T.C.

UNIVERSITY OF NECMETTİN ERBAKAN

FACULTY OF AVIATION AND SPACE SCIENCES
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

UM401-Aeronautical Engineering Design

COURSE INSTRUCTER: Assistant Professor Muhammet ÖZTÜRK

NAME OF PROJECT: Next-Generation Turkish Bomber Design

STUDENTS
Birkan İŞGÖREN
Emine YILDIZ
Gizem BEDENLİ
Nurgül KAYHAN

Taha Yasir ÖNEGEL

2023
CONTENTS
1-)AIRFOIL SELECTION ......................................................................................................................... 3
1.1.Airfoil Geometry ....................................................................................................................... 3
1.2. Airfoil Lift and Drag................................................................................................................... 3
1.3.Airfoil Selection and Design ....................................................................................................... 4
1.4.Stall........................................................................................................................................... 5
1.4. Airfoil Thickness Ratio .............................................................................................................. 7
2-) WING GEOMETRY .......................................................................................................................... 8
2.1.Aspect Ratio .............................................................................................................................. 8
2.2.Wing Sweep .............................................................................................................................. 9
2.3. Taper Ratio ............................................................................................................................. 11
2.4.Twist........................................................................................................................................ 11
2.5.Wing Incidence........................................................................................................................ 11
2.6.Dihedral .................................................................................................................................. 12
2.7. Wing Vertical Location ............................................................................................................ 12
2.8.Wing Tips ................................................................................................................................ 12
3) TAİL GEOMETRY AND ARRANGEMENT........................................................................................... 13
3.1.Tail Functions........................................................................................................................... 13
3.2.Tail Arrangement ..................................................................................................................... 13
3.3.Tail Arrangement for Spin Recovery ......................................................................................... 14
3.4.Tail Geometry .......................................................................................................................... 14
5-) XFLR5 AİRFOİL ANALYSİS .............................................................................................................. 15
6) XFLR5 WİNG ANALYSİS .................................................................................................................. 16
7-)SOURCES ...................................................................................................................................... 18
1-)AIRFOIL SELECTION

1.1.Airfoil Geometry
The proper horizontal reference axis for an airfoil starts at the "leading edge" and goes back to the
"trailing edge," but the exact definitions of those terms might not be obvious. It is difficult and
unnecessary to build a perfectly sharp trailing edge, so most airfoils have a blunt trailing edge with
some small finite thickness. By definition, the "trailing edge" defining the back of the reference axis is
vertically located at the midpoint of this thickness.

A large leading edge radius helps the air stay attached at higher angles of attack, giving a higher stall
angle and more lift for takeoff and landing. On the other hand, an overly fat leading edge gives more
drag. Even in such a simple decision, aircraft design is always a compromise. An airfoil designed to
operate in supersonic flow may have a sharp or nearly-sharp leading edge to prevent a drag
producing bow shock. Alternatively, wing sweep can be used to reduce the supersonic drag.
"Camber" refers to the upward-bowing curvature characteristic of most airfoils. Camber gives lift at
zero angle of attack and increases the maximum lift of an airfoil,* but also increases drag and pitching
moments. The "mean camber line" is the line equidistant from the upper and lower surfaces. Total
airfoil camber is defined as the maximum distance of the mean camber line from the chord line,
expressed as a percent of the chord.

1.2. Airfoil Lift and Drag

An airfoil generates lift by changing the velocity of the air passing over and under itself. Bernoulli's
equation shows that higher velocities produce lower pressures, so that the upper surface of the
airfoil tends to be pulled upward by lower-than-ambient pressures while the lower surface of the
airfoil tends to be pushed upward by higher-than-ambient pressures. The integrated differences in
pressure between the t9P and bottom of the airfoil generate the net lifting force.
When you have to do something bad to a wing, do it to the bottom of the wing. The top generates
2/3 of the lift.
The illustration on the above is commonly called the "lift curve" although it is mostly straight. Airfoil
lift changes linearly with angle of attack, up to an angle near stall where flow separation starts to
occur.

