12.7 11.91 5.94 16.2 71 113500 3.18 22.78
80-3 25.40 16 15.87 7.92 24 91.8 193600 5.73 29.29
100-3 31.75 19.05 19.05 9.53 29.6 111.5 320400 7.86 35.76
120-3 38.1 25.4 22.22 11.10 34.6 140.7 454000 11.82 45.44
140-3 44.46 25.4 25.4 12.70 42 151.6 614000 14.16 48.87
160-3 50.80 31.8 28.58 14.30 48.26 180.8 774990 19.50 58.55
180-3 63.50 35.8 39.68 17.46 53 210.8 1071252 26.16 65.80
200-2 – 38.1 – 19.84 58 221 1269400 32.70 71.55
12.17 Leaf chain

Leaf chains act as balancers between moveable part and counterweight
(i.e. to balance the movement of part), or low-speed pulling is required
(tension linkage), for example, for balancing the rail movement in
speedframe or ring rail. This type of chain is also called balance chain.
Normally, two type of chains are provided: AL type and BL type. It is
designated by number of plates used in the chain and thickness of plates
and pitch of chain.
Link Plates
Bearing Pins
Inner Link Plates
Chain Pitch
12.20 Leaf chain.
Table 12.8 Designation of chain by number of plates
Lacing 2×2 4×4 6×6 6×3 3×4 4×6
1. In roller chains, all the link plates have higher fatigue resistance due
to the compressive stress of press fits. In leaf chains, only two outer
plates are press fit. Therefore, the tensile strength of leaf chains is
high, but the maximum allowable tension is low.
2. The more plates used in the lacing, the higher the tensile strength.
3. The pins articulate directly on the plates, and the bearing pressure is
very high. The chains need regular lubrication. The use of SAE 30
or 40 machine oil is suggested for most applications.
4. When the chain speed is greater than 30 m/min., or if the chain is
cycled more than 1000 times in a day, it will wear very quickly, even
with lubrication. In either of these cases, use RS roller chains.
5. AL-type should be used only under the following conditions:
I. There are no shock loads.
II. Wear is not a big problem.
III. Number of cycles is less than 100 a day.
Under other conditions, BL-type should be considered.
12.18 Silent chain

Silent chains are used in high speed transmission. Silent chains have a
very simple construction: only plates and pins. Today’s silent chains are
designated by the standard pitch, width, and kilowatt ratings of the chains
and sprockets. There are eight different pitches from 9.52 to 50.8 mm.
12.21 Silent chain.
It consists of notch plate, guide plate and pin. The link plate receives tension
and has a notch for engaging the sprockets. There is no notch on the guide
plate. These plates act as guides for the sprockets. Pins may be round or
have other shapes, such as D-shape.
LINK PLATE
GUIDE PLATE
PIN
12.22 Silent chain components.
All of the chain components share the tension. Silent chains have higher
capacity than roller chains of the same width. Because the link plates of
silent chain strike the sprocket at an angle, the impact and the noise are
reduced; this is why these chains are called “silent”. The higher the chain
speed, the greater is the difference from roller chains.
12.23 Silent chain strikes the sprocket at an angle, reducing noise.

Table 12.9 Causes and remedies of chains
Problem Cause Remedy
● Dirt or foreign material in ● Clean and re-lubricate the

chain joints chain
● Inadequate lubrication ● Replace the chain. Re-
Tight Joint establish proper lubrication.
● Misalignment ● Replace sprockets and chain
if needed. Realign
sprockets.
● Internal corrosion or rust ● Replace the chain. Eliminate
the cause of corrosion or
protect the chain.
● Overload bends pins or ● Replace the chain. Eliminate
spreads roller the cause of overload.
Inadequate lubrication Replace the chain. Re-establish

the proper lubrication.
Turned Pins
Overload Replace the chain. Eliminate the

cause of overload.
Enlarged Holes
Broken Pins Extreme overload Replace the chain. Replace the

sprockets if indicated.
Eliminate the cause of
overload or redesign drive
for larger pitch chain.
Broken Link Plates
● Speed too high ● Replace the chain. Reduce

the speed.
● Sprockets too small ● Replace the chain. Use
larger sprockets, or possibly
redesign drive for smaller
Broken, Cracked or pitch chain.
Deformed Rollers
● Chain riding too high on ● Replace the chain. Re-
sprocket teeth tension the chain more
often.
References
1. Mechanical Engineering Design (1989) by JOSEPH EDWARD SHIGLEY.
2. Mechanical Machine Design (1996) by DR . R. C . BEHL and V. K. GOEL.
4. A Text Book of Machine Design by DR. P . C . SHARMA and DR . D. K. AGARWAL.
5. The Complete Guide to Chain, the Tsubakimoto Chain Co.
6. Instruction Manual Connect/Disconnect Instructions for Silent Chain, published

by the member companies of the American Chain Association.
7. Renold Leaf Chain catalogue.
8. Connect & Disconnect Instructions for Ansi B29.1 Roller, published by the
member companies of the American Chain Association.
9. Roller Chain Drives installation by Maintenance Resources, Inc.
10. Chain Maintenance by Sheldon “Reformed Chain Smoker” Brown.
11. Chain care, wear and skipping, From: Jobst Brandt Date: January 10, 2002,
revised November 23, 2004.
12. Renold Chain Troubleshooter by RENOLD.
13. Wire rope catalogue by UNIROPE.
14. Crane Wire Rope Damage and Nondestructive Inspection Methods by HERBERT
R . WEISCHEDEL , NDT Technologies, Inc. P.O. Box 637, South Windsor, CT 06074.
15. Extend the wear life of roller chains. Reliable Plant Magazine, 2007.
16. Failure of Wire Rope on Crane by DR DAVID J GRIEVE.
17. Wire Rope information by Stren-Flex.com
13
Temporary fasteners
13.1 Introduction
Every machine is made up of thousands of parts. Parts are joined together
to form a fixed joint. Machine joints are classified as permanent joints
and temporary joints or fastening elements.
The permanent joint can not be disassembled without destroying the
connecting components. Such joints are made at the manufacturing
locations. These joints are made by welding, brazing, soldering, riveting
and adhesive joints. Since these parts are not involved in the maintenance
of machinery, their detailed description is not needed in this book.
Temporary fastening allows separation of units without affecting the
fastened elements and the connecting components.
The different types of temporary fastenings are
1. Screwed joints
2. washers
3. Locking nuts
4. Keys
5. Tension elements
6. Pins
7. Retaining rings
8. Universal joints
9. Clamp
13.2 Screwed joint

Screw is a shaft with a helical groove or thread formed on its surface and
provision at one end to turn the screw. Its main use is a threaded fastener
used to hold objects together, and as a simple machine used to translate
torque into linear force. It can also be defined as an inclined plane wrapped
around a shaft. A screwed joint is used to connect two parts by using
threaded parts composed of one or two elements called the screw or the
bolt and the nut. Cutting a helical groove on a cylindrical bar forms a
screw thread.
242
Temporary fasteners 243
External thread Male
Internal thread Female
13.1 Screwed joint.
Screw may be right- and left-hand thread depending upon the direction
of the helix. A right-hand thread is that which gets tightened into the nut
when it rotates in the clockwise direction. A left-hand thread is that which
rotates in the anti-clockwise direction while tightening. When L.H. is not
written, it is understood that the thread is right handed. Left-handed threads
are used
● where the rotation of a shaft would cause a conventional right-handed
nut to loosen rather than to tighten, e.g. in a ringframe one side bottom
roll is provided with left hand and other side is provided with right
hand.
● in combination with right-handed threads in turnbuckles.
● in some applications of a lead screw, for example the cross slide of
a lathe, where it is desirable for the cross-slide to move away from
the operator when the lead screw is turned clockwise.
Screws and bolts are made with a wide range of materials, with steel
being perhaps the most common, in many varieties. Where great resistance
to weather or corrosion is required, stainless steel, titanium, brass, bronze,
monel or silicon bronze may be used, or a coating such as brass, zinc or
chromium is applied.
Screws with a single helical groove are most common and are called
single start screws. If two separate helical grooves are formed on a
cylindrical bar, the screw is known as double start screw. The number of
starts on most threads is one (single start). Multiple starts are used to
increase the lead (linear advancement per revolution). In most cases,
increasing the number of starts is preferable to increasing the pitch because
larger pitches reduce the minor diameter. A small minor diameter decreases
the screw stiffness and makes it more difficult to tap nuts because of the
likelihood of the tap breaking during tapping. Also, for the same lead,
increasing the number of starts actually increases the thread contact area
when compared to a thread with the same lead but using fewer starts and
a coarser pitch. Close examination of the thread will reveal the number of
starts. Simply place a pencil or marker pen in the thread groove and rotate
the thread one revolution. If the end of the pencil mark is in the adjacent
of thread groove, the screw has a single start. If there is one thread between
the beginning and the end of the mark, it is a two start thread, two grooves,
a three start thread and so on.
0 1
1 Start
0 1 2
2 Start
0 1 2 3
13.2 Different types of multiple threads.
The advantage of the screwed joints are that they are easily assemble/
disassemble, readily available and relatively cheap, since their types and
dimensions are standardised. Their major disadvantage is that depending
upon load conditions; they may fail due to stress concentration at the
threaded portion.
The screwed joints are to be used in places where they would be
subjected to tensile shear load. No bending of fasteners should be involved
or be expected to be minimum. Bending of a screw occurs only due to
improper tightening and/or due to misalignment of holes of mating
components.
13.2.1 Thread nomenclature

A screw or bolt is a specialized application of the inclined plane. The
inclined plane, called its thread, is helically disposed around a cylinder or
shaft. That thread usually either fits into a corresponding (negative or

female) helical thread in a nut, or forms a corresponding helical cut in
surrounding softer material as it is inserted.
Crest F
Root t
p Pitch
Minor dia Dc
Pitch dia Dp
Major dia D
Depth h
Thread Angle
13.3 Nomenclature of thread.
1. Crest
The top surface of the thread, denoted by F.
2. Root
The bottom surface between two adjacent threads, denoted by t.
3. Flank
It is the surface between the crest and the root of the thread.
4. Thread angle
It is the angle between the flanks measured in axial plane.
5. Depth of thread
It is the distance, measured perpendicular to the axis, between the crest
and the root. It is denoted by h.
6. Pitch
The distance measured axially between two corresponding points on the
consecutive threads form along the axial plane, and on the same side of
the axis, is known as pitch. P denotes it.
7. Lead
It is the axial distance by which the screw thread advances in one rotation.
On single start threads, the pitch and the lead are equal. On double start
thread, the lead is double the pitch.
8. Major diameter
It is the largest diameter of a screw thread. The screw is specified by this
diameter, D.
9. Minor diameter
It is the core or root diameter of screw. It is denoted by Dc.
10. Pitch diameter

This is the effective diameter at which the ridges on the bolt are in complete
mesh with the ridges of the corresponding nut. Dp denotes it.
13.2.2 Designation of Indian Standard thread

These threads are designated by the letter M, followed by major diameter
and pitch; and the latter two must be separated by the sign X. When there
is no mention of pitch, it shall mean that the coarse pitch corresponding to
the specified diameter will be used. Three major classes thread namely,
fine, medium and coarse, denoted by letter f, m, and c respectively.
Table 13.1.2 Series for fine and coarse thread
Designation Pitch (mm) Minor diameter
Bolt (mm) Nut (mm)
Coarse series
M1 0.25 0.693 0.729
M1.1 0.25 0.793 0.829
M1.2 0.25 0.893 0.929
M1.4 0.3 1.032 1.075
M1.6 0.35 1.171 1.221
M1.8 0.35 1.371 1.421
M2 0.4 1.509 1.567
M2.2 0.45 1.648 1.713
M2.5 0.45 1.948 2.013
M3 0.5 2.387 2.459
M3.5 0.6 2.764 2.850
M4 0.7 3.141 3.242
M4.5 0.75 3.580 3.688
M5 0.8 4.0-17 4.134
M6 1 4.773 4.918
M7 1 5.773 5.18
M8 1 6.466 6.647
M10 1 8.160 8.367
M12 1.25 9.853 10.106
M14 1.5 11.546 11.835
M16 1.75 13.546 13.835
M18 2 14.933 15.294
M20 2 16.933 17.294
Fine Series
M8x1 1 6.7733 6.917
M10 x 1.25 1.25 8.466 8.647
M12 x 1.25 1.25 10.466 10.647
M14 x 1.5 1.5 12.160 12.376
M16 x1.5 1.5 14.160 14.376
M18 x1.5 1.5 16.160 16.376
M20 x1.5 1.5 18.160 18.376
M 22 x1.5 1.5 20.160 20.376
M24 x 2 2 21.546 21.835
M 26 x 2 2 24.546 24.835
13.3 Different types of bolt/screw

I. Through bolt
It is made of cylindrical – round bar – with a threaded portion for nut at
one end and a head at the other. The components to be joined must have
a hole so that they can be clamped together by fastening the nut at the
threaded end. The ideal length of the bolt is that in which one or two
threads are left after tightening of the nut.
Head of bolt
Component 1 and 2
Nut Thread
13.4 Through bolt.
II. Stud
It is a round bar with threaded portion at both ends. Out of the two
components to be joined, one must have a threaded portion tapped to the
size of the stud so that one end of the stud is screwed into the part to be
fastened while the other receives a nut. These studs are mainly used for
screwing cover.
Thread
Nut
Component with
through hole
Component
with threading
13.5 Stud.
III. Set screw

This is a round bar with a threaded portion throughout the length, with
head or without head. A set screw is used to prevent relative motion between
two parts by means of pressure on the points exerted by one end of the set
screw on a specific point on another surface. This resists any relative motion
between the two parts by means of friction between the point of screw,
and the point on other parts. Out of the two parts, one part has a threaded
portion equal to the size of the hole through which the set screw is threaded.
Set screws may be used instead of key or in connection with a key to
prevent the axial motion between an assembly and a shaft, or a gear and
a shaft.
13.6 Use of set screw.

Slotted Hexagonal Fluted Socket

Socket
Cone point Flat point Oval point Cup point Full Dog point Half Dog point
13.7 Different types of set screws.
IV. Carriage bolt

It is used when it is difficult to fit a tool on the head of the bolt for
tightening the nut. This bolt is of cylindrical shape with a threaded
portion at one end for taking a nut and a round head which rests on the
component to assemble. This part of round bar near the head has a
square cross-section to prevent the bolt from turning when the nut is
tightened.
Round Head
Square Portion
A nut come on
this threaded
portion
13.8 Carriage bolt.
V. Tap bolt
This kind of bolt passes through a hole at one part and is screwed into a
tapped hole at the second part (thus holding the two parts together, it is
called a tap bolt).
Head
Component
with through
hole
Component
with thread
13.9 Tap bolt.
Hexagonal Round Head Flat Head Socket Head Socket Head Fillister Head
Head Slotted Slotted Hexagonal Fluted Slotted
13.10 Different types of tap bolt.
13.3.1 How to indent various types of bolts and screws

The type of bolt and screw, length of the threaded portion, thread size,
type of head and point in case of bolt type of unthreaded length should
also be given in the indent.
Thread Size
Type of Head
Type of
point
13.11 Nomenclature of bolt.
13.4 Washer
Washer is a cylindrical piece of metal like a coin with a hole. It is
placed between the nut and the head of a screw and the joining part so
that tightening force is uniformly distributed on to the part to be joined
and prevent the screw head from digging into the joint material. A
washer also prevents loosening of bolt and nut because the compressed
metal of washer exerts pressure to regain its original shape owing to
its strong elasticity. Thus, it acts like a spring and maintains a high
friction resistance. Therefore, it is also called spring lock washer. Most
commonly used washers as locking device are spring washer and tooth
washer.
The washer is placed under the nut to be tightened. One edge of the
washer is caused to dig itself into the component when the nut is fully
tightened. This results in increasing the resistance, and so prevents
loosening of the nut.
Screw Cup Wave Washer

Flat Type
Different Type of Spring Washer
Different Type of Tooth Washer
13.12 Different types of washers.
13.4.1 How to indent various types of washer?

We can order the washer by giving the type of washer, its inner and outer
diameter and thickness.
ID OD
Th
13.13 Nomenclature of washer.
13.5 Nut
The primary function of the nut in any threaded assembly is to act as the
instrument through which the tension is induced into the bolt or screw and
to continue to retain that tension and thus, the clamp load in the assembly.
The vast majority of nuts have hexagon drive faces. Correct strength
combinations of nuts and bolts will ensure that the nut is capable of
tensioning the mating bolt to breaking point rather than the nut stripping.
Hexagonal Nut Hexagonal Cap Nut Hexagonal wheel Nut

13.14 Different types of nut.
13.6 Locking device

An adequately tightened nut remains under constant load. But it loosens
when subjected to the variable load on machine which results due to
machine vibrations. To avoid such loosening, the position of the nut must
be secured by using some locking device. The commonly used locking
devices are described below:
13.6.1 Chuck nut

It is also known as a lock-nut. In this system two nuts are used instead of
one. The first one is tightened down by normal force and the second nut
is tightened down upon it. Then the upper nut is then tightly held by a
spanner and while the lower nut is slightly loosened back against the upper
one. Due to this action, the threads in the nuts get wedged tightly against
those of bolts.
Bolt
Upper Nut
Lower Nut
13.15 Chuck nut.
13.6.2 Castle nut

This is hexagonal nut with upper end as cylindrical portion. This cylindrical
portion has a through hole at its centre. When the nut is tightened, its hole
matches with the hole provided in the bolt so that a split pin can be inserted
in the bolt and nut.
Split Pin
Cylindrical Body
13.16 Castle nuts.
13.6.3 Sawn nut

It is also called a slotted nut. This nut has a cut on one side and has a small
screw on that side.
Small Screw
Slot
13.17 Sawn nut.

After tightening the nut on the component, the small screw provided on
the cut side of the nut is tightened which pulls the slot together and results
in pinching the threads thereby generating greater friction between the
bolt and the nut.
13.6.4 How to order various type of locking nut?

Nut can be ordered by giving the type of nut, height, thread size and head
size.
Thread size
13.18 Nomenclature of locking nut.
13.7 Key
A key is a machine element made of mild steel and is used for preventing
relative motion between a shaft and a gear or hub of a pulley mounted on
it. The key is inserted between the shaft and hub making a joint between
the shaft and pulley or gear. A key way is cut on the surface of the shaft
equal to half the size of the key, parallel to the axis of shaft, and also in the
hub or gear to be mounted. For mounting a hub or a gear, a key is firmly
placed in the key-way of the shaft. Then match the key-way of the part to
be mounted is matched and the part is slide from one end of the shaft till
it is fully engaged with the key-way. After assembly, the key is partly in
the shaft and partly in the hub of mating part.
Square or Driving Key

Wood Ruff Key
Sink Key
13.19 Types of keys.
13.7.1 How to order various types of keys?

The order of the key is done by giving height, length and width.
h Driving Key
w
L
h
w Sunk Key
L
w Wood Ruff key
13.20 Nomenclature of different types of keys.
13.8 Tension element

When a key is used for making a joint, the entire load is carried by the key
and the key-way cut into the shaft thereby reducing the load carrying
capacity of the shaft. The stress concentration near the shaft and reduction
in the cross-section of the shaft, (or in other words the reduction in the
torsional strength of the shaft) leads to the failure of shaft from key-way.
Therefore in case where jerky motions are in use, keys are not to be used.
The use of tension element is recommended. With the tension element the
whole load is distributed over the shaft. A tension element consists of two
parts: male and female.
d
Female
Male
D
13.21 Tension element.

Precautions to be taken while mounting are as follows:

(1) Both the male and female elements should be cleaned, and coating
of mosil should be applied.
(2) The direction of placing of each element of each pair must be correct.
(3) Only required tightening should be done.
(4) The tightening should be checked after three months.
13.9 Pins
They are used in the shaft to secure a rotating element such as a gear and a
pulley. Pins are used for axial positioning and for transfer of torque and thrust.
O’
L
l
P
l
l
Split Pin Taper with Notches Dowel Pin Taper Pin

13.22 Pins.
13.10 Retaining rings

It is also called a circlip. A circlip is used where it is difficult to make a
shoulder or sleeve on a shaft or a bearing housing to axially position a
component on a shaft or in ahousing. A groove is cut in the shaft or in the
bore of housing to accommodate a circlip, which is called external and
internal circlip, respectively. The taper design of both the internal and the
external circlip, or E-ring ensures that a uniform pressure is exerted against
the bottom of the groove.
F
F F
Inner Circlip Outer Circlip E - ring

13.23 Types of retaining rings.
13.11 Taper lock

Taper lock is a convenient way to mount the pulleys/impeller on motor or
machine shaft. When taper cut lock is used, the load gets uniformly
distributed on the shaft. Taper lock has a round tapered body with a hole
at its centre that matches with the shaft diameter on which it is to be
mounted. It consists of four to five holes depending up to the size of pulley/
impeller. Out of these four/five holes, one/two is used for dismounting
and three are used for mounting.
13.24 Taper lock.
13.11.1 Mounting procedure

1. Clean the tapered lock bore of oil and dirt, insert the lock in the hub
of the pulley and check that the hole of the hub and outer diameter
of the lock are matching.
2. Place screws loosely in the 3 holes threaded in the hub.
3. Clean the shaft and fit the hub of the pulley to the shaft and position
it at the proper place.
First step Third Step
Insert the lock in the hub of

pulley Place the pulley on the shaft
Second Step Fourth Step
Tighten the pulley on the shaft

Tight the screw with finger
13.25 Mounting procedure.
4. Use an Allen key to tighten the screws gradually and alternately.

5. Fill the empty potion of holes with the grease to prevent entry of dirt
and rusting dirt.
13.11.2 Dismounting procedure

1. Slacken all the screws and remove screws depending upon the number
of removal hole.
2. Insert the screws in the holes and tighten the screws alternately until
the bush is loosened in the hub and the assembly is free on the shaft.
3. Remove the assembly from the shaft.
Removal Holes
Removing a taper lock
13.26 Dismounting procedure.
13.12 Universal joint

These joints are used to connect two shafts which have the same angular
velocity, and when the two shafts are not on same central lines. The two
shafts are misaligned but working angle is up to a maximum of 45°.
Universal joint is of two types: single and double.
E E B S H
L
13.27 Single universal joint.

D B
E E
R C R
13.28 Double universal joint.
13.13 Screw hose clamps

Screw clamps consist of a band into which a screw thread pattern has
been cut or pressed. One end of the band contains a captive screw. The
clamp is put around the hose or tube to be connected, with the loose end
being fed into a narrow space between the band and the captive screw.
When the screw is turned, it acts as a worm drive pulling the threads of
the band, causing the band to tighten around the hose (or when screwed
the opposite direction, to loosen). Screw clamps are normally used for
hoses 1/2 in diameter and up, with other clamps used for smaller hoses.
13.29 Screw hose clamp.
References
2. Mechanical Machine Design (1996) by DR. R . C. BEHL and V. K.GOEL.
3. A Text Book of Machine Design by DR. P. C . SHARMA and DR. D. K. AGARWAL.
4. ANSI screw and Nut Thread size Chart by Engineers Edge.
5. Screw by Wikipedia Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.
6. Screw Thread by Wikipedia Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.
7. National Bureau of Standards Handbook H28 (1957). See Appendix A. ASA

B1.7 Standard on Nomenclature, Definitions and Letter Symbols for Screw
Threads. ANSI B1.1 Unified and American Screw Thread Standards. Industrial
Fasteners Institute Metric Fasteners Standards, 1976.
8. Screw Thread Specification by OSG Corporation.
9. Catalogue on Screw by Asiahan Industrial Ltd (China/Turkey).
10. Training Manual on Screw by James Glen Pty Ltd.
11. A comprehensive catalogue on socket screw by Unbrako.
14
Oil seal and gasket
14.1 Introduction
Oil seal is used for sealing applications in gear boxes and housings to
prevent the leakage of non-pressure fluids and grease. Normally, there is
a shaft that is rotating inside a housing or bore. Because of friction, there
must be some clearance between the shaft and the bore. The function of
the oil seal is to stop whatever fluid is inside from leaking out the clearance
between the shaft and housing. The seal may also be used to prevent outside
materials, such as dirt, from moving in through the clearance.
“Dynamic sealing” is the relationship between the rotating shaft and
the seal and is handled by the sealing element. A garter spring may be
used in the oil seal to increase the radial interference between the seal lip
and contact point on the shaft. In order to achieve this interference, the oil
seal’s ID must be slightly smaller than the diameter of the shaft.
“Static sealing” is the relationship between the housing and the seal. In
order to achieve this interference, the oil seal’s OD must be slightly larger
than the diameter of the housing or bore.
14.1 Oil seal.
An oil seal normally consists of three basic components: the sealing

element, the metal case and the spring. The purpose of the sealing element
261
is to stop the fluid from leaking between the shaft and housing. The metal
case will give rigidity and strength to the seal while it is being held in the
bore or recessed groove. The spring will help make the sealing element
more effective. All materials must be selected depending on the
environment in which the oil seal will function.
14.2 Material selection

Seal materials can be fully evaluated only in terms of specific operating
conditions and performance requirements. The demands made on the
material must take into account the environmental conditions and the
function of the seal. Some of the requirements associated with
environmental considerations are as follows:
1. Good chemical resistance
2. Good resistance to heat and low temperature
3. Good resistance to ozone and weathering
The performance demands include:
1. High resistance to wear

2. Low friction
3. Low compression set
4. Good elasticity
These effects are studied on newly installed seals as well as the seals
aged with prolonged use with specific material. The following materials are
used in the manufacture of seals to impart the properties described above.
14.2.1 Nitrile compounds (NBR)

Their operating range is from –45C to +120°C. When compounding seal
material for the lower temperature limit of –45°C, the upper temperature
limit 120°C must be lowered. When compounding for high temperature
limit, the extreme low temperature has to be sacrificed. Nitrile compounds
are recommended for general use in ‘retaining lubricants’ which are
designed for excluding mud, dirt and water etc. These compounds results
in low volume swell when used with low aniline contents. Nitriles are the
low cost range of oil seal compounds
Advantages
(a) Fair dry running characteristics
(b) Good processing
(c) Good–low temperature characteristics
Oil seal and gasket 263
(d) Good oil resistance

(e) Good abrasion resistance
Disadvantages
(a) Lack of high heat resistance
(b) Tendency to harden when used under continuous high temperature.
14.2.2 Polyacrylic compounds (ACM)

These are recommended for application where the temperatures are between
–18°C and +150°C. If the shaft run out is low, some compounds can be
used at a temperature as low as –40°C. These are in the medium cost range
of seal compounds.
Advantages
1. Resistant to extreme pressure additives like phosphorous, etc.
2. Good performance at moderate temperature.
3. Good oil resistance.
14.2.3 Silicone compounds

Silicones are recommended for application where the temperature is within
the range –55°C to +200°C. The maximum usable temperature is limited
by the decomposition temperature of the lubricant. Silicone rubbers are in
the high cost range of seal compounds.
Advantages
1. Good heat resistance.
2. Excellent low temperature properties.
Disadvantage
1. High swell characteristics when used with some oils.
2. Poor chemical resistance to oxidized oil and to some EP additives.
3. Poor dry running characteristics.
4. Get easily damaged during assembly.
14.2.4 Fluoroelastomer compounds (FPM)

Fluoroelastomer are recommended for applications where temperature is
within the range –40°C to 200°C. They have high cost.
Advantages
1. Excellent fluid resistance.
2. Fair dry running characteristics.
3. Excellent retention of original modulus and hardness in both dry heat
and fluid service.
Disadvantages
1. Used with caution in low temperature service. When subjected to
temperatures low enough to cause compound stiffing, these may leak
in high shaft run out conditions.
14.2.5 Metal case seal

The principal function of metal case is to impart rigidity and strength to
the seal. The case may comprise of two parts: the outer case and inner
case or a single component – the bonded case. A rubber-covered case is
known as a reinforcing metal insert. Seals comprising an outer and inner
case are known as fully enclosed whereas the design in which case is a
single component is known as open. A fully enclosed seal has good stability
and simultaneously provides the sealing element and garter spring with a
certain amount of physical protection. In order to ensure static sealing
between the case and bore, seals are manufactured to H8 casing tolerance.
A good surface finish is required to ensure the static sealing function. The
metal case of seals has metal surface therefore normally centreless ground
to a surface finish with maximum Rt of 15 mm.
The case must not normally be exposed to any axial load.
Open Seal Closed Seal Reinforced Metal

insert Seal
14.2 Types of metal seal.
These are made of CRCA steel sheets of deep drawn quality but
sometimes they are made up of brass or of stainless steel depending upon
the environmental requirement.
14.3 Why garter spring is needed?

Rubber is a visco-elastic material and therefore under goes static oxidation.
After installation of an oil seal, the shaft produces a constant deformation
in the inner diameter of rubber element. The stress generated during this
deformation causes a gradually decay with time. As rubber is also a
hydrocarbon material, it is susceptible to aging by heat, oxygen and ozone.
Ageing diminishes the original radial load produced by the rubber element
by increasing the stress relaxation process. In this event, the importance
of garter spring is realized. The garter spring helps in maintaining a
particular level of radial force needed for the satisfactory functioning of
the oil seal. The total force exerted by the spring consists of the force
required to overcome the initial tension and the force due to spring rate.
14.3 Garter spring.
Following advantages are gained by the use of garter spring with initial
tension:
1. As the sealing element wears, the total radial force attributed to the
initial tension will not change.
2. By eliminating some of the initial tension by heat treatment, the initial
tension can be adjusted to achieve the level of radial force needed
for the given shaft diameter.
3. The heat treatment of the spring takes place at a temperature above
the operating temperature range of the seals, thus ensuring that the
spring force is stabilized. This procedure eliminates the risk of the
original spring force changing during service.
14.4 Shelf life

Seals and bearings are often stored as spare parts for prolonged periods.
Most rubbers change in physical properties during storage and ultimately
become unserviceable due to excessive hardening, softening, cracking,
crazing or other surface degradation. These changes may be the result of
particular factors or combination of factors, such as the action of
deformation, oxygen, ozone, light, heat, humidity or oils and solvents.

Considering few points while storing, we can increase the shelf life of
these products.
1. Heat at the storing area

The storage temperature should preferably be between +5°C and +25°C.
Direct contact with sources of heat and sunlight should be avoided.
2. Humidity
The relative humidity in the store room should be below 70%. Very moist
or very dry conditions should be avoided. Condensation should not occur.
3. Light
Elastomeric seals should be protected from light sources in particular direct
sunlight or strong artificial light with an ultraviolet content. The individual
storage bags offer the best protection as long as they are UV resistant. It
is advisable to cover any windows of storage rooms with a red or orange
coating or screen.
4. Deformation
Elastomeric materials should, wherever possible, be stored in a relaxed
condition free from tension, compression or other deformation.
14.5 Procedure for installation

The following procedure must be followed to ensure proper installation
of an oil seal:
1. A light film of oil or grease should be applied to the shaft and the
seal lip prior to the assembly of elastomeric seals, so as to decrease
the probability of damage during assembly.
2. All surfaces over which the seal lip must slide over during assembly
should be smooth and free from rough spots.
3. Assembly procedure should be carefully watched to ensure so that
lips do not turned assembly.
4. The tension spring should not be tampered with or altered as it is
accurately manufactured to give the correct loading.
5. An installation tool should always be used when installing an oil
seal as shown in Figure 14.4.
Minimum diameter 0.2 to 0.4 larger than seal Diameter 0.20 to 0.40 mm less than Bore diameter
outer diameter
Installation Tool Installation Tool

Surface Stop
Housing
Tool Housing
Tool stop against the

support surface
14.4 Installation tool for oil seal.
6. A hydraulic or pneumatic press should be used to apply necessary

force to install the seal. Use of the force improves the quality of
installation and reduces the possibility of seal deformation.
Precautions
(a) Do not hit directly on the sides of the seal while fitting the seal. Use
a proper adopter so that the load is uniformly distributed on the seal.
Deformed Seal
Housing
14.5 Wrong method.
(b) Use a proper size of tool.
Smaller Diameter
Installation Tool
Seal
Housing
14.6 Seal may deform.

