Warsaw University of Technology

Faculty of Power and Aeronautical Engineering

Intermediate Engineering Project

Division of Aircraft Engine

Design
Calculation of Opening Forces of a
1.75 m Cross Parachute

Student: Suleyman Ertugrul Sahin (309202)

Teacher: Dr. Eng. Lukasz Mezyk

 ABSTRACT

CALCULATIONS FOR ESTIMATING THE OPENING SHOCK FORCES OF A 1.75-METER

PARACHUTE

By

Suleyman Ertugrul Sahin

January 2023

The maximum force that the parachute experiences during its deployment (Opening Shock Force,

Fmax) is estimated for a 1.75-meter cross parachute by using Pflanz method. Other methods to calculate

the shock forces are also discussed in this study. The mass of the payload is much greater than the

apparent mass of the parachute. Therefore, we assume near-infinite inverse mass ratio parachute

payload system for this study. As a result, the opening shock force during deployment of the parachute

is estimated to be 612.2888 Newtons.

Contents
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................... 2
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 4
Parachute Canopy Inflation Process ................................................................................................... 4
Effects of Canopy Loading on Parachute Opening Forces ................................................................ 5
Methods for Calculating the Parachute Opening Forces................................................................... 8
W/(CDS)P Method: ......................................................................................................................... 8
Force-Trajectory-Time Method: .................................................................................................... 9
Pflanz Method: ............................................................................................................................. 11
Opening Force/ Nominal Diameter Relationship ............................................................................. 12
SUMMARY.......................................................................................................................................... 14
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 15
 INTRODUCTION

The Students’ Propulsion Association Melprop has designed a Ram Jet engine for supersonic research

and aims to recover the electronics and the entirety of the engine after launch to investigate the

material failures, deformations etc. and their cause and use the investigation results for development of

second prototype of the engine. Preliminary calculations for the parachute sizes have been made and

this parachute design has been chosen for this study.

The opening shock force is the maximum force that the parachute and the suspension lines experience

during the deployment of parachute. The purpose of estimating the opening forces is to ensure that

proper material for the parachute and suspension lines are employed so that they will not fail. With

help of accurate estimation of opening forces, the risk of structural failure can be reduced to minimum.

Parachute Canopy Inflation Process

When the parachute is deployed in an orderly manner and with the correct position of the system to be

recovered, parachute inflation can start. Parachute inflation process starts at the instant that the lines

are fully stretched and an opening such that can be called a mouth is created so that the air can flow

inside the canopy and ends at the moment where the canopy is fully inflated. When the first small

amount of air reaches the crown of the canopy and rushes into the vent, more air starts to fill the

canopy and inflation occurs from the vent towards the canopy skirt. Inflation process is directly

affected by characteristics such as canopy shape, porosity, canopy size, air density and the velocity at

the instant of starting of inflation. It is a common phenomenon that most textile parachutes overinflate

and then experience a partial collapse due to the momentum of surrounding air. Airflow into the

canopy should happen asymmetrically for a uniform stress distribution inside the canopy and the

amount of air entering the canopy at an instant should be small enough so that high shock forces can

be avoided. Too much overinflation should be avoided to achieve stable descent as quick as possible.

There are methods to achieve mentioned conditions such as reefing. Reefing increases the complexity

of the inflation process and increases expenses. Therefore, we did not choose to use reefing since the

mass of the rocket will be small enough and chose a special type of canopy shape (cross canopy) to

decrease the negative affects of not using reefed parachute to the point that they could be negligible.
 Figure (1) Parachute Canopy Inflation Process

Effects of Canopy Loading on Parachute Opening Forces

Figure (1) and (2) are force-time diagrams of a parachute opening in wind tunnel depicting the

difference between the peak opening force characteristics in finite mass and infinite mass conditions.

For instance, a personnel parachute dropped from an airplane has finite load and is referred to as finite

mass condition and velocity decay during opening of the canopy must be taken into consideration.

Whereas, in the infinite mass condition, no velocity decay is occurring because the parachute acts as if

it were attached to an infinite mass.

