Incompressible Flow in a Duct: The Venturi and Low-Speed

Wind Tunnel Sec 3.3

Consider flow in a duct, as shown in
the figure.
• In general, this will be a 3-D duct
and therefore a 3-D flow. The
cross section could be circular,
elliptical, rectangular, etc.

• In many applications, we can assume the area changes slowly, so 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑥𝑥

• We can treat the flow as 1-D
• Properties of the flow are essentially constant across any given cross
section. Thus the properties are only a function of 𝑥𝑥, i.e., 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑥𝑥 ,
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥 , etc.
• This is called quasi-one-dimensional flow
Now consider the integral form of the continuity equation (conservation of
mass).
𝑑𝑑
� 𝜌𝜌 𝑑𝑑𝒱𝒱 + � 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑛� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝒱𝒱 𝑆𝑆
For steady flow this becomes:

� 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑛� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0

𝑆𝑆
If we use this for the duct in the previous figure, where the control volume is
bounded by 𝐴𝐴1 on the left, 𝐴𝐴2 on the right, and the upper and lower walls of
the duct, then we can write

� 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑛� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑛� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑛� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 (∗∗)
𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴2 wall

The flow velocity is tangent to the walls, so 𝑉𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑛� = 0 in the wall integrals
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At station 1, 𝑉𝑉 and 𝑛𝑛� are in opposite directions (𝑛𝑛� is an outward unit normal),
so

� 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑛� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝜌𝜌1 𝐴𝐴1 𝑉𝑉1

𝐴𝐴1

At station 2, 𝑉𝑉 and 𝑛𝑛� are in the same direction, so

� 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛𝑛� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜌𝜌2 𝐴𝐴2 𝑉𝑉2

𝐴𝐴2

The equation (**) becomes −𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴1 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝜌𝜌2 𝐴𝐴2 𝑉𝑉2 + 0 = 0 or

𝜌𝜌1 𝐴𝐴1 𝑉𝑉1 = 𝜌𝜌2 𝐴𝐴2 𝑉𝑉2
This is the 1-D continuity equation; it applies to both compressible and
incompressible flows. It states the mass flow through the duct is constant
(what goes in must come out!).

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For incompressible flow (𝜌𝜌 is constant), the 1-D continuity equation becomes:
𝐴𝐴1 𝑉𝑉1 = 𝐴𝐴2 𝑉𝑉2
This states that the volume flow rate (cubic feet per second or cubic meters
per second) is constant.
Now from Bernoulli’s equation, when the velocity increases, the pressure
decreases.

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Let’s consider the flow through a
convergent-divergent duct, show in
the figure to the right.
The flow enters with velocity 𝑉𝑉1
and pressure 𝑝𝑝1 .
• The velocity increases in the
convergent part – reaching a
maximum value at the minimum
area location.
• The minimum area location is Flow through a venturi
called the “throat”.
• In the convergent section, the
pressure decreases
• In the divergent section the
velocity decreases and the
pressure increases
This device is called a venturi.
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A venturi can be used to measure airspeeds
Consider a venturi with an inlet to throat area ratio 𝐴𝐴1 /𝐴𝐴2 as shown in the
previous figure.
Assume the venturi is inserted into a flow with unknown velocity 𝑉𝑉1 . The most
direct quantity that can be measured is the pressure difference 𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 .
• This is done by placing small holes (pressure tap) in the wall at the inlet and
the throat. A tube can be connected to these holes and a U-tube
manometer (or a differential pressure gage).
Then using Bernoulli’s equation, we have
2
𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑝𝑝2 − 𝑝𝑝1 + 𝑉𝑉22
2
𝜌𝜌
and from continuity
𝐴𝐴1
𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑉
𝐴𝐴2 1

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Combining these two results gives
2
2
2 𝐴𝐴1
𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑝𝑝2 − 𝑝𝑝1 + 𝑉𝑉12
𝜌𝜌 𝐴𝐴2
and solving for 𝑉𝑉1 yields
2 𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2
𝑉𝑉1 = 2
𝐴𝐴1
𝜌𝜌 −1
𝐴𝐴2

This is the desired result; it gives the inlet air velocity in terms of the measured
pressure difference 𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 and the known density 𝜌𝜌 and the area ratio
𝐴𝐴1 /𝐴𝐴2 .
This was used as the first device to measure airspeed on an aircraft.