(c) Align the tool properly.
Installation tool
Outer
Housing
diameter
peeling
Misallignment Error
14.7 Misalignment error.
14.6 Reasons for seal failure

1. Excessively high temperature or excessively high peripheral speed.
Increasing temperature accelerates the ageing of the rubber, the
material becomes hard and brittle, the elongation decreases and the
compression set increases.
2. The rubber is generally affected by the additives in the oil. This is
the case with hypoid oil which contains sulphur. Since sulphur is
used as vulcanizing agent for nitrile rubber, the sulphur additive in
the oil acts as a vulcanizing agent at temperatures above +80°C.
Nitrile rubber will rapidly become hard and brittle. Hydrogenated
nitrile, acrylic and fluorinated rubbers which are not vulcanized with
sulphur can therefore be used for this type of oil. Some of the oils
are oxidized during operation and their properties will therefore
change substantially. Such oils break down silicone rubber.
3. The shaft hardness plays an important role in increasing the life of
oil seal. Normally seal contact area of shaft should be minimum of
45 Rockwell hardness. It is an important factor to prevent excessive
wear deformation scratches in order to facilitate mounting.
4. The shaft surface roughness should be maximum 10–20 in. as it
plays an important role in lip heating of seal.
5. Shaft should be properly chamfered otherwise the lip of the seal will
damage.
6. Improper installation of seal.
14.7 Gasket
Gaskets are used to create a static seal between two stationary members of
a mechanical assembly and to maintain that seal under operating conditions
which may vary dependent upon changes in pressures and temperatures.
If it is possible to have perfectly mated flanges and possible to maintain

an intimate contact of these perfectly mated flanges throughout the
extremes of operating conditions, a gasket would not be required. But this
is impossible due to the following reasons:
1. The difficulty in manufacturing such extremely smooth flanges.
2. Corrosion and erosion of the flange surfaces take place during
operations.
The gasket provides a seal by external forces flowing the gasket

material into the imperfections between the mating surfaces. In order to
get a proper sealing of the part, three major considerations must be taken
into account.
1. Sufficient force must be available to initially seat the gasket.

2. Sufficient force must be available to maintain a residual stress on
the gasket under operating conditions.
3. The selection of the gasket material must be such that it withstands
the pressures exerted against the gasket and the temperature range to
which part is exposed.
Mating part
Gasket
14.8 Gasket.
14.8 Effecting a seal

A seal is affected by compressing the gasket material and causing it to
flow into the imperfections on the gasket seating surfaces so that intimate
contact is made between the gasket and the gasket seating surfaces
preventing the escape of the confined fluid. Basically there are two different
methods which are commonly used in the spinning mill:
1. Compression is the most common method of affecting a seal on a
flange joint and the compression force is normally applied by
bolting.
14.9 Compression.
2. Attrition is a combination of a dragging action combined with

compression where the bolt is turned down on a gasket that is both
compressed and screwed into the flange.
14.10 Attrition.
14.9 Installation of gasket

Following steps must be followed to install the gasket:
1. Inspect the gasket. It is important that the correct gasket has been
chosen for the bolted flange connection. Verify that the material is
as specified and visually inspect the gasket for any obvious defects
or damage.
2. Inspect the gasket seating surfaces. Look for tool marks, cracks,
scratches, or pitting by corrosion.
3. Use only new studs or bolts, nuts and washers. Make sure they are of
good quality and appropriate for the application.
4. Lubricate all thread contact areas and nut facings.
5. Loosely install the stud bolts on the lower half of the flange. Insert
the gasket between the flanges facing to allow the bolts to centre the
gasket on the assembly. Install the remaining bolts and nuts and bring
all to a hand-tight.
6. Torque all bolts one by one up to a maximum of 30% of the final
torque value required.
7. Torque all bolts one by one up to a maximum of 60% of the final

torque value required.
8. All studs should be re-torqued using a rotational pattern of re-torquing
to the final value of torque until no further rotation of the nuts can be
achieved.
References
1. Super Seal manual and catalogue.
2. Gasket hand book by Lasen gasket company.
3. Catalogue by PFE oil seal company.
15
Gears
15.1 Introduction
Like belts, ropes and chains, toothed gears are also used for transmitting
power from one shaft to another. However, they are used only when the
distance between the driving and driven shaft is relatively small. Gear is
a component within a transmission device that transmits rotational force
to another gear. A gear is different from a pulley in that a gear is a round
wheel which has teeth that meshes with other gear teeth, allowing force to
be fully transferred without slippage. Depending on their construction and
arrangement, toothed gears are used to change the speed, the power and
also in the direction of rotation between the input and the output shafts.
Toothed gears are made in numerous sizes ranging from a tiny size in
wrist watches to very large gears used in marine engines.
15.2 Spur gear

It is the simplest and most common type of gear that is used to connect
two parallels and coplanar shafts, which rotate in opposite direction. Spur
gear have teeth parallel to the axis of the shaft and is similar in profile
through out. It can be observed that line of contact between corresponding
teeth is always parallel to the axis of shaft. These gears can only mesh
correctly if they are fitted to parallel axles. The major advantages of these
gears are simplicity in design and economic to manufacture. These gears
are used for slow speed but if run on high speed they create noise.
15.1 Spur gear.
272
Gears 273
Spur gears are further divided into three types:

1. External spur gears – In this system the gears of two shafts mesh
externally with each other. The larger of these is called wheel and smaller
one is called pinion. In this system the motion of two wheels is always
opposite.
Wheel
Pinon
15.2 External spur gears.
Internal gears – In internal spur gear the teeth is always cut on the inner
diameter of ring while the outside diameter is kept smooth and they mesh
with external spur wheel. The bigger wheel is called annular wheel and
smaller one is called pinion. In internal gearing when gears move then
shaft run in the same direction. Internal gears are hollow. The properties
and teeth shape is similar as of external gears except that the internal gear
had different addendum and dedendum values modified to prevent
interference in internal meshes. When choosing a mating spur gear, always
remember that the difference in the number of teeth between the internal
gear and pinion should not be less than 15.
15.3 Internal gear.

2. Rack and pinion – It is the spur gear of infinite radius or zero

curvature. The pitch line of gear moves in a straight path. The gear wheel
transmitting rotary motion is called pinion. The motion of rack is ^ to the
axis of rotation of pinion. The straight-line gear is called rack ad circular
wheel is called pinion. Rack and pinion gears are used to convert rotation
into linear motion or linear motion into rotation. The rack is the flat toothed
part and the pinion is the gear. The diameter of the gear determines the
speed that the rack moves as the pinion turns.
15.4 Rack and pinion.
15.2.1 Common terms used in spur gear

Pitch circle
It is an imaginary circle, which by pure rolling action would give the same
motion as the actual gear.
Pitch Circle
Pitch diameter
15.5 Pitch circle and pitch diameter.
Pitch circle diameter

It is the diameter of pitch circle. The size of gear is usually specified by
pitch circle diameter. It is also called a pitch diameter.
Addendum
It is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the top of the tooth.
Gears 275
Dedendum
It is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the bottom of tooth.
Circular pitch
It is the distance measured on the circumference of pitch circle from one
point of tooth to the corresponding point on next tooth.
D1
Circular Pitch =
T
Where T is the no. of teeth and D is the diameter of the pitch circle.
Addendum
Whole Depth
Working Clearance
Dedendum
15.6 Terms used in spur gear.
Diametrical pitch
It is ratio of number of teeth to pitch circle diameter in millimetre.
T
Diametrical pitch = D
Where T is the number of teeth and D is the diameter of pitch circle.
7. Module
It is the ratio of pitch circle diameter in millimetre to the number of teeth.
T
Module, m =
D
Where T is the number of teeth and D is the diameter of pitch circle.
The most common recommended modules are 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4,
5, 6, 8, 1012, 16, 20, 25.
The most common module used in textile industry is 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 2.5.
8. Backlash
It is the difference between the tooth space and tooth thickness as measured
on pitch circle. It is 1/10th of module.
0.1 mm
15.7 Backlash.
9. Tooth space
It is the width of space between the two adjacent teeth measured along the
pitch circle.
10. Pressure angle

Pressure angle (also referred to as ‘tooth shape’) is the angle at which the
pressure from the tooth of one gear is passed on to the tooth of another
gear. Spur gears come in two pressure angles: 14 1/2° and 20°. Normally
14 1/2° is commonly used.
15.2.2 Accuracy of gears

The gears are rated according to which they are cut. Accuracy in cutting
of the gear is essential for normal operation of drive. The degree of accuracy
will depend upon the kind of service of the gear and demand it has to
meet. The method for rating spur and helical gears is on the basis of
accuracy. There is 1–12 degree of accuracy. The most common degree of
accuracy used in textile industry is 4–8.
15.3 Helical gears

Helical gears are similar to spur gears except that their teeth are cut at an
angle to the hole (axis) rather than straight and parallel to the hole like the
teeth of a spur gear. The line of contact between two teeth is not parallel
to the teeth but inclined. This ensures gradual engagement of teeth from
one end of tooth to other rather than a sudden engagement as in case of
spur gear. This gradual engagement makes the gears function smoothly
without much noise. Pair of helical gears can be meshed in two ways: with
shafts oriented at either the sum or the difference of the helix angles of the
gears. These configurations are referred to as parallel or crossed,
respectively.
Gears 277
15.8 Helical gear.
Right Hand Helical Gear Left Hand Helical Gear
15.9 Types of helical gears.
1. Helical gears connecting parallel shafts

Helical gears connecting parallel shafts will run more smoothly and quietly
than spur gears, particularly when the helix angle is great enough to ensure
that there is continuous contact from one tooth to the next. A pair of helical
gears used to connect parallel shafts must have the same pitch, pressure
angle and helix angle, but they will be opposite hand gears (i.e., one will
be a left-hand gear and the other a right-hand gear).
2. Helical gears connecting non-parallel shafts

Helical gears used to connect non-parallel shafts are commonly called
spiral gears or crossed axis helical gears. If the shaft angle is 90 degrees,
15.10 Parallel crossed.

the gears will be of the same hand and the sum of the helix angles will be
equal to the shaft angle (90 degrees). There is a point of contact between
two gears where as there is a line contact in a helical gear. Because of
point of contact which changes during action, there is considerable sliding
between the teeth. Efficiency of spiral gear is very low.
15.3.1 Common terms used in helical gear

1. Outside circle – The outside circle is the distance around the outer
edge of the gear’s teeth. The diameter of the outside circle is called
the outside diameter.
Outside
Diameter
15.11 Outside diameter in helical gear.
2. Pitch circle – The pitch circle is the imaginary circle found at the
point where the teeth of two gears mesh.
3. Pitch diameter – The diameter of the pitch circle is called the pitch
diameter.
4. Helix angle – The helix angle is the angle between the axis (bore) of
a helical gear and an (imaginary) line tangent to the tooth. The helix
angle will be between 0° and 90°.
Helix Angle
15.12 Helix angle.

Gears 279
15.4 Worm gears

A worm is a gear that resembles a screw. It is a species of helical gear, but
its helix angle is usually somewhat large (i.e., somewhat close to 90
degrees) and its body is usually fairly long in the axial direction; and these
attributes give it its screw-like qualities. A worm is usually meshed with
an ordinary looking, disk-shaped gear, which is called the ‘gear’, the
‘wheel’, the ‘worm gear’, or the ‘worm wheel’. The prime feature of a
worm-and-gear set is that it allows the attainment of a high gear ratio with
few parts, in a small space. Helical gears are, in practice, limited to gear
ratios of 10:1 and under; worm gear sets commonly have gear ratios
between 10:1 and 100:1, and occasionally 500:1. The worm gear gives a
line of contact between mating teeth unlike the point of contact.
Note: Worm gears differ from spur gears in that their teeth are somewhat
different in shape and are always formed on an angle to the hole (axis) in
order to mate with worms. In order to transmit motion and power at various
speeds and speed ratios, worms and worm gears work in sets, rotating on
shafts at right angles to one another. The worm usually drives the worm
gear. In worms and worm gear sets, both the worm and worm gear are of
the same hand. Right-hand sets are considered standard.
Worm Worm Gear

15.13 Worm gear.
This improves the load carrying capacity and also reduces the speed.
Worm gear is always changed in a set, i.e. both worm and worm wheel
needs replacement at the time of wear. A worm wheel of one diameter will
not operate satisfactorily with a worm of different diameter even if thread
pitch is same. The thread of worm may be single start, double start and so
on. The velocity ratio depends whether the worm is one start or multiple
start. To determine the number of threads on a worm, look at an end view
so you can see the ‘start’ of each thread. One start means that you have a
single thread, two starts a double thread, three starts a triple thread, and
four starts a quadruple thread.
15.14 Single start thread.
15.4.1 Worm gear hand

Worms and worm gears are manufactured with right or left-hand threads
and teeth. The hand of a worm or worm gear may be determined by noting
the direction in which the threads or teeth lean when the worm or worm
gear is held with the hole facing up. In a worm gear set, the worm and gear
must have the same hand, pitch, number of threads, and tooth dimensions.
They also must have the same pressure angle and lead angle. Right hand
worm and worm gear sets are considered standard.
15.15 Worm gear hand.
15.4.2 Most common terms used in worm gear

1. Axial pitch
It is the distance from any point on one thread of worm to the corresponding
point on the adjacent thread measured parallel to the worm axis.
2. Lead
It is the distance travelled by thread when one complete revolution is given
to the worm
Gears 281
L=P×N
where P = axial pitch
N = no. of start
For single start, lead is equal to axial pitch but in case of double start
it is twice the axial pitch.
3. Leading angle
The lead angle is an important factor in determining the efficiency of a
worm and worm gear set. The efficiency increases with lead angle increase.
For a given pitch, the lead angle is controlled principally by two factors:
(1) the number of threads and (2) the pitch diameter of the worm.
Lead Angle
15.16 Lead angle.
15.4.3 How to calculate the velocity ratio?

The linear velocity of worm is
L × Nw
Vw =
60
Velocity of worm gear is
π dN g
Vg =
60
where,
N w = rev/min of worm
d = pitch diameter of worm wheel
N g = revolution of worm wheel
Since Vw = Vg
LN w π dN g
=
60 60
282 Modern apprO!lch to maintenance in spinning
where LN. = miN,

N .. Hd
Velocity ratio (VR) = : N = L
•
Now
1CdII - Zg x Pc
Z, _ no. of teeth in worm gear
p. = circular pitch of gear
L '" z...xp.
z... = no. of Itart
p. '" axial pitch
Velocity Ratio(VR) = Z~.. = Zw • lince P = P

Z,P, Z, ",
15.5 Bevel gell'"

These arc used to connect two shaft axes which arc intersecting and
coplanar. They arc kincm.tica1ly cqlllll. to frustums of conc with their apices
meeting at II point. The shaft angle may be of any value between 0° and
180" but one most common is 90". The teeth of bevel gcaI3 arc similar to
thllt of spur gelll'll in that they make II line contact across the face of teeth.
The teeth arc IQllllller at the front than at the back.
There are two type. of bevel gear:
1. Straight tooth 1MI'd gCtJT$

In these gean the teeth of gear converge to the common point along Itraight
Iinel. Thil point is called apex and allO point of intersection of geu axis.
At high speed they give more noise.
16.17 Straight tooth bevel gear.

Gears 283
2. Spiral tooth bevel gears

Spiral bevel gears have spiral angles, which give performance
improvements. They are designed for an angle change of 90°, where the
two axes are concurrent and in the same plane. These gears have a double
function of being helical and beveled at the same time. The contact between
the teeth starts at one end of the gear and then spreads across the whole
tooth. In this type of gears the shaft must be perpendicular to each other
and must be in the same plane. They are the most complex forms of bevel
gears. The teeth are curved by cutting them obliquely, resulting in higher
overall contact ratios. Because of higher contact ratio, these have better
load carrying capacity and this allows them to be of smaller in size for a
given load capacity than an equivalent gear. Thus, they can transmit more
power with smaller gears. These gears have the following advantages over
the straight gears:
1. Due to curvature there is an overlapping of mesh and teeth mesh
with each other gradually resulting in smooth and quiet operation.
2. There is a gradual transfer of load from one tooth to another
eliminating sudden impacts and change in tooth pressure.
Note: Spiral bevel gears of the same hand will not operate together, a
set of spiral bevel or spiral gears consists of one left-hand gear and one
right-hand gear.
15.18 Spiral bevel gear.
Miter gear
Miter gears are bevel gears put together with equal numbers of teeth and
axes that are usually at right angles. Miter is the surface forming the beveled
end or edge of a piece where a miter joint is made. Miter gears are cut
with a generated tooth form that has a localized lengthwise tooth bearing.
They are known for efficient power transfer and durability. They can carry
heavy loads and can eliminate secondary operations that are useless during
284 Modern approach to maimenance in $piMing
the proC9l. They IIRI deUgned fm the efficient tnnamialion of powm: and
motiOIl between intersecting Ihafts at right anglel. They can be of two
types: stnUpt miter gear and IpUal miter gear. They give smoother and
quieter operltiOIl. They hand1e higher llJleeda and Pliler torque load!.
They proridc a l!cady ratio.
15.19 Mit« gelr.
15.11 Ge.r tNln.

Any c:ombiDatiOD of gears which employed. to trmlmit motion from one
ahaft to IlKI1:her is called lear train.
There Ire four more common type. of gear traiDI.
1. SiIIIp/e traU!. uf 8~tu6

ID simple par 1rIIin, two gean melh to form a simple train of wheeh. Out
of the two wheeh, 0110 il driver and other is driven.
-----
W2
Wl
N2
Nl
n
T2
12 _ I11I!Ilbcr of teeth in gear DO. 2

T1 _ I11I!Ilbcr of teeth in Jear DO. 1
Nl_rpmof2
Nl_rpmofl
Hen: ;can rota!c in the oppomc dircc;tion.
In the Figure 2 the third whael roUd:e in the lime direction II the lecond
wheel has DO influence upoD. the velocity ratio. The lecond wheel il tnown
N3_TI.T2_TI
Nt T2 T3 T3
Gears 285
as idle or idler wheel. Any number of idler wheels can be interposed

between the first and last wheel without altering the speed ratio. The
direction of rotation of last wheel depends upon whether total number of
wheel is odd or even. Even number gives opposite rotation and odd number
of wheel gives same direction.
Nn T1
=
N1 Tn
2. Reverted gear train

A reverted gear train is one where first and last gears are on the same axis.
2
3
1
4
15.20 Reverted gear train.
N1 T 2 * T 4
=
N 4 T1 * T 3
3. Epicyclic gear train
C
A
B
15.21 Epicyclic gear train.
In an epicyclic gear train, B is fixed to frame while arm A revolve

carrying with it wheel C.
For example,
Calculation of differential gear box of card c1l3
,---
23 _ Bm"
63
I-
90
!
17
I- -
34
~
86 -
43
I
26
n - I
~
I 17 -
34
15.22 Differential gear box.
When the card is rotating at high speed, the disc is stationary.
23"'43·34 0.98
77"'17·26
When the card is moving at slow speed, disc u not stationary.
n-a
e=-- (1)
m-a
e = differential ratio
n = output speed
m = input speed
a = differential ratio
e = 43"34 3.307963
17*26
23
m = 77 =0.2897012
Gears 287
23 * 90
a = = 0.3865545
63 * 85
Put all the values in Eq. (1)
n − 0.3865545
3.307962 =
0.2897012 − 0.3865545
n = 0.0959629
The ratio of fast speed and slow speed is
0.98
= 10.2
0.095962
15.7 Black lash

Backlash, sometimes called lash or play, is clearance between mating
components, sometimes described as the amount of lost motion due to
clearance or slackness when movement is reversed and contact is re-
established. For example, in a pair of gears, backlash is the amount of
clearance between mated gear teeth. This gap means that when a gear-
train is reversed the driving gear must be turned a short distance before all
the driven gears start to rotate. A similar effect is the taking up of slack
when a train starts to pull away at the station and each car bumps as its
link becomes tight. At low power outputs, backlash results in inaccurate
calculation from the small errors introduced at each change of direction;
at large power outputs backlash sends shocks through the whole system
and can damage teeth and other components. It should be less than 1/10th
of module.
Operating Pitch Circle
Backlash
15.23 Backlash.
15.8 Lubrication
1. Open gear
Gears should be properly lubricated to: minimize wear, prevent the
generation of excessive heat, improve efficiency through the reduction of
friction between the mating tooth surfaces, reduce noise and inhibit the
formation of rust. Good lubrication depends on the formation of a film
thick enough to prevent contact between the mating surfaces. The relative
motion between gear teeth helps to produce the necessary film from the
small wedge formed adjacent to the area of contact. It is important that an
adequate supply of the correct lubricant is properly applied. In open gears
mostly extreme pressure grease are used.
2. Gear box lubrication

I. Recommended oil
In all machineries, a certain amount of power is required to overcome
friction within the lubricating film itself. Friction of this kind is largely a
function of the viscosity of the lubricant. To minimize power consumption,
it is necessary to use oil with optimum viscosity compatible with
satisfactory lubrication, while taking account of considerations like
splashing and the rate of oil consumption.
Oxidation tends to cause thickening of oil in service; therefore, it is
advantageous to use lubricants with high oxidation stability. Such lubricants
change less in viscosity with increase in temperature.
II. Recommended oil level

Industrial gears may be either of the enclosed type or of the open type. In
the enclosed type a minimum level of oil is maintained. In the gearbox,
teeth of the bottom gears are just dipped into the oil and gear are lubricated
by means of splash. In case of splash lubrication it is necessary that oil
level should not be too high. A high level results in churning of oil which
in turn results in consequent rise in oil temperature and in power loss. The
depth to which the bottom wheel is dipped is twice the tooth depth. This
is sufficient for splash lubrication and to keep the churning effect to the
minimum.
Secondly, a pressure circulating system may be used in which oil is
sprayed on the teeth close to the point of engagement. The oil is then re-
circulated either directly from the bottom of the gear box or by way of a
separate tank with the help of oil pump.
Gears 289
15.9 Reasons for the failure of gear teeth

1. Fatigue – When two gears mesh with each other to transmit a load,
the teeth of each gear are under bending action. The bending stress
will be maximum at the root of tooth. Due to the periodical effect of
the load, fatigue cracks may occur near the tooth base resulting in
ultimate failure of tooth.
2. Wear – When some foreign material like dust particles deposited in
between the mating teeth there will be wear of tooth surface.
3. Improper meshing.
References
2. Mechanical Machine Design (1996) by DR. R . C. BEHL and V. K. GOEL.
3. A Text Book of Machine Design by DR. P. C . SHARMA and DR. D. K. AGARWAL.
4. Comprehensive Hand Book on Maintenance in Spinning (Part 3) by NEERAJ
NIJHAWAN .
16
Compressed air
16.1 Introduction
Compressed air is a potent form of energy that is used to get a mechanical
energy output by linear motion through a pneumatic cylinder. This linear
motion energy can in turn be used for various operations such as pushing,
lifting, clamping, feeding, pressing and forming, etc.
The linear movement is also used effectively to perform functions such
as positioning, turning, bypassing, selecting segregating, index locating
and ejecting in various mechanical devices.
The advantages and disadvantages of the pneumatic system are given below:
Advantages
1. Air is available in plenty and free everywhere for compression and usage.
2. Compressed air can be stored.
3. It can be transported easily through pipes over long distance.
4. Compressed air systems are cleaner as compared to the hydraulic system.
5. For smaller output forces pneumatic are cheaper, simpler and can
achieve high working speed.
6. The speed and the force are infinitely variable.
7. When overloaded a pneumatic tool will stop and so is safe as
compared to electrical system.
8. No fire hazard as in electrical systems so can be safely used in
dangerous area like mines.
9. Simple in construction, the pneumatic system components are easy
to maintain and repair.
10. The used air is dissipated into atmosphere so no return lines are
needed as in hydraulic system.
Disadvantages
1. Extensive preparation is required for producing compressed air (by
using regulator filter and lubricator), as otherwise the system would
get worn out fast.
290
Compressed air 291
2. Smooth and uniform speeds against varying loads are not achievable
as in the hydraulic system.
3. Beyond a certain load the compressed air system become cumbersome
and expensive.
4. As the compressed air is exhausted into the atmosphere while doing
its job, it produces an unpleasant noise. Even with a silencer, some
noise will still emanates.
5. Dust and dirt are considered as the biggest enemies of the
compressors. Therefore, Compressors must be installed where the
environment is free from dirt and dust. In cases where the pollution
in the environment is unavoidable, the manufacturers of compressor
should be consulted for a cost effective solution. The location of
installation must have good ventilation, be away from manufacturing
departments and surrounded with trees, etc.
16.2 Compression of air

Atmospheric air has pressure, when measured at sea level the pressure is
760 mm as measured by mercury manometer. This pressure is called 1
atmosphere. In British units it is equal to 14.7 PSI (Pounds per square
inch).
So, 1 ATM = 14.7 PSI = 1.033 kg/cm2
1kg/cm 2 = 14.2 PSI
When the one atmospheric pressure is measured by a dial type pressure

gauge, it shows a reading of zero. The actual pneumatic absolute pressure
= gauge pressure + 1
A PBs = Pg+1
The properties of compression of air is such that when volume V of air
at a gauge pressure of P is compressed to a volume of V1 and the resultant
increased pressure is P1 gauge.
Then (P + 1) × V = (P1+1) × V1 assuming that the temperature remains
constant.
Similarly (P1 +1) × V1 = (P2 +1) × V2.
From the above it is clear that when the volume become half the pressure
become double. Converse is also true when compressed air expands.
16.3 Free air or atmospheric air

For all practical calculations in pneumatic application the volume of
compressed air is always converted into free air, i.e. volume prevailing
under the atmospheric condition.
Example
If a tank of 400-litre capacity contains compressed air at 6 kg/cm2 and if
the entire volume is exhausted to atmosphere, the following calculation
arrives.
P absolute = Pg +1 = 6 + 1 = 7 kg/cm2
V initial = 400 l.
After expansion to atmospheric pressure
P1 = Pg + 1= 0 + 1 =1 kg/cm2
V1 = to be found
PV = P1V1
7 × 400 = 1 × V1
V1 = 2800 litres of free air
The tank of 400 l. with 6 kg/cm2 actually contains 2800 l. of free air.
This method of calculation is used to calculate the free air required for
the operation of pneumatic cylinder.
Example of calculation
Calculate the free air required to operate a bore of 100 × 200 mm stroke
actuating cylinder for one forward + one backward stroke (double stroke)
at 5 kg/cm2.
D = 10 cm
l = 20 cm

2* *d *d *l
4
1000
2 * 3.14 *10 *10 * 20

1000
Double stroke volume of cylinder = 3.14 l.
Operating pressure = 5 kg/cm2
Free air required to operate the cylinder for double stroke = 3.14 (5+1) =
18.84 l. of free air
If the cylinder operate 10 times to and fro
Total free air = 188.4 l/min.
In this way, the free air requirement for any number of cylinders, and
the required capacity of the compressor required.
Compressed air 293
16.4 Analyzing compressed air needs

Compressed air needs are defined by the air quality, quantity, and level of
pressure required by the end uses in your plant. Analyzing needs carefully
will ensure that a compressed air system is configured properly.
16.4.1 Air quality

Quality is determined by the dryness and contaminant level required by
the end uses, and is accomplished with filtering and drying equipment.
The higher the quality, the more the air costs to produce. Higher quality
air usually requires additional equipment, which not only increases initial
capital investment, but also makes the overall system more expensive to
operate in terms of energy consumption and maintenance costs. One of
the main factors in determining air quality is whether or not lubricant-free
air is required. Lubricant free air can be produced with either lubricant-
free compressors, or with lubricant-injected compressors that have
additional separation and filtration equipment.
Lubricant-free rotary screw and reciprocating compressors usually have
higher first costs, lower efficiency, and higher maintenance costs than lubricant-
injected compressors. However, the additional separation and filtration
equipment required by lubricant-injected compressors will cause some
reduction in efficiency, particularly if systems are not properly maintained.
Before selecting a lubricant-free or lubricant-injected compressor, careful
consideration should be given to the specific end use for the lubricant free air,
including the risk and cost associated with product contamination.
16.4.2 Air quantity–capacity

Required compressed air system capacity can be determined by summing
the requirements of the machine and process operations (taking into account
load factors) in the spinning mill. The total air requirement is not the sum
of the maximum requirements for each machine and process, but the sum
of the average air consumption of each. High short-term demands should
be met by air stored in an air receiver. Systems may need more than one
air receiver. Strategically locating air receivers near sources of high demand
can also be effective. In most cases, a thorough evaluation of system
demand may result in a control strategy that will meet system demand
with reduced overall compressor capacity. Oversized air compressors are
extremely inefficient because most compressors use more energy per unit
volume of air produced when operating at part-load. In many cases, it
makes sense to use multiple, smaller compressors with sequencing controls
to allow for efficient operation at times when demand is less than peak.
16.1 Flowchart of compressed air system.
16.4.3 Load profile

Another key to properly designing and operating a compressed air system
is analyzing a plant’s compressed air requirements over time, or load
profile. The variation of demand for air over time is a major consideration
in system design. Plants with wide variations in air demand need a system
that operates efficiently under part-load. Multiple compressors with
sequencing controls may provide more economical solution as shown in
Fig. 16.1.
16.5 Production of compressed air

Air is available in plenty in the atmosphere and needs to be compressed
and stored at high pressure for use in any pneumatic system. This is
achieved by air compressor.
Air compressors are available in two basic systems: reciprocating and
screw.
The reciprocating compressors are economical up to 20 HP capacity
and are most commonly used. The screw compressors are advantageous
beyond 30 HP.
Each type of compressor is available in single stage, two stages and
multistage version.
The single stage compressor is used up to a max of 10 kg/cm2 and the
two-stage compressor up to 15 kg/cm2. Beyond this pressure, multistage
compressions are used.
For a normal pneumatic system, the working pressure range is 4–7 kg/
cm2 so the compression with maximum pressure range of 10 kg/cm2 is
normally selected.
Compressed air 295
16.5.1 Reciprocating compressor

A reciprocating compressor is made up of cylinder and piston. The back
and forth motion incorporated by a reciprocating compressor pulls gas in
on the suction stroke and discharge it on other. Compression is
accomplished by the change in volume as the piston moves toward the top
end of the cylinder. The compression may be oil lubricated or, in some
cases, it may require little or no lubrication in the cylinder. Spring loaded
suction and discharge valves open/close automatically as the piston moves
up and down in the cylinder chamber.
16.5.2 Rotary screw type compressor

This type of compressor has one male rotor and a female rotor. The male rotor
has four helical lobes 90° apart, which are like with the teeth of a helical gear.
The female rotor has six matching flutes 60° apart that mesh with the lobes of
the male rotor. When the four male rotor lobes rotate in mesh with six female
rotor flutes, air gets trapped between the lobes and the flute and is gradually
compressed until each pair of lobe and flutes reaches the outlet port.
The meshing of rotor and the compression cycle in the compressor
element are schematically illustrated in the following steps.
Position 1
As the lobes/flute pair unmeshed, the interlobe volume increases and the
interlobe pressure decreases. Atmospheric air gets sucked in the volume
space between male and female rotor lobes.
Direction of Rotation
Female Rotor
Male Rotor
Helical Lobes
16.2 Position (1) of lobes.
Position 2
As rotation continues, the interlobe space is sealed off from the atmosphere
and the compression begins.
Position 3
Compression continues as the inter-lobe space is reduced in volume by
the pair of meshing lobe.
Position 4
As the lobe/flute pair uncovers progressively larger area of the outlet port,
the air compressed in the interlobe space is gradually released through the
outlet port.
Outlet Port

Compressed air 297
Because each lobe/flute pair reaches the outlet port before the previous
pair has finished its compressed air, the compression cycles overlap and
air is delivered without any major pulsation. The little pulsation that takes
place has no practical importance.
16.5.3 Centrifugal compressors

A centrifugal air compressor has a continuously flowing air stream
which has velocity energy, or kinetic energy, imparted to it by an
impeller, or impellers, which rotate at speeds that can exceed 50,000
revolutions per minute (rpm). Approximately one half of the pressure
energy is developed in the impeller with the other half achieved by
converting the velocity energy to pressure energy as the air speed is
reduced in a diffuser and volute. The most common centrifugal air
compressor is one with two to four stages for pressures in the range of
100–150 psig. A water-cooled intercooler and separator between each
stage returns the air temperature to approximately ambient temperature
and removes condensed moisture before entering the next stage. An
after cooler cools the air from the final stage and a moisture separator
removes the moisture prior to air delivery to distribution. The inherent
characteristic of centrifugal air compressors is that as system pressure
decreases, the compressor’s flow capacity increases. The steepness of
the pressure head/capacity curve is dependent upon the impeller design.
The more the impeller blades lean backwards from the true radial
position, the steeper the curve. Centrifugal air compressors range from
around 300 to more than 100000 cfm but the more common air
compressors are from 1200 to 5000 cfm and with discharge pressures
up to 125 psi. Centrifugal air compressors provide lubricant-free air
delivery as there is no lubricant in the compression chambers.
Lubrication for speed increasing gears and the special high-speed shaft
bearings is kept away from the compression chambers by means of
shaft seals, which may also have air purge and vent connections.
16.6 How to specify the right compressor type,

capacity and pressure?
As a rule of thumb, the required HP of a compressor may be calculated as
approximately 80 l. of free air per HP.
If the entire pneumatic system requires 1000 l. of free air, the compressor
capacity works out to be 12.5 HP. To select the right compressor, the
following points must be considered.
16.6.1 The right pressure

