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Modeling of diffusion bonding of metals

Article  in  Materials Science and Technology · November 1987

DOI: 10.1179/026708387790221035

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 Modelling of diffusion bonding has been carried out to quantify the kinetics of the
Modelling of. bonding processes and to predict the time for achieving a sound bond. An
diffusion alternative geometric assumption for the shape of the interfacial cavities to those
considered previously was employed. Three subprocesses of bonding were
bonding of introduced to simplify the modelling. These involved volume and interfacial
diffusion coupled-with creep, rigid collapse, and surface diffusion. The effects of
metals grain size and phase ratio on diffusion bonding have also been considered. The
predictions are compared with existing experimental data for copper and
Ti-6AI-4Valloy and in general show good agreement. MST/588

© 1987 The Institute of Metals. Manuscript received 3 October 1986; infinalform

z.x. Guo 21 April 1987. The authors are in the Department of Metallurgy and Materials
N. Ridley Science, University of Manchester/UM/ST.

R radius of interfacial void

List of symbols Rin initial radius of interfacial void before
deformation
a half of interfacial void width S sign symbol (positive for tensile stress and
A modified creep constant negative for compressive stress)
Ac strain rate power law creep constant t bonding time
Ad area across which flux flows T temperature
A' creep constant from uniaxial creep testing Tm melting temperature
b half of bonded length between two adjacent V cavity volume
voids x, y Cartesian coordinates
bo half of contacted length between two Xi half width of ith slice of void ridge
adjacent voids. after instantaneous .X characteristic length
deformation Yi distance from bondline to ith slice of void
bv magnitude of Burgers vector ridge
B effective diffusion distance Vu chemical potential gradient of atoms
c spacing between cavities along bond
!Xj angle between jth grain boundary and
d half of cavity spacing
bondline
D diffusion coefficient
y surface tension
DGB grain boundary diffusion coefficient
<>GB grain boundary width
DGBO grain boundary diffusion coefficient
<>s surface thickness
(pre-exponential)
Ds surface diffusion coefficient
e strain rate
ee equivalent strain
Dv volume diffusion coefficient .
Fx, Fy atomic fraction of constituents X and Y,
ei strain rate of ith slice of void ridge
respectively, in binary alloy
e half of angle subtended by void surface at
its centre of curvature
FA' FB volume proportions of phases A and B,
p cavity tip radius
respectively, in two-phase alloy
(J stress perpendicular to bondline
G shear modulus
(J e eq ui valen t stress
dG ( 1 ) temperature coefficient of shear modulus (Ji stress acting on ith slice of void ridge
dT G300 (JI, (In average stress normal to bondline in region
G300 shear modulus at 300 K I and II, respectively
h half of interfacial cavity height (J p applied stress
hi height of ith slice of void ridge (J(r) true stress normal to bondline in region I
hin surface roughness (initial height) V(J(r) gradient of true stress normal to bondline
j jth grain boundary in region I
J atom flux (J y yield stress
J GB flux of grain boundary diffusion V(J stress gradient
Jv flux of volume diffusion TO shear stress of parent material
VJ atom flux gradient n atomic volume
k Boltzmann's constant
1 length of arc between two grain Subscripts
boundaries, which corresponds to grain A, B phases in two-phase alloy
diameter C creep
n power law creep exponent D diffusion
N number of grain boundaries around one- i,j ith and jth grain boundary, respectively
quarter of cavity profile o values after instantaneous deformation
QGB activation energy of grain boundary X, Y constituents in binary alloy
diffusion (1) coupled process (from equation (1))
Qv activation energy of volume diffusion (2) rigid collapse (from equation (2))
Qs surface activation energy (3) surface diffusion (from equation (3))
r distance from central point of cavity along I effective diffusion region
x axis in region I II constant stress region