1.3.Airfoil Selection and Design

The speed at which supersonic flow first appears on the airfoil is called the "critical Mach" Merit· At
higher speeds, the shock gets stronger. This causes a drag increase from the tendency of the rapid
pressure rise across the shock to thicken or even separate the boundary layer. This is so significant
that commercial airliners generally cruise at about the critical Mach number, not daring to fly faster.

This upper-surface shock also reduces lift and causes a change in the pitching moment. For a highly
swept wing the loss of lift, which starts at the wing root, is forward of the center of gravity. This can
result in the dreaded nose-down "Mach tuck."

A "supercritical" airfoil is one designed to minimize these effects. Modern computational methods
allow design of airfoils in which the upper-surface shock is minimized or even eliminated by spreading
the lift in the chordwise direction, thus reducing the upper-surface velocity for a required total lift.
This increases the critical Mach number-a good thing.
Due to the above, it was decided to use the supercritical airfoil.

1.4.Stall
Stall characteristics play an important role in airfoil selection. Some airfoils exhibit a gradual reduction
in lift during a stall, whereas others show a violent loss of lift, accompanied by a rapid change in
pitching moment. This difference reflects the existence of three entirely different types of airfoil stall.
"Fat" airfoils (round leading edge and t / c greater than about 14%) stall from the trailing edge. The
turbulent boundary layer increases with angle of attack. At around 10 deg the boundary layer begins
to separate, starting at the trailing edge and moving forward as the angle of attack is further
increased. The loss of lift is gradual. The pitching moment changes only a small amount.

Thinner airfoils stall from the lead_ing edge. If the airfoil is of moderate thickness (about 6-14%), the
flow separates near the nose at a very small angle of attack, but immediately reattaches itself so that
little effect is felt. At some higher angle of attack the flow fails to reattach, which almost immediately
stalls the entire airfoil. This causes an abrupt change in lift and pitching moment.
Very thin airfoils exhibit another form of stall. As before, the flow separates from the nose at a small
angle of attack and reattaches almost immediately. However, for a very thin airfoil this "b1,1bble"
continues to stretch toward the trailing edge as the angle of attack is increased. At the angle of attack
where the bubble stretches all the way to the trailing edge, the airfoil reaches its maximum lift.
Beyond that angle of attack, the flow is separated over the whole airfoil, so that the stall occurs. The
loss of lift is smooth, but large changes in pitching moment are experienced.

1.4. Airfoil Thickness Ratio

The maximum speed for the aircraft selected on the internet was found to be 965.6 m/s. The speed
of sound was 301.67 m/s for an altitude of 9.5 km. Based on these data, the maximum Mach number
was 3.2.
For initial selection of the thickness ratio, the historical trend shown in graph can be used. A
supercritical airfoil can be about 10% thicker (i.e., conventional airfoil thickness ratio times 1.1) than
the historical trend.

For Mach number 3.2, the t/c ratio read on the graph is 0.03. Since supercritical airfoil was selected in
the airfoil selection, the t/c ratio value was obtained as 0.033.

2-) WING GEOMETRY

The "reference" wing is the basic wing geometry used to begin the layout. Its name comes from its
use as the reference area for aerodynamic coefficients. The key geometric parameters of the
reference wing, which is also called the "trapezoidal" or "trap" wing due to its obvious shape.

2.1.Aspect Ratio
When a wing is generating lift, it has a reduced pressure on the upper surface and an increased
pressure on the ower surface. The air would like to "escape" from the bottom of the wing, moving to
the top. This is not possible in two-dimensional flow unless the airfoil is leaky (a real problem with
some fabric wing materials unless properly treated). However, for a real, three-dimensional wing, the
air can escape around the wing tip.