This depends upon the demand of the pneumatic equipment, which
operates on the compressed air. Most of the pneumatic equipment is
operated on a pressure of around 6 bar but there are also the pneumatic
equipment which operate on the lower and higher pressure. One should
select a compressor which is capable to generate of at least 1 bar above
the pressure needed at the point of use. This is also to compensate for
the pressure loss in pipelines, filters and other accessories, to ensure
that at the point of use the needed pressure can be guaranteed. A too
high pressure will unnecessarily increase the power consumption of the
compressor about 5% for each pressure bar increase. Secondly, a too
high pressure at the point of use will also increase the compressed air
consumption of the pneumatic equipment and lead to more wear of the
pneumatic equipment.
16.6.2 The capacity of compressor

Pressure is not an indication of capacity; there are very small compressors
available which supply very little air about at very high pressure. The
opposite is also true that there are very large compressors for low pressures.
The only relation between the capacity and pressure is that if high pressure
is needed to produce a certain quantity then more power is required (about
5% extra power for each bar pressure increase).
Capacity of a compressed air is always expressed in volume per time
against certain pressure like m3/min, l/sec, m3/h or CFM (cubic feet per
minute). The capacity is always expressed as free air delivery. This means
the amount of compressed air can deliver recalculated to atmospheric
pressure or the amount of atmospheric or the amount of atmospheric air
compressor can compress to a certain pressure.
Firstly, find out the compressed air requirement of each load point and
its load factor. A sudden demand of air may upset the air supply for the
entire plant. This would result in substantial pressure drops in the system
at all load points affecting production and quality. Any such difficulties
can be avoided by carefully estimating the air demand and then deciding
the suitable size for the compressor. While determining the needed capacity,
consider the following points:
(a) Determine machine requirement.
(b) Allot extra capacity to account for leakage and pressure drop and
future expansion.
(c) Give allowance for maintenance.
Compressed air 299
Example of spinning mill centralized compressor

1. First collect the requirement of compressed air of individual machine.
2. Calculate the requirement of each department by multiplying the
requirement of one machine with number of machines.
3. Convert the requirement of each department from m3/h to C.F.M.
4. Calculate the requirement of whole plant by adding the requirement
of individual department.
5. Add the following requirements:
I. Add 10% for temperature difference
II. Add 20% for cleaning
III. Add5% for leakage
6. Consider the efficiency of compressor to be 95%.
Example
Department Qty. of air in m3/h Qty. of air in CFM
Blowroom 5.85 3.45

Card 38.70 22.83
Combing 15.50 9.14
Roving 7 4.12
Ringframe 26 15.33
Autoconer 336 198.2
Total 429 253
Add 10% for temp difference 42.9 25.3
Add 20% for cleaning 85.8 50.6
Add 5% for leakage 21.45 12.65
Total requirement 579.15 341.55
Proposal
One can propose single stage rotary air compressor water cooled, lubricated
type stationary, electrically operated capacity 200 × 3 = 600 CFM, working
pressure = 10.5 kg/cm2.
Air dryer capacity

Total FAD = 341 × 1.1 = 375
Air dryer capacity = 200
We propose two dryers having capacity of 200 CFM.
Air receiver capacity

Total value = 600
Air receiver capacity = 600/80=7.5 m3
One can propose two number 4 m3 capacity as per specification given

below
1. Capacity = 4m3
2. Working pressure range = 10.5 kg/cm2
3. Test pressure = 17.5 kg/cm 2
4. Material of construction = IS 2062
The altitude at which compressor has to be located also affects the
compressor capacity, because the intake pressure decreases at higher
altitude. To deliver air at same discharge rate as at sea level, it needs higher
compression ratio; therefore the compressor would function with lower
efficiency and lesser output capacity. According to thumb rule, at an altitude
of 1000 m, air requirement increases by 10%.
Note
In a spinning mill the compressed air is used for cleaning the machine. It
is advisable to install separate compressor and air distribution system for
cleaning purpose. The system can operate only when it is needed may be
4 hours in day. It gives high installation cost but it helps in saving energy.
If we do not put separate compressor for cleaning then we have to use
bigger air compressors, i.e. 1.2 times the actual compressed air requirement.
Oversized compressors are extremely inefficient because most compressors
use more energy per unit volume of air produced when operating at part-
load. Secondly compressors consume 60% of energy in no-load condition.
16.6.3 Choice of compressor type

Two basic options are available: one is to provide a centralized large
compressor for all machines put together and other is to provide a number
of separate compressors at suitable production stages.
At each production stage – which contributes a load point for compressor
– there exist a minimum and maximum consumption level for compressed
air. The load factors of different machines are different. However, it
becomes necessary to provide for the maximum consumption level. As a
result if separate consumptions are to be provided, then total installed
compressor capacity would become very high and would not be utilized
most of the time.
If a centralized compressor system is adopted, the actual total
compressed air requirement is much less than the sum of maximum value
needed for the compressor. However, the installation cost for the piping
which carries the compressed air to different machines is high. Modern
spinning mills prefer to opt for the centralized large compressor which
Compressed air 301
gives high efficiency. The installation costs as well as their maintenance

costs are lower than those for separate compressor.
16.6.4 Operating cost

These costs are recurring in nature consist of cost of power consumption,
oil consumption, water cost of cooling arrangement and maintenance and
repair cost of the complete system include the labour cost and down time
for servicing, repair and overhauling.
16.7 Receiver or tank size for air compressor

Each air compressor is provided with an air receiver tank for the following
reasons:
1. To dampen the pulsation of air.
2. To serve as a cooling chamber so that the moisture in the incoming
air can be settled and drained.
3. To enable the fitment of pressure control devices such as pressure
switches for automatic switching the compressor on–off operation
so that running time of compressor is reduced.
4. It helps to store compressed air. This ensures the pneumatic control
device connected to the system, which will result in neutral or safer
operation in the event of any eventualities like power failure.
5. As a thumb rule for compressors with on–off operation the receiver
capacity is normally equal to the free air capacity of the compressor.
For example: a compressor with a free air delivery capacity of 500 l.
is fitted with a tank of 500 l. However, several manufacturers supply
tank as per their own specification.
6. For very large capacity compressors which are fitted with a special
unloading device for continuous operation, the tank size is smaller
than indicated by the thumb rule given above.
16.7.1 What is the best location for an air receiver tank?

Normally the installation sequence is the compressor receiver dryer.
The reason why receiver is advised to be installed upstream of the dryer,
is to have more even flow over he dryer because the receiver will act
as a pre cooler and pre water heater which will improve the effectiveness
of the dryer. If air consumption fluctuates too strongly then in spite of
reversing the installation sequence from compressor – receiver – dryer
to compressor – dryer – receiver, then one should install a second
receiver down stream to absorb the peak consumption. This second
receiver should not be located close to the dryer, but should be located
as close as to the point of use. This avoids the air of this sudden peak
has to travel a long way from the receiver all the way through the pipes
to the point of use.
16.8 Moisture
Assume that the suction side of the compressor sucks the air with 32°C
temperature and 50% relative humidity at 1 atmospheric pressure which
is the average Indian condition. After compression to 6 atmospheric
pressure, the volume of air reduces by 6 times resulting in an increase
in humidity by 6 times. After compression the air temperature also
becomes high. Therefore, this air must be passed through the water
cooled after cooler to bring down its temperature to the level of ambient
temperature. At this temperature air cannot possess more than 100%
relative humidity. Thus the excess vapour gets condensed to liquid
moisture which remains suspended in air and can be filtered out or be
dried by a dryer.
The atmospheric air contains certain amount of water vapour in it. When
air is compressed and used, it carries water vapour also with it. This
compressed air when used in pneumatic cylinder without removing the
moisture entrapped in it, and can corrode the cylinder, and the valve, and
reduce their life. The moisture can combine with lubricating oil and form
an emulsion, which can cause sticking of moving component of
electrovalves and other valves result in malfunctioning of the system. The
problem gets more aggravated in the rainy season or in locations where
the relative humidity is high. In coastal areas where the water is salty the
problem of corrosion is severe.
Moisture can corrode pneumatic components and cause costly
replacement apart form loss due to machine down time. To overcome this
problem, drier methods are used to separate the moisture from the
compressed air effectively before it reaches the part/ components where it
is to be used.
Air can be called dry if it does not show liquid; however it contain
certain amount of water vapour. The ability of air to absorb water vapour
increases drastically at a high temperature and decreases at low
temperature. It only depends upon the temperature and not on pressure. At
each temperature there is a maximum amount of water vapour 1 m3 of air
can absorb, anything more will become liquid. This temperature is called
dew point.
Compressed air 303
Table 16.1 Relationship between

temperature and water vapour
Temperature Amount of
of air (°C) water
vapour
(1 m3 of air
can contain
in grams)
90 417.935
80 290.017
60 129.020
40 50.673
30 30.078
25 22.830
20 17.148
10 9.359
3 5.953
-15 1.380
Example
1 m3 of air any temperature containing 22.830 gram of air has a dew point
of 25°C. At higher temperature this mean all the water will be vapour and
at lower temperature a part will become liquid. This air will be dry as long
as the temperature does not below 25°C.
Two types of dryers are used in the industry: refrigerant dryers and
desiccant dryers. The countries where there is no risk that compressed air
temperature drops below 3°C a refrigerant dryer is the best choice. The
working principles of both types are described below:
16.8.1 Chemical-type dryer

This is also called drying by adsorption. Adsorbents are solids with a large
number of micropores representing a large internal surface area. A
continuously operating adsorption dryer works in accordance with the
principle of dynamic adsorption. The air to be dried passes through the
adsorbent bed. While the air passes through the bed, moisture is withdrawn
from it. Since the absorbing capacity of any adsorbent is limited, the flow
path needs to be changed prior to complete saturation. The continuous
supply of dry absorbent as a drying medium is guaranteed by two
alternatively operating absorber chambers while one absorber chamber is
available for drying and the absorber in the second chamber is regenerated.
The adsorption agent used in the spinning mills are activated almunia
or silica gel.
Dry compressed air

Open Closed
Air Heater
Absorber 1 Absorber 2
Regeneration
Drying
Fan
Open Hot air Closed
16.6 Chemical-type air dryer.
16.8.2 Refrigeration compressed air dryer

The temperature of air reduces as its water holding capacity comes down
drastically. This principle is employed in the refrigerated air dryer.
Compressed air is cooled by refrigeration system thereby reducing its water
holding capacity. Water vapour above the holding capacity at the reduced
temp condenses into water droplets which are removed by using a water
separator through centrifugal and demister action.
Dry Compressed Air Air from Compressor
Pre Heater
Referigeration Chamber
Moisture collector
16.7 Refrigeration-type air dryer.

Compressed air 305
The pipe lines are laid out in such a way that all vertical drop lines are
taken upward from the horizontal line.
Filters fitted in each machine separately collect whatever moisture can
be separated by them. The pipelines should not end at the point where the
connection to the machine is to be given. Its end should be somewhat at
longer distance so that a drain valve can be fitted to separate the water. It
is easier to separate the moisture from high-pressure air than from low-
pressure air. This is because as the pressure increases the compressed air
loses its capacity to retain moisture. This is the reason is why filters are
provided on the high pressure side.
16.9 Quality of water required for compressor

Hard and unclean water supply to compressor causes scale/sludge
formation in cylinder jackets in intercooler and oil cooler tubes and after
cooler tubes etc. Sludge/scale formation does not permit heat transfer and
causes the working part in the compressor to work at high temperature.
This further reduces the life of working part of air compressor. Before
installing a compressor, the water should be properly analyzed and if found
hard, the water should be treated suitable to make it soft and clear.
16.9.1 Open re-circulating system water quality

The recommended values are
Temporary hardness 50 mg/l
Chlorides 75 mg/l
Sulphate (SO4) 50 mg/l
Total dissolved solids
(residue at 105°C) 300 mg/l
Iron (Fe) 0.2 mg/l
Manganese (Mn) 0.1 mg/l
16.9.2 Quality of re-circulating water

The recommended water quality at equilibrium condition, which occurs at
maximum temperature in the system are as follows:
PH 6.8
Permanent hardness 400 mg/l (CaCo3)
Chlorides 300 mg/l
Sulphates 400mg/l
Total dissolved solids 2500 mg/l
Total suspended solids 10 mg/l
Iron (Fe) 0.2 mg/l
Manganese 0.1 mg/l
Free chlorine (Cl2) 4mg/l
Organic components 25 mg/l (KMnO4)
16.10 What is oil free compressed air?

Most of the people believe that air is 100% free from any type of
hydrocarbon. But this is practically impossible because the ambient air
inhaled by the compressor already contain lot of hydrocarbon and other
pollutants. When the ambient air is compressed the concentration of all
pollutant is increased with the ratio of final pressure. For example if we
compress the air to a pressure of 6 bar the pressure ratio is 1:7. This means
that 1 m3 of air with a pressure bar will have 7 times more pollutants and
water vapour concentrated in this 1 m3 as was present in the ambient air.
This shows that even with non-lubricated so-called oil free compressor
the compressed air quality is always about 8 times more polluted than the
ambient air.
The best choice in the industry to use oil injected screw compressor
than oil screw free compressor. First the complicated deign of dry screw
compressor make it very expensive. It is better to use oil injected screw
compressor equipped with an efficient oil separating system which can
give the compressed the same air and often even better quality compared
to oil free compressors. Even an oil free compressor will produce an air
with an about 7 times higher concentration than ambient air due to the
concentration effect of the compression.
Note: In spinning mill where the air requirement is more than 500 CFM
or more it is also advisable to use centrifugal compressor. These
compressors may have several impellers in line on a single shaft or with
separate impellers integrally geared. Centrifugal air compressors provide
lubricant-free air delivery as there is no lubricant in the compression
chambers. Lubrication for speed increasing gears and the special high-
speed shaft bearings is kept away from the compression chambers by means
of shaft seals, which may also have air purge and vent connections. But
the centrifugal compressor is more expensive than oil injected screw
compressor.
16.11 Air distribution systems

The air distribution system links the various components of the compressed
air system to deliver air to the points-of-use with minimal pressure loss. The
specific configuration of a distribution system depends on the needs of the
individual plant, but frequently consists of an extended network of main
lines, branch lines, valves, and air hoses. The length of the network should
be kept to a minimum to reduce pressure drop. Air distribution piping should
be large enough in diameter to minimize pressure drop. A loop system is
generally recommended, with all piping sloped to accessible drop legs and
Compressed air 307
drain points. When designing an air distribution system layout, it is best to

place the air compressor and its related accessories where temperature inside
the plant is the lowest (but not below freezing). A projection of future
demands and tie-ins to the existing distribution system should also be
considered.
Pneumatic systems are linked to air reservoir by pipes. A pipe, i.e.
piping is subjected to shock load due to pressure changes inside the
pipe. To avoid bursting of pipe good quality pipes are used, i.e. G.I.
pipe. Piping must therefore be securely mounted and protected where
there is danger from accidental damage. Line fittings such as valve
and filter units have their own mounting and do not rely upon the
support of pipe.
Where flexibility is needed and working pressure is low. Nylon
tubing or brass pipes are used. Pipe pieces are connected to get a longer
length. The joining can be by means of welding, threaded connections
and push type fitting. G.I. and steel pipes are connected by welding.
Welded connections are leak-free and robust therefore these form the
main choice for the fixed, main distribution pipe lines. However,
threaded (elbow) connections are needed where a bend in a pipeline is
desired or necessary.
Plastic tubing is mainly connected by push type fitting and threaded
connectors.
16.11.1 Lay out of pipeline

While preparing the lay out for the pipe line, following points must be
taken into consideration.
1. Use trench system.
2. Installed the pipe with a slope of 1% down from reservoir.
Slant
16.8 Slant.
3. Take every branch connection from top.
TOP of pipe
16.9 Branch connection.

4. Use proper sealant to avoid leakage.

5. Install moisture drain valve at the lowest point of the system so as to
permit easy run off the condensation.
6. Do not finish the pipelines at the point of the connection to the
machine. Extend it beyond the connection point and provide a drain
valve at the end of pipeline.
16.10 Drain valve.
16.11.2 Importance of correct piping selection

Selection of a proper size of the pipe is very important. In case the size is
smaller than required, the compressor would discharge air at too high
pressure than required (wasting power). In case the pipe size is larger
installation cost would become unnecessarily high. An optimum size is
that where the pressure drop is minimum between air reservoir of the
compressor and workstation. Generally, such pressure drop in pipeline
should not exceed 5–10 psig.
Table 16.2 Pipe size corresponding to air flow
Pipe inner Free air delivery Free air delivery

diameter (mm) (l/s) (m3/min)
10 3 0.2
15 5 0.3
20 10 0.6
25.4 17 1
32 34 2
40 50 3
50 115 7
65 200 12
80 330 20
100 500 30
125 900 54
150 1500 90
200 2000 120
Compressed air 309
Note
If pipeline is more than 100 m, than use one size bigger than given in the
Table 16.2.
The graph in Fig. 16.11 shows the relationship between different
parameters of pipelines and can be used to understand the way in which
pressure drop can be kept to minimum.
16.11 Relationship between different parameters of pipelines.
16.12 Pneumatic cylinder

It consists of five parts: two end caps (bearing cap and base cap) with
port connection, a cylinder barrel, a piston and rod (Fig. 16.12). End
caps can be secured to barrel by welding or brazing tie rod or by threaded
connection. The inner surface of the barrel needs to be smooth to prevent
wear and leakage. Generally, a seamless tube which machined to an
accurate finish is used. The piston is usually made of cast iron. The piston
not only transmits the force to the rod but also act as a sliding bearing in
the barrel. A wiper seal is fitted to the end cap where the rod enters the
cylinder, to remove the dust particles. End caps are generally made of
cast iron and aluminum and incorporate the threaded entries for port.
End caps have the capacity to withstand shock loads at extreme positions
of piston travel.
Extended Piston
Port seal End Seal
Port
Wiper seal
End Cap
Bearing Rod
Bush
Barrel Piston
16.12 Pneumatic cylinder.
The end of travel shock load can be reduced with the cushion valves
built into the end caps. The exhaust flow route is now via de-acceleration
valve, which reduces the speed and the end of travel impact. The de-
acceleration valve is adjustable to allow the de-acceleration rate.
Exhaust Port
Needle valve to set the

decacceleration rate
16.13 De-acceleration valve.
16.12.1 Single acting cylinders

These provide operating force/motion only in one direction; for the motion
in other direction depend on a spring force or some external mechanical
force. Normally, these cylinders have piston rod extension on one side
only.
Compressed air 311
Return Spring
Extended port
16.14 Single acting cylinders.
16.12.2 Double acting cylinder

They are capable of giving the operating force/motion in both the direction
of the piston movement. These cylinders are available with or without end
position to prevent mechanical damage.
Retracted Port
Extended port
16.15 Double acting cylinder.
16.12.3 Impact piston

Pressure is initially applied to port X to restart the cylinder pressure. It is
then applied to both port X and port Y but the cylinder remain in retracted
state because area A is less than B.
Area A
Port Y Port X
16.16 Impact piston.
Port X is vented properly. Since there is no pressure on side B side and

A side experience full pressure due to which it accelerates rapidly at high
velocity.
16.12.4 Rotary cylinder

Linear piston movement is converted to rotary motion by designing a rack
and pinion arrangement, which allows the output shaft on actuator centre
line rather than offset. Spring-loaded rack eliminates the backlash. Rotary
cylinder has stroke adjustment at each end, which is combined with the
adjustable, end position cushioning.
16.17 Rotary cylinder.
16.12.5 How to order pistons?

The pneumatic cylinders are normally manufactured in bore size 12, 16,
25, 32, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100, 125, 150, 160 and 200 mm with a maximum
stroke length of 100–1000 mm depending on the bore of cylinder for
standard application.
Different types of mountings are available in the market to mount the
cylinder on the machine depending upon the space available and there
need.
16.18 Cylinder mounting.
The following information must be given while ordering the piston.

I. Type of cylinder
II. Size of piston diameter
III. Cushion stroke
IV. Standard stroke
V. working pressure range
VI. Type of cylinder mounting
Compressed air 313
16.13 Regulator
The main pressure in the machines is set higher than the required load
pressure. Pressure regulation is performed at each machine to keep the
pressure constant regardless of flow. Air pressure is regulated by mean of
pressure regulator which simply restricts the air flow to the load. Regulators
are of two types: non-relieving pressure regulator and relieving pressure
regulator.
16.13.1 Non-relieving pressure regulator

In this regulator, the outlet pressure is sensed by the diphagram which is
pre-loaded by a pressure setting spring. If the outlet pressure is to low,
then the spring forces the diphagram and poppet down, thus opening the
valve to admit more air and raise the outlet pressure. If the air pressure is
too high, it forces the diphagram up, reducing the air flow which causes
a reduction in air pressure. In the steady state, the valve will balance the
force on the diphagram from the outlet pressure against preset force on
the spring.
Addjusting screw
Pressure Setting
Spring
Out
Inlet
Poppet
16.19 Non-relieving pressure regulator.
16.13.2 Relieving pressure regulator

In the relieving regulator there are two diphagrams: main diphagram and
pilot diphagram, which compares the outlet pressure with the adjusting
pressure caused by setting the spring. Inlet pressure is applied to the main
diphagram through a restriction and applied at the top of it. If outlet pressure
is too low, the diphagram remains in the descended position and closes
the ball valve. Due to this, the main diphagram descends downward to
open the inlet valve and closes the vent to raise the pressure.
If outlet pressure is too high, the pilot diphagram is raised above to

open the ball valve and due to this the space above the main diphagram
gets depressurized and raises the main diphagram. The main diphagram
gets raised, causes the central vent valve to open and to allow the air to
escape from load. The pressure thus gets reduced.
Adjusting screw
Pressure Setting spring
Ball Pilot Diphagaram

valve
Pressure Sensing line
Main Diphagram Light

spring
Outlet
Inlet
Inlet valve Vent Hollow Valve stem

16.20 Relieving pressure regulator.
The following information must be given while ordering a regulator of

either type:
1. Pressure range
2. Port size
3. With filter or without filter
16.14 Lubricator
It works on the principle of ventri, which creates a pressure difference
between two surfaces. If the level of water in a capillary tube is to be
raised then the pressure of water in the surface of container has to be
increased.
Lubricator in the pneumatic system works on the principle of the oil
vapour lubricator, which mix the passing air with a very small
percentage of oil atomized to microscopic fineness. This covers all the
parts of succeeding system with oil film ensuring lubrication and rust
proofing.
Compressed air 315
R
P
T
X C
Symbol for Lubricator
16.21 Lubricator.
Part of air entering inlet P is directed through the venturi R into the oil
reservoir. The remaining air is diverted around an adjustable vane by pass.
The air passing through venutri R creates a pressure difference, which
causes the oil in the reservoir to flow up through the tube X to sight feed
done Y.
The action of air and oil creates finely divided oil fog in the upper part
of the reservoir. All the oil particles larger than 2 m fall out returning to
the oil reservoir and small particle remain air borne. The microfog represent
about 5–10% of the oil which passes through the outlet to the air line then
to the point of lubrication.
16.14.1 Setting
The quantity of oil can be adjusted by turning the screw with a screw
driver given on the top of lubricator. An arrow indicates the direction of
rotation for increasing the amount of oil.
If the amount of oil presented to air in the lubricator is less then there
will be more friction inside the cylinder between the piston and cylinder
wall, which would result in more heat, and would wear out the oil seal and
o-ring, etc.
If the oil amount presented to the air in the lubricator is more, then
emulsification takes place, i.e. a sticky paste is formed which restricts the
functioning of piston.
If no specific guideline has been provided regarding oil lubrication then
use the following setting provided. First open the outlet connection of
lubricator. Place hand in the front of the outlet. If the oil is dropping from
hand then reduce lubrication, as it is more. If hand remains dry then increase
the lubrication.
16.14.2 How to order?

The following information must be given while ordering
I. Port size
II. Flow rate in l/min
III. Maximum supply pressure
IV. Bowl capacity
16.15 Moisture separator

It works on the principle of centrifugal force, i.e. when a mixture of light
and heavy particle move along the curved path. Centrifugal force would
send the heavier particle towards the center. This lighter particle would
continue to move with the same velocity and continue to move along a
curve.
In a moisture separator, the airflow through the unit is made to undergo
a sudden reversal of direction and a deflector cone swirls the air. Since the
air consists of light particles, it can bend easily but water particles are
heavier. They are not able to keep to the curve and flung on to the wall of
the separator. These water particles collect in the trap at the bottom from
where the water can be drained.
inlet Outlet
Symbol
Deflector Cone
Glassbowl
Filter
Baffle Swirl introduced by the deflector cone
Condensed Moisture
Drain Plug
16.22 Moisture separator.
The water collected in separator should be drained out. It is advisable

to check the separator after every 500 hours. If the fluid in the bowl of the
Compressed air 317
separator has collected above the baffle disc, it has to be drained out. If it
is not drained, then the separator would not function properly. The air will
absorb moisture from the separator rather than removing it. In summer air
will absorb more moisture; hence the separator must be checked before
500 hours.
Maintenance
1. Clean the sight glass and inside fitting with soapy water.
2. Do not use solvent like petrol and CTC; they would decompose the
plastic making it opaque.
3. Apply silicon grease to O-ring.
4. Replace the bowl immediately if the bowl is cracked, otherwise air
would leak hence there will be a pressure fluctuation.
A fine filter is provided to arrest all the impurities carried by the air.
The filtration sleeve is made of sintered bronze with 25 micron pore size.
It may clog up due to dust particles. To remove the clogged dust particles,
unscrew the plastic container and take out the sintered insert; immersed it
in a solvent then spin dry and leave to dry off. The filter insert should be
re-fitted in dry state only.
16.16 Minimum pressure switch

The switch prevents the machine from running without pressure or brings
it to stop if the pressure falls due to any trouble in the pipe system or in
compressor installation. The machine should stop when the pressure drops
below t a certain minimum pressure which can be set on the switch. When
the pressure rises above pressure set on the minimum pressure switch,
then the machine re-starts.
Operation
The control signal pressure is applied to the bottom of the piston, and
spring action is used for the reversed movement as shown in Fig. 16.23.
The piston rod moves up against the spring pressure when the pressure is
more than the preset value and moves down in case of pressure failure/
reduction. This downward movement actuates the control signal to stop
the machine.
Procedure for setting:

1. Set the regulator to the required pressure.
Control signal
Spring
16.23 Minimum pressure switch.
2. Turn the nut no. 1 provided in the pressure switch clockwise until
the pressure gauge reads minimum pressure to which it is to be set.
3. At this setting when pressure reaches the required value, the micro
switch closes the circuit of machine.
4. Thereafter machine pressure can be set to the preset value for normal
functioning of machine by regulator.
Control signal
16.24 Control signal.
16.17 Filters
Filters are used to remove dirt and smoke particles before they can cause
damage to the pneumatic equipment. Filters are classified according to
the size of particles. Particle size is measured in micrometer. Dust particles
are generally larger than 10 mm whereas smoke particles are around 1
mm. A filter can have normal rating (where it blocks 98% particles of
specified size) or absolute rating (where it blocks 100% particles of
specified size). Microfilters, with removable cartridge with air passing
from the centre to outside of cartridge case, remove 99.9% of particles
down to 0.01 mm. Coarse filters constructed out of wire mesh are called
stainers, and are often used as inlet filters. They are usually specified in
terms of mesh size, which approximates to the particle size in micrometer.
Compressed air 319
Mesh size Size (μm)
325 30
550 10
750 6
How to order?
Following information must be given while ordering
I. Port size
II. Max supply pressure
III. Filter size
IV. Bowl capacity
16.18 Safety valves

The safety valve is set to blow off only when the pressure to the drafting
arrangement increases more than the standard preset working pressure.
As soon as discharge causes the pressure to drop below or equal to the
working pressure, the safety valve seals tightly again. It is directly connected
to the pressure regulator. A ball valve is closed by spring tension adjustable to
required pressure. When the force due to air pressure exceeds the preset value
of the spring force, then ball gets raised and valve opens and releases air thus
reducing the pressure. A safety valve has a flow pressure relationship; therefore
it self seals itself once the pressure falls below the cracking pressure.
Adjustable screw
Setting spring
Exhaust
Exhaust
16.25 Safety valve.
The following information must be given for ordering a safety valve:

I. Port size
II. Working pressure range
16.19 Non-return valve

It allows flow only in one direction. The simplest construction is the ball and
seat arrangement. These valves are used normally where the system should
not rapidly exhaust on removal of supply or to provide unidirectional flow in
one signal line or supply line. They can be used in conjunction with a directional
control valve to lock pneumatic cylinders in intermediate position.
Ball Light Spring
Free Flow
Free Flow
16.26 Non-return valve.
The following information must be given to order this valve:

1. Working pressure range
2. Port size
16.20 Quick release valve

It is used to vent cylinders quickly, i.e. cylinder speed can be increased by
using these units. It is primarily used with spring return (single acting)
pneumatic cylinder. The exhaust air is allowed to pass directly to the
atmosphere instead (through the directional control valve) allowing the
pressure on the exhaust side of the cylinder to decay much more rapidly.
Port
Port
Source Exhaust
Exhaust Source
16.27 Quick release valve.

I. Working pressure range
II. Port size
Compressed air 321
16.21 Micro valve

It adjusts the rate at which air is admitted to or allowed out from a device
that can control the speed of pneumatic cylinder. It allows full flow in one
direction and restricted flow in other direction.
Adjusting screw
Needle valve
Restricted flow
Free Flow
Air Blocked
Flexible Free Flow

seal
Free Flow
Restricted flow
16.28 Micro valve.

II. Port size
16.22 Speed control device

It is used to control the speed of an actuator. It determines the fluid flow
rate and the actuator area. The physical dimension remains constant, so
speed is controlled by adjusting the airflow.
The two most common types of speed control devices are as follows:
1. Throttle disc
2. Throttle valve
16.22.1 Throttle disc

It is the circular disc of brass with a hole of specific size. It is directly
fitted on the orifice of input or output. Here speed is reduced by introducing
simple restriction in the pipe that leads to the actuator. The restriction
reduces the flow and allows speed to be reduced. It is used wherever
constant lag time is required to build up the pressure.
16.29 Throttle disc.
16.22.2 Throttle valve

It is used where it is not practical to mount speed control fitting into the
port of pneumatic cylinder. Therefore in line flow control, a regulator can
be used to provide speed control. This valve operates by maintaining
constant pressure drop across an orifice restriction in line and the rate
being adjusted by altering the orifice. It is used in situations where the
variation in lag time to build the pressure is needed.
Adjusting screw
Restricted flow
inlet
out let
16.30 Throttle valve.
The following information must be given to order this valve.

II. Port size
16.23 Time delay valve

They are used to delay the operation in a pneumatic system where a time-
based sequence is required.
Time delay control valve are available in two modes.
1. Normally closed timer gives pneumatic output a preset time after the
supply of pneumatic input.
2. Normally open timer starts the application of pneumatic input and
shut off the output after a preset time.
Compressed air 323
The following information must be given to order this valve.
I. Time delay amount

II. Mode
III. Adjustment method
16.24 Port flow control valve

These fittings allow flow regulation for speed control and, at the same
time greatly reduce the noise caused by exhausting air as the velocity of
exhaust air jet is also reduced. These fittings are directly screwed into
exhaust port of solenoid valve and these help in providing a safer working
environment.
The following information must be given while ordering.
I. Port size
II. Select flow rate
III. Noise level permissible
16.25 Silencer
This reduces the noise caused by exhausting air by reducing its velocity.
The air velocity is reduced by diffusing the flow over a large area. This
permits dealing with high flow rates hence no reduction in piston speed.
This silencer is screwed into valve exhaust port, and provides a safe and
more pleasant working environment. Only a port size needs to be mentioned
for ordering a silencer.
16.26 Piping
Pneumatic systems are linked to air reservoir by pipes. A pipe, i.e. piping
is subjected to shock load due to pressure changes inside the pipe. To
avoid bursting of pipe good quality pipes are used i.e. G.I. pipe. Piping
must therefore be securely mounted and protected where there is danger
from accidental damage. Line fittings such as valve and filter units have
their own mounting and do not rely upon the support of pipe.
Where flexibility is needed and working pressure is low. Nylon tubing
or brass pipes are used. Pipe pieces are connected to get a longer length.
The joining can be by means of welding, threaded connections and push
type fitting. G.I. and steel pipes are connected by welding. Welded
connections are leak-free and robust; therefore these form the main choice
for the fixed, main distribution pipe lines. However, threaded (elbow)
connections are needed where a bend in a pipeline is desired or necessary.
Plastic tubing are mainly connected by push type fitting and threaded
connectors.
16.27 Pressure hoses

These are rubber hoses covered with canvas and are used for weighting
the drafting rollers in different machines. For their proper maintenance, it
should be ensured that the air is free from moisture and oil connectors
should have proper sealing like tapes. These hoses become wet and sticky
due to sweating. Therefore these should be removed from steel housing
pipe once a year, cleaned, dried and refitted. While refitting, it should be
ensure that pressure ledges do not act against the seam of hose
16.28 Push-type fitting

These fittings are used as a connector of pipe and are also called touch
fitting, since no tools are needed as in case of threaded fitting. The tube is
connected to fitting by simple push and can be released by pressing a cap.
Advantages of these types of fittings are
1. Full area of tube is available for full flow of air as holding is done by
the outer part of the tube.
2. No tool is required for connecting and disconnecting.
3. Absolutely maintenance free for long time.
Precautions to be taken while fitting the tube

1. Check outer diameter of the tube.
2. Cut the tube ends using a proper cutting tool.
3. Square the cut edge and free it from the burrs.
4. When reconnecting the tube, cut the edge of the tube once again,
square and burr free 10 mm away from the old edge of the tube to
ensure leak proof joint.
How to order?
1. Name the type of connector.
2. Give the outer diameter of tube.
3. Give the detail of other side of connector.
16.28.1 How to use push-type fittings?