Materials Science and Technology November 1987 Vol. 3 945

946 Guo and Ridley Modelling of diffusion bonding of metals

Introduction c
d
Diffusiori bonding is a solid state process by which two
surfaces are joined under pressure at an elevated
temperature, as a result of diffusion controlled processes. A
minimum macroscopic deformation is involved. Generally,
the clean surfaces to be bonded are not flat. The rate
controlling step in diffusion bonding is the removal of the
interfacial voids due to the surface roughness. A bond is
regarded as being formed when new grains appear in the
zone adjacent to the interface and only a few small pores
remain at the joint line.
Modelling of diffusion bonding has been carried out by
several authors.I-5 In the earlier approaches,I-3 only one
or two mechanisms for diffusion bonding were considered
and some relationships were restricted to specific alloys. A
recent model proposed by Derby and Wallach4,5 has
included all possible bonding mechanisms and the
( b)
predictions have shown reasonable agreement with the
experimental results for copper and iron. Furthermore,
Pilling and co-workers6,7 have considered the effect of
grain size on diffusion bonding which, in addition to the
common mechanisms, is of particular significance in
superplastic materials.
In previous work, the models either assumed a constant
geometry for the interfacial voids during the early stages of
bonding or assumed the voids to be spherical. Neither
assumption is fully adequate in most practical cases.
Surface preparation processes, such as grinding and
machining, usually create semilenticular or semicircular
asperities. When bonding proceeds, the interfacial cavities
will maintain a smooth surface curvature to minimize their
free energy. This is possible because of rapid surface
diffusion. Lenticular cavities can usually be seen in
photographs of the bond interfaces in published
papers.8-10 Therefore, it seems reasonable to assume that
the bonding interface cavities are of lenticular shape.
From previous work,4, 5 it is known that the mechanisms
for diffusion bonding are those of diffusion and creep. a initial
void morphology; b after instantaneous deformation;
c coupled diffusion and creep process; d rigid collapse process;
Since vapour phase transport in the cavity is not believed e combined effect of processes c and d; fvoid morphology at a late
to be very important,5 it is not included in the present stage of bOl)ding when (d V /dt)o» (d V /dt)c; g void morphology at
model. Thus, the mechanisms considered are: late stage of bonding when (d V /dt)o« (d V /dt)c
Schematic of void shrinkage processes
1. Bonded interface diffusion, volume diffusion, and
grain boundary diffusion.
2. Plastic deformation by creep, and, in the early stages, COUPLED DIFFUSION AND CREEP
by instantaneous yielding. This process decreases cavity volume only by the mass
3. Cavity surface· diffusion. transferred to the cavity from the boundary and the bulk,
through boundary diffusion, volume diffusion, and creep.
For simplicity, the following assumptions are proposed: This is assumed to result only in a decrease of cavity width
2a; cavity height does not change (Fig. Ie). Therefore, the
(i) the two surfaces to be bonded are brought together volume change rate from the coupled process is
in such a manner as to give ridge-to-ridge contact as (dV/dt)(I) = (dV/dt)D(I) + (dV/dt)ql) (1)
shown in Fig. la; bonds are obtained immediately
in the contact regions where (d V /dt)D(l) is the rate of decrease of volume due to
(ii) during bonding, interfacial voids are of lenticular mass transferred into the cavity through boundary and
shape as shown in Fig. Ib volume diffusion; (d V/dt)ql) is the rate due to the mass
(iii) the ridges between the cavities are in a state of plane transferred by matrix creep.
strain; the strain in the direction of the cavity length
is zero RIGID COLLAPSE
(iv) cavities are uniformly distributed along the bond This process decreases the cavity volume as a result of the
with a spacing e and have unit length along the z cavity surfaces coming together and so causing changes of
axis cavity width 2a and height 2h. The curvature of the cavity
(v) there is no pressure in the cavities during bonding profile remains constant, so that the radius R is unchanged
(vi) since the cavities are very long compared with their (Fig. Id). Thus, the rate of variation of cavity volume is
width, end effects can be ignored
(dV/dt)(2) = (dV/dt)D(2) + (dV/dt)q2) (2)
To quantify the bonding process under the present where (dV/dt)D(2) and (dV/dt)q2) are the rates of cavity
geometric assumptions and simplify the modelling, the shrinkage ascribed to the approaching cavity surfaces,
cavity shrinkage is assumed to result from three caused by mass transference away from the boundary and
subprocesses, shown in Fig. 1, which are described below. by matrix creep, respectively.

Materials Science and Technology November 1987 Vol. 3

 Guo and Ridley Modelling of diffusion bonding of metals 947

In fact, h2/a is the tip radius of an elliptic void with half

I :
I
I J I axes a and h. This assumption is appropriate in that rapid
:Region I ,Region II : surface diffusion will maintain a smooth variation of
I I I
, I I surface curvature along the void profile and an elliptic void
I I I
'. B •I : is likely to exist in the early stage of bonding. This
: I I
consideration has been adopted for simplicity and is
o expected to give rise to only a very small error.

a b •
I
I

I
I
d
-, I

I
Power law creep
I

2 Stress distribution along diffusion bond During bonding, the creep of void ridges also contributes
to the shrinkage of voids. If power law creep is assumed,
the strain rate is given by
SURFACE DIFFUSION
. . . (10)
This process changes the void geometry but not the volume
and can be represented as The volume variation due to bonding surfaces coming
(dV/dt)(3)=0 .... (3) together by creep (Fig. 3) is derived in Appendix 2 as

(~~t2) = 4aSA ( ci)"

Diffusion around grain boundary

When a pressure is uniformly applied perpendicular to a

and the variation
x J: {d-[R2-(Y:R-W]'/2
due to mass transfer by creep is
r dy (11)

grain boundary, the stress in the boundary will redistribute

around boundary cavities. In the region adjacent to the
= 4dSAlup/GI"
cavity, termed region I, the compressive stress increases (dV)
dt C(1)

r-
with increasing distance r from the origin (Fig. 2). I
However, in region II, midway between the cavities,
stresses are constant, as shown in Fig. 2.
A stress gradient results in a chemical potential gradient
x J: {d_[R2_(Y:R_h)2]1/2 dy (12)