Figure (1) Parachute Force Versus Time for a Wind- Figure (2) Parachute Force Versus Time for a
Tunnel Test (Infinite Mass Condition) Personnel Parachute Drop (Finite Mass Condition)
If we look at the difference in the opening force characteristics in both cases, we can see that for the

finite mass condition, the peak opening force (Fx) occurs long before the parachute canopy is fully

open whilst under infinite mass conditions, the peak opening force (Fx) is observed at the first full

canopy inflation.

The relationship of the peak opening force (Fx) to the steady-state drag force Fc, in wind-tunnel tests is

defined as:

𝐹𝑥
𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∶ 𝐶𝑥 = (1)
𝐹𝑐
Cx is constant for specific parachute types, but we will not elaborate on this topic since its beyond the

spectrum of this study.

With the opening force coefficient defined, the equation for the parachute opening force is as follows:

𝐹𝑥 = (𝐶𝐷 𝑆)𝑝 𝑞1 (𝐶𝑥 )𝑋1 (2)

Where:

(𝐶𝐷 𝑆)𝑃 – Drag area of fully open or reefed parachute, m2

𝑞1 – The dynamic pressure at the start of inflation or disreef, Pa

𝐶𝑥 – The opening force coefficient for the reefed or unreefed parachute. Ti be used only for high
canopy loading conditions.

𝑋1 – The force reduction factor

As per the force reduction factor, 𝑋1 , is 1.0 for a parachute opened at infinite mass condition and close

to 1.0 for near infinite mass conditions; and for the final descent parachutes with a low canopy loading

(finite mass) 𝑋1 is as low as 0.02.

One of the important characteristics is the relative size of the snatch force. On low canopy loading

parachutes, where the mass of the parachute is 3-7% of the mass to be decelerated, the snatch forces

may reach and exceed the maximum opening force unless a proper method uses. On the other hand, on

high canopy loading parachutes, where the parachute is small compared to the mass of the vehicle to

be decelerated, the snatch force is small if a good deployment system is present.

There are distinctive groups of canopy loading W/(CDS)p where all parachute applications fall in a

specific group. Canopy loading is related to the rate of descent since it is equivalent to the dynamic

pressure at equilibrium velocity. Figure (3) depicts this relationship.

Figure: (3) Rate of Descent Versus Canopy Loading and Parachute Applications

As we can deduct from fig. (3), all parachutes in groups IV to VII have X1 factors close or equal to 1.0

and operate at infinite mass conditions. In our case, since the parachute in subject will be used as a

landing deceleration parachute, we will conduct our calculations with this assumption.

Another important characteristic is the Force Coefficient Ck which is the product of opening force

coefficient (Cx) and the force reduction factor (X1). However, force reduction factor (X1) is at close

infinite mass condition there for it is close to 1.0. Evaluation of Opening Force Coefficient by Ewing

is as follows:

𝐶𝑘 = 𝐶𝑥 ∙ 𝑋1 (3)

But French brought another approach to our attention. He suggests plotting 𝐶𝑘 = 𝐶𝑥 ∙ 𝑋1 factor versus

a mass parameter in the form of 𝐷𝑜3 /𝑚, where Do is the nominal diameter of parachute and m is the

mass of the vehicle and Schilling recommended modifying this mass parameter into:
 3/2
𝜌(𝐶𝐷 𝑆)𝑝
𝑅𝑚 = (4)
𝑚𝑡

3/2
Where mt is the total mass of the system. (𝐶𝐷 𝑆)𝑝 reperesents the volume of air in and around the

parachute canopy and is directly related to apparent mass.

Figure (4) shows us the relationship between Opening Force Factor (Ck) and Mass Ratio (Rm).

Figure (4)

From the test data, we know that we can assume the opening force factor Cx as 1.2.

Methods for Calculating the Parachute Opening Forces

In this section, three methods for calculating the opening forces of a parachute are discussed. The

W/(CDS)P method, the force-trajectory-time method and the Pflanz method.

W/(CDS)P Method:

This method is fast but should be used for preliminary calculations only.