Air escaping around the wing tip lowers the pressure difference between the upper and the lower
surfaces. This reduces lift near the tip. Also, the air flowing around the tip flows in a circular path
when seen from the front and, in effect, pushes down on the wing. Strongest near the tip, this
reduces the effective angle of attack of the wing airfoils. This circular, or "vortex," flow pattern
continues downstream behind the wing. The energy associated with creating these "trailing vortices"
can be tremendous and represents a drag due to lift force exerted on the wing.

The amount of the wing affected by the tip vortex is less for a high-aspect-ratio wing than for a low-
aspect-ratio wing, and the strength of the tip vortex is reduced. Thus, the high-aspect-ratio wing does
not experience as much of a loss of lift and increase of drag due to tip effects as a low-aspect-ratio
wing of equal area.

The aspect ratio obtained for the military bomber from the data read from the table is 1.595.

2.2.Wing Sweep
Wing sweep seems like a bad idea. It increases wing weight, reduces lift by the cosine of the sweep
angle, and makes the ailerons and flaps work poorly. Sweep also makes it more likely that the
wingtips will strike the ground in a bad landing. For a low speed airplane, especially propeller-
powered, the best sweep is usually zero.
But most high-speed aircraft have swept wings, and with good reason. Wing sweep reduces the
adverse effects of transonic and supersonic flow.

In the design, while high speeds are not required for climbing in the climb section, high speeds are
required in the cruise section. For this reason, variable wings will be used in the design. While a
sweep will not occur in the climb state, a sweep will be required in the cruise state.

In the graph 4.20, the sweep angle is read as 60 degrees for a maximum Mach number of 3.2.
In the graph 4.21, It is seen that the aspect ratio value for the 60 degrees found is approximately
1.595 and the design is thought to proceed safely.

The required 4000 km, we calculated the total weight 45447.1442 kg but Weight 47265.03 obtained
for variable wing results.

2.3. Taper Ratio

Wing taper ratio is the ratio between the tip chord and the centerline root chord. Most wings of low
sweep have a taper ratio of about 0.4-0.5. Most swept wings have a taper ratio of about 0.2-0.3.
Taper ratio is decided as a 0.3

The minimum drag elliptical wing is more expensive to build than a straight-taper wing. There are the
extra costs of stretching skins to the required slight compound curvature, of fabricating ribs and spars
with more complicated shapes, and of making the tooling to hold it all together while the aluminum
parts are riveted into place. However, the cost penalties might go away if molded composite
construction is employed. Once the molds are made, the curved shape shouldn't cost any more to
fabricate. Perhaps there will be a revival of the elliptical wing providing grace, beauty, and reduced
drag.

2.4.Twist
Wing twist is used to prevent tip stall and to revise the lift distribution to approximate an ellipse.
Typically, wings are twisted between 0 and - 5 deg, the minus sign indicating that the leading edge is
twisted downwards. Wing twist angle is decided as a -3.

2.5.Wing Incidence
The wing incidence angle is the pitch angle of the wing with respect to the fuselage. If the wing is
untwisted, the incidence is simply the angle between the fuselage axis and the wing's airfoil
chordlines. If the wing is twisted, the incidence is defined with respect to some arbitrarily chosen
spanwise location of the wing, usually the mean aerodynamic chord or the root of the exposed wing
where it intersects the fuselage. Frequently, the incidence is given at the root and tip, which then
defines the twist as the difference between the two. Wing incidence angle is decided as a 1.

2.6.Dihedral
Wing dihedral is the angle of the wing with respect to the horizontal when seen from the front.
Positive (tips higher) dihedral tends to roll the aircraft level whenever it is banked.

Wing sweep also produces a rolling moment due to sideslip, caused by the change in relative sweep
of the left and right wings.

As shown in the table, for the supersonic swept wing has a wing position between the -5 to 0. For the
millitary bomber aircraft has a 0 degree dihedral. So it is decided as a 0.

2.7. Wing Vertical Location

With a high wing, jet engines or propellers will have sufficient ground clearance without excessive
landing-gear length. Also, the wing tips of a swept high wing are not as likely to strike the ground
when in a nose-high, rolled attitude. For these reasons, landing-gear weight is generally reduced for a
high-wing aircraft.