1. Opening the tube fitting
Compressed air 325
(a) Push the ring 1 in by using the right hand finger as shown in
Figure 16.31.
(b) At the same time pull on the nylon tube 2 with the left hand.
1
a)
b)
16.31 Disconnecting a push-type fitting.
2. Connecting the tube

(a) Push the tube 2 in.
(b) Pull the tube 2 to check whether the connection is right.
16.32 Connecting a push-type fitting.
16.29 Threaded connector

These metallic connectors have male part and female part on either side of
pipe. The male part has an external threaded portion at one end and the
female portion has an internal thread corresponding to the male threading.
How to order?
1. Give the name of type of connector.
2. Size of both the threaded connector.
Type of different connector are plug type connector, double nipple, pipe
coupling, tee and elbow connector.
16.30 Barbed-type connectors

These are made of brass or plastic and are used for connecting plastic
pipes. Their ends are made taper and with several steps. This construction
helps in tightening the fitting to piping. They are also provided with lock
nuts which need to be ‘finger tight’ to ensure a pressure tight connection
between the fitting and the tube.
How to order?
1. Give the name of type of connector.
2. Give the internal diameter of tube to be connected.
16.31 Solenoid valve

There are three types of solenoid valve that are made normally open,
normally closed and universal valve.
16.31.1 Normally closed valve (NC)

In normally closed valve the air is exhausted from the cylinder, i.e. no air
is supplied and in the energized state air goes from inlet to cylinder. The
spring used is longer and harder as it block the air at inlet. Top rubber in
the plunger is softer while that at bottom is hard.
16.31.2 Normally open valve (NO)

In normal state air goes from inlet to the cylinder in NO and in the energized
state air goes from cylinder to exhaust. The spring is shorter and softer as
magnetic flux has to overcome two forces one is spring and other is
pressure. Top rubber plunger is hard. A soft rubber causes air leakage.
16.31.3 Universal valve

It works like both NC and NO but it works in combination with NO and NC.
How to check solenoid?

Put the spring and the plunger in the coil and give electrical supply. If the
plunger operates, it is in good condition. If it does not, it means that the
coil is burnt. If electric supply is given without putting the plunger the
coil will burnt.
16.32 Dial indicator

It consists of a metal tube called bourdon tube oval in cross-section bent
to form a circular segment of approximately 200–300 degrees. The tube is
Compressed air 327
fixed in its position and is open at one end to which the pressure to be
measured is applied. The other end of tube is closed but is free to allow
displacement under the deforming action of pressure difference across the
width. When pressure is applied then cross-section of tube tends to become
circular. This makes the tube straighten itself out which results in an
increase in its radius of curvature, i.e. free end moves away from the centre.
The free end of the tube is connected to a spring load linkage which
amplifies the displacement and transmits it as an angular rotation of a
pointer over a calibrated scale. This gives a mechanical indication of the
amount of pressure. A hair spring is used to fasten the spindle to the frame
of the instrument to provide tension necessary for ensuring proper meshing
of gear teeth. Thus the system is made free from blacklash.
The reference point in the dial indicator containing the bourdon tube is
usually the atmospheric pressure, so the pointer indicates the gauge pressure.
Zero error sometimes occurs due to pointers becoming loose on the
spindle. It remains constant for the entire pressure range. This error is
rectified by repositioning the pointer in its correct position.
Multiplication error can occur

Where by the gauge tends to give progressively higher or lower readings.
This error results from wrong setting in the multiplication mechanism between
the bourdon tube and the spindle. To rectify this error, the multiplication screw
is loosened and the connecting link is moved either a little inward (if the
gauge reads low) or a little outward (if gauge reads high).
Case
Bourden tube
40
Quadrant
20
Endpiece
Movement
Connecting
Bezel link
Block
Dial
16.33 Dial indicator.
16.33 Compressed air system leaks

Leaks can be a significant source of wasted energy in an industrial
compressed air system, sometimes wasting 20–30 percent of a compressor’s
output. A typical plant that has not been well-maintained will likely have
a leak rate equal to 20 percent of total compressed air production capacity.
On the other hand, proactive leak detection and repair can reduce leaks to
less than 5 percent of compressor output. In addition to being a source of
wasted energy, leaks can also contribute to other operating losses. Leaks
cause a drop in system pressure, which can make air tools function less
efficiently, adversely affecting production. In addition, by forcing the
equipment to run longer, leaks shorten the life of almost all system
equipment (including the compressor package itself). Increased running
time can also lead to additional maintenance requirements and increased
unscheduled downtime. Finally, leaks can lead to adding unnecessary
compressor capacity.
While leakage can come from any part of the system, the most common
problem areas are as follows:
● Couplings, hoses, tubes, and fittings
● Pressure regulators
● Open condensate traps and shut-off valves
● Pipe joints, disconnects, and thread sealants
16.33.1 Estimating amount of leakage

For compressors that have start/stop or load/unload controls, there is an
easy way to estimate the amount of leakage in the system. This method
involves starting the compressor when there are no demands on the system
(when all the air-operated, end-use equipment is turned off). A number of
measurements are taken to determine the average time it takes to load and
unload the compressor. The compressor will load and unload because the
air leaks will cause the compressor to cycle on and off as the pressure
drops from air escaping through the leaks. Total leakage (percentage) can
be calculated as follows:
Leakage (%) = [(T × 100)/(T + t)]
where, T = on-load time (minutes)
t = off-load time (minutes)
Leakage will be expressed in terms of the percentage of compressor
capacity lost. The percentage lost to leakage should be 5% percent in a
well-maintained system. Poorly maintained systems can have losses as
high as 20–30 percent of air capacity and power.
Compressed air 329
16.34 Leak detection

Since air leaks are almost impossible to see, other methods must be used
to locate them. The best way to detect leaks is to use an ultrasonic acoustic
detector, which can recognize the high-frequency hissing sounds associated
with air leaks. These portable units consist of directional microphones,
amplifiers, and audio filters, and usually have either visual indicators or
earphones to detect leaks. A simpler method is to apply soapy water with
a paint brush to suspect areas. Although reliable, this method can be time
consuming.
16.34.1 Ultrasonic leak detection

Ultrasonic leak detection is probably the most versatile form of leak
detection. Because of its capabilities, it is readily adapted to a variety of
leak detection situations. The principle behind ultrasonic leak detection is
simple. In a pressure or vacuum leak, the leak flows from a high-pressure
laminar flow to a low-pressure turbulence. The turbulence generates a white
noise which contains a broad spectrum of sound ranging from audible to
inaudible frequencies. An ultrasonic sensor focuses in on the ultrasonic
elements in the noise. Because ultrasound is a short wave signal, the sound
level will be loudest at the leak site. Ultrasonic detectors are generally
unaffected by background noises in the audible range because these signals
are filtered out.
Ultrasonic detectors can find mid- to large-sized leaks. The advantages
of ultrasonic leak detection include versatility, speed, ease of use, the ability
to perform tests while equipment is running, and the ability to find a wide
variety of leaks.
16.34.2 How to fix leaks

Leaks occur most often at joints and connections. Stopping leaks can be
as simple as tightening a connection or as complex as replacing faulty
equipment , such as couplings, fittings, pipe sections, hoses, joints, drains,
and traps. In many cases, leaks are caused by failing to clean the threads
or by bad or improperly applied thread sealant. Select high quality fittings,
disconnects, hose, tubing, and install them properly with appropriate thread
sealant.
Non-operating equipment can be an additional source of leaks.
Equipment no longer in use should be isolated with a valve in the
distribution system. Another way to reduce leaks is to lower the air pressure
of the system. The lower the pressure differential across an orifice or leak,
the lower the rate of flow, so reduced system pressure will result in reduced
leakage rates. Stabilizing the system header pressure at its lowest practical
range will minimize the leakage rate for the system. Once leaks have been
repaired, the compressor control system must be re-evaluated to realize
the total savings potential.
16.34.3 Establishing a leak prevention program

There are two basic types of leak repair programs: the leak tag program
and the seek and repair program. The seek and repair is the simplest. As
it states, you simply find the leak and repair it immediately. With the leak
tag program, the leak is identified with a tag and logged for repair at a
later time. This is often a two-part tag; one part stays on the leak and the
other part is turned into the maintenance department, identifying the
location, size, and description of the leak to be repaired. The best approach
depends on the type, size, and the culture/work practices of the facility. It
is more likely that the best solution will be a combination of the two.
16.35 Pressure drop and controlling system pressure

Pressure drop is a term used to characterize the reduction in air pressure
from the compressor discharge to the actual point-of-use. Pressure drop
occurs as the compressed air travels through the treatment and distribution
system. A properly designed system should have a pressure loss of much
less than 10 percent of the compressor’s discharge pressure, measured
from the receiver tank output to the point-of-use. Excessive pressure drop
will result in poor system performance and excessive energy consumption.
Flow restrictions of any type in a system require higher operating pressures
than are needed, resulting in higher energy consumption.
16.35.1 What causes pressure drop?

Any type of obstruction, restriction, or roughness in the system will cause
resistance to air flow and cause pressure drop. In the distribution system,
the highest pressure drops usually are found at the point-of-use, including
undersized or leaking hoses, tubes, disconnects, filters, regulators and
lubricators. On the supply side of the system, air/lubricant separators, after
coolers, moisture separators, dryers and filters can be the main items
causing significant pressure drops. The maximum pressure drop from the
supply side to the points-of-use will occur when the compressed air flow
rate and temperature are highest. System components should be selected
based upon these conditions and the manufacturer of each component
should be requested to supply pressure drop information under these
conditions.
Compressed air 331
16.35.2 Minimizing pressure drop

Minimizing pressure drop requires a systems approach in design and
maintenance of the system. Air treatment components, such as after coolers,
moisture separators, dryers, and filters, should be selected with the lowest
possible pressure drop at specified maximum operating conditions. When
installed, the recommended maintenance procedures should be followed
and documented. Additional ways to minimize pressure drop are as follows:
● Properly design the distribution system.
● Operate and maintain air filtering and drying equipment to reduce
the effects of moisture, such as pipe corrosion.
● Select after coolers, separators, dryers and filters having the lowest
possible pressure drop for the rated conditions.
● Reduce the distance the air travels through the distribution system.
● Specify pressure regulators, lubricators, hoses, and connections
having the best performance characteristics at the lowest pressure
differential. These components must be sized based upon the actual
rate of flow and not the average rate of flow.
16.36 Compressor air system economics

In most spinning mills an interruption of compressed air supply means
also an interruption of the production which can cause a big financial loss
that is why most installations are equipped with a stand by compressor,
because an even a short disruption of the compressed air supply can cause
very costly production loss. Delivering compressed air in spinning mill is
an expensive operation. Delivery requires costly compressed air
manufacturing equipments, amount of electricity and needs frequent
maintenance cost.
To provide compressed air continuously with the lowest risk of
interruption for the lowest possible cost is the major task of technician
these days. To reduce the cost of compressed air one must analyze the
factors which will contribute to the manufacturing cost of compressed air.
1. Electricity cost
2. Maintenance cost
3. Depreciation
1. Electricity cost – Compressor is a converter which converts one source
of energy, i.e. electricity to another form of energy called compressed air.
The most efficient this conversion is, lower the manufacturing cost.
Electricity cost = compressor capacity × electricity consumption ×
electricity cost × operational hours.
As a thumb rule 7 kW/h is required to produce 1m3/min air.

2. Depreciation cost = investment × depreciation, where as depreciation
is normally 10% of capital investment.
3. Maintenance Cost includes all expenses required to run compressor
like labour, spare parts, etc.
16.37 Maintenance of pneumatic system
Table 16.3 Maintenance schedule for pneumatic systems
Frequency Items
Yearly • Check all pipe lines

Six Month • Check piston rod guides , guide bush , packing and sealing
• Check for leakage and performance of appliance
Monthly • Inspect and clean filters
• Inspect leaks in screw union, valves
Weekly • Inspect hoses for leaks links and fitness
• Check air gauges and pressure reducing valve
• Check lubricator for feed control and correct
Daily • Drain condense water from filter
• Check oil level in lubricator
References
1. Hydraulics and Pneumatics (1994) by ANDREW PARR.
2. Festo Products 2002/2003 CD version 4/2002.
3. Norgern product CD 98.
4. Janatics Catalogue.
5. Improving Compressed Air System Performance by U.S. Department of Energy.
6. Compressed air engineering by Kaesar compressors.
7. Pneumatic hand book by Antony Barber, published by Elsevier Advanced
Technology.
9. Compressed Air manual by Atalas Copco.
17
Bearing and its maintenance
17.1 Introduction
During motion when two surfaces come in contact, the resistance
generated is called friction. Two types of friction occurs when sliding
friction and rolling friction. Sliding friction results when one surface slides
over the other. In this type of motion the area of the contact between the
two surfaces is large and hence the resistance is more. In rolling friction,
the surface contact is less which results in less friction. Rolling friction is
less than the sliding friction. Bearings are used to reduce friction and always
work on the principle of rolling friction.
17.2 Bearing
1. Bearing consist of the following elements: inner ring rolling element,
cage, outer ring and seal/shield.
Inner Ring
Cage
Rolling Element
Outer Ring
17.1 Bearing.
17.2.1 Inner ring/outer ring

The surface on which the rolling elements roll is referred to as the ‘raceway
surface’. The load placed on the bearings is supported by this contact
333
surface. The inner ring is used fitted on the shaft and the outer ring on the
housing. These are made of high-grade carbon chromium steel with a high
degree of cleanliness and surface finish. Both rings are made of different
sizes and shapes depending upon the type of bearing. Both rings have a
groove through out the circumference compatible to the size and type of
rolling element. Each ring is given heat treatment so as to possess hardness
between 59 and 65 HRC.
17.2 Rings of bearing.
17.2.2 Rolling element

Rolling elements come in two general shapes: balls or rollers. Rollers come
in four basic styles: cylindrical, needle, tapers and spherical. Rolling
elements function to support the load while rolling on the bearing ring.
The rolling element is held by the cage at a certain distance from each
other between the inner ring and the outer ring. Rolling elements are made
of carbon chromium steel, stainless steel or alloyed quality steel with
hardness between58 and 65 HRC.
Rolling elements are further classified depending upon their shape:
1. Ball is designated as RB available in the range 0.6–28 mm diameter.
17.3 Balls of bearing.
2. Roller are designated as RC and available in the range 4–70 mm

diameter and 6–98 mm in length.
Bearing and its maintenance 335
Cylinderical Taper Spherical Needle

17.4 Type of rollers.
17.2.3 Cage
The main function of the cage is to keep the two successive rolling elements
apart so that they will not come in contact with each other during movement.
Use of the cage results in lower friction and lower heat generation. Secondly
the cage helps in retaining the rolling elements during mounting and
dismounting in case of separable bearings. Thirdly, it also acts as a reservoir
for the lubricant since some grease always adheres to the cage.
The cage is made from polyamide cage steel cage and brass cage.
Polyamide cage
Polyamide cage is used in small and medium sized bearing. It can be used
up to working temperature of less than 120°C. When operating temperature
is considerably above 120°C then bearing is fitted with metallic cage.
Polyamide cage also is not suitable for temperature below –40°C as it loses
elasticity.
17.5 Polyamide cage.
Steel cage
Pressed cage made out of steel sheet are standard for many ball bearings,
spherical bearings and most taper roller bearings. Steel can be used for
temperature up to 300°C, and is not affected by organic solvent, synthetic
and mineral based oils. There is a risk of corrosion due to presence of
moisture.
17.6 Steel cage.
Brass cage
Pressed brass cage are used for small and medium size bearings. Brass
cage cannot be used in case of 300°C. The use of alkaline cleaning agents
is not recommend because ammonia causes season cracking in brass cage
so brass cages are unsuitable where we use alkaline cleaning agent.
17.7 Brass cage.
17.2.4 Seal/shield
Bearings which are equipped with a seal/shield contain optimum quantity
of grease. Hence there is no need to grease these bearings after mounting.
Shelf-life of shield bearings is less as compared to bearing without seals.
The quality of grease deteriorates after the period of 2–3 year. They must
be used on the principle of FIFO (first in first out).
17.8 Seal.
Table 17.1 Difference between seal and shield
Seal Shield
Made of steel Made of rubber

Gap between seal and inner ring No gap
Cannot prevent the dirt and foreign matter Prevents from foreign matter
from entering inside the bearing
Cheap Costly
Friction is less Friction is more
17.2.5 Materials for bearing

Steel used for any element of a bearing must possess the following
properties: appropriate hardness, high fatigue strength, wear resistance
and high stability at high temperature.
Bearings are mostly made of either through hardened steel and case
hardening steel.
The through hardening steel has some carbon and 1.0–1.5% of
chromium. This steel is fully alloyed with manganese and molybdenum to
attain through hardening properties.
The case hardening steel consists of chromium nickel and manganese
with a carbon content of 0.15%. The bearings made from such steel can be
used up to 125°C. If the bearings are required to operate at a temperature
above 125°C then they need special heat treatment process.
17.3 Types of bearing

Bearings can be classified based on the nature of their rolling element or
the load acting or the nature of application. On the basis of rolling element,
bearings are divided into two categories: ball bearing and roller bearing.
17.3.1 Ball bearing

The ball bearings provide a point contact, and so the friction is less. Ball
bearing can be run at high speed but can carry less load. Ball bearings are
further divided into three categories suitable for the type of load and
applications: deep groove ball bearing, self aligning bearing and angular
contact ball bearing.
17.3.2 Deep groove ball bearing

These are the most common bearings used in the textile industry especially
in spinning mill. These bearings can carry both radial and axial load. The
bearing contains one row of ball bearing with a flat raceway in the inner
ring and outer ring. These bearings are available in the market with seal or
shield; and without seal or shield.
Both radial and Radial load

axial load
simultaneously
Width of bearing
Ball Cage
Outer Diameter
Bore Diameter
Axial Load
Inner Ring
Outer Ring
17.9 Deep groove ball bearing.
17.3.3 Self-aligning bearing

A self-aligning ball bearing has two rows of balls with common spherical
raceways in the outer ring. This feature endows them with the self aligning
Radial load
Ball
Outer diameter
Inner diameter
Inner Ring
Outer Ring
Width of bearing
17.10 Self-aligning cylindrical bore ball bearing.

properties and permits them to work properly even with a slight

misalignment of shaft relative to the housing. They are particularly suitable
for application where misalignment can arise from errors in mounting or
shaft deflection. These bearings are made with seal or without seal. They
are also available with tapered bore and adapter sleeve.
Inner diameter
Outer diameter
Width of bearing
17.11 Self-aligning bearing with taper bore.
17.3.4 Angular contact ball bearing

An angular ball bearing has the raceways of the inner ring and of the outer
ring, displaced with respect to each other in the direction of bearing axis.
This means they are suitable for accommodation of both radial and axial
load. This axial load carrying capacity of an angular contact ball bearing
increases with increasing contact angle a as shown in Fig. 17.12. This is
defined as the angle between the line joining the point of contact between
the ball and raceways in the radial plane (along which the load is transmitted
from one raceway to another) and line ⊥ to the bearing axis.
Radial load
Both radial and

axial load
simultaneously
17.12 Angular contact ball bearing.
17.3.5 Single row angular contact ball bearing

A single row angular contact ball bearing can accommodate axial loading
in one direction only. This ball bearing has one high shoulder on each row
enabling a large no of balls to be incorporated. This gives them very high
loading capacity.
Width of bearing
Inner Diameter
Outer Diameter
17.13 Single row angular contact ball bearing.
To counteract the axial load, these bearings are must be fitted in pairs.
Normally three types of pairs are made: face to face, and tandem and back
to back.
Back to Back Face to Face Tandom

arrangement arrangement arrangement
17.14 Arranged in pairs.
1. Back-to-back arrangement
It can accommodate radial loads and axial loads in either direction. As it has
a large distance between the acting load centre of the bearing, and therefore
a large momentary force load capacity. Allowable misalignment angle is small.
2. Face-to-face arrangement
It can accommodate radial loads and axial loads in either direction.. As it
has a smaller distance between the acting load centre of the bearing, and
therefore a smaller momentary force load capacity. But it can be used where
more misalignment angle is required
3. Tandom arrangement
It can accommodate radial loads and single direction axial loads. Axial
loads are received by both bearings as a set, and therefore it can handle
heavy axial loads.
17.3.6 Double row angular contact ball bearing

These ball bearings are similar to two single angular contact ball bearing
arranged back to back but they are narrower than that double width. They
can accommodate both radial and axial loads in both directions and having
a contact angle of 30°.
17.15 Double row angular contact ball bearing.

17.3.7 Four point contact ball bearing

These are single angular contact ball bearings with raceways, designed
to take the axial load in both the directions and possess a contact angle
of 35°. These bearings are made separable by design, i.e. the inner ring
and the outer ring with ball and cage can be mounted individually/
separately. When the inner and outer rings receive a radial load the ball
bearings contact the inner and outer rings at four points. This construction
enables a single bearing to accommodate axial loads from either direction.
17.16 Four point contact ball bearing.
17.4 Roller bearings

These bearings provide a line contact at the roller element so they can
function well at higher load and speeds. These bearings are further
classified depending upon the shape of roller: cylindrical, spherical roller,
taper roller and needle bearings.
17.4.1 Cylindrical roller bearing

These are of four types: NU, N, NJ and NUP as shown in Fig. 17.17.
The NU type has two internal flanges on the outer rings and an inner
ring without internal flange.
N type has an inner ring with two internal flanges and an outer ring
with two flanges. Due to this arrangement some axial displacement of
the shaft is permitted in both directions within certain limit, i.e. any
change in length which take place due to as thermal expansion can be
accommodated. Therefore these bearings are called non-locating
bearings.
Radial Load
width of bearing
Outer Diameter
Inner Diameter
NU NJ NUP N
17.17 Four types of cylindrical bearing.
The NJ type bearing has two internal flanges on the outer ring and one
internal flange on the inner ring so axial location can be provided for the
shaft only in one direction.
The NUP cylindrical bearing has two flanges on the outer ring, while
the inner ring has an internal flange and one loose flange which permit the
bearing to locate itself axially in both the directions.
17.4.2 Spherical roller bearings

These bearings have two rows of rollers with a common spherical raceway
in the outer ring. Two inner raceway rings are inclined at an angle to the
bearing axis. The bearings are self-aligning and can accommodate slight
errors of alignment of shaft relative to the housing. The bearing can
accommodate axial load in both the directions.
Both radial Load

and axial laod
simultaneously Radial Load
Width of bearing
Inside Diameter
Outside Diameter
Inside Diameter
Axial Load
Spherical roller bearing with Spherical roller bearing with

cylinderical Bore tapered bore
17.18 Spherical roller bearings.
17.4.3 Tapered roller bearings

Taper roller bearings have tapered inner and outer ring raceways between
which the tapered rollers are arranged. If extended, the tapered surface would
Both radial load Radial Load

and axial load
simultaneously
Inside Diameter
Outside Diameter
Axial Load
17.19 Tapered roller bearings.

converge towards a single point on the bearing axis. This means the rolling
conditions are optimum. Their axial load carrying capacity is largely
determined by the contact angle, a which corresponds to the angle of outer
ring raceway. The larger the angle the larger is the load carrying capacity.
17.4.4 Needle bearing

This is one type of cylindrical roller bearing. A cylindrical roller bearing
is called needle bearing when the ratio l/d of roller is greater than 2.5.
Here l is the length of roller and d is the diameter of roller in mm. These
bearings are used where there is a space limitation and the load is high.
Radial Load
Outer Diameter
Inner Diameter
Width of Bearing
17.20 Needle bearing.
Mostly four types of needle bearings are used as shown in Fig. 17.21.
1. Cage needle bearing
2. Machined ring needle bearing
3. Drawn cup needle bearing
Drawn cup Needle

Cage Needle Machined Ring
bearing
Bearing Needle bearing
17.21 Types of needle bearing.
17.4.5 Thrust bearings

These bearings are used where heavy axial loads and intensive shocks to
be borne are required. These are mostly single direction bearings and can
accommodate the axial loads in one direction only. Only spherical roller
thrust bearing can accommodate radial load in addition to axial load as
the load is transmitted from one raceway to another at an angle to the
bearing axis.
They are also classified on the basis of type of roller element: thrust
ball bearing, cylindrical roller bearing, needle roller thrust bearing, and
spherical roller thrust bearing.
Inner Diameter
Height of Bearing
Outer Diameter
17.22 Thrust bearings.
17.5 Bearing designation

Bearing designation describes the type of bearing, its load carrying capacity,
and the diameter of shaft on which it is to be mounted.
The first digit represents the type of bearing, second and third digits
represent the load carrying capacity, i.e. width and outer diameter of
bearing. The last two digits represent the diameter of the shaft on which
the bearing is to be mounted.
The bore diameter is obtained by multiplying the last two digits by 5.
This is applicable only if last two digits are 4 and above. For less than 4,
the bearing diameter is fixed as given in Table 17.2.
Table 17.2 Inner diameter of the bearing
Last two digits Bearing inner

diameter
00 10
01 12
02 15
03 17
The first digit position represents the type of bearing as given in Table
17.3.
Table 17.3 Type of bearing
First digit Type of bearing
0 Angular contact ball bearing double row

1 Self-aligning bearing
2 Spherical roller bearing
4 Deep groove ball bearing double row
6 Deep groove ball bearing single row
7 Angular contact ball bearing single row
N Cylindrical bearing
5 Thrust ball bearing
3 Taper roller bearing
8 Cylindrical roller thrust bearing
QJ Four point angular contact ball bearing
Second and third digits represent the load carrying capacity.

Table 17.4 Load levels
Second digit Type of load
o Extra light load

1 Light load
2 Medium load
3 Heavy load
4 Extra heavy load
Example of bearing no. 6206

1. First digit ‘6’ represents that it is deep groove single row ball bearing.
2. Second digit ‘2’ represents medium size load bearing.
3. Last two digits ‘06’ represent 06 × 5 = 30 mm, the diameter of shaft
on which bearing has to be mounted.
If the bearing specification is not given or known, then its type is seen
from its construction itself. The three useful dimension to be measured are
the outer diameter D, inner diameter d, width or height if it is a thurst bearing.
W
D
d
17.23 Measurements for cylindrical bearing.

For cylindrical bearing

D = outer diameter
d = inner diameter
W = width of the bearing
Thrust bearing
d
17.24 Measurements for thrust bearing.
D = outer diameter
d = inner diameter
H = height of the bearing
17.6 Internal clearance

It is the distance through which the inner ring can move relatively to another
and vice versa under no load, as shown in Fig. 17.25.
There are two types of internal clearance: radial or axial.
17.25 Internal clearance.

17.6.1 Reasons for internal clearance.

1. The internal diameter of the bearing is always less than the diameter
of the shaft on which the bearing has to be mounted. After the bearing
is mounted, the inner ring expands and the internal clearance
compensates for the expansion.
2. The diameter of the housing is made less than the outer ring diameter
of the bearing, which results in interference fit of the bearing. The
outer ring thus gets compressed thereby reducing the space available
for b the rolling element. Internal clearance compensates for the above
compression.
3. During running the temperature of various part of the bearing increases
due to friction and heat generation. Steel will expand with rise in
temperature leading to expansion of various parts of the bearing.
Internal clearance is provided to compensate for such expansion.
17.6.2 Type of internal clearance

Six different levels of internal clearance are provided in the bearings and
are designated by suffix ‘c’ with an integer.
Table 17.5 Bearing designation for internal clearance.
Designation Amount of clearance
C1 Smaller than C 2
C2 Smaller than normal
Nil Normal
C3 Greater than normal
C4 Greater than C 3
C5 Greater than C 4
Note: Normal clearance is not designated by any suffix.

Example 6206 C3 it means the bearing has internal clearance greater
than normal. If the bearing no. is only 6206, it means the bearing has a
normal clearance.
In case the bearing of recommended clearance is not available, then the
bearing of the next higher clearance can be used so that various expansions
can be compensated very easily.
17.7 Withdrawal sleeves with nut and locking

washer
These are used to secure bearings with a tapered bore on cylindrical seats.
Bearings are easier to mount and dismount using the withdrawal sleeves.
Use of sleeve permits locating the bearing at any position on the shaft.
These sleeves are supplied in a complete set, with locking nuts and washers
of the appropriate size. They are slotted and have an external taper of
1:12. Lock nuts have four or eight equally spaced slots around the periphery
to take the hook and impact spanner. These facilitate mounting and
dismounting on the withdrawal sleeve. Locking washers are engaged to a
groove in the sleeve and lock the nut in position.
17.26 Withdrawal sleeve.
17.8 Bearing characteristics

17.8.1 Friction
One characteristic of rolling bearings is that they produce less friction
than sliding bearings, particularly starting friction. Friction of rolling
bearings involves a variety of factors:
1. Friction that accompanies rolling (load).
2. Sliding friction between cage and rolling elements, and cage and
guide surface.
3. Sliding friction between roller end faces and guide rib.
4. Friction of lubricant or sealing device.
Table 17.6 Friction Factor for various bearing.
Type of bearing Friction factor ()
Deep groove ball bearing 1.0–1.5

Angular contact ball bearing 1.2–1.8
Self-aligning ball bearing 0.8–1.2
Cylindrical roller bearing 1.0–1.5
Needle roller bearing 2.0–3.0
Tapered roller bearing 1.7–2.6
Thrust roller bearing 2.0–3.0
17.8.2 Temperature
Almost all friction loss is converted to heat inside the bearing, causing the
temperature of the bearing itself to rise. Bearing temperature is determined
by the balance of the amount of heat produced and the amount of heat
released. In most cases temperature rises sharply during the initial stages
of operation, and then stabilizes to a somewhat lower temperature after a
certain amount of time elapses. The amount of time it takes to reach this
constant temperature differs according to various conditions such as bearing
size, type, rotational speed, load, lubrication, and heat release of the
housing. If constant temperature is never reached, it is assumed that there
is something wrong. Possible causes are as follows:
1. Insufficient bearing internal clearance or excessive preload.
2. Bearing is mounted improperly.
3. Excessive axial load due to heat expansion or improper mounting of
the bearing.
4. Excess/lack of lubricant, improper lubricant.
5. Heat is being generated from the sealing device.
17.8.3 Sound
When the inner or outer ring of the bearing turns, the rolling elements roll
along the raceway surface accompanying the cage, thus producing various
sounds and vibrations. In other words, vibration and sound is produced
according to shape and roughness of the rolling surface and sliding parts,
and the lubrication status.
17.9 Lubrication of bearing

The objective of lubricating a bearing is to form a film of oil on the rolling
and sliding surfaces to prevent metal parts from making direct contact
with each other. Lubrication provides the following effects:
1. Reduces friction and wear,
2. Discharges friction heat,
3. Extends bearing life,
4. Prevents rust and
5. Prevents foreign material from getting inside.
In order to get the most from the lubricant, one must choose a lubricant
and lubrication method that suits your usage conditions, and must make
use of sealing devices for preventing dirt from getting in and lubricant
from leaking out.
Grease is widely used because it is easy to handle, it facilitates sealing

device design, and is the most economical lubricant. The technique of
varies lubrication according to whether bearings are either separable or
non separable and whether their housing are split type or one piece.
17.9.1 Sealed bearing

Sealed bearings where the grease is sealed inside the bearing. These sealed
bearings do not need any re-lubrication. It is not advisable to open the
seal/shield for lubrication, as the seal/shield will not fit tight properly again.
17.9.2 Non-separable bearing

The deep groove and angular contact ball bearing are non-separable bearings.
These should be filled with grease from both ends. In self-aligning and spherical
roller bearings, the outer ring can be swivelled so that rolling elements are
accessible. Grease can be then injected into all free spaces between them.
17.9.3 Separable bearing

These include cylindrical, taper roller and all types of thrust bearings.
These bearings are greased in separate steps, the same order to determine
by mounting sequence.
After mounting the first ring, if this ring has a non-separable ball/roller
and cage assembly attached to it then grease the ring and fill the internal
space with grease. If the ring is separate, it is sufficient to grease it lightly
so that it will not get damaged when the outer ring with cage and ball/
roller is pushed on it.
17.9.4 Ball bearing in housing

When ball bearings are contained in housing with removable cover and no
grease nipple, they are managed with long-greasing intervals. Before re-
greasing, these bearings are to be dismounted and flushed out thoroughly.
When fitting the bearing again the bearing and its housing is to be filled
with grease, about one-third for shafts running at more than 500 rip. If the
bearings are packed full then balls have no room to turn and the bearing
gets hot. Slow running bearings may be packed full.
17.9.5 Bearing with grease nipple

These bearings are lubricated with a grease gun as per schedule. These
bearing require a very little quantity of grease (one or two strokes of the
grease gun). Bearings in housing equipped with grease nipple require 10–
15 stroke of grease gun (10–15 g) of grease at every re-lubricating interval).
17.9.6 Precautions while lubricating a bearing

1. Use only the recommended grade of grease. If a higher grade of grease
is used, it would become stiff at very low temperature results in poor
lubrication. The rolling elements of the bearing rotate with difficulty
and may slow down or stop completely in unloaded zone. When the
elements pass back into the loaded zone, they are immediately forced
to accelerate under load which results in heavy sliding.
Lower grade grease is used then at high temperature, there is a risk
of leakage of grease. At extremely high temperatures, the lubricate
grease particularly metallic soap grease oxidize rapidly and then
grease hardens and bleeding oil stops completely.
2. When a bearing is to be lubricated then first clean the grease nipple
and area around the fitting to avoid any combination.
3. Never mix the grease of different thickener then resulting mixture
will be either softer or sometime even much stiffer.
17.10 Mounting of different bearings

The following precautions should be taken while mounting the bearings:
1. Clean the shaft and abutment shoulders and check the seating with
regard to the diameter tolerance and accuracy.
2. Do not remove the bearing from packaging till mounting.
3. Protect the new bearing from dirt to the extent possible.
4. Leave the rust inhibiting compound intact except in the bearing bore
and on the outer ring’s outside surface. Wash these surfaces with a
petroleum-based solvent and dry.
Four different methods are used to mount different types of bearings:
mechanical, hydraulic, oil injection and heating method.
Textile mills need only small size bearings and use only the mechanical
methods to mount bearings.
17.10.1 Mounting a bearing on cylindrical seating by

press method
1. Apply a light oil to the shaft and to the bearing bore.
2. Put the bearing square on the shaft.
3. Use the mechanical press (Fig. 17.27) to mount the bearing.
4. Placed a sleeve in between the press and the bearing abutting the
ring of bearing.
5. Apply pressure till bearing reaches the seating area.
Force Force
Tube Pressed into Tube

Inner Ring
Tube Washer
Pressing
against both
the righs
17.27 Mounting press.
17.10.2 Mounting a bearing on cylindrical seating with

hammer and matching sleeve
1. Apply a light oil on the shaft and the bearing bore.
2. Put the bearing square on the shaft so that bearing is mounted at
right angle to the shaft.
3. Use an ordinary hammer or press and sleeve with impact ring to mount
the bearing.
4. The sleeve should be made of one piece to moderate the blows.
5. Hammer the sleeve till the bearing reaches the seating area.
Impact Ring
Bearing Impact sleeve
Shaft
Nylon Hammer
17.28 Mounting a bearing on cylindrical seating.
The precautions to be taken are as follows:

1. Never apply pressure in order to mount.
2. Never directly strike a bearing ring while mounting.
Wrong
17.29 Hammering on ring.
3. Never use a soft hammer on breakage of such a hammer, fragments

of soft material may go in the bearing while mounting.
17.10.3 Mounting a self-aligning bearing on the adapter

sleeve
1. Wipe the preservative from the sleeve and from the bearing bore;
then oil the outer surface of the sleeve lightly with mineral oil.
17.30 Wipe the preservative.
2. Apply oil to the threads and side face of the nut which is to abut the
ring.
17.31 Applying oil.
3. Open the sleeve slightly with the help of a screw drive and slide it to
the correct position on the shaft.
17.32 Position the sleeve on the shaft.
4. Place the bearing on the sleeve and screw the nut. Tighten the nut
just enough to ensure that bearing and shaft make contact with the
sleeve. But do not tighten to drive the bearing further up on the sleeve.
5. Tighten the nut with a hook spanner to achieve the right fit. Turn the
nut through 70–80°. Then reposition the spanner and tighten a few
degrees more by tapping on the spanner with hammer.
6. To check the bearing for correct drive up, rotate the outer ring of the
bearing. It should rotate easily but should resist swiveling.
7. Unscrew the nut, place the locking washer in position and then tighten
the nut firmly again making sure that bearing is not further drawn up.
17.33 Unscrew and tighten.
8. Lock the nut by bending one of the tab from the locking washer down
in the slot; but do not slacken the nut to get the tab to fit.
17.34 Bending a tab.