𝐹𝑋 = (𝐶𝐷 𝑆)𝑃 𝑞𝐶𝑋 𝑋1 (5)

where 𝐶𝑘 = 𝐶𝑋 𝑋1 (𝐸𝑞. 3)

(𝐶𝐷 𝑆)𝑃 – the drag area of the fully open or reefed parachute, ft2
𝐶𝑋 – the opening force coefficient at infinite mass, dimensionless. Not used at low canopy loading

𝑋1 – the force-reduction factor, dimensionless

In case of a reefed parachute, a preliminary reefed drag area (𝐶𝐷 𝑆)𝑅 can be calculated from maximum

allowable shock force Fx, and the dynamic pressure at line stretch.

The opening-force reduction factor X1 can be found by:

𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑋1 = (6)
(𝐶𝐷 𝑆)𝑃 𝑞

Cx and X1 can be obtained from either the historical data or by means of an experimental solution. If an

historical data is used, it is likely that the maximum force values will not be accurate because effects

are not fully summarized in this method and opening shock factor can depend on factors that may not

be reflected in the historical data. The momentum Impulse Theorem gives more accurate opening

shock force results.

Force-Trajectory-Time Method:
The basic approach is somewhat similar to Pflanz method. The starting and ending conditions of the

recovery cycle, such as the vehicle's weight, starting altitude, velocity, and attitude, as well as the rate

of descent at landing and the oscillation limitation, are typically specified in the recovery-system

specification for an air vehicle, drone, missile, or aircrew escape system. Such conditions require

optimizations of minimum recovery time, altitude, speed, and range within the allowable parachute

force restraints. A force-trajectory calculation is made by iteration of vehicle trajectory, deceleration

and parachute forces as a function of time. Multiple, computer aided calculations are made using the

trajectory equations given below:

 Figure (5) Parachute-payload trajectory

𝑑𝑣 −𝐹 − 𝐷𝑣 − 𝑊𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= (7)
𝑑𝑡 𝑀𝑣
𝑑𝜃 −𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= (8)
𝑑𝑡 𝑉
(𝐶𝐷 𝑆)𝑝 𝜌 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚𝑎
𝐹= 2
+ (𝑚𝑎 + 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑚𝑝 ) +𝑣 + 𝑊𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (9)
2𝑉 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Where:

F – Parachute force acting parallel to the flight trajectory, lb

𝐷𝑣 – drag of the vehicle (payload), lb

𝑊𝑣 – Weight of the vehicle or payload, lb

𝜃– trajectory angle against horizontal, degrees

𝑔– gravity deceleration, ft/s2

(𝐶𝐷 𝑆)𝑃 – Parachute drag area, ft2

𝜌– density of air, slugs/ft3

𝑉– trajectory velocity, ft/s

𝑚𝑎 – apparent mass (added mass), slugs

𝑚𝑝 – mass of parachute, slugs

𝑚𝑣 – mass of vehicle or payload, slugs

𝑊𝑝 – Weight of the parachute, lb

Pflanz Method:
We will be using the Pflanz method for calculating the opening forces. This method was developed in

Germany during World War II by E. Pflanz. It is a numerical method calculating the parachute

opening forces. It is based on such a concept that a body of known constant weight and velocity

decelerates along a horizontal flight path by an aerodynamic drag device whose drag area increases

from increases from a small value to its maximum value in a mathematically definable, known form.

However, the altitude effects are included but the gravity effects or drag area overshoot is not taken

into consideration in any of the inflation cycles. Some of the parameters that we used for the

calculations are obtained through preliminary design of the parachute and previous test data for the

cross type parachutes.