For an aircraft designed with short takeoff and landing (STOL) requirements, a high wing offers several
advantages. The high position allows room for the very large wing flaps needed for a high lift
coefficient. The height of the wing above the ground tends to prevent "floating," where the ground
effect increases lift as the aircraft approaches the ground. A floating tendency makes it difficult to
touch down on the desired spot. Finally, most STOL designs are also intended to operate from
unimproved fields. A high wing places the engines and propellers away from flying rocks and debris.

2.8.Wing Tips
A wing tip with a sharp edge seen nose-on makes it more difficult for the air to flow around the tip,
thus increasing lift and reducing the induced drag. Most of the new low-drag wing tips use some form
of sharp edge. In fact,- even a simple cutoff tip offers less drag than a rounded-off tip, due to the
sharp edges where the upper and lower surfaces end.

The wing span value was found to be 35.26 m. Based on the aspect ratio formula, the wing area was
found to be 779.038 𝑚 2.

3) Tail Geometry and Arrangement

3.1.Tail Functions
Tails provide for trim, stability, and control. Trim refers to the generation of a lift force that, by acting
through some tail moment arm about the center of gravity, balances some other moment produced
by the aircraft. For the horizontal tail, trim primarily involves balancing of the moment created by the
wing.

An aft horizontal tail typically has a negative incidence angle of about 2-3 deg to balance the wing
pitching moment. Because the wing pitching moment varies under different flight conditions, the
horizontal tail incidence is usually adjustable through a range of about 3 deg up and down.

Concerning the vertical tail, most aircraft are left-right symmetric, so unbalanced aerodynamic yawing
moments requiring trim are not created during normal flight.

3.2.Tail Arrangement
The "T-tail" is also widely used. This arrangement is usually heavier than a conventional tail because
the vertical tail must be strengthened to support the horizontal tail, but the T-tail provides
compensating advantages in many cases.

Because of end-plate effect, the T-tail allows a smaller vertical tail. The T-tail lifts the horizontal tail
clear of the wing wake and propwash, which makes it more efficient and hence allows reducing its
size. This also reduces buffet on the horizontal tail, which reduces fatigue for both the structure and
the pilot.
3.3.Tail Arrangement for Spin Recovery
The T-tail arrangement completely uncovers the rudder but can result in pitch-up and loss of elevator
control.

3.4.Tail Geometry
The surface areas required for all types of tails are directly proportional to the aircraft's wing area, so
that the tail areas cannot be selected until the initial estimate of aircraft takeoff gross weight has
been made.

Other geometric parameters for the tails can be selected at this time. Tail aspect ratio and taper ratio
show little variation over a wide range of aircraft types. T-tail aircraft often have lower vertical tail
aspect ratios to reduce the weight penalty of the horizontal tail's location on top of the vertical tail.

The aspect ratio and taper ratio of the horizontal tail were taken as 5.5 and 0.9, respectively. The
aspect ratio and taper ratio of the vertical tail were taken as 1 and 0.8, respectively.

NOTE : These are only the results of research, there may be changes in future studies.
5-) XFLR5 Airfoil Analysis

Figure 1-Cl/Cd Graph

Figure 2- Cl/Alpa Graph

 Figure3 -Cl/X Graph

6) XFLR5 Wing Analysis

Figure 4- Wing
Figure 5-Wing Lift Distribution

Figure 6- Cl/Alpha Graph

Figure 7- Cdl/Alpha Graph

7-)SOURCES

John D. Anderson, J. (2020). Introduction To Flight.

Raymer, D. (2018). Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach.

http://airfoiltools.com/polar/details?polar=xf-naca64a010-il-500000

https://www.pilotmall.com/blogs/news/high-wing-vs-low-wing-what-s-the-difference-between-
them
https://support.squarespace.com/hc/en-us/articles/115008538927-Understanding-aspect-
ratios#:~:text=An%20aspect%20ratio%20is%20a,and%20width%20are%20the%20same.