A loose adapter sleeve can lead to the inner ring turning on the adapter
sleeve and the adapter sleeve turning on the shaft. To ensure that the nut
is not excessively tightened, make sure that that outer ring of the bearing
rotates freely.
17.10.4 Mounting a spherical bearing on the adapter

sleeve
1. Wipe the preservative from the sleeve and from the bearing bore;
then oil the outer surface of the sleeve lightly with mineral oil.
17.35 Wipe the preservative.
2. Apply oil to the threads and side face of the nut which is to abut the
ring.
17.36 Applying oil.
3. Open the sleeve slightly with the help of screw drive and slide it to
the correct position on the shaft.
17.37 Position the sleeve.

4. Before mounting the bearing, measure the radial internal clearance

with a feeler gauge. The reduction of internal clearance is used as a
measure of interference fit.
5. Use a feeler blade slightly thinner than the minimum value of clearance
before mounting.
6. Insert it over the roller next to the upper most roller. In that position
measure with an increasingly thicker blade until, when attempting to
pull out the blade, there is a slight resistance.
17.38 Checking internal clearance.
7. Push the bearing up on the sleeve and check the reduction in internal
clearance during the drive up under the lowest roller
17.39 Checking clearance after mounting.
8. Place the locking washer in position and tighten the nut firmly, making
sure that the bearing is not driven up further.
9. Lock the nut by bending one of the tabs from the locking washer
down in the nut slot but do not slacken the nut to get the tab to fit.
17.40 Bending a tab.

17.10.5 Mounting double row angular contact and four

point contact ball bearings of split type
1. Wipe the inner ring and outer ring of the bearing with dry cloth.
2. Put oil on the shaft and the seating of the bearing.
3. When the bearing is with split inner ring mount the inner half of the
inner ring first.
4. Mount the outer ring with ball and cage.
5. Mount the outer half of the inner ring.
17.10.6 Mounting of old bearing

Dismount the old bearing. It can be reused after cleaning. There are two
methods of cleaning the bearing: hot and cold.
Cold cleaning involves washing the bearing in petroleum-based solvents.
Always use a clean solvent and clean tools: use one bowl for the first
wash, and another one for the rinse. Dry the bearing and grease or oil it
immediately after drying. Protect it from dirt till mounting. In textile
industry mostly cold cleaning method is used.
Hot cleaning needs thin oil with a flash point of at least 250°C. Heat
the oil to about 120°C for washing the bearing. Hot cleaning is generally
effective and the residual oil provides temporary protection against rust.
Never wash the seal bearings; just clean their outer surface. Replace
the bearing if it appears to be damaged.
Before mounting, examine the bearing closely to determine whether it
is re-usable. Inspect raceways, cage and rolling element for scratch marks
and so on. Spin the bearing and listen to the sound. An undamaged bearing
is one that has no marks or other defects and run evenly without abnormally
large radial internal clearance and without any sound.
If the dismounted old bearing is found to be very dirty or its lubricant
is highly carbonized, it is generally not worth cleaning. It is economical
and safer to install new bearing.
17.11 Dismounting method of different bearing

Four different types of methods are used to dismount the different types of
bearing: mechanical, hydraulic, oil injection and heating method.
Since spinning mills mostly use small size bearings, only mechanical
methods are followed to dismount the bearings.
17.11.1 Dismounting method for cylindrical bearing

1. A bearing which has to be re-used should always be remounted in
the same relative position as before. It is therefore advisable to mark

the position of the bearing before dismounting.
2. A small bearing can be dismounted using a conventional puller since
the bearing is mounted with interference fit on the shaft. The puller
should preferably engage the inner ring.
3. To avoid any damage to the bearing seating, the puller must be
accurately centred.
17.41 Puller placed on the inner ring.
Only in cases where it is impossible to engage the inner ring, apply the
puller to the outer ring. But it is very important that the outer ring be
rotated during dismounting so that no part of the bearing is damaged by
the dismounting force. This can be done by locking the screw and turning
the puller continually until the bearing becomes free.
17.42 Rotating the puller.

17.11.2 Dismounting a bearing mounted on adapter

sleeve
1. Mark the adapter sleeve position on the shaft so that it can be
remounted in the same position.
2. Disengage the tab of locking screw.
3. Loosen the lock nut a few turn.
4. Place a suitable dismounting sleeve against the lock nut and give a
couple of sharp blows so that the bearing becomes loose.
5. Loosen the screw completely.
6. Take out the bearing.
7. Open the sleeve slightly with the help of screw drive and slide it
from the shaft.
17.12 Reason for failure of bearings

1. When properly used, the only reason for the failure of bearing should
be fatigue generated owing to long year of usage. However, relatively
early failures can occur and do take place in spinning mills due to
contamination, faulty mounting and dismounting method, improper
lubrication, misalignment of shaft and careless handling. Bearing
failures not only increase the cost of replacement and also cause
excessive machine stoppage. Therefore, these five different factors
that can cause undue early failures must be carefully eliminated from
work practices.
17.12.1 Fatigue
This type of bearing failure is due to the age of the bearing. With the
passage of time, this failure mostly occurs owing to development of cracks
under the load carrying surface due to the shear stress. These cracks
gradually increase and extend up to the surface. When the rolling element
pass over these cracks the edges of the cracks break due to pressure. This
results in bigger cracks and leads to the failure of the bearing. This is
natural process and is expected to occur after long period of several years.
17.12.2 Contamination
Dirt is the main reason for contamination. Dirt is essentially silicon dioxide.
It is the second hardest particle after diamond in nature. When a dirt particle
³ 5 mm gets forced through the gap between the ring and ball, it deforms
the bearing permanently.
17.12.3 Lubrication of bearing

Observation in industrial practice shows that most of the early failure of
bearings due to poor lubrication. Therefore, it is vital to use the right
lubricant, in the right amount, at the right place, in the right time and with
the right method.
17.12.4 Misalignment of shaft

Misaligned shafts leads to the following consequences:
1. Increased bearing load, which reduces the life of the bearing.
2. Increased wear of seals, which lead to contamination and or the
leakage of lubricant.
3. Increased vibration and noise.
4. Increased energy consumption.
Carefully inspect the misalignment of the shaft and ensure it is removed.
17.12.5 Careless handling

Careless handling also leads to the early failure of bearings. The following
precautions must be taken to ensure proper handling of bearings.
1. Bearings are coated with a rust inhibiting compound before packaging
and can be stored in the original package for several years.
2. Keep the bearings in a vibration free lace
3. The seal and shield bearings have a limited time of storage as
lubricating properties of grease have deteriorated with time, and result
in high starting torque. Therefore follow the principle FIFO.
17.13 Examinations of bearing in service

The bearings can be easily examined in running condition and corrective
action taken for reducing/eliminating defective working.
17.13.1 Checking for the noise of bearing

Any noise from the bearing can be easily detected by placing the blade of
a Stethoscope on the bearing housing and then listening carefully to the
noise which is generated transmitted. If bearing is ok then soft purring
sound will be heard. A squeaking noise may be caused by inadequate
lubrication. A metallic tone possibly indicates that the clearance is not
sufficient. A smooth but clear tone may be produced by a damaged outer
ring. When the sound intensity varies regularly with each revolution it
indicates that the inner ring is damaged.

Noise can arise due to following reasons: foreign particles like dirt,
cage failure, corrosion and/or indention caused by balls. If the defect is
found to be severe, replace the bearing.
17.13.2 Checking the bearing temperature

The bearing temperature should be checked at regular intervals in order to
avoid possible future damaged to the bearing. If the temperature is high
then the bearing must be running in poor condition. High temperature of
the bearing could be due to following reasons:
I. Over lubrication
II. Under lubrication
III. Mounting of bearing of wrong clearance
IV. Due to poor mounting
V. Excessive load
17.13.3 Vibration
Vibration can be detected by placing hand on the bearing or by using
frequency or amplitude analyser. Any excessive vibration indicates that
the bearing is running in abnormal condition. Vibration may be caused by
unbalanced load due to wear, excessive internal clearance, corrosion, and
foreign particles.
17.13.4 Condition of seals

A seal not only takes care that no dirt particles enter the beating but also
retains the lubricant in the bearing housing. Any leakage of seal should be
eliminated immediately. The only reasons for such leakage are wear out
seal, poor mounting of seal and breakdown of grease resulting in release
of oil.
17.13.5 Checking the lubricant

Grease – If the grease has hardened it should be replaced. If the grease has
become brown or dark, it is an indication of oxidation. Take a little grease
between fingers and rub it to check for lubricity and abraded particle.
Replace the grease if found unsatisfactory on any item above.
Oil – Take a small quantity of oil and compare it with the new unused
oil. It is darker or thicker then it has become carbonized; replace it.
References
1. SKF Bearing Maintenance Hand Book (1992).
2. SKF Bearing Catalogue (1992).
3. A Text Book of Machine Design by DR. P. C . SHARMA and DR. D. K .
AGARWAL .
4. Technical catalogue NBC Bearing (2001).
5. SKF Needle roller bearing catalogue 4001, e-reg. 471-17000-
1991-09.
18
Tools
18.1 Open-ended spanner

These can be single-ended or double-ended. Single-ended spanners are
provided with holding mouth at one end only and the size of mouth is
different according to the size of the bolt and/or the nut. In double-ended
spanner, openings are provided on both ends and are of different
considerable sizes. These spanners are forged from chrome vanadium steel
and heat treated. The size of the opening between the jaws determines the
size of the open end wrench. The length of the wrench is determined by
the size of the opening since the lever advantage of the wrench is
proportional to its length; spanners with larger openings are made longer
and heavier to increase leverage and strength.
18.1 Double-ended spanner.
Double open-end spanners are available in following sizes:

6 × 7, 8 × 9, 10 × 11, 12 × 13, 14 × 15, 16 × 17, 18 × 19, 20 × 22, 21
× 23, 24 × 27, 25 × 28 and 30 × 32.
18.1.1 How to use?

It is important for a spanner to be a snug fit on a nut or bolt head. If it is
too loose, the spanner will slip and round the corners. Make certain that
the spanner fits squarely on the sides of the nut or bolt head. Turn the
spanner over after each swing so that the opposite face is down and the
angle of the spanner opening is reversed. Always place yourself so that
you can pull on the spanner to turn the work in the desired direction.
365
Wrench is snug Wrench is too large

fit
Right Wrong
18.2 Ways to fit wrench.
18.2 Ring spanner

Ring spanners are so named because they completely surround or box the
bolt head or nut. The opening in a box spanner contains 6 or 12 notches,
called points, arranged in a circle. The box spanner is a safer tool than the
open end spanner since it will not slip off the work. They can be single-
ended as well as double-ended. These are used only where it is not possible
to use the open end spanner. These rings are made in different size to suit
different sizes of nuts and bolts. They are double-ended spanners. They
are designated by the inner diameter (mm) of the ring.
18.3 Ring spanner.
Ring spanners are available in sizes (mm):

6 × 7, 8 × 9, 10 × 11, 12 × 13, 14 × 15, 16 × 17, 18 × 19, 20 × 22, 21
× 23, 24 × 27, 25 × 28 and 30 × 32.
18.2.1 How to use?

Always select the size of wrench that fits the nut or bolt head. Box wrenches
will not slip off and are preferably used before open end wrenches. A
swing through an arc of 15° is sufficient to continuously loosen or tighten
a nut or bolt. Unless there is room to swing a box wrench in a full circle,
lift it completely off the nut when it comes to the limit of its swing and
place it in a new position which will permit it to be swung again. Since a
box wrench cannot slip off a nut, it is ideal for loosening tight nuts and
bolts and for setting them up.
Tools 367
18.3 Sockets and accessories

The common socket wrench is box-like and made as a detachable socket for
various types of handles. A socket wrench set usually consists of various
sized sockets, a ratchet, sliding bar tee, speeder, speed tee, ratchet adapter,
nut spinner, 3/8-inch drive handle, and extensions. Socket wrenches have
two openings: one a square hole which fits the handles and the other a circular
hole with notched sides to fit the bolt or screw head or nut to be turned. The
handle has a retractable ball, which allows locking and releasing of the socket.
Square opening of socket is available in four sizes 3/8", 1/2", 3/4", 1” and
handles are available in the same four sizes and made in different shapes.
Sockets are available in sizes which range from 10 to 32 mm.
Swivel handle
Sliding T Bar
Extension
Ratchet
Speed Brace
Speed Tee
Universal joint socket Deep Socket

Socket
18.4 Different sockets and accessories.
18.4 Torque wrench sockets

Sockets are also available with torque spanners. The torque wrench is a
device which exerts only a pre-determined level of force while tightening.
If greater force is applied, it does not get conveyed to the nut or the bolt,
the wrench simply ‘slips’ after the predetermined force is applied.
When assembled, two component parts are held together by a screw or
by a nut and bolt. Therefore, each tightened nut-bolt is subjected to three
major forces: over-tightening, vibrations and temperature changes.
1. Over tightening – When any part to be fixed, it may get subjected to
excessive force. Then the body of the nut or the screw has a tendency
to stretch till the elastic limit is reached. Such nut or a screw would
get permanently deformation or even may break completely if stretch
beyond limits. Therefore, while tightening by using any kind of
spanner, one should take into account also the strength of the
component parts, which are usually not as strong as nut or bolt. Over-
tightening should be avoided. The fact that different people tend to
exert more or less force than others needs to be considered.
2. Vibration – A large majority of equipments and machine in any
industry have some motor or engine to operate it. Consequently,
vibrations set in and often can cause loosening of parts that have
been insufficiently tightened.
3. Temperature changes – When items have been assembled at normal
temperature and then operate at different temperatures, i.e. mostly
higher. They tend to loose due to expansion.
Use of torque spanner avoids over-tightening while ensuring enough
tightening to protect against vibration and temperature changes.
18.5 Allen key

An allen key is used for tightening or loosening set-screws. The allen key
is made of steel in hexagonal cross-section through out its length. It is
mostly made in L-shape, and in different shapes and sizes to suit the
different sizes of set-screws. These are also available in sets, ranges from
1 to 18 mm.
Allen Key
18.5 Allen key.
18.5.1 How to use?

Select the proper type and size that fits the recess of the screw being worked
on. The short end of the wrench is used to give a final tightening or break
Tools 369
loose tight screws. The long end of the wrench is used to turn the screw
rapidly when very little leverage is needed.
18.6 Try square

Better known as engineering try square, this is a very common tool used
for subscribing straight lines at right angle to any true surface, or for testing
the trueness of mutually normal surfaces. It consists of a steel blade fitted
into a steel stock of rectangular cross-section. They are well-hardened
and tempered to suit to ensure rigidity and low wear. Try squares are made
in different sizes. More accurate types of try squares are made with blades
with bevelled edge properly ground and finished square. Both inner and
outer surfaces of the blade are kept at right angles to the corresponding
surface of the stock. In order to maintain this trueness, this tool should be
handled with care and should never be used as a striking tool or supporting
tool.
Try squares are available in sizes 100 × 70 mm, 125 ×80 mm, 150 ×
100 mm, 200 × 130 mm, 250 × 160 mm and 300 × 180 mm. The stock is
simple or of magnetic type for ease of positioning it firmly at different
places.
Blade
Stock
18.6 Try square.
The accuracy of this tool should be checked frequently to ensure its

‘trueness’ it affects the accuracy of the finished job to the corresponding
extent. The most commonly used method for testing the try square is
showed in Fig. 18.6. In this method, the blade of try square is made to lie
flat on the top surface of a surface plate with the stock touching the machine
edge of the plate. A straight line is marked along the outer edge of the
blade, and the try square is then shifted to take a new position, as shown
by dotted lines in Figure 18.7. If both the lines coincide with each other,
i.e. they appear as one line only, then the try square is confirmed to be true
(angles equal 90° exactly) and accurate. If these lines do not coincide
with each other, the try square is inaccurate. An angle formed between the
two lines as shown in the Fig. 18.7 would indicate that the square block
and stock are fixed at an angle less than 90° to each other. However, if
these lines appear in the reverse position, i.e. firm line in the place of
dotted line then it would indicate an angle of more than 90° between the
square blade and stock.
Surface Plate
18.7 Testing the angle of try square for exact 90º.
18.6.1 How to use?

To check a square joint, place the stock (1) against a horizontal section
and the blade (2) against a vertical section. Light must not be seen around
blade edge. If light is seen, the work is not square.
2
No Light
1
Vertical
Horizontal
No Light
18.8 Measurements of try square.
18.7 Steel rule

This is the simplest and commonly known measuring instrument used in
inspection. It works on the basic measuring technique consists of comparing
unknown length to one previously calibrated. It is made of a hardened
steel or wood or plastic and has line graduation engraved at interval of
Tools 371
fractions of a standard unit length which is in mm or in inches. Different

combinations of a scale are found depending upon whether the scale is
graduated on both sides or only on one side. The scale is generally of 150
mm or 300 mm.
18.9 Steel rule.
How to use a scale?

To get good results, it is very necessary to follow the right technique when
using a scale.
(a) Generally, scales are worn out at the ends; so it is difficult to line up
the end of a scale accurately with the edge of the part to be measured.
Therefore, the scale must never be set with the edge of part to be
measured.
18.10 Way to use scale.
(b) The scale should never be laid flat on the part to be measured because
the graduation on the scale would not be in direct contact with the
surface of the part, and it would be very difficult to read the correct
dimension.
18.7.1 Folding box wood scale

It is generally one meter long and is folded at three to six places and it is
marked with inches and millimetres. They are available in two sizes 1 m
and 2 m.
Pivot
Catch
Figure 18.11 Folding scale
18.7.2 Measuring tape

The tape is a thin flexible steel strip. It is folded around a centre pin attached
with a small handle. It is marked with inches and millimetres. It is available
in different lengths from 1 to 100 m. The tape is spring loaded, so that as
soon as it is released it will automatically return to the case. On some
cases a lock is provided to hold the tape when extended.
Lock
Tape
Hook
18.12 Coiled-up tape.
18.7.3 How to use?

A hook is placed at the end of the work piece to be measured so that long
dimension can be measured single handed. Hook is loosely riveted on the
tape and it is free to move in and out for a fixed distance when hooked
over an object it extends by its own thickness so that measurement can be
accurately taken from end.
18.8 Feeler gauge

These are used to measure the width of the gap between two parallel flat
surfaces. A feeler gauge is a narrow strip of steel sheet of a given thickness.
Tools 373
A complete set consists of number of gauging blades of different thickness

from 0.03 to 1 mm assembled together and fulcrum med at one end. Their
use depends entirely upon the sense of feel of the user.
18.13 Feeler gauges.
The blades are made of heat treated bright polished steel with tensile
strength of 70 kg/cm2. Generally, the blades are 100 mm long and 12 mm
wide at heel (fulcrum end) and tapered from the outer half of their length so
that the width of the tip is approximately 6 mm (Fig 18.13). These are hinged
in a sheath on a screw and a nut of such a design that each blade is removable.
The nut is in the form of bush passing through both sides of the sheath and
forms an hinge or a fulcrum upon which the blades can rotate. The sheath
is so designed as to fully protect the blades when not in use. The different
blades should be assembled in such a way that each thin blade is given
maximum protection by interleaving it between two thicker blades.
The maximum deviation in thickness of blade should not exceed 0.004
mm for blades up to 0.3 mm thick, and 0.006 mm for blades over 0.3 mm
thick.
18.8.1 How to use?

It is used to check the gap between the two matting surfaces. The feeler
blade should neither have to be forced between surface nor should it slide
freely. The correct thickness of blade will give a characteristic ‘gauge fits’
type of feel. If necessary two blades may be taken together for matching
any dimension.
18.9 Hammers
A hammer is the main principle-striking tool and is made of forged steel.
Their classification depends largely upon the size and the weight of the
hammer. Factors which affect the working of hammer: size and shape of
hammer, falling weight of hammer and height of falling hammer.
A hammer is divided into four parts: pein, eye, cheeks and face. The
pein is the top part made slightly tapered from the cheeks and rounded at
the top. This top portion is given the shape of ball, and the portion between
the ball and the cheeks is reduced in size by fullering, it gets a particular
form known as ball pein hammer. The face is hardened and polished well
and is given a slight rounding along the circular edge so that any metal
surface is not spoiled by the sharp edge when the surface hit with the
hammer. The eye is normally made oval or elliptical in shape to
accommodate a handle or shaft. The straight pein hammer is one, which
carries a pein parallel to the axis at one end and flat face at other end. The
cross pein is similar in construction to the straight pein except the pein
runs at right angle to the axis of the eye.
Ball Face
Eye
Flat Face
18.14 Ball pein hammer.
Ball Pein Hammer Straight Pein sledge Cross Pein Sledge Double Ended
Hammer hammer sledge hammer
18.15 Types of hammer.
If the hammer has no pein formation, but carries flat faces at both ends,
it is known as double-ended hammer.
Tools 375
The ball pein hammer is the most commonly used hammer in the
spinning mills. These are available in sizes 200 g, 500g, 600 g and 800 g.
18.10 Soft hammers

These hammers are double-ended hammers with ends made of nylon, which
are replaceable. These are used whenever lighter force is required. There
nylon heads are available in sizes of 250 and 500 g.
18.16 Soft hammers.
18.11 Dial gauge

Dial gauges are used for checking flatness of surfaces; parallelism of bar
and rods; and detecting small differences if any in linear measurement of
identical objects. A dial gauge is also used for measuring concentricity of
round objects. These are available in inches as well as in millimetre. Inch
dial gauges of 0.001 “measuring accuracy is in general use, but gauges
are available up to the accuracy of 0.0001”. The commonly used metric
dial gauge has an accuracy of 0.01 mm.
18.11.1 Construction
The clock-like graduated dial of dial gauge (Fig. 18.17) carries two pointer
arms A1 and A2. The dial is divided into 100 equal divisions where each
division represents spindle movement through 0.01 mm. In 1 mm movement
of the spindle, the arm A1 makes one complete turn on the dial. The smaller
arm A2 registers the number of full turns made by the longer arm A1.
Figure 18.17 shows that the spindle carries a rack cut in its body along
its length. It meshes with pinion P1, mounted on the same spindle as gears
G1, G2 and the pointer arm A1. The gear G2 meshes with gear G3 carrying
a helical spring. The pinion P1 also meshes with gear G4 mounted on the
same spindle as pointer arm A2.
When the instrument is not in use, the spindle projects a definite length
outside the instrument under contact pressure of helical spring through
gear G3, G2, pinion P2, gear G1 and pinion P1 and the rack. To test a
surface, the tip end of the spindle is brought in contact with the surface
and readings of arm A1 and A2 are noted. Then either the dial gauge is
moved over the surface or the surface is moved under the spindle. A
clockwise deviation indicates deviation of arm A1 from the initial position
indicated the convexity, and an anticlockwise deviation indicates concavity
in 100th of millimetre; and that of arm A2 in full millimetre.
Case Spindle
A1 Rack
1 mm
100 G1 A1
A2
P1 G2 G3
Graduated Dial P2
A2 Helical
spring
Spindle G4
18.17 Dial gauge.
18.12 Spirit level

These are used for measuring any small angle or inclination and also for
determining the position of any surface with respect to horizontal. A spirit
10 2 5
8
9
3
7 4
1 6
18.18 Spirit level.

Tools 377
level consists of a sealed glass tube ground on its inside surface to a convex
form with a large radius of curvature. A scale is engraved on the glass at
the top of tube. The tube is filled with ether to such an extent that only a
small volume remains at the top part of the tube. This top part contains
ether vapor in the form of a bubble. The spirit level consists of a body
with a flat base surface and glass tube mounted on the upper part of the
body. The side edge of the frame level is made strictly square with the
base. A glass tube with ether enclosed mounted in the base.
1. Spirit level body with a highly machined location having flat and
prismatic measuring faces
2. Level tube with main level
3. Adjusting cylinder
4. Positioning key
5. Zero adjustment screw
6. Twist stability adjusting screw
7. Adjusting cylinder locking device
8. Level cover
9. Transverse level
10. Transverse level adjusting screw
The glass tube set in the base is adjusted in such a way that when the
base is horizontal the bubble rests at the centre of the scale (which is
engraved) on the glass. If the base level is not perfectly horizontal, the
bubble tries to remain at the highest point of the tube and thus moves
along the scale.
Table 18.1 Availability of spirit levels in 6 sizes
Length Sensitivity
(mm) (mm/m)
100 0.02
150 0.01
200 0.01
250 0.01
300 0.01
500 0.01
18.12.1 How to use?

Place the level on a flat horizontal surface. Check the horizontal dial (1).
The bubble should be between the two etched lines on the dial. If it is not,
the surface is not horizontal.
Place the level against a flat vertical surface. Check the vertical dial
(3). The bubble should be between the two etched lines on the dial. If it is
not, the surface is not vertical.
18.13 Vernier calliper

The instrument is widely used for precision measurement of length,
thickness, width, depth and inside of inner and outside diameters. The
metric callipers are manufactured with a measuring accuracy or least count
of 0.1, 0.02 and 0.05 mm. The vernier calliper having least count of 0.02
mm is the most commonly used. The ‘inches’ vernier calliper has least of
0.001 inch.
A vernier calliper consists of a beam engraved with scale, inside and
outside measuring jaws, depth gauge bar and an adjustable vernier head
(slider) which can be moved along the beam.
9 6 7
8 3
5
10
1
18.19 Vernier calliper.
1. Outside jaw jaws for measuring outer diameter

2. Inside jaws for measuring inside diameter
3. Depth bar
4. Step surface
5. Main beam
6. Slider
7. Main scale
8. Vernier scale
9. Clamp screw
10. Reference surface
Principle of vernier calliper consists of dividing a known length (main
scale) into a certain number of equal divisions and then comparing length
of one such division with length of one division marked with another line
Tools 379
of one unit less or more length but divided into same number of divisions
(vernier scale). The difference between the single divisions of these two
scales is the smallest distance that can be measured (least count).
18.13.1 Metric vernier calliper of 0.1 mm accuracy

In this vernier scale is 9 mm long and is divided into 10 equal divisions.
Each division on the main scale measures 1 mm. From the above data
9
Division of vernier scale =
10
One division of Vernier scale is shorter than the division of main scale
by 1.0 – 0.9 = 0.1 mm.
That is what is known as the least count of measurement.
18.13.2 Metric vernier calliper with 0.02 mm accuracy

In this the vernier scale is 49 mm long and is divided into 50 equal divisions.
The main scale as usual carries small division of 1 mm length each.
49 98
1 division of vernier scale = = = 0.98 mm
50 100
It is shorter than 1 main scale division by 1 – 0.98 = 0.02 mm.
18.13.3 Metric vernier calliper with 0.05 mm accuracy

In this the vernier scale is 39 mm long divided into 20 equal divisions.
39
Therefore, each vernier division is of = 1.95 mm
20
So it’s each division is smaller than 2 mm by 0.05 mm.
18.13.4 Reading the vernier calliper

Before commencing any measurement, it should be ensured that the zero
marks on the vernier scale and the main scale coincide with each other. If
they do not, then the difference should be carefully noted and duly
accounted for in the final reading.
The method of reading vernier is as follows:
Metric vernier has 0.1 mm accuracy.
1. Note the number of divisions of the main scale crossed by zero mark
on vernier scale.
2. Note which vernier division is coinciding with any of main scale

division.
3. Multiply the reading 2 by the least count and add to reading 1.
18.14 Digital vernier calliper

Digital vernier callipers with a least count of 0.01 mm are employed for
quick and free measurement. The benefit of using digitalized vernier
calliper is that one can measure the size of any object without having to
do steps 1, 2, 3 described above in section 1.11.4. In fact one can use the
digital without knowing how to use the conventional vernier calliper. While
using the conventional vernier calliper one has to keep track of a number
of working parameters such as millimetres reading on the main scale,
coinciding point of vernier scale as well as the least count of the instrument
to arrive at the end result. This tedious process has to be eliminated by
digitalizing the vernier callipers.
18.14.1 Working of digital calliper

1. Reference point setting – The measuring faces are closed gently and
the clear button is pressed. Power is then switched on and zero is set.
2. Absolute value measurement – After zero setting as in 1, the
instrument can measure the absolute value of inside, outside depth
and step dimensions.
3. Comparative measurement – Press the ‘Clear button’ at a required
dimensional value. The display will be set to 0.00 mm at that value,
and the readings taken thereafter are for comparative measurements.
4. Inch/metric conversion instantaneous – Inch/metric conversion of
any measurement can be obtained by pressing the mode selection
button. Inch or mm is shown on the display along with reading.
Inside Measurement jaw
LCD Display
Mode Button Main Scale
Depth Measurement Blade

Clear Button
Outside
Measurement Sliding jaw
jaw
18.20 Digital vernier calliper.