Calculations are made using the following equations:

2𝑊𝑡
𝐴= (10)
(𝐶𝐷 𝑆)𝑝 𝜌𝑔𝑣1 𝑡𝑓

2∙(490.500)
∴ 𝐴 = 2.0394∙1.1559∙9.81∙40∙0.6414 = 1.6533[−] (11)

Where:

A – Ballistic Parameter, dimensionless

𝑊𝑡 – System Weight, 490.500 N

(𝐶𝐷 𝑆)𝑃 – Parachute drag, reefed or fully open, 2.0394 m2 (from preliminary design of canopy)

𝑣1 – velocity at line stretch or start of disreef, 40 m/s

𝑔– gravitational acceleration, m/s2

𝜌– density of air, 1.1559 kg/m3 (density of air at the instant of parachute deployment)

𝑡𝑓 – canopy inflation time, 0.6414 s (from preliminary design of canopy)

𝐹𝑝 = (𝐶𝐷 𝑆)𝑝 𝑞1 (𝐶𝑥 )𝑋1 (12)

∴ 𝐹𝑝 = 2.0394 ∙ 254.8844 ∙ 1.2 ∙ 0.9816 = 612.2888 𝑁 (13)

Where:

(𝐶𝐷 𝑆)𝑃 – Drag area of fully open or reefed parachute, m2

𝑞1 – The dynamic pressure at the start of inflation or disreef, Pa

𝐶𝑥 – The opening force coefficient for the reefed or unreefed parachute. Will be used only for high
canopy loading conditions. 1.2 (from previous test results)

𝑋1 – The force reduction factor, 0.9816 (near infinite mass condition, obtained from previous test
results)

Opening Force/ Nominal Diameter Relationship

Since we have not conducted ground tests on the parachute yet, we do not have any real case data to

compare with the results of our calculations. However, the parachute drag coefficient, nominal

diameter of the canopy and opening forces of canopy are directly related. Therefore, we can test the

validity of calculations by plotting the relationship between parachute opening forces, parachute drag

coefficient and the nominal diameter of the canopy. We plotted the parachute opening forces as a

function of parachute drag coefficient and nominal diameter of canopy and observed the relationship.

The relationship between opening forces, coefficient of drag and nominal diameter are proportional.

Opening forces should increase with drag coefficient and nominal diameter and vice versa.

Fp/(𝐶_𝐷 𝑆)𝑜

1000
900
800
700
600
Fp

500
400
300
200
100
0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
(𝐶_𝐷 𝑆)𝑜

Figure (6) Opening Forces as a Function of Drag Coefficient

 Fp/Do
1000
900
800
700
600
Fp

500
400
300
200
100
0
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2
Do

Figure (7) Opening Forces as a Function of Nominal Diameter

We can observe that the opening forces increase with both nominal diameter and coefficient of drag

as it should. Hence, we can deduce that our calculations are correct and valid.
 SUMMARY

This study paper is dedicated to calculating the parachute opening forces for 1.75-meter cross

parachute that will me employed in the recovery of a ramjet engine for supersonic studies that will be

deployed in September 2023 by Students’ Propulsion Association Melprop. Parachute opening

scheme, effects of canopy loading, characteristics that are directly related to opening forces are

discussed as well as the different methods that can be used to calculate the opening forces. After

obtaining the parachute opening force (Fp= 612.2888 N) by using Pflanz method, we tested the validity

of our calculations by plotting parachute opening force as a function of different parachute drag

coefficients and nominal diameters. We observed that the results we obtain after iterations are comply

with the rules of parachute opening dynamics. Therefore, we conclude that the calculations are correct

and valid. Testing of the system before the launch of the rocket is required so that a broad comparison

between the calculation results and test data could be made and the validity of the calculations could

be confirmed by the test results as well.

 REFERENCES
Cruz, J. R. (2005). Parachutes for Planetary Entry Systems, Exploration Systems Engineering Branch.
(p. 130). Nasa Langley Research Center: Nasa.

Knacke, T. W. (March 1991). Parachute Recovery Systems Design Manual. California: Naval Weapons
Center,China Lake.

Lana M Coucb. (1975). Drag and Stability Characteristics of a Variety of Reefed and Unreefed
Parachute Configurations at mach 1.8 with an Empirical Correlation for Supersonic MAch
Numbers. Langley Research Center,Hampton, Va: National Astronautics and Space
Administration.

Pascual, D. S. (2017). Recovery System Design for Lower Stages of Rockets,Bachelor Thesis. Aachen:
University of RWTH Aachen, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Shock Wave Laboratory.