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Another application of incompressible flow in a duct is the low-speed wind
tunnel.
Here
𝐴𝐴1
𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑉
𝐴𝐴2 1
and
𝐴𝐴2
𝑉𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑉2
𝐴𝐴3
The pressure is given as
1 1
𝑝𝑝1 + 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉12 = 𝑝𝑝2 + 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉22
2 2
1
= 𝑝𝑝3 + 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉32
2

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In low speed wind tunnels, a method of measuring the pressure difference
𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 and hence measuring 𝑉𝑉2 is by using a U-tube manometer.
The equation for 𝑉𝑉2 can be derived with the same process as before, and is:
2 𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2
𝑉𝑉2 = 2
𝐴𝐴
𝜌𝜌 1 − 2
𝐴𝐴1
Using fluid statics, the pressure difference can be written as
𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 = 𝑤𝑤Δℎ
where 𝑤𝑤 = 𝜌𝜌𝑈𝑈 𝑔𝑔 is the weight per unit volume of the fluid in the U-tube, and
𝜌𝜌𝑈𝑈 is the density of the liquid used in the U-tube. Now we can write
2𝑤𝑤Δℎ
𝑉𝑉2 = 2
𝐴𝐴
𝜌𝜌 1 − 2
𝐴𝐴1
Manometers have been used historically but are now mostly replaced by
electronic pressure-measuring instruments.
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Example 3.3
Consider a venturi with a throat-to-inlet area ratio of 0.8 mounted in a flow at
standard sea level conditions. If the pressure difference between the inlet and
the throat is 335 Pa, calculate the velocity of the flow at the inlet.
Solution:
At standard sea level conditions, 𝜌𝜌 = 1.23 kg/m3. Hence,
𝑁𝑁
2 𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 2 335
𝑉𝑉1 = = 𝑚𝑚2
2
𝐴𝐴1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 1 2
𝜌𝜌 −1 (1.23 −1
𝐴𝐴2 𝑚𝑚3 0.8

𝑁𝑁 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2 , so units will be 𝑚𝑚2 /𝑠𝑠 2 or 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠, and 𝑉𝑉1 = 31.12 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠

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Example 3.4
Consider a low-speed subsonic wind tunnel with a 12/1 contraction ratio for the
nozzle. If the flow in the test section is at standard sea level conditions with a
velocity of 50 m/s, calculate the height difference in a U-tube mercury manometer
with one side connected to the nozzle inlet and the other to the test section.
Solution: At standard sea level, ρ = 1.23 kg/m3. Rearranging the previous equation
for 𝑉𝑉2 gives:
2 2
1 𝐴𝐴2 1 𝑚𝑚 2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 1
𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 = 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉22 1 − = 50 1.23 3 1 −
2 𝐴𝐴1 2 𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚 12
𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 = 1527 𝑁𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
104 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
However, 𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 = 𝑤𝑤Δℎ, and the density of liquid mercury is 1.36 × So
.
𝑚𝑚3
104 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 9.8𝑚𝑚 5
𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2
𝑤𝑤 = 1.36 × = 1.33 × 10 and Δℎ = =
𝑚𝑚2 𝑠𝑠 2 𝑤𝑤
𝑁𝑁
1527 2
= 𝑚𝑚 = 0.1148 𝑚𝑚
105 𝑁𝑁
1.33 ×
𝑚𝑚2 16
Example 3.6
a) The flow velocity in the test section of a low-speed subsonic wind tunnel is
100 mph. The test section is vented to the atmosphere, where atmospheric
pressure is 1.01 × 105 N/m2. The air density in the flow is the standard sea level
value of 1.23 kg/m3. The contraction ratio of the nozzle is 10-to-1. Calculate
the reservoir pressure in atmospheres.
b) By how much must the reservoir pressure be increased to achieve 200 mph
in the test section of this wind tunnel? Comment on the magnitude of this
increase in pressure relative to the increase in test-section velocity.
Solution: a) Miles per hour is not a consistent unit for velocity. To convert to
m/s, we note that 1 mi = 1609 m, and 1 h = 3600 s. Hence,
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1609𝑚𝑚 1ℎ
1 = 1 𝑠𝑠 = 0.447 m/s
ℎ ℎ 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 3600
𝑚𝑚
𝑉𝑉2 = 100 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 0447 𝑠𝑠 = 44.7 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
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Thus

In atm,

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b) V2 = 200 mph = (200 mph)(0.447 (m/s)/mph) = 89.4 m/s

In atm,

Comparing this result with part (a) above, we observe that to achieve a doubling of
the test-section flow velocity from 100 mph to 200 mph, the reservoir pressure
needed to be increased by only 0.038 atm (i.e., by 3.8 percent). This reinforces the
general trend noted in Example 3.2, namely, that in a low-speed flow, a small
pressure change results in a large velocity change.

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