Tools 381
18.15 File
This is a hand tool used by fitters. All the files irrespective of their shape,
size and grade essentially consist of five main parts, i.e. point, edge, face,
heel and tang which is fitted into the wooden handle. Files are generally
forged out of high carbon steel or tungsten steel followed by cutting of
teeth, hardening and tempering, etc. The files are manufactured in different
varities and their classification is done based on effective length, shape or
cross-section and depth spacing and cut of teeth.
Face Ferrule Handle

Heel
Point
Edge Tang
18.21 A typical file.
The length of a file is different according to the need, but the most
commonly used length usually ranges from 10 to 40 cm. This range covers
almost all sorts of filing work to be done by hand. Lengths between 10 cm
and 15 cm are generally used for fine work, between 15 cm and 25 cm for
medium work and 25 cm and above for all general and large size work.
3 4
1 2
5 6
7
18.22 Cross-section of files.
18.15.1 Cross-section
Files are manufactured with shapes of different cross-sections (Fig. 18.22)
to suit the nature of jobs for which they are to be worked on.
1. Square file – It carries double cut teeth on all the four faces (two
faces and two edges) and is normally made tapered for about one
third of its length near the end opposite to tang. Square files without
taper length are also available.
2. Triangular file – This file normally carries single cut teeth on all
faces and is tapered towards the end about two third of its length
near the tip. The cross-section is an equilateral triangle.
3. Round file – It has a circular cross-section and carries single cut
teeth on all around its surface. It is normally made tapered towards
the tip.
4. Half round file – It has single teeth on curved surface and double cut
teeth on flat surface.
5. Flat file and hand file – Both these files have a rectangular cross-
section (no. 5 and 6 in Fig. 18.23) and difference between them lies
in the way they are tapered. A flat file is tapered towards the tip in
length as well as in thickness, whereas the hand file is tapered in
thickness only. The former carries double teeth on both the faces and
single cut on the edges. In a hand file the flat faces carry double cut
teeth and one of the edges carries single teeth.
6. Knife edge file – The cross-section of knife edge file carries double
cut teeth on broad faces and single cut teeth on the edge. It is
specifically used in filing narrow and intricate sharp corners having
an inclined angle of less than 90°.
18.15.2 Teeth
The type of teeth and the spacing between teeth (known as pitch) play an
important role in the selection of a file for particular work.
Single cut – In single cut, the teeth are cut in parallel rows inclined at
an angle of 60° with the centre line of faces. These are particularly suitable
for filling hard metal. These give better finish as compared to double cut
teeth but remove material at a comparatively at a low rate.
60
18.23 Single cut.
Double cut – There are two sets of teeth, one set similar to those of
single cut; and the other running diagonally across the first set and inclined
at an angle of about 10° to the centre line of faces on which teeth are cut.
Tools 383
All these teeth have a negative rake, i.e. sloping backward. Therefore these
teeth thus cut only in the forward stroke.
18.24 Double cut.
Designation of teeth
These files are designated as rough or smooth depending upon the pitch
of the teeth. The smaller the pitch, the smoother is the file and the finer is
its effect. The designations commonly used are as follows:
Designation Number of teeth per cm
Rough 8
Middle or Coarse 10
Bastard 12
Second cut 16
Smooth 20
Dead smooth 40
18.15.3 Use and care of files

The file should be held in perfect horizontal position. Most of the files
have their teeth pointing forward, so pressure should be applied in the
forward stroke only. The item to be filed-work is marked for filing and
then is held in vice. Keeping the right hand on the front end, the file is
moved firmly to and fro by the left hand with a speed of 15–20 strokes per
minute. Rough files are used where more metal is to be removed, more
and fine files are used for finishing.
18.15.4 How to use?

1. Clamp the work securely so that the area to be filed is horizontal and
is parallel to and projecting slightly above the jaws.
2. Hold the file handle in one hand, thumb on top, and hold the end of
the file with the fingers of the other hand.
3. When filing hard metals, apply pressure on the forward stroke only.
Unless the file is lifted from the work on the return stroke, it will
become dull much sooner than it should be.
4. When filing soft metals, using pressure on the return stroke helps
keep the cuts in the file clean.
5. Use a rocking motion when filing round surfaces.
6. When using a new file, applying too much pressure will cause the
teeth to break off. Do not force the file. File slowly, lightly, and
steadily. Too much speed and too much pressure cause the file to
rock, rounding off the corners of the work.
18.16 Chisels
These are used for chipping away some material from a work piece. Some
very commonly used chisels are flat, cross cut and round. All chisel are
150 cm and 200 cm long are forged from the carbon steel and usually
possess octagonal or hexagonal cross-section. After the desired shape is
given to chisel during its manufacturing, the process of a annealing,
hardening and tempering to follow make hardened finished chisel. The
full length of chisel is never hardened; only a small portion above the
cutting edge (20 to 30 mm.) is subjected to above treatment so that
remaining length is left tough and comparatively softer, and therefore not
brittle. The hardness of the cutting edge of chisel is kept about 70–75° for
hard material, about 60° for medium hard material, and about 40° for soft
material.
Flat Chisel Cross cut Point Chisel

Round Chisel
chisel
18.25 Types of chisel.
18.17 Screw driver

It is very useful tool for rotating screw with line slots on their head. It consists
of a wooden or plastic handle, and a steel blade shaped at the end. The flat
end of the tool is inserted into the slot provided on the head of the screw for
rotating it. Screw drivers are made in various sizes to suit the corresponding
Tools 385
sizes of slot on the screw head and made of different lengths to tighten and
to open screws with different torque. These are available in sizes 5 × 75, 6.5
× 80, 6.5 × 100, 8 × 125, 8 × 150, 11 × 200 and 13 × 250 mm.
Slot End
Handle
18.26 Screw driver.
18.17.1 Star screw driver

For rotating screw with star shape at the head, it is necessary to use a star
shaped driver. It is also made in different sizes to suit the corresponding star
shape on the screw head. These are available in sizes in 5 × 100, 6.5 × 125,
8 × 150, 4 × 75 and 5 × 75. It is important not to use a simple screw driver
to open or close a star headed screw so as to avoid damage to screw head.
Handle
Star Shape
18.27 Star screw driver.
18.17.2 How to use?

Choose a screwdriver which is correctly ground and the right size to fit
snugly in the screw head. A rounded, chipped or undersized tip will slip and
damage either the screw slot or the work itself. Similarly avoid using a tip
that is too large and projects from either side of the countersunk screw. This
will damage the screw. Rotate the screwdriver to open the screw.
Wrong
Right
18.28 Correct way to use.
18.18 Vices
Vices are the most suitable and widely used tool for gripping and holding
firmly different job in position during various operations such as filing
and drilling, etc, carried out in the maintenance department. These are
available in different sizes and the selection of suitable sizes will depend
upon the max. size of work it is expected to grip. The width of jaws
determines the size of a vice. Different types of vices are used for different
type of work like parallel jaw vice, pipe vice, etc.
Jaw
Handle A square
Collar
threaded screw
18.29 A simple vice.
Machinist Bench Vise Clamp Bench Vise
Bench and Pipe Vise Pipe Vise
18.30 Different types of vices.

Tools 387
The vice is fixed on a bench with the help of two bolts passing through
the plank of wood and holes in the base of the vice. These bolts are tightened
by means of nuts. The jaws of the vice are always kept over hanging the
edge of bench. The vice is made of cast steel body with one fixed and
another moveable steel jaw, and square threaded screw, and a fixed nut
under the moveable jaw piece. The threaded screw is made to pass through
the moveable jaw at the outer end. It carries a handle at the outer end and
a collar inside so as to prevent it from coming out of the jaw when revolved.
The threaded screw runs through the fixed nut longitudinally under the
moveable jaw. Separate cast steel plates known as jaw plates are fixed to
the jaw by means of set screws which are set finish with the working face
of these plates so as not to protrude. The holding faces of these plates are
provided with serrations to increase the gripping power of jaws.
18.18.1 Working
For gripping any work piece in the vice the jaws are opened out by
withdrawing the moveable jaw by rotating the screw. The work is held
between the jaw by one hand and the screw tightened by rotating the handle
by the other hand. This brings the jaw closer and ultimately the work is
gripped between the jaws. The desired pressure on the work is attained by
tightening or loosening the screw depending upon the need. The work to
be held in the vice may be of regular or irregular shape and desired amount
of grip can be applied. On account of serrations on the gripping jaw plates,
there is always a likelihood of the working surface get damaged when
gripped too tightly between the jaws. To avoid this soft plates made of
copper or tin are placed between the work and jaw. This prevents the work
surface coming in direct contact with the jaws. All these vices are available
in sizes 3, 3.5, 4, 5, 6, 8 inches.
18.19 Punch
The punch is a primary tool. One end of this tool is flat for hammering and
other end is pointed having an angle of 60°. It is used for making round
indentation on a metal surface for providing a specific location for making
further operations such as drilling.
18.31 Punch.
18.20 Hacksaw
It is used to cut bar stock, rods, tubes, iron flats, etc, for desired lengths.
It consists of a metal frame with a wooden handle carrying metal clips
with a wing nut at its one end to hold and stretch a metal blade called hexa
blade. The clip carrying the fly nut is threaded so as to accommodate and
stretch the blade to the desired extent. The frame can be either of fixed
type or adjustable type. In the fixed type, a blade of a given length only
can be accommodated while in the adjustable type, blade of different length
can be accommodated.
Adjustable
Metal frame
Pin Blade Handle

Tension Rod Fly
Nut
18.32 Hexa blade.
The hexa blade which is the main part is a push type blade which cuts
only during its forward stroke. The hexa blade is a thin narrow steel band
12 mm or 16 mm wide and 0.65 and 0.8 mm thick and 250-300 mm long
with saw teeth. These teeth always point away from the operator. The teeth
of the blade are cut in such a way as to make the width of the cut slightly
larger than the blade thickness. This facilitates the operation making it
smoother, and also easier removal of saw dust. For a blade with 1 mm
pitch, one tooth is set to the right, one tooth is set to the left and one is
unset, i.e. it does not protrude beyond the width of blade. For blades with
higher pitch, each tooth is set alternatively. For smaller pitch blades, every
two teeth are bent to opposite side. Such setting of teeth increases the
thickness of blade by 0.28–0.65 mm. from each end of the blade a length
of 30mm is left unset.
18.33 Setting of teeth for 1 mm pitch.
The pitch of teeth to be used for different kinds of different cutting

operation is given in Table 18.2.
Tools 389
Table 18.2 Pitch of teeth used for different cutting operations
No. of teeth per cm Type of metal
6 Rolled and structural steel with thick

section
7 General cutting
10 Brass and copper etc
18.20.1 Cutting operation

While cutting, the hacksaw must be moved strictly in a horizontal plane.
The cutting force is mainly exerted by the left hand while the right hand
imparts reciprocate movement to frame. The cutting operation consists of
two motions: a forward stroke, i.e. cutting stroke and a return stroke, i.e.
non-cutting stroke. During the forward stroke both hands slightly press the
saw downward to ensure its straight movement. In the return stroke, no
pressure is applied, and the teeth just slide back along the cut. The blade
should be run along the cut to ensure that its entire length is in action.
Hacksaw blades are manufactured in two different categories: hard and
flexible. The former are hardened all over while the flexible are hardened
only along the teeth. The remaining portion is tempered to make it tough
and comparatively soft. The latter type is most widely used and former
type is used for cutting hard metal like steel.
18.20.2 Precautions to be taken during cutting operation

The precautions to be taken during the cutting operation are as follows:
1. Reduce the pressure on the saw when the cutting operation is about
to be over, i.e. when only 1.5 mm to 1 mm thick material remains to
be cut. Otherwise blade under pressure may break.
2. Always use a new blade for cutting brass and bronze because even
slightly worn out teeth result in slipping over material rather than in
cutting.
3. Replace the blade if one tooth is broken in the entire blade.
4. Check and adjust the blade tension.
5. If any saw tooth breaks in the work while cutting, it is better to start
the new blade on other point. This is to be done because the older
cut is narrower than the blade thickness since the teeth of the teeth
of old blade are slightly worn.
18.21 Taps
Hand-operated taps are used for cutting internal threads in machine part
or cleaning damaged thread. A tap consists of two parts: a toothed body
and a shank. The toothed body has helical axial flute. These flutes are
provided for the same purpose as in the case of a twist drill. For removal
of chips taps having cutting edge slanting 6–10° to axis at the chamfer.
The direction of slant is opposite to that of the thread, i.e. the slant is left
hand for right hand thread and vice versa.
The body consists of round shank and square formation at the end of
shank which premises a firm grip by tapping handle called tap wrench.
Hand taps of different sizes are available in three types known as taper,
second, and plug tap (Fig. 18.34). In each threading operation they are
used in the same order as first taper next second and last plug. The taper
tap cuts a rough thread and removes up to 60 % of material. The second
tap removes up to 30 % of material, and the plug tap removes the last 10
% of material. In the taper tap, the last five or six threads are ground out
to produce a tapered surface. Thus, diameter of tap becomes slightly less
or equal than the diameter of the hole to be tapped. This helps in advancing
the tap without any difficulty into the hole. Each successive tooth increases
the depth of the thread until the entire threaded portion of the tap has
entered the hole.
The tap wrench is a tool to hold the tap while cutting the thread. It is
available in three sizes that are designated by the capacity to hold taps of
different sizes i.e. 2–6m, 4.0–12.5 mm and 9–25 mm.
Square shaft Fits in

wrench
Shank Body
Toothed Body
18.34 Tapered tap.
18.21.1 Tapping procedure

Select the right drill for drilling a hole before tapping
Tools 391
D=d–p
D = hole diameter in mm
d = major diameter of thread in mm
P = thread pitch in mm
After drilling the hole, insert the taper tap into the hole. Then press the
tap wrench by the left hand and rotate it by right hand in clockwise direction
till it cuts a few threads. After each clockwise revolution, rotate the tap by
half revolution in anticlockwise direction. By doing so, chip breaks into
small pieces and the cutting process become easier. When the thread cutting
is complete, unscrew the tap completely and repeat the above process by
using the second and last plug tap.
First Second Plug
Tapn wrench
18.35 Taps of different kinds.
18.22 Die and die stock

Hand-operated threading die is the main tool used for cutting cylindrical
thread on cylindrical parts such as bolts and studs. Whether it is made in
two pieces or single piece, its steel hardened nut carries flutes cut along
its inside surface that forms the cutting edge. Flexible dies have a slit
ranging from 0.5 to 0.15 mm which allows the thread to be adjusted within
the range of 0.1–0.25 mm. These split dies produce a thread of less accurate
size as compared to the solid dies.
A die stock is the frame work which is recessed in order to accommodate
the die. The die is either made in one piece or consists of two halves. The
frame work has a handle at each end of the centre piece, and guides on
which the die pieces can slide along when placed in position. The stock is
made in such a manner that several sizes of die can be accommodated.
18.36 Solid die and die stock.
Table 18.3 Availability of sizes of die and die stock
Internal diameter (mm) Outer diameter (mm)
3–9 25.4
10–20 38.1
22–24 50.8
27–30 63.5
Table 18.4 Availability of sizes of die stock
Internal diameter (mm) Length (mm)
25.4 215
38.1 350
50.8 490
63.5 600
18.22.1 Use of dies

1. Choose a proper diameter of the bar for cutting threads.
2. Make sure that that work piece to be threaded is clean and free from
burrs.
3. Secure the work firmly in a vice.
Tools 393
4. Ensure that the die is held firmly in the die stock.

5. Apply cutting oil on the work and the die, and position the chamfer
of the front face of the die squarely on the work.
6. Rotate the die slowly and firmly until the thread formation takes place.
After cutting a few thread, check the die for square ness.
7. Turn the die back, a quarter turn, after each forward push to prevent
teeth from breaking off and for ease of threading.
8. Back the die of newly cut thread carefully and check the cut thread
with a proper screw gauge.
18.23 Grinding wheels

A grinding wheel is metal cutting tool in which the tool has thousands of
cutting edges instead of few large edges possessed by other rotary cutters.
A grinding wheel is made up of grinding material which are a particles of
a hard substance called abrasive embedded in a rough way as bricks and
mortar. The abrasive grains constitute the bricks, and the bond holding
them together is the mortar. There are thousands of edges of these grains
are projecting from the surface of the grinding wheel. When applied to
work, these grains act in the same way as tiny cutting tools.
18.23.1 Abrasives
Earlier, two minerals are used as grinding material in grinding wheels
were emery and corundum. Both of these are pure forms of aluminous
oxide: emery consists of crystals of oxide embedded in a matrix form of
oxide while corundum consists of aluminous oxide associated with
varying amounts of impurities. Emery is about 60% pure and corundum
is about 90% pure. Modern grinding wheels are made with artificial
abrasives called silicon carbide and aluminous oxide. Silicon carbide is
a chemical combination of carbon and silicon, whereas aluminous oxide
is made from bauxite (hydrated aluminous oxide). Both abrasives are
graded by sieving through screens having holes or meshes o different
sizes. The grit signifies the number of mesh used to grade any particular
size. Screens from 200 to 46 are generally made of silk, while those
from 46 to 8 are made of wire.
18.23.2 Bonds
The bond is a substance which when mixed with the abrasive grains holds
them together permitting the mixture to be shaped in the form of a wheel;
and after suitable treatment, to take on the necessary mechanical strength
for its function. The degree of hardness possessed by the bond is called
the grade of the wheel, which also signifies the ability of the bond to hold
the abrasive gains in the wheel.
A soft bond permits the grain to break away more readily than a
hard one and should be used where the abrasive becomes more readily
dulled, i.e. when grinding any hard material. A hard bond retains the
abrasive longer and should be used on soft material. Several types of
bonding materials are in use vitrified, silicate, shellac, rubber and
synthetic resin.
18.23.3 Wheel specification

The abrasive industries associations the world over/in India have adopted
the British standardized marking system for grinding wheels.
For example, wA46K5V specifications as shown in the chart below
18.24 Pliers
Circlips are spring circular retaining clips which are designed to engage
in the internal and external groove, special pliers are needed to fit them.
There is a small hole at the each end of circlip. Circlip pliers have
cylindrical tips to fit into these holes. Pliers consist of a pair of jaws
designed for holding the internal and external circlips before being
located. They are made in two shapes straight or bent to suit the nature
of jobs. The size is determined by the overall length of the jaw. Available
sizes are tabulated here for pliers to be used for internal as well as external
pliers.
Straight nose
18.37 Different type of internal circlip plier.

Tools 395
Table 18.5 Different type of internal circlip plier
Jaws Circlip size Length L Length

(mm) (mm) (mm)
Straight or bent 8–25 24 135

Straight or bent 40–100 42.5 210
Bent Nose
Return Spring
18.38 Different types of outer circlip plier.
Table 18.6 Different types of outer circlip plier
Jaws Circlip size Length L1 Length

(mm) (mm) (mm)

18.25 Stud extractor

Screw extractors are used to remove broken screws without damaging the
surrounding material or the threaded hole. Screw extractors can be used
only when a hole can be drilled in the centre of the thread of the stud to be
extracted. Screw extractors are straight, have flutes from end to end. The
stud extractor is used with twist drill, drill guide and turn nut. These are
available in different sizes to remove screws with different outer diameter.
Spiral Extractor
Hole drill in brokenscrew
Broken screw
18.39 Stud extractor.
Table 18.7 Size of the stud extractor
Stud extractor Length Drill Diameter of stud

diameter (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
4 55 2.8 3–6
5 60 3.5 6–8
6 65 4.2 8–11
8 75 5.5 11–14
11 85 7.5 14–18
18.25.1 How to use an extractor?

1. Select the right size of drill and stud extractor to suit the diameter of
stud of the broken screw.
2. Before using the extractor, make a sure that metal chips of the broken
screw, if any are removed from the hole.
3. Drill a hole of the recommended diameter in the broken stud.
4. Drive the extractor into the hole. Slip the turn nut over the extractor
and turn it clockwise, and thus turn the broken unit anticlockwise.
The flutes grip the walls of drilled unit and remove it without
damaging the threads of the tapped hole.
18.26 Kit for mounting of bearing

Bearings are precision components and need proper tools for accurate
mounting. It is estimated that 30–40 % of service life of bearing gets
Tools 397
reduced because proper tools are not used for mounting life and also due
to improper mounting procedure. While mounting a bearing due care must
be taken that the load is uniformly distributed on the outer ring or inner
ring of the bearing. In case any un-even load comes on the bearing during
its mounting, serious damage can take place within the rolling element
and rings. This would lead to premature failure of the bearing.
Bearing kit is a simple, convenient and versatile tool to mount any
bearing correctly and systematically without causing any damage to the
bearing and to the shaft. The tool consists of impact rings and impact
sleeves. These are stored in a box. All impact rings /sleeves are made of
alloy steel; machined, hardened and blackened for corrosion prevention,
and individually numbered for easy identification. Each ring has a rubber
–O-ring that keeps the ring joined to the sleeve during usage and also
permits one sleeve to cover many rings. The commonly used kit comprises
33 rings, 05 sleeves covering bearing from 10 mm to 50 mm inner diameter.
As generally bearing larger than 50 mm should be fitted by heating.
18.40 Bearing mounting kit: sleeve and rings.
18.26.1 How to use this kit?

Apply some oil on the shaft on which the bearing is to be mounted. Using
the selection chart given in the kit box, select the impact ring and impact
sleeve suitable for the particular bearing. Place the bearing on to the shaft
and place impact ring of the same on the bearing. Ensure that it covers the
full face of the bearing; and then insert impact sleeve gently on the ring.
Using a iron hammer and give gentle blow on the sleeve so that impact
ring exerts uniform force on the bearing making it to move straight on the
shaft up to the desired position.
Bearing Impact Ring

Impact sleeve
Hammer
18.41 Mounting a bearing on a shaft.
18.27 Pullers
Care should be always taken while dismounting machine elements like
gears, pulleys etc to ensure that these are not damaged during dismounting.
The job of extracting any machine element becomes very easy and safe
with the help of a puller. The puller consists of two/three jaws. These jaws
are usually made of heat-treated alloy steel. These jaws are made in one
piece or two pieces depending upon the design of the puller. A puller with
jaws made in two pieces consists of the main arm having Tee section on
which a female Tee-section slides and is held by high tensile screws. An
alloy steel spindle is placed at the centre of three arms. To reduce the
load/fatigue on an operator, the spindle is provided with a fine pitch. At
one end of the spindle there is a hardened/ground rotating centre provided
with puller. The other end of the spindle is made square on which a tommy
can be fixed. The rotating centre not only reduces the fatigue on the operator
but also ensures that no damage is done to the shaft. The tommy facilitates
positive rotation to spindle by offering a greater leverage.
Pipe
Jaw
Main Arm
Tommy
Holder
18.42 A typical puller.
Tools 399
18.27.1 How to use puller?

1. Check puller for smooth motion. Apply some oil on the moving parts
to get smooth motion.
2. Centralize the male centre of the spindle of the puller on the female
centre of the shaft.
shaft
Center Spindle
18.43 Centralizing the spindle on shaft.
In case the female centre of the shaft is bigger than male centre of
the puller then n additional centre can be used as shown in Fig. 18.44.
shaft
Center Spindle
18.44 Centralizing using an extra centre.
3. Adjust the jaw of the puller on the machine element and centralize
these jaws. Keep equal gap or no gap between jaws and machine
elements as shown in Fig. 18.45.
Gap Gap jaw jaw
Bearing Bearing
18.45 Jaw adjustment.
4. Ensure full grip of jaw on machine element (Figure 18.46).
jaw Jaw
Bearing
Bearing
Not Correct
18.46 Correct adjustment of puller jaws.
5. Insert tommy on the spindle and apply force on tommy. If the entire
puller starts rotating then hold the jaws with hand to lock the rotation
of the puller (Fig. 18.47).
18.47 Puller ready for extraction.
6. The puller is now ready for extracting the machine element. Rotate
the spindle till the machine element is extracted.
18.28 Micrometer
The micrometer is an accurate length/thickness measuring instrument
which is based on the principle of lateral movement of a screw in each
revolution, i.e. its lead. It consists of a screw with twenty threads per cm
which revolves in a fixed nut. The end of the screw forms one measuring
face and the other measuring face is a fixed one and is mounted in the
base of the frame.
The lead of the micrometer is 0.5 mm and can read 100th of mm. The
barrel graduations on the outer sleeve are half millimetre and the millimetre,
each 5mm being numbered. The thimble is divided into 50 equal divisions
along its circumference. Thus one division on the thimble represent 0.01
mm which is the least count of micrometer.
Tools 401
The anvil and spindle end must be clean and the micrometer should be
held truly square with the job while taking readings. The thimble by ratchet
stud to ensure uniform grip at each measurement.
Ratchet stop
Thumble
Spindle
Barrel
Anvil
Lock nut
Frame
18.48 Micrometer.
Thimble
Outer sleeve
18.49 Reading a micrometer.
Graduations = 0.01 mm
An outer sleeve reading of 7.00, and thimble reading of 37 means (7 +
37 × 0.01) = 7.37 mm since the least count is 0.01 mm.
18.29 Drill
Drilling is an important operation carried out during maintenance work
for producing different types and sizes of holes in different materials. The
most important form of drill is a fluted twist drill. This drill is a thin, long
cylindrical body carrying a spiral flute cut on its surface. Twist drills are
usually made of high speed steel. The twist drill generally consist of two
main parts, a shank which is gripped in the chuck of drilling machine and
the body which forms the main cutting unit. Body is the entire cone shaped
surface at the cutting end of drill. The drills are made in different forms to
suit the work. The most commonly used type of drills are those with parallel
or tapered shank. Parallel shank is provided on small drills (say up to
12.7 mm in diameter) and above sizes are provided with tapered shank
which normally carries the morse taper. Tapered shank drills are provided
with a tang at the end of shank to ensure positive grip. This tang position
fit into the slot provided in the socket of the drilling machine.
Advantages of using twist drills are as follows:
1. The chips and the cut metal are automatically driven out of the hole
being drilled through the spiral flute of the body.
2. The cutting edges in good condition for a fairly long period, thus
avoiding frequent grinding.
3. Heavier feeds and speed can be safely employed.
4. For any given size and depth of the hole they need less power as
compared to other forms of drills.
Tang
Length of flute
Flute
18.50 Twist drill
18.30 Step ladder

Step ladders, made of metal, are self supporting, having a frame hinged to
the back of the ladder. Ladder has wide steps which lie horizontally when
the ladder is fully opened. The hinged sections are fitted with folding stays
to prevent them sliding open further than the optimum position. A platform
at the top of the ladder carries tools.
Tools 403
Precautions
Inspect step ladders before use paying particular attention to the condition
of the steps, stays and hinges. Make sure that the steps are fully opened
and on even ground before climbing on them.
18.51 Step ladder.
18.31 Oil cans

Oil cans made from tinplate containers which pump the oil through the
spout by squeezing the base of the container, to cans which incorporate a
thumb-operated pump. Pumped oil cans are more suitable for lubricating
machines as they can be used at various angles and incorporate long spouts
which ran into confined spaces.
Handle Delivery Tube

Thumb Operated Lever
Oil Reservior
18.52 Thumb-operated pump.

18.32 Grease gun

Larger guns are used for greasing the bearing and are operated by lever or
trigger. The grease is loaded into the grease reservoir from a grease
container. The nozzle of grease gun fit into the nipple which has spring
loaded seal. The trigger is pressed to force the grease into the bearing or
housing through nipple.
Trigger
Nozzle for
grease Nipple
Delivery Tube
Pull Knob
Grease reservoir
18.53 Grease gun.
18.33 Chalk line

A chalk line is used to draw straight line on the floor. The line is contained
in a case with coloured chalk powder. As the line is drawn from the casing
a felt gasket distributes an even coating. The line has a hook and ring at
one end for attaching to a nail or catching between floor boards.
Hook
Line
Folding Rewind Crank
Case
18.54 Chalk line.
Tools 405
18.34 Knife
Knife is used for cutting the lapping on bottom roll. It consists of a blade
and retracting button which is use to retract the blade after use.
Retracting Button
Blade
18.55 Knife.
18.35 Plumb bob

The plumb bob is a pointed weight attached to a length of line which is
contained in the bob itself and fastens in a slot in the cap. If the hardened
point on the bob end becomes bent it will no longer give a true reading, so
must be replaced. Hold the end of the line at the required point and allow
it to settle out of its natural swing. Make sure that it is hanging free, and
mark the point below the plumb bob.
Line
18.56 Plumb bob.

18.36 Requirement of tool for erection, installation

and maintenance
General requirement
1. Chain block with wire rope – 3 ton capacity – 2 no.
2. Pallet truck – 2 ton capacity – 2 no.
3. Floor drilling machine with 10, 12, 14, 16 mm drill bit – 1 no.
4. Ladder with top working platform and castors 3 m height – 2 no.
5. Ladder with top working platform and castors half meter height –
2 no.
6. Crow bar – 4 no.
7. ½” round bar – 1 meter height – 6 no.
8. 2" G.I. pipe – 1 meter length – 6 no.
9. Hand drilling machine with 2 mm to 12 mm drill bit – 1 no. each
10. Bench drilling machine with 2 mm to 20 mm drill bit – 1 no. each
11. Bench grinder – 1 no.
12. Torch light for cell – 2 no.
13. Fluorescent inspection lamp – 1 no.
14. Extension reel with 25 m electric cable
15. Forklift of 5 ton capacity – 1 no.
16. Vertical spirit level 0.3 mm/m – 2 no.
17. Horizontal spirit level 0.3 mm/m
18. Prismatic calliper – 2 no.
19. Digital vernier calliper – 1 no.
20. Vernier calliper 150 mm and 300 mm least count 0.1 mm – 2 no.
21. Dial gauge with magnetic stand – 1 no.
22. Soldering iron 500 W – 1 no.
23. Plumb bob – 4 no.
24. Fish net nylon thread for lining – 50 m continuous length – 2 set
25. Fish net nylon thread for lining – 10 m continuous length – 2 set
26. Dyeing ink for marking on floor – 0.5 l.
27. Measuring tape 50 m – 2 no.
28. Marking pen –12
29. Chalk line size – 30 m
Tools
1. Nylon hammer – 0.5 kg and 1 kg each – 1 no. each of each department
2. Steel hammer –1/2 kg and 1kg each – 1 no. each of each department
3. Circlip plier
(a) Inner – small and big – one no. each for each department
(b) Outer – small and big – one no. each for each department
Tools 407
4. Bearing assembly tool kit – 1 no. each for each department

5. Tap set – 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12 – 1 no. each for each department
6. Drill bit – 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12 – 1 no. each for each department
7. Spanner
(a) Open end spanner set – 6–32 mm – 1 no. each for each department
(b) Ring spanner set – 6–32 mm – 1 no. each for each department
(c) Socket spanner set – 6–32 mm – 1 no. each for each department
8. Allen key set – 1–18 mm – 1 no. each for each department
9. Tri-square – 150 mm – 1 no. each for each department
10. Feeler gauge – 1 no. each for each department
11. Screw driver
12. Star screw driver
13. Chisel
14. File rough of fine length 150 mm and 300 mm
15. Hacksaw
16. Steel scale – 300 mm
17. Steel measuring tape – 3 m
18. Bench vice
19. Grease gun 0.5 kg
20. Chisel flat end length 150 mm.
References
1. Workshop Practice Manual by V. KAPOOR .
2. Workshop Technology (1971) by W . A. J. CHAPMAN .
3. Workshop Technology (1982) by S . K. H. CHOUDHARY and DR . S . C . BHATTACHARYA.
All the photographs and tables are sourced from above references.
19
Tips to fine tune the spinning machinery
19.1 Introduction
In earlier days, the objective of maintenance was just to prevent mechanical
breakdown but now-a-days the concept of maintenance has totally changed,
i.e. good maintenance is supposed to prevent mechanical as well quality
breakdown. The main objective of maintenance is to ensure high quality
in the product, i.e. to make the products free from defect and faults.
Quality breakdown does not mean that the mill is not able to achieve
the required average quality parameters. Breakdowns refer to the rejection
of lots due to only a few spindles that are producing faulty yarn. To avoid
formation of such faulty yarn, it is very necessary that the spindle to spindle
variation at ringframes and on winding machines, and machine to machine
variation in pre-spinning. This is possible only when the maintenance teams
must also act as quality teams and work with statistical quality control
(SQC) department to provide the required result. Hence, the maintenance
engineer must be capable of understanding and analyzing quality reports.
The SQC reports normally show only the average values of the quality
parameters, not the number or quality of the defectives. The numbers of
the defectives need to be found out by the analyzing raw data on yarn tests
and then noting down the abnormal readings or the outliers. The outliers
are those readings which fall outside the normal limit of variability given
in percentage by ±3 CV on both sides of the average value (e.g., if the
average count is 30.4 and lea count CV is 2% then the normal variability
is 30.4 ±6%, i.e. from 28.6 to 32.2. All readings falling beyond these limits
are ‘outliers’ which should not more than 3 in 1000. If the outliers are
more, preventive measures need to be taken to correct the defective
spinning positions that cause an outlier to occur. In this way, the
maintenance engineer and his team helps to reduce the numbers of defective
by ensuring good mechanical conditions uniformly from spindle to spindle.
19.2 Blow room

Cotton reaches in the industry in the form of bales after ginning. These
bales contain cotton in the compressed form and contain foreign matter
408
Tips to fine tune the spinning machinery 409
which are used to deposit during the natural growth of cotton and during
picking, ginning and transport. The foreign particles which find their way
into cotton are as follows:
Vegetable matter
1. Husk portion
2. Seed fragmen
3. Stem fragmen
4. Leaf fragmen
5. Wood fragments
Mineral material
1. Earth
2. Sand
3. ore dust picked up in the transpor
4. Coal dust picked up in the transpor
Other foreign matter

1. Metal fragmen
2. Cloth fragmen
3. Packing material
The foreign matter leads to extreme disturbance during process. Metal parts
can cause fire or damage card clothing. Cloth fragment and packing material
can lead to foreign fibre in the yarn which is unsuitable for further processing.
Trash can lead to drafting disturbances, yarn breaks and filling up of
card clothing. Trash deposit can cause high wear rate in machines.
The continuous research in the industry comes out with the conclusion
that good yarn quality such as evenness, single yarn strength, breakage
rate at different stage of spinning process and fabric appearance depends
on the initial opening, cleaning and blending in blowroom.
Hence main function of blowroom is opening, cleaning and blending
of fibre without damaging the fibre, minimum fibre loss and with minimum
nep generation. Today yarn purchaser not only demand the best possible
yarn value but also consistent yarn value, so it is very important that one
should pay more importance to opening, cleaning and blending
technologies, i.e. right type of blowroom in your spinning mill.
Basic operations in the blowroom:
1. Opening
2. Cleaning
3. Mixing or blending
4. Microdust removal
5. Uniform feed to the carding machine

6. Recycling the waste
Today, yarn purchaser demand not only the best possible yarn value but
also consistent yarn value so it is very important that one should pay more
importance to opening, cleaning and blending technologies, i.e. right type
of blowroom in your spinning mill.
The performance of blowroom can be checked by checking the following
points in blowroom:
1. Cleaning efficiency of blowroom
2. Nep generation in blowroom
3. Fibre rupture
4. Control of CV% in airfeed
5. CV% (lap to lap and within lap in case of lap feed)
6. Width-wise variation in lap in case of lap feed
7. Lap formation in case of lap feed
19.2.1 Reasons for high nep generation at blowroom

Normally 100–150 % of increase in blowroom is considered as normal.
1. Low maturity in fibre
2. Low micronaire fibre
3. Blunt point of beaters
4. Blunt point of grids
5. Rough surface of conveying pipes
6. Rough surface of vanes of transport fans
7. High velocity of air
8. Sharp bend in conveying pipes and more no. of bends
9. Rough surface of covers where fibres come in contact
10. Poor condition of spiked lattice
11. Higher speed and too close setting
12. More no of fans and beating points
19.2.2 Reasons for rich dropping

Normally the lint percent should be less than 40% in the waste under any
beater.
1. Amount of trash present in mixing.
2. Type of trash present.
3. Too close grid bar setting to beater with high beater speed give more
waste.
4. Too wide feed roll to beater setting may give white waste.
5. Feed roller weighing should be proper to avoid plucking of material.

6. If the angle between grids is too open white waste will be more or
waste plate setting is high.
7. Running efficiency should be between than 85–90%.
8. Type of waste plate short waste plate give more waste and long plate
give less waste.
19.2.3 Reasons for fibre rupture

Fibres are considered to be ruptured at blowroom only if the span length
2.5 % drop by 4 % and/or the uniformity ratio drops more than 5%.
1. Low maturity
2. Low micronaire
3. Higher beater speeds at each stage
4. Feed roll to beater setting to close
5. Running efficiency at each stage is less
6. Grid bar to beater setting is too close
19.2.4 Reasons for low blowroom cleaning efficiency

Generally, cleaning efficiency of the blowroom ranges from 50–60%.
1. Type of trash present in mixing.
2. Amount of trash present in mixing.
3. Moisture percent of cotton.
4. To reduce the feed at every stage.
5. Increase the beater speed.
6. Reduce feed roll to beater gauge.
7. Increase the condenser speed but maintain the pressure by keeping
the windows in pipe.
8. Keeps the grid bar setting to minimum.
9. Poor condition of beater.
10. Less than the required no of beating points.
11. The condition of air current should be proper.
12. Excessive humidity in blowroom.
19.2.5 Reasons for ineffective suction in ducts

1. Air leakages.
2. Low Fan speed: check for belt slippage.
3. High resistance to air flow due to chock ups, etc.
4. Too long pipelines and sharp bends.
5. Wrong direction of rotation of the fan.
19.2.6 How to adjust the feed weight?

1. By adjusting the chute width.
2. By altering the opening roller speed.
3. By controlling the material level in chute.
4. By changing the draft between trio rollers to card feed roller.
19.2.7 How to control feed variability in chute feed line?

1. Ensure the uniform filling of all chute.
2. The proportion of the running time and idle time of the feeding
machine should be about 90 % and 10 % respectively.
3. Adjust the exhaust opening for proper filling.
4. The feed roller in any chute feed should be run for the maximum
time possible.
5. The differential pressure switch should be adjusted in such a way
that as soon as the material is filled in the chute, the feeding machine
is switched off.
6. Any material/dust accumulation on the perforated sheet should be
cleaned.
7. Avoid lapping in the card feed rollers.
19.2.8 Reasons for patchy lap in case of lap feed

1. The tension draft between the calendar roller and the shell roller is
too high.
2. Too low fan speed at cages.
3. Damaged grid bars.
4. Less opening of cotton flocks should be ensured.
5. Dust accumulation between the pedals (affects the sensitivity of the
pedal levers).
6. Too high weight/metre of lap which will cause the reduction of beats
per inch.
7. Too sticky tint which deposited in the hood and grids will obstruct
the movement of fibre and cause lumps.
19.2.9 Reasons for lap licking

1. Improper deposition of the material on the cage across the width: the
maximum variation allowed is ±8%.
2. Low calendar roll pressure.
3. High rack pressure.
4. Material in damp condition.
5. Spin finish not used while processing synthetics.

6. Reduce fan and beater speeds.
7. Maintain a RH% of about 50–55%.
8. High gap between calendar roll to finger plate.
9. The sticky nature of raw material and type of spin finish used in raw
material.
10. More lap weight.
11. More soft waste %.
19.2.10 Reasons for conical laps

1. Calendar roll pressure non uniform across the width.
2. Rack pressure non uniform.
3. Non uniform suction at the sides of cage.
19.2.11 Reasons for bulky laps

1. In sufficient pressure for calendar rolls and rack.
2. Tension draft not 1.0.
3. High soft waste in mixing should be avoided.
4. Low relative humidity .
19.2.12 Ring traveller on calendar roller

1. Introduce magnetic rollers.
2. Fix ‘magnetic track’ in the pipe lines.
19.3 Card
The proverbs of the experts ‘The Card is the heart of the Spinning Mill’
and ‘Well-Carded is half spun’ demonstrate the immense significance of
carding for final result of the spinning operation. There is a strong
relationship between increase in production and reduction in quality: the
higher the performance, the more sensitive becomes the carding operation
and the greater the danger of a negative influence on quality.
The tasks of the card are given below:
1. Opening to individual fibres enables elimination of impurities and
performance of other operations.
2. Elimination of impurities occurs mainly in the region of the taker-in.
The degree of cleaning achieved by modern card is very high, in the
range 90–95%. Thus, the overall degree of cleaning achieved by the
blowroom and carding room together is as high as 95–99%. Card
sliver still contains 0.05–0.03% of foreign matter.
3. Elimination of dust is bound to the fibres. Significant fibre/metal

and/or fibre friction is needed in order to loosen such particles, this
are available in carding operation.
4. Disentangling of neps. The number of neps increases from machine to
machine in the blow-room, the card reduces the remaining number to a
small fraction, they are mostly opened out. Improvement in disentangling
of neps is obtained by closer spacing between clothing; sharper clothing;
optimal speed of taker-in; low doffer speeds; lower throughput.
5. Elimination of short fibres may occur at flats. Long fibres have more
contact with the clothing of the main cylinder than the short fibres.
Thus longer fibres are continuously caught and carried along the
main cylinder, where the short fibres stay caught in the flats clothing,
press into it and leave the machine in the flat stripping. The card
eliminates very small percentage of short fibres about 1%.
6. Fibre blending or transverse blending occurs because the card is the
only machine to process individual fibres. In formation the web, and
with repeated rotation of the fibres on the main cylinder, intimate
fibre with fibre mixing is achieved.
7. Fibre orientation. The card is often attributed the effect of paralyzing.
A parallel condition is achieved on main cylinder, but it disappears
during web formation between cylinder and doffer.
8. Sliver formation for further processing. Generally the hank lies
between 4 and 5.
The performance of card can be checked by checking following

parameters:
1 Nep reduction
2 Trash in sliver
3 Waste percentage
4 Uneveness of sliver
5 Fibre rupture
6 Sliver breakage
19.3.1 Reasons for low nep removal efficiency

Normally 70–85% of nep removal efficiency is considered as normal.
1. Ensure that waste in mixing should not exceed more than 3.5% for
carded count and 1.5% for combed count.
2. Flat in poor condition.
3. Cylinder, doffer and lickerin wires in poor condition.
4. Improper flat setting.
5. Improper speed of cylinder, lickerin and fla
6. Poor transfer of fibre between cylinder and doffer wire.

7. Flat loading problem.
8. Improper lickerin to feed roll gauge.
9. Improper cylinder to doffer gauge.
10. Poor condition of stationary flats.
19.3.2 Reasons for fibre rupture in card

1. Flat gauge is too tight.
2. Too narrow setting of feed plate to lickerin.
3. High cylinder speed.
4. High lickerin speed.
5. Low micronaire cotton.
6. Low maturity of fibre.
19.3.3 Reasons for poor cleaning efficiency

Normally 90–95 % of cleaning efficiency in card is considered as normal.
1. Amount of trash in the feed.
2. Type of trash.
3. Poor condition of flat.
4. Improper speed of cylinder, lickerin and flat.
5. Cylinder, doffer and lickerin wires in poor condition.
6. Improper flat setting.
8. Flat load.
9. Improper lickerin to feed roll gauge.
10. Improper cylinder to doffer gauge.
11. Poor condition of stationary flats.
12. Humidity condition is not proper.
19.3.4 Reasons for high sliver unevenness

Card sliver unevenness more than 3–4% is considered to be higher.
1. Too high tension draft.
2. Worn out bearings.
3. Worn out clothings.
4. Size of coiler trumpet not adjusted to proper hank.
5. Worn out belts.
6. Transfer of fibre between cylinder and doffer wire poor.
7. Good fibres going in the suction box.
8. Auto-leveller not working properly.
19.3.5 Reasons for more sliver breakage in card

More than 2–3 sliver breaks/shift/card are not accepted.
1. Cut in the web.
2. Material falling from doffer.
3. Narrow trumpets.
4. Tension drafts high.
6. Running efficiency of blowroom less than 90%.
7. Auto-leveller not set correctly.
8. Variation in the feed is too high.
9. Worn out gear or belt.
19.3.6 Reasons for undercasing side fly at cylinder

1. Low micronaire.
2. Squaring of cylinder undercasing not done correctly.
3. Scratches on undercasing.
4. Gauge not slightly loose in the middle of the undercasing compared
to the left and right side edges.
5. Undercasing tongue setting improper.
6. Poor condition of cylinder and doffer wire.
19.3.7 Reasons for feed roll lapping

1. Pneumafil box choked.
2. Very close setting between the feed roller and lickerin.
3. Worn out feed roller and feed roller wire.
4. Rubber flap on the feed roller is in poor condition and not in touch
with the feed roller.
5. Feed roller loading is not in perfect condition.
19.4 Drawframe
Quality of the drawframe sliver determines the yarn quality. Drawing is
the final process of quality improvement in the spinning mill. The function
of drawframe sliver is given below:
1. Through doubling the slivers are made even.
2. Doubling results in homogenization (blending).
3. Through draft fibres get parallelised.
4. Hooks created in the card are straightened.
5. Through the suction, intensive dust removal is achieved.
6. Auto-leveller maintains absolute sliver fineness.
The performance of drawframe can be judged by checking.
1. Evenness of the sliver

2. CV% of sliver
19.4.1 Reasons for high sliver unevenness

Drawframe sliver unevenness more than 2.0–2.5% is considered to be higher.
1. Improper roller setting.
2. Improper total draft.
3. Slivers from the creel roller should over riding each other.
4. Eccentricity of drafting rollers high.
5. Poor top rollers conditions.
6. Under size cots.
7. Incorrect pressure bar setting.
8. Incorrect trumpet condenser.
9. Tension draft too high.
10. Auto-leveller not set perfectly.
11. Worn out bearings and belt.
19.4.2 Reasons for high CV%

1. Improper setting of auto-leveller.
2. Improper roller setting.
3. Improper total draft.
4. Slivers from the creel roller should over riding each other.
5. Eccentricity of drafting rollers high.
6. Poor top rollers conditions.
19.5 Comber
Combing is the process which is used to upgrade the raw material. It
influences the following yarn quality:
1. Yarn evenness
2. Strength
3. Cleanness
4. Smoothness
5. Visual appearance
In addition to the above, combed cotton needs less twist than a carded
yarn. To produce an improvement in yarn quality, the comber must perform
the following operations.
1. Elimination of short fibres

2. Elimination of remaining impurities
3. Elimination of neps
Following parameters must be checked to judge the performance of

comber machine:
1. Combing efficiency
2. Nep removal efficiency
3. Evenness of sliver
19.5.1 Reasons for variation in waste% between head

and machine
The waste at combers needs to be checked regularly as
1. Higher waste than nominal result in financial loss.
2. Less waste than nominal leads to poor yarn quality and also result in
count variation between bobbins.
Reasons for variation in waste % between head and machine are as

follows:
1. Variation in mixing from time to time.
2. Variation in blending of different cotton.
3. Variation in unsuitable and unproportional mixing of soft waste.
4. Variation lap weight.
5. Insufficient draft in lap preparation.
6. Bad mechanical condition of lap machine like bent weighting hooks,
defective top rollers and variation in top roller pressure.
7. Bad condition of comber machine parts like brush, unicomb and top
comb.
8. Differences in top comb penetration from head to head.
9. Poor nipper grip and bent nipper on some of the heads.
10. Difference in ratchet gear, count change gears and tension change
gears between combers working on given mixing.
The head-to-head variation can be controlled to the level of ±1.5%.
The comber-to-comber variation can be controlled to the level of ±0.5%.
19.5.2 Reasons for high comber sliver unevenness

Comber sliver unevenness more than 2.5–3.5% is considered to be higher.
1. Top rollers eccentric, too small diameter of top roller, uneven load.
2. Dirty lap tension roller, nipper, fluted roller, table top rollers, fleece
guide, trumpets etc.
3. Non uniform, inadequate nipper grip.
4. Higher gap between nipper and unicomb.
5. Dirty half lap needles in unicomb.
6. Unicomb too much backward.
7. Too wide setting in drafting.
8. Top detaching roller eccentric.
19.5.3 Reasons for low nep removal efficiency

The nep removal efficiency at comber should be 50–60%.
1. Lap weight – there should be around 5 lakhs fibre in lap for new
combers and 4 lakhs fibre in lap for old combers.
2. Lap preparation – the pre-comber draft should not be more than 10.
It is better if it lies between 6 and 7.
3. Top comb penetration insufficient.
4. Unicomb to nipper gap too wide.
5. Lap weight excessive.
6. Lap preparation with insufficient total draft.
7. Uncleanliness of unicomb.
8. Unicomb too less backward.
9. Poor condition of brush and improper setting.
19.6 Speedframe
Roving machine is complicated, liable to faults, causes defects, adds to
production costs and delivers a product that is sensitive in both winding
and unwinding. This machine is forced to use by the spinner for the
following two reasons.
1. Sliver is thick, untwisted strand that tends to be hairy and to create
fly. The draft needed to convert this is around 300–500. Drafting
arrangements of ringframes are not capable of processing. This strand
in a single drafting operation to create a yarn that meets all the normal
demands on such yarns.
2. Drawframe cans represent the worst conceivable mode of transport
and presentation of feed material to the ring spinning frame.
The speedframe perform following functions:
1. Attenuation-drafting the sliver into roving.
2. Twisting the drafted strand.
3. Winding the twisted roving on a bobbin.
The performance of speedframe can be judged by checking the following

parameters:
1. Roving end breakage

2. CV% of roving
19.6.1 Reasons for more roving end breakage

Roving breaks less than 1 per spindle hours are considered acceptable.
1. Groove cut or improperly buffed top rollers.
2. Bottom rollers with burrs, greasy materials.
3. Thick places in sliver resulting in undrafting ends.
4. Singles present in the sliver.
5. More tension in the creel or creel rollers not rotating.
6. Hard piecing in the sliver.
7. Clearers fully covered with waste.
8. Choking inside flyers.
9. Improper tension in the roving.
10. Mix up of bobbin of different diameter.
11. Low top arm loading not proper on some spindles.
12. Different number of wraps on the pressure finger.
13. Poor condition of bottom and top apron is not proper.
14. Saddle gauge differs from spindle to spindle.
15. Poor condition of false twister.
16. More number of skived bottom aprons.
17. Weak broken end suction.
18. Spacer too narrow and less break draft.
19. Pressure fingers worn out.
20. Low twist in roving.
19.6.2 Causes of high variation in CV% of roving

1. Stretching of sliver at feed.
2. High variation in bare bobbin diameter.
3. Improper choice of ratchet wheel and lifter wheel.
4. Load variation between top arms.
5. Choking of flyers.
6. Number of wraps on the pressure finger not same on all spindles.
7. Improper bobbin built up.
19.6.3 Reasons for load variation between top arms

1. Bent pressure ledge.
2. Poor condition of hose.

3. Non uniform air pressure or diameter of top roller.
4. Poor condition of arms.
19.6.4 Reasons for slough off of roving

1. Improper fitting of empty bobbin on the bobbin driving wheel pin.
2. Broken roving end not pieced immediately (reduction in bobbin
diameter may leads to slough off).
3. Bobbin trough not well-balanced and not traversing up and down
freely.
4. The joint key in the carriage shaft not sufficiently tightened.
5. Adjustment of the compensating rail and setting of the initial position
of the cone belt on the cone drum not correct.
6. Wraps around the pressure finger not same on all positions.
7. Bent pressure finger on some spindle positions.
8. Taper angle of the bobbin between 40° and 45°.
19.7 Ringframe
Ringframe is the final stage of producing yarn. Ringframe performs the
following functions:
● To draft the roving until the required fineness is achieved.
● To impart strength to the fibre, by inserting twist.
● To wind up the twisted strand (yarn) in a form suitable for storage,
transportation and further processing.
The performance of ringframe can be judged by the checking the

following parameters:
1. End breaks in ringframe

2. Yarn imperfection
3. Yarn hairiness
4. Yarn CV%
19.7.1 Reasons for more end breaks

Following precautions/measure should be taken to avoid more end break.
End breaks more than 3 per 100 spindle hour.
1. Creel breaks due to low roving T.M.
2. Excess friction in some bobbin holders.
3. Improper spacer size.
4. Non uniform top roller pressure.

5. Improper ring traveller and ring combination.
6. Poor Condition of cots on some spindle positions.
7. Non-centred spindle-ring and lappet hook on some spindles.
8. Ring rail not balanced properly.
9. Improper fly catcher gauge.
10. Poor condition of rings and lappet hook.
11. Worn out gear.
12. Wear of traveller.
13. Too quick change over from Slow to fast spindle speed.
14. Bad condition of some separator.
19.7.2 Reasons for higher imperfections

When some bobbins are seen to give more than 100% increase over the
average number of thick places or neps, or more than 300 in thin places,
the corresponding spindle positions would have one or more of the
following deficiencies.
1. Eccentric top roller.
2. Eccentric bottom roller.
3. Misalignment of top roller w.r.t. Bottom rollers.
4. Improper draft field setting.
5. Jerky bottom apron movement.
6. Faulty bottom roll drive.
7. Non-uniform top arm loading.
8. Excessive cot hardness.
9. Poor condition of cot.
10. Poor condition of top apron.
11. Poor condition of bottom apron.
12. Faulty traverse motion.
13. Uneven roving stretch at creel.
14. Damaged cradles.
15. Different size of distance clips.
16. Top rollers contaminated by grease.
17. Fluff accumulation in the drafting zone.
19.7.3 Reasons for high yarn hairiness

If a few rings or travellers or any surface in contact with the yarn during
its travel from front rollers to bobbins is rough or cut, excessive hairiness
is generated in yarn spun on those spindle position.
Cop hairiness is the excessive hair protruding from the full diameter of
a cop. These protruding fibres result in real snouts by adhering with other
fibres. A large portion of this protrusion falls away during the subsequent
winding process winding yarn. Yarn spun on faulty spindle positions with
high degree of hairiness always develops cop hairiness also. An important
consideration is the occurrence of excessive hairiness within a cop or on
full cops among the lot of same yarn. Such excessive hairiness can lead to
the problem of barre by producing stripiness in the fabric. In fabric like
denim, the hairiness becomes visible even on single picks.
Hairiness value of some bobbin showing greater than 50–60% needs
investigation.
1. Anti-balloon rings and yarn guide badly centred or with roughened
surface.
2. Cop diameter too large. Fibres protruding from cop get caught by
traveller.
3. Cut and roughened yarn passage on traveller.
4. Improper profile of traveller: tend to catch the yarn.
5. Excessive Yarn tension owing to traveller (wrong number) or due
heavy worn traveller.
6. Low yarn tension due to lighter traveller causes :
(a) Poor binding at the spinning triangle.
(b) Greater friction at anti-balloon ring.
(c) Inadequate twist transmission to the spinning triangle.
7. Excessively dry atmosphere result in high static charges.
8. Deformed cops.
9. Some rings worn out.
10. Some rings improperly centred.
11. Missing condensers in front zone of drafting.
19.7.4 Reasons for high lea count variation

The norm for lea count variation is 1.5–1.8 %.
1. Reasons for the count variation within bobbin
(a) High sliver U% at finisher drawframe.
(b) Stretch in the roving.
2. Reasons for count variation ‘between bobbin’
(a) Hank sliver difference between finisher drawframes.
(b) Non-optimum role for changing the draft pinion: high unnecessary
changes.
(c) Excessive hank differences within roving bobbins after large
number of layers due to stretch during poor tension setting at
roving frame.
19.7.5 Reasons for high yarn faul

If the reduction in the average number of faults of different types is desired,
check the following controllable items.
Short length thick fault (A and B type)

1. Presence of large amount of trash (more than 5%) or high proportion
of seed fragments (more than 1.5%) in mixing.
2. Insufficient nep removal at combing.
3. Poor opening and cleaning in blowroom and card.
4. Use of higher total draft at ringframes.
5. Use of too wide or too narrow setting of spacers at ringframes.
Long length faul

1. Poor condition of drafting at ringframes.
2. Poor house keeping in spinning room (spun in fly, loose fly, long
collection of fly and cork screw faults).
3. Hard roving piecing and poor yarn spinning piecing.
4. Poor mechanical conditions at combers therefore insufficient removal
of fibre cluster.
Guidelines for trouble shooting

1. Fly accumulation at traveller A3 and A4.
2. Foreign matter: A3 and A4.
3. Wrong Spacer A and B type or A4, B2, C2.
4. Smaller cage length and tight cage setting: B4, C4, D3 and D4.
5. Fused fibre in synthetic: B3, C3 and C2
6. Piecing at ringframe: C3 and C4
7. Defects in drafting elements defect at roving frame: C3, C4, D2, D3
and D4.
8. Cracked aprons n ringframe: B2 and C2.
9. Roving stretch: H1.
10. Apron felting: F.
19.7.6 Reasons for low cop content

1. Cop diameter less than the ring diameter by more than 3 mm.
2. More chase length.
3. The dog not adjusted properly.
4. Selection of actuating pins and the number of teeth in the ratchet
lower/higher for needed yarn count.
5. Improper balancing of ring rail and lappet.
19.7.7 Reasons for excessive slough off during

unwinding
The number of slough off per 100 bobbins at auto-winding more than 2 is
considered unacceptable.
1. Less compact bobbin.
2. Too low chase length and high winding length per cam revolution.
3. Too light traveller.
4. Ring rail movement jerky.
19.7.8 Reasons for excessive unevenness

When the bobbins show abnormally high value of U%, the cause could be
any one or more from the listed below.
1. Top roller eccentric.
2. Bottom roller Eccentric.
3. Misalignment of top roller w.r.t. Bottom rollers.
4. Improper draft field setting.
5. Jerky bottom apron movement.
6. Faulty bottom roll drive.
7. Low top arm loading.
8. High cot hard ness.
9. Poor condition of cot.
10. Poor condition of top apron.
11. Poor condition of bottom apron.
12. Faulty traverse motion.
13. Uneven roving stretch at creel.
14. Damaged cradles.
15. Wrong size of distance clips.
16. Top roller contaminated by grease.
17. Fluff accumulation in the drafting zone.
19.7.9 Reasons for twist variation

Twist per unit length reduces owing to unwanted reduction in ‘spindle/
bobbin’ speed in some spinning positions
1. Poor condition of spindle tape.
2. Jockey pulley condition is not good.
3. Condition of spindle bolster is poor.
4. One or more of the spindle driven by tape is idle.
5. Partial brake applied on running spindle.
6. Cotton sticking to spindle tape causing slippage.
19.7.10 Reasons for top apron damage

1. Channelling grooves formed due to defective traverse motion, or
excessive top arm pressure or high twist of material.
2. Accumulation of fluff.
3. Stickiness caused by materials used for colour coding.
4. Wrong and/or defective cradle.
5. Defective spacer.
6. Top roll lapping.
19.7.11 Reasons for bottom apron damage

1. Tension pulley jammed.
2. Top apron cradle not sitting properly.
3. Inadequate or too high arm pressure.
4. Defective traverse motion.
5. Defective spacer.
6. Bottom roll lapping.
19.7.12 Reasons for spindle tape breakage

1. Bobbin sitting very tight on spindle.
2. Spindle tape elongation.
3. Condition of spindle lock is very poor.
4. Hard waste entangled on spindle.
5. Spindle tape joint is not proper.
6. Jockey pulley alignment is not perfect.
19.8 Automatic cone winder

Automatic cone winder winds yarn onto one package unwound from several
bobbins, testing and improving its quality during the process .This package
is directly send to the package department for packing then to market for
further process
Performance of automatic cone winder can be judge by
1. The package quality and
2. Efficiency of winding machine.
19.8.1 Reasons for lapping on winding drum

1. Drum is cut by excessive yarn tension (Optimum tension is 8–12%
of the single yarn strength).
2. Uneven contact of the drum brush with the drum.

3. Winding at a low humidity.
4. Any flaws on the drum.
5. When winding dyed yarn, the quality and type of dye could cause a
problem.
19.8.2 Reasons for increase of imperfection during

winding
Winding increases the number of neps and thick place by 20–30%.
1. Tension setting is not proper.
2. Tensor disc does not rotate smoothly.
3. Yarn path not free from flaws.
4. Pre-clearer setting is not between 5 to 7 times the diameter of yarn.
5. Winding speed to high.
6. Unwinding accelerator is not placed at proper height.
7. Excessive contact pressure between cone and drum.
19.8.3 Reasons for excessive yarn breakage

If the yarn breaks without actuation of the knife blade of electronic yarn
clearer more than 10% of total breaks, then the reason could be:
1. Tension setting is too high, tensor disc does not rotate smoothly or
yarn path is not free from flaws.
2. Pre-clearer setting smaller than 5– 7 times the yarn diameter.
3. Waste yarn sticking on drum brush due to flaw on drum nose.
4. Unwinding accelerator not properly aligned with bobbin and or not
positioned at correct height.
5. Yarn clearer faulty. Frequent ‘clearer cuts’ on some spindle .No clearer
cut at all. Check the spindle by inserting a sheet of paper into the slit
of detection head.
6. Spinning bobbin too soft, broken yarn in bottom cop, excessive pick
yarn due to miss-winding at ringframes, excessive loosening on chase
when doffing at ringframes.
19.8.4 Frequent pick failure on bobbin side

If the pick failure is more than 1–2%, the reasons to be searched are as follows:
1. Retie pipe – Yarn is being caught by the retie pipe, insufficient stroke
adjustment, insufficient stroke due to twisting of retie pipe due to
excessive wear of retie opener cam, and improper clamping.
2. Magazine suction – no suction, weak suction, yarn tail too low in

magazine vacuum nozzle, in sufficient residual back wind removed
from the cop.
3. Tension cutters are blunt.
19.8.5 Reasons for pick failure on package side

If the pick failure is more than 1–2%, the reasons to be searched are as follows:
1. Drum brake shoe wear out.
2. Suction mouth package set far away from package, comb is catching
the yarn or low suction pressure.
3. Reverse rotation of drum: Oil remains on the surface of reverse roll,
reverse roll worn out or drum belt worn out.
4. Reverse rotation of the package: rotation of cone holder is sluggish
or package brake is not working properly.
19.8.6 Reasons for frequent missed splicing

When missed slice is more than 1%, investigate the following:
1. Low opening and splicing pressure.
2. Wide/loose settings of the yarn holding lever or feeder arm.
3. Poor untwisting.
19.8.7 Reasons for low splice strength

If the average splice strength is lower than 70 % of yarn strength, check
the following to improve splicing:
1. Splicing pressure is too low.
2. Air blasting time is too short.
3. Splice length is too long.
4. Untwisting of yarn end is not sufficient.
19.8.8 Reasons for yarn not accepted by splicing nozzle

1. Abnormal high tension.
2. Yarn caught by suction mouth.
19.8.9 Reasons for splice being thick at one side only

1. Yarn cutter is dull.
2. Insufficient clamping of upper and lower end.
3. Inadequate setting of untwisting nozzle.
19.8.10 Reasons for package faul

Packages are inspected 100%, for visible faulty cone need to be segregated
and rewound etc, and actions taken to reduce incidence of such faults.
1. Stitch
The yarn drops off the edge of the package.
19.1 Cradle of yarn.
1. Inadequate tension or variation in tension.

2. Flaw near the drum nose.
3. Improper rotation of the cradle bearing centre.
4. Loose cradle.
5. Improper position of drum to cone holder.
6. Due to ribbon formation.
7. Due to yarn sloughing.
8. Due to low contact pressure of cone at high yarn tension.
2. End missing
At the winding end of the spinning bobbin or at the yarn breakage, yarn
end is wound on the either end of the take up tube or wound on to the
package layer.
1. Improper gap between the drum cover and package.
2. Excessive sloughing.
3. Excessive surface cut of spinning bobbin.
4. Winding speed too high.
5. Due to static charge.
3. Ribbon winding
It occurs when the ratio of the drum diameter to package diameter is an
integer.
19.2 Ribbon winding.
1. Improper setting of ribbon breaker.

2. Excessive contact pressure.
3. Improper rotation of cradle.
4. Excessive moisture in spinning bobbin.
5. Spinning bobbin is too soft.
4. Bulge winding
The internal compression gets increased as the winding diameter is increased.
19.3 Bulge winding.
1. Winding angle is too large.

2. Winding tension is excessive.
3. Contact pressure is too high.
5. Wrinkles
These occur due to short traverse at the starting.
19.4 Wrinkles.
1. Inadequate tension.
2. Inadequate contact pressure.
3. Deflection of take up tube centre.
4. Poor alignment of contact surface of take up tube and drum.
6. Scramble
19.5 Scramble.
1. Drum does not stop at yarn breakage.

2. Joining motion repeats several times.
3. Suction mouth comes in contact with package.
4. Contact pressure is too low.
5. Ribbon comes off.
6. Weak starting force of drum.
7. Stepped winding
19.6 Stepped winding.
1. Flaw on drum.
2. Flaw on drum cover.
3. Low yarn tension.
4. Disengaged yarn from the yarn path after machine maintenance or
cleaning.
8. Saddle back package
19.7 Saddle back package.
1. Excess tension.
2. Low contact pressure.
3. Low increase.
9. Reasons for swelled package
19.8 Swelled package.
1. No tension is applied due to improper guiding of yarn on tensor,

foreign substance staying on tensor disc and improper movement of
tension disc.
2. Due to ribbon winding.
3. Improper movement of wax.
19.9 Two-for-one twister

19.9.1 Reasons for over-twisted yarn lengths
1. Wrong change gear combination.
2. Wrong primary combination.
3. Damaged gear toothed belt.
4. Take up tube not aligned with the package drive roll.
5. Centring disc rubs against the package drive roll.
6. Centring disc not turning freely.
7. Package drive roll loose on the shaft.
8. Cradle pressure too low.
9. Traverse thread touches the take up package.

10. Yarn take up tension too high causes package to slip.
19.9.2 Reasons for slack twist

1. Wrong change gear combination.
2. Yarn lap around spindle.
3. Spindle brake shoe binding on whorl.
4. Spindle pot or spindle bearing defective.
5. Spindle speed too low on some spindles.
19.9.3 Reasons for loss of tensile strength in yarn

1. Yarn balloon touches the rim of spindle pot or yarn balloon bulges
over the rim of balloon limiter.
2. Erratic yarn balloon.
3. Loops or kink in ply twisted yarn.
4. Damaged yarn guide element.
19.9.4 Reasons for defective package formation

1. Improper position of take up tube against package drive roll.
2. Too high or too low cradle pressure.
3. Improper pre take up roll pressure.
4. Improper position and slot width of traverse guide.
5. Ribbon functioning is not working properly.
19.9.5 Reasons for variation in package density

1. Wrap angle is not equal on all the spindles.
2. Cradle is not equal on all the spindles.
3. Improper rotation of deflection rolls.
4. Lapping of pre take up roll.
19.9.6 Reasons for excessive ends down

More ends down than 2 per 100 drum/spindle is considered excessive
1. Yarn reserve incorrectly set at full cheese.
2. Flyer rubs against feed package on rim of spindle pot or yarn balloon
during starting.
3. Take up tension too high.
4. Yarn balloon touches the upper rim of spindle pot.
5. Yarn guide elements damaged.

6. Yarn waste accumulates underneath labyrinth ring on the spindle
rotor.
7. Traverse yarn guide too narrow
8. Traverse guide touches take up package.
References
1. Operating Instruction for the high production card C1/3 issued in November
1987.
9. Lakshmi Speedframe LF 1400 operating instruction manual year 1990.
10. Lakshmi Ringframe G5/1 operating instruction manual year 1990.
11. Roving Frame Instruction Manual FL-16 by Toyada Automatic Loom Works
August 2001.
12. Prerna Leewha Two-for-One Twister for spun yarn PRN –140- LW Instruction
manual.
April 1973. Zinser Speedframe 660 instruction manual year 1990, Zinser
manual year 1990.
Limited Edition august 1993
15. Drawframe Cherry DX –500 – E2 instruction manual, Drawframe Cherry D –
400 MT instruction manual
:01 date of issue : 06.01
17. Two for one Twister instruction manual Leewha LW 560 SA
manual year 2001,CardC-61 instruction manual year 2002.
19. Murata Process Coner 21-C instruction manual revised October 2002,
21. Volkman VTS 05/07/08/09 operating Instruction manual.
22. Application manual of Off Line UT-4 year 2001
23. Lakshmi Ringtraveller catalogue.
24. Bracker Ringtraveller catalogue.
20
Tips to improve energy saving in spinning mills
20.1 Energy
Energy is defined as ‘the ability to do work’. In this sense, examples of
work include moving something, lifting something, warming something,
or lighting something. The following is an example of the transformation
of different types of energy into heat and power.
Oil burns to make heat
Heat boils water
Water turns to steam
Steam pressure turns a turbine
Turbine turns an electric generator
Generator produces electricity
Electricity powers light bulbs
Light bulbs give off light and heat

It is difficult to imagine spending an entire day without using energy.
We use energy to light our cities and homes, to power machinery in
factories, cook our food, play music, and operate televisions.
20.1.1 Energy loss

Heat transfer occurs through conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction is affected by conductivity of material through which heat is
transferred. Convection is transfer of heat by flow of material. It depends
435
upon the physical properties like area and temperature. Convective heat
transfer occurs when surface of hot material is displaced by cool air.
Radiation is transfer of heat energy by electromagnetic means between
two materials whose surfaces face each other and is generally governed
by the absolute temperatures and positions of two surfaces.
20.1.2 Energy discharge

It depends upon the composition, discharge rate and temperature of each
out flow from process unit.
20.2 Textile production process

The textile industry produces a wide range of products. The production
process includes four main activities: spinning, weaving and knitting, wet
processing and stitching (sewing). The production from fibers to spun yarn
takes place through the spinning process and constitutes the first stage.
Then the yarn is weaved to make fabrics in looms. Most woven fabrics
retain the natural color of the fibers from which they are made and are
called ‘grey fabrics’ at this stage. These fabrics then undergo several
different processes including bleaching, printing, dyeing and finishing;
these are grouped under the category of wet processing. Finally, the stage
from fabrics to garments is done by stitching. The industry uses cotton,
jute, wool, silk, man-made and synthetic fibers as raw material. In this
chapter we will talk about ring spinning only.
20.2.1 Spinning
Spinning involves opening/blending, carding, combing, drawing, drafting
and spinning. It uses four types of technologies: ring spinning, rotor
spinning, air jet spinning and friction spinning. Ring spinning is the most
used in the world with its main advantage being its wide adaptability for
spinning different types of yarn.
20.3 Energy consumption in spinning mill

Energy availability and its cost play a significant role in the profitability of
any industry. With energy cost escalating day by day and its availability
becoming more and more scarce, there is an urgent need for the textile industry
to manage energy by ensuring its effective usage and conservation. Energy
consumption in the spinning industry has augmented with increased
mechanization. Energy consumption per unit of output is higher in modern
spinning units due to technological development, which tends to replace
Tips to improve energy saving in spinning mills 437
manual labor by electric power. However, technological development also

offers better productivity and quality that can overcome the efficiency measure.
Energy costs vary from 9 to 14% of total manufacturing costs according to
the type of process involved, cost of the power and type of machines involved.
Raw material Wages Power

Packing cost overhead expenses Maintenance cost
Interest
2% 8%
1%
2%
10%
5%
72%
20.1 Distribution of manufacturing cost of yarn.
Major consumption of power in spinning plant is

1. Ringframe
2. Humidification plant
3. Chiller
4. Winding
5. Card
Ringframe using 35% of the total power consumed in the spinning mill.
Humidification plant, chiller and winding consume 16%, 15% and 10% of
the total power consumption.
Blowroom Card Drawframe Speedframe

Ringframe Winding Humidification Compressor
Others Chiller
15% 4% 7%
2%
3%
3%
5%
16%
35%
10%
20.2 Distribution of power in spinning mill.

20.4 Maximum cost effectiveness in energy use

Maximum cost effectiveness in energy used is achieved when maximum
production is achieved at least energy cost. Maximum cost effectiveness
in energy use is determined by two most important components.
(a) Energy cost per unit of production
(b) Cost for implementing energy conservation ideas
1. Energy costs – Taking conservation measures to reduce energy use
or to reduce wastage of energy (at constant energy prices) decreases
the per unit energy cost. Less energy is required for each unit of
production which means that the process become thermodynamically
more efficient.
2. Cost effectiveness – This is measured by the ratio of benefits due to
conservation over the cost of conservation. Every means of
conservation which gives benefit to installation cost ratio of more
than 3 must be implemented with highest priority and those giving
ratio 1.2–3.0 with appropriate lower priority. Even when the annual
saving are nearly equal the one time cost of implementation, it is
worth to implement the measure.
20.5 Energy conservation measures

The implementation of energy conservation program in spinning mill is
widely accepted due to rising cost of energy everyday. The three major
factors for energy conservation in the textile industry are high capacity
utilization, fine tuning of equipment and technology upgradation. An
exhaustive list of all measures of energy conservation found useful by
spinning mill in India is given here. Each mill should check whether they
have implemented each item and then consider implementing those which
they have not.
20.5.1 Ringframe
1. Individual pulley drives on ringframe saves energy compare to tin
roller drive. The mills are advised to convert it to single where they
can. The lighter the pulley the more is the saving.
2. The spinning mills which were installed before 1993 may have
ringframes conventional, heavy spindles. Lighter spindles save
energy. Spindles of 280 g or more should be replaced with light weight
spindles of 250 g.
3. Less wharve diameter spindles should be used. When going for lighter
spindles use 18.5–19 mm wharve diameter in place of the 25mm to
20mm. The advantage is indirect. For the same horse power motor,
these spindles have a better drive ratio for the same diameter driving
pulley. When spindle weight and individual pulley weight is reduced,
then the horsepower of motor can be reduced for the given spindle
rpm.
4. Use Servo Spin 12 oil instead of Servo Spin 22 oil. The life of oil
would reduce but saving in power consumption is much higher than
the increased cost of oil replacement.
5. Synthetic oil saves topping and saves about 0.9–1.0% energy.
Synthetic oil cost is very high so one must think of viability – benefit
to cost ratio before switching over to synthetic oil.
6. A lighter and concentric bobbin helps to save energy.
7. Use of lighter drum pulley in ringframe results in energy saving.
8. Use of hollow main shaft instead of solid main shaft in ring frame
results in energy saving.
9. The VPS drives themselves consume more power and therefore are
not economical. The mills need not plan for VPS drive in for ring
frame in future.
10. Use energy efficient impellers in ringframe suction fan in order to
consume less power.
11. Use of energy efficient impellers in overhead traveling cleaners results
in less power consumption.
12. If high efficiency motors are to be installed on ringframes then either
HP of motors can be stepped down by 10% or the mill can operate at
5% higher spindle speed, whichever is more advantageous to mill.
20.5.2 Humidification plant

Several design aspects of humidification plant installed in mills have been
found to be non-optimum and these can be rectified to give saving in power
costs.
1. When two supply fans are coupled, they must be isolated. Otherwise
the stationary fan will rotate in the opposite direction and act as a
supply fan to the working fan and thus create a local circulation rather
than humidifying the machine shed.
2. The humidification duct should not be exposed to outside atmospheric
conditions. If done so on warm days, the exposed duct should be
warmed up and the supply air would be heated up and thus the
humidification effect would be considerably reduced.
3. In some installations, the supply ducts are integrated into the concrete
roof itself to save additional ducting space. However, the humidification
effect gets spoiled owing to the conductivity of reinforcing steel bars,
which results in warming up of the supply air, by conduction.
4. Centrifugal fans are better supply fans and axial fans are better
exhaust fan,
5. False ceilings not only prevent radiation from the top but also help
in reducing the volume of space to be humidified.
6. Exhaust grills must be located near the motors, which are one of the
important heat sources.
7. The pneumafil air must be collected in a separate duct, and a positive
exhaust must be provided for it.
8. The exhaust ducts from the pneumafil into the trench must have a
tapered design so that a nozzle effect is created and air is drained
properly into the exhaust trench.
Experience has shown that several items of maintenance are not done
properly. The checklist below should be used to check whether mill practice
is satisfactory.
1. The trenches should not be used as place to dump waste material.

2. The supply and exhaust ducts should be cleaned periodically; all
obstructions should be removed. All supply and exhaust grills must
be clean. The air distribution should be properly ratified. Uniform
air flow would be available only if the supply and exhaust air duct
are properly cleaned and maintained.
3. Outside ambient conditions should be effectively used. When the
conditions are favorable the use of humidification plant should be
minimized.
4. The humidification area must always be isolated. The windows and
door must always be closed.
5. The air supply should be 25% more than exhaust. Then the supply
air would always maintain a positive pressure in the humidified area
and thus prevent the entry of outside air into the humidified area.
6. The air supply ducts above the false ceiling should be well-insulated.
7. Water used for humidification should be periodically removed and
replaced always rather than level made up by topping. Making up of
the water level increases salt concentration, which in turn corrodes
the baffles and nozzle.
8. Periodic measurement of air velocities in the supply exhaust baffles
should be made so that any defect in the system can be immediately
noted and corrections made.
9. If the air velocity is felt to be low it may be due to choked grills and
ducts. They must be cleaned.
10. Periodic cleaning of nozzles and baffles must be carried out as per
maintenance schedule.
20.5.3 Winding
The use of invertors in the suction fan in automatic winding machines
results in less power consumption. This helps to maintain the optimum
suction constantly.
20.5.4 Blowroom
Air velocities or static pressure in supply and exhaust duct in blowroom
should be periodically measured. Any defect in the system should be
immediately noted and corrections made.
Seal all duct joints properly with a suitable adhesive solutions to avoid
suction of fresh air through joints.
20.5.5 Speedframe
Use receiver and emitter to stop the speedframe at roving breaks instead
of using the pneumatic stop motion. This helps in eliminating the suction
fan from speedframe.
20.5.6 Carding
1. Time motion interlocking between doffer drive and main cylinder
drive.
2. Use of fluid coupling saves energy in old card and on old speedframes.
20.5.7 Electrical
1. AVR failure and RAR diode failure are due to leading current
situations encountered at the time of switching on, when the capacitor
functions as short circuit. A provision must be made to isolate the
capacitors at the time of putting captive load in action or time delay
switches must be incorporated on line.
2. Check at least once every month the capacitance of all capacitors to
find out how many are out of order and to replace them.
3. Installation of automatic power factor correction system with capacitors.
The power factor must be maintained around 0.95. This would give
sufficient margin to avoid leading current situations, which can cause
motor burnouts or an AVR failure. Higher value of power factor can
sometimes leads to cable rupture and/or to fire in cable trench.
4. The power cables should never be laid along the penumafil trench.
From penumafil trenches hot air will heat the cable and increase the
heat losses.
5. A separate trench with the exhaust fan at the one end always helps to
keep the cables cool. A cool cables always less energy loses.
6. To reduce the cable losses, the rated current carrying capacity of the
cable should be de-rated. If any specific situation warrants higher
current density, then either the cable rating has to be increased or
one more cable has to be laid. We should never use different cable
size for the same load centre.
7. Replacement of old high losses transformers with new energy efficient
low loss transformers. It helps to save 10% of power loss.
20.5.8 Electrical motors

1. Motors must be mounted in such a way that they are vibration free.
A vibrating motor consumes more energy and, therefore, the available
energy for use gets that much reduced.
2. Motors must be well-ventilated and must not be mounted where hot
air bathes them.
3. Exhaust trenches must be located near the working area of motors.
4. In rewinding use the same class of insulation as used in the original
motor.
5. After every rewinding, the motor should be dynamically balanced.
6. After every rewinding, the motor efficiency should be checked. If
efficiency falls by just 2% for a 20 HP motor the loss of energy is
1800 units during 8000 hours of operations. After three burns, it is
always better to replace the old motor with a new one instead of
rewinding.
7. Each mill must maintain a record on the motors. Each motor must be
numbered and its history must be recorded. This would enable the
maintenance engineer to identify whether the trouble is due to the
motor or due to the machine.
8. The cause of motor burn out should be analysed after every burn out
to determine why not a burnout has occurred and then to take steps
for avoiding reoccurrence.
20.5.9 Lighting
1. Fluorescent tubes are better for indoor lighting. Slim tubes save
energy, and are cost-effective.
2. When lamp and tubes level are at low levels, the illumination is better.
If a lamp of a given power were to be mounted at 2 m and 4 m heights,
the lamp at 2 m height will throw 4 times more light on the floor than
the one at 4 m height.
3. Though each tube holder has two tube lights, switch control on
alternate tube would be better. Depending upon the needed light level,
alternate tubes can be switched on.
4. The illumination level must be appropriate only at working area and
tubes must be mounted appropriately.
5. It is always advantageous to have separate transformers for lighting.
Under low voltage conditions, the transformer tapping needs to be
raised to run the motor. If the lamp and tubes are in the circuit under
high voltage level, they burn out faster. When a separate transformer
is used, the tapping can be adjusted in such a way that both the lamp
and tube life, and the power factor can be maintained.
6. Use always electronic choke instead of copper blast choke and
Electronic choke consumes 2–3 watt whereas copper choke consumes
7–10 watt.
7. Outside lighting is better done by low pressure sodium vapour lamps.
8. Clean the reflective shades so they throw all the light down by total
reflection.
9. Light should be switched off when not required in offices and
elsewhere. We should use no motion sensor for effective use of power
in office installations.
20.5.10 Compressors
1. In a spinning mill the compressed air is used for cleaning the machine.
It is advisable to install separate compressor and air distribution
system for cleaning purpose. The system can operate only when it is
needed may be 4 hours in day. It gives high installation cost but it
helps in saving energy. If we do not put separate compressor for
cleaning then we have to use bigger air compressors i.e. 1.2 times
the actual compressed air requirement. Oversized compressors are
extremely inefficient because most compressors use more energy per
unit volume of air produced when operating at part-load. Secondly,
compressors consume 60% of energy in no load condition.
2. One should select a compressor which is capable to generate of at
least 1 bar above the pressure needed at the point of use. This is also
to compensate for the pressure loss in pipelines, filters and other
accessories, to ensure that at the point of use the needed pressure
can be guaranteed. A too high pressure will unnecessarily increase
the power consumption of the compressor about 5% for each pressure
bar increase.
3. Leaks can be a significant source of wasted energy in an industrial
compressed air system, sometimes wasting 20–30 percent of a
compressor’s output. A typical plant that has not been well maintained
will likely have a leak rate equal to 20 percent of total compressed
air production capacity. On the other hand, proactive leak detection
and repair can reduce leaks to less than 5 percent of compressor
output.
20.5 .11 General recommendation for spinning plant

1. Belts
1. Flat belts saves energy, so V belts must be converted to flat belts
wherever possible (like TFO main drive of Vijay Lakshmi machine).
Care has to be taken that flat belts do not slacken by use.
2. Lesser the weight of flat belts and the accessories used, the better it
is for energy saving. Light weight flat belts are superior to heavy
weight flat belts. Belts must be thin and must have very low
elongation. Engineering precautions must be taken to ensure that the
belt does not slip.
3. The flat belt system so used in the place of a V belt system should
not have more weight than the V belt system.
4. Bearing wear out can be reduced considerably by avoiding excessive
belt tension, vibrating foundation and pulley eccentricity.
5. On a multiple V belt drive always replace the entire set of belts if
one or more belt breaks. Replacement of only the broken belt results
in undue stretching of the new belt, and it moves with a different
velocity. Secondly, matched V belts should be used. Otherwise energy
transfer would take place through a few V belts while the others
would be simply running and consuming energy.
6. Correct belt tension should be provided by measuring the belt tension
with the help of tension measuring equipment.
2. Pulley
1. One should take care of the following points for better energy transfer
and less power consumption while handling V pulleys.
(a) Check the dimension of the groove of the pulley if belts are to
be mounted on new pulley.
(b) The grooves should be free from burr, rust, oil, dirt or grease.
The V grooves of pulleys wear out during use so worn out
pulleys should be replaced immediately.
3. Gear box lubrication
Recommended oil
In all machinery a certain amount of power is required to overcome friction
within the lubricating film itself. Friction of this kind is largely a function
of the viscosity of the lubricant. To minimize power consumption, it is
necessary to use an oil with optimum viscosity compatible with satisfactory
lubrication, while taking account of considerations like splashing and the
rate of oil consumption.
Oxidation tends to cause thickening of oil in service, therefore it is
advantageous to use lubricants with high oxidation stability. Such lubricants
change less in viscosity with increase in temperature.
Recommended oil level

Industrial gears may be either of the enclosed type or of the open type. In
the enclosed type a minimum level of oil is maintained. In the gearbox,
teeth of the bottom gears are just dipped into the oil and gear are lubricated
by means of splash. In case of splash lubrication it is necessary that oil
level should not be too high. A high level results in churning of oil which
in turn results in consequent rise in oil temperature and in power loss. The
depth to which the bottom wheel is dipped is twice the tooth depth. This
is sufficient for splash lubrication and to keep the churning effect to the
minimum.
Secondly a pressure circulating system may be used in which oil is
sprayed on the teeth close to the point of engagement. The oil is then re-
circulated either directly from the bottom of the gear box, or by way of a
separate tank with the help of an oil pump.
References
1. Pollution Prevention (P2) Education Toolbox Tools for Helping Teachers
Integrate P2 Concepts in the Classroom United States Environmental Protection
Agency EPA-905-F-97-011 August 1997.
2. Energy Competence Developed in Medium Spinning Mill by Jim Trade .com.
3. ‘Energy Management in Spinning Mills’ by SITRA in Nov October 9, 2007.
4. Comprehensive Hand Book on Spinning Maintenance Part-1 by NEERAJ NIJHAWAN.
Index
ABC analysis, 73, 74 Blow room, 408

Abrasion, 227 Bonds, 393
Abrasive wear, 3 Boundary lubrication, 157
Abrasives, 393 Box spanner, 366
Absenteeism, 57 Brass cage, 336
Accident losses, 134 Breakdown history register, 95
Additives, 162, 167 Breakdowns, 408
Adhesive wear, 3
Adhesive, application of, 191
Adjustable pitch pulley, 212 Cage, 335
Air distribution system, 306 Calcium grease, 167
Air line oilers, 174 Carbon residue, 165
Allen key, 368 Card, 413
Analysis, 17 Careless handling, 362
Angular ball bearing, 339 Carriage bolt, 248
Aniline point, 165 Carrying costs, 72
Animal oils, 160 Castle nut, 253
Antiwear additives, 163 Cavitation, 6
Aquadag, 172 Centralized pump, 174
Aromatic hydrocarbons, 165 Centrifugal compressor, 297
Asset register, 91 Chain installation, 231
Automatic cone winder, 426 Chain lubrication, 230
Chains, 225
Backlash, 287 construction of, 229
Ball bearings, 337 designation of, 229
Barbed-typed connector, 325 maintenance of, 232
Base oil, 167, 168 Chalk line, 404
Bearing characteristics, 350 Chemical-type dryer, 303
Bearing designation, 346 Chisels, 384
Bearings, 333 Chuck nut, 252
types of, 333 Circlip, 256
Belt drive with idler pulley, 186 Cleaning fitter, 65
Belt drives, 183 Cleaning schedule, 93
types of, 183 Cloud point, 164
Belt length, 190 Combing, 417
Belts, 183 Common gang, 59
Bevel gears, 282 Component history register, 95
Bleed rate, 168 Compound drive, 186
Blended oils, 161 Compressed air, 290
446
Index 447
Computer-managed maintenance system, Eye and face protection, 139

16, 89
benefits of, 90 Failure statistics, 76
components of, 90 Fast moving spares, 84
Condition monitoring, 103 Fatigue, 5, 227, 361
Condition-based maintenance, 103 Feeler gauge, 372
Condition-based monitoring, 24 Files, 381
benefits of, 34 types of, 381, 382
principle of, 25 Filters, 318
Cone drive, 186 Fire point, 165
Consistency, 168 FISPO, 73, 76
Consumable items, 79 Fitter, 65
Consumption, rate of, 74 Fixed oils, 160
Contamination, 361 Flash point, 165
Contingency, 85 Flat belt drive, 183, 184
Continuous improvement, 17 types of, 184
Control limits, 74 Flat belt joints, 189
Corrective action register, 94 types of, 189
Corrosion, 6, 63, 228 Flat belts, installation of, 188
Crew size, 68 Flat Pulleys, 197
Cross belt drive, 185 Fluoroelastomer, 263
Cylindrical roller bearing, 342 Foot protection, 142
Foreman, 64
Daily report, 100
Deep groove ball bearing, 337 Garter spring, 265
Defoamants, 163 Gaskets, 268
Dial gauges, 375 installation of, 270
Dial indicator, 326 Gear train, 284
Die stock, 391 Gears, 272
Digital vernier callipers, 380 General protection, 143
Direct accidental loss, 134 Good lighting, 138
Dirt, 361 Graphite, 172
Double V section belts, 202 Grease guns, 404
Double-ended spanner, 365 Grease, 166, 169
Double-sided polyurethane belts, 218 characteristics of, 168
Drawframe, 416 composition of, 166
Duplex chain, 234 working of, 168
dimension of, 234 Grinding wheels, 393
Dynamic sealing, 261
Hacksaw, 388
Ear protection, 140 Hammers, 373
Elasto hydrodynamic lubrication, 159 types of, 373
Electrical safety, 144 Hand gloves, 142
Electrical shock, 144 Hands and arm protection, 142
Engineer’s weekly report, 104 Head protection, 141
Erosion, 6 Helical gears, 276
Expenditure budget, 83, 84 High torque timing belt, 216
procedure for, 84 High-temperature greases, 170
Extreme pressure additives, 163 History registers, 95
Extreme pressure greases, 170 Hot press, 191
House keeping, 144, 145 Machinery audit, 50

Human error, 66 Maintenance audit report, 53
reasons for, 67 Maintenance audit, 50
types of, 66 Maintenance budget, 85
Humidification plant, 439 review of, 85
Hydrodynamic lubrication, 158 Maintenance clerk, 64
Hydroperoxides, 163 Maintenance cost, 102
Maintenance engineer, 63
Impact piston, 311 Maintenance information systems, 89
Impact wear, 4 Maintenance management, 89
Indirect accidental loss, 135 Maintenance manuals, 92
Industrial accident, 133 Maintenance organization structure, 58
causes of, 135 Maintenance schedule, 44
effects of, 134 Maintenance scheduler, 93
preventions of, 135 Maintenance, role of, 8
technical causes of, 135 Maintenance, types of, 12
Industrial gear, 173 Manpower norms, 57
Industrial safety, 133 Manpower planning, 55
Insurance items, 77 Manual lubrication, 174
Internal clearance, 348 Material costs, 72
Inventory carrying cost, 72 Material handling safety, 148
Inventory, 71 Measuring tape, 372
types of, 71 Mechanical overload, 7
Medium-temperature greases, 170
Key, 254 Metal case seal, 264
types of, 254 types of, 264
Kinematic viscosity, 164 Micro valve, 321
Knife, 405 Micrometer, 400
Minimum pressure switch, 317
Leaf chains, 237 Misaligned shafts, 362
Leak detection, 329 Miter gear, 283
Leakage, 30 Moisture separator, 316
Liquid lubricants, 160 Molybdenum disulphide, 172
properties of, 164
Lithium grease, 167
Locking device, 252 Naphthalenic oil, 161
Low-friction coefficients, 172 Needle bearing, 345
Low-temperature greases, 170 types of, 345
Lubricants, 157 Neutralization number, 165
conservation of, 177 Nitrile compounds, 262
functions of, 160 Non-return valve, 320
handling of, 177 Non-separable bearing, 352
types of, 157 Normally closed valve, 326
Lubricating oil, 161 Normally open valve, 326
Lubrication, 157, 226 Nut, 252
Lubricator, 314 types of, 252
Machine cleaner, 65 Oil cans, 403

Machine guarding, 147 Oil seal, 261
Machine joints, 242 Oil separation, 169
Index 449
Oildag, 172 Regulators, 313

Open belt drive, 184 types of, 313
Ordering costs, 72 Re-lubricating interval, 171
Overhauling items, 83 Repair inventory, 73
Overtime maintenance record, 101 Repairable spares, 83
Oxidation inhibitors, 163 Respiratory protection, 142
Oxidation, 169 Ring spanners, 366
Ozone, 7 Roller bearings, 342
Rolling elements, 334
Paraffinic oil, 161 Rolling friction, 333
Peroxy radicals, 163 Rotary cylinder, 312
Personal protective equipments, 139 RPP polyurethane belts, 219
Petroleum oil, 161 Running fitter, 65
Pins, 256 Rust inhibitors, 163
Piping, 323
Pitch, 215 Safety belts, 143
Planned maintenance, 12 Safety helmets, 141
Planned replacement items, 79–83 Safety tags, 155
Planning, 37 Safety valve, 319
principles of, 37, 38 Sawn nut, 253
procedure of, 38 Scheduling, 40
Pliers, 394 Screw clamps, 259
Plumb bob, 405 Screw driver, 384
Pneumatic cylinder, 309 Screw extractors, 395, 396
Pneumatic systems, 307 Screw, 242
Poisson distribution, 76 Screwed joint, 242
Polyacrylic compounds, 263 Seal materials, 262
Polyamide cage, 335 Sealed bearings, 352
Polyurethane synchro-power belts, 218 Seals, condition of, 363
Port flow control valve, 323 Self-aligning bearing, 338
Pour point depressants, 162 Self-lubrication properties, 172
Pour point, 164 Semisolid lubricant, 166
Predictive maintenance, 14 Separable bearing, 352
Pressure drop, 330 Set screw, 248
Pressure hoses, 324 Sheave, 226
Preventive maintenance checklist, 104 Shifting material safety, 151
Preventive maintenance, 13 Silencer, 323
Preventive maintenance, 22 Silent chains, 238
Proactive maintenance, 15, 21 Silicones, 263
Procurement lead-time, 74 Simple chain, 233
Product mix, 55, 56 dimension of, 233
Pullers, 398 Single row angular ball bearing, 340
Punch, 387 Single-ended spanners, 365
Push-type fitting, 324 Sliding friction, 333
Socket wrench, 367
Quad power V belt, 202 Sodium grease, 167
Quality-based maintenance, 18 Soft hammers, 375
Quick release valve, 320 Solenoid valve, 326
Solid lubricants, 172
Reciprocating compressor, 295 Spare part catalogue, 92
Spare parts management, 73, 75 Torque spanners, 367

implementation of, 83 Triplex chain, 234
Spherical roller bearings, 343 Triplex chain, dimension of, 235
Spindle tapes, 192 Try square, 369
Spiral bevel gears, 283 Twin power belts, 217
Spirit level, 377 Twist drills, 401
Splice laps, 190
Spur gear, 272 Ultrasonic leak detection, 329
Star screw driver, 385 Universal joint, 258
Static sealing, 261 Universal valve, 326
Steel cage, 335 Unpacking and cleaning safety, 152
Steel rule, 370 Unplanned maintenance, 17
Steel wire rope, 223, 224 Unsafe actions, 135
classification of, 225 Utilization loss, 103
Step ladders, 402
Stepped pulley drive, 185 V belt, 199
Structural stability, see also mechanical construction of, 199
stability, 168 installation of, 204
Stud, 248 types of, 200
Synthetic oil, 161 V pulleys, 211
Synthetic-based grease, 167 V-belt drive, 183
VED classification, 73, 75
Tap bolt, 249
Vegetable oils, 160
Taper lock, 257
Vernier calliper, 378
Taper roller bearings, 344
Vibration, 363
Taps, 390
Vices, 386
Technical file, 91
types of, 386
Teeth, 382
Viscosity index improvers, 162
Temporary fastening, 242
Viscosity index, 164
Tension element, 255
Tension rollers, see also jockey pulleys,
Washer, 251
214, 215
Thermofix, 189 types of, 251
Thickener, 167, 168 Wear debris, 32
Thread nomenclature, 244 Wear, 1, 2
Threaded connector, 325 Wedge belts, 201
Throttle disc, 321 Winding, 441
Throttle valve, 321, 322 Worker dress, 139
Through bolt, 247 Workshop, 147
Thrust bearing, 346 Worm gear, 279
Time delay control valve, 322
Timing belt, 183, 213, 215 Zero error, 327

Modern Approach To Maintenance in Spinning Compress

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Modern approach to

WOODHEAD PUBLISHING INDIA PVT LTD

Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Granta Park, Great Abington

First published 2010, Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered

Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. ISBN: 978-93-80308-02-9

Woodhead Publishing Ltd. ISBN: 978-0-85709-000-3

Typeset by Sunshine Graphics, New Delhi

4 Planning and scheduling 37

6 Role of manpower in maintenance 55

7 Maintenance repair inventory and its control 71

8 Maintenance information systems 89

9 Safety while maintenance 133

9.11 Safety in shifting material 151

11 Belt drive and its maintenance 183

12 Steel wire and chain 223

12.16 American standard roller chain 235

13 Temporary fasteners 242

14 Oil seal and gasket 261

16 Compressed air 290

17 Bearing and its maintenance 333

17.2 Bearing 333

18.29 Drill 401

19 Tips to fine tune the spinning machinery 408

20 Tips to improve energy saving in spinning mills 435

In every spinning mill the performance of the plant depends on the

includes activities such as work-order scheduling, preventive maintenance,

10–15 due to accident 70–80% due to water 10–15% due to design

1.1 Reasons of component failure.

1.2 Modes of failure

New lickerin wire Worn wire

1.2 Worn wire due to fibre processing.

1.2.2 Adhesive wear

1.2.3 Abrasive wear

hardness, shape of particles, size of particles, speed of impact,

New wire Worn wire Resharpen wire

1.3 Effect of grinding.

1.2.4 Impact wear

1.4 Result of impact wear.

Factors that affect fatigue life

lead to stress concentrations where fatigue cracks initiate.

concentrations that lower the fatigue strength.

loading, varies widely for different materials, e.g. composites and

processes involving heat or deformation can produce high levels of

porosity, non-metallic inclusions and shrinkage voids can

or gas-phase embrittlement, which all affect fatigue life. Corrosion

1.5 Pin corroded due to atmospheric condition.

1.2.9 Mechanical over load

1.6 Belt broken due to overload.

1.7 Cracks are developed due to improper ventilation.

1.3 Role of maintenance

2.1 Changing role of maintenance department.

quality yarn at the optimum maintenance cost.

Planned Maintenance Unplanned Maintenance Continuous Improvement

2.2 Structure of maintenance.

2.3 Planned maintenance

Preventive Predective Proactive Evaluation Quality Computer Analysis

2.3 Types of maintenance.

2.4 Flow chart of planned maintenance.

2.3.1 Preventive maintenance

For good programming and control, following things are essential.

Preventive maintenance has the following disadvantages:

1. High moderate maintenance cost.