Equations (11) and (12) can be solved using numerical

which causes diffusion. Therefore, diffusion along the
integration.
boundary takes place only in region I, termed the effective
diffusion region. In region II, power law creep occurs.
Chen and Argon 11 have introduced a characteristic
length X for the effective diffusion region, which is
Geometric relations
X = [DGBbGBQUpJ1/3 (4)
AkT(up/G)n
For the coupled process, the cavity height is constant.
The effective diffusion distance B corresponding to region I Hence, from Figs. 1 and 4
can be defined as
(da/dt)(1) = (h/a)(dR/dt)(l) (13)
B = b when X> b, and B = X when X < b (5)
(dh/dt)(1) =0 (14)
When X> b, region II does not exist.
As shown in Appendix 1, the average normal stress
(d8/dt)(1) = (h/a-a/R)(dR/dt)(1) (15)
in region I is given by
2dBup+ [3(B-2a)(d-a-B)
(~~t 2
= {[~ (a +h )sin-
2 1
(}:hh2) J }(~~t
-4a
x (1/B+ l/p)-2B(d-a-B)/p]y . . (16a)
(6)
2B2 +3(B-2a)(d-a-B) or
and the rates of the volume variation, due to the diffusive
mass transfer and the cavity surfaces coming together are,
respectively,
(~~
t (~~)j =
2
{[~(a2 +h )sin -I C h
22: h2)J-4a}

(16b)

(~~)D(I)= B~T (DGB"GB+2Dvp) (JI- i-~) (7)

For the rigid collapse
constant. Therefore
process, the void radius R is

and (da/dt)(2) = [(a2 - h2)/(2ah)]( dh/dt)(2) (17)

(dV)
dt D(2)
= 6aDGBbGB
B2kT
(ul
- ~
B
_!) P
(8)
(dh/dt)(2) = (d V/dt)(2/(4a)
(dv/dt)(2) = 4a(dh/dt)(2)
(18)
(19)
Equations (7) and (8) can be readily solved if the radius of
the void tip can be determined.
There are many factors influencing the void tip radius,
such as surface tension, surface diffusivity, or grain Diffusion bonding around surface areas
boundary diffusion/surface diffusion ratio,12 void size, and
void geometry. For simplicity, an assumption is made that
The difference of curvature between void tip and void
the radius is a function of void width and height, given by
surface results in a chemical potential gradient described by
p = h2/a ..... . . . . . . (9) the Gibbs-Thomson relationship. From Ref. 4, the volume

Materials Science and Technology November 1987 Vol. 3

948 Guo and Ridley Modelling of diffusion bonding of metals

Yi
o

I
3 Creep of void ridge I
f
I

.'
I

,
I

I
flux is given by I
I

(
dV)
dt (3)
= 8A DQy
d

kT P
(1- ~)(~_~)
R p b
. (20) 4 Schematic of interfacial void intersected by group
I
I

of straight grain boundaries

It should be noted that diffusion around the surface area
occurs not only through a thin layer of material (surface
diffusion) but also through the volume adjacent to the
surface (volume diffusion). If the v'olume diffusion is determined approximately by using slipline theory for a
assumed to pass through a layer with the thickness of the trapezoidal shape. Therefore, the contact width of the void
void neck, then the above equation becomes ridge after instantaneous deformation can be estimated

dV)
( -dt (3)
8Qy ( 1--
=-
kT
p)'
R
(Ds~s+Dvp) '(1 1)
---
P b
(21)
as10

b = )3d I O"p I
This material is assumed to be taken uniformly from the
o 2+n-2tg-1(hin/d) O"y (30)
void surface. Thus, it can be estimated that Thus, after contact, the void width and height are,
(dh/dt)(3) = (d V/dt)(3/(48R) . (22) respectively,

Since the diffusion only alters the shape of the void, the a = d-b (31)
volume is constant. Hence10 and
da) [1-(a2/h2)]{R8-a- [ah/2(R2 _a2)1/2]} (dh) h = hin[hrn + (d -b)2 + bd -(bhrn/d)]
. . . . . (32)
( dt (3)
2 2 2 2
= {(h -a )/[2(R -a )1/2]}+2a(R8-a)/h dt (3) d2 +hrn
. . . . . (23)
As "can be seen from equation (23), when a = h, surface
diffusion' does not occur. Effect of grain size
The equations derived so far, to achieve the rates of
variation of void geometry, can be summarized by:
For superplastic materials, the grains are usually very
(dV/dt)(l) = (dV/dt)D(1) + (dV/dt)q1) (24) small compared with the cavity width at the bonding
interface. Thus, the profile of the cavity may be intersected
(dV/dt)(2) = (dV/dt)D(2)+ (dV/dt)q2! (25)
by several grain boundaries, through which atoms diffuse
dV/dt = (dV/dt)(l)+ (dV/dt)(2) (26) into the cavity and contribute to the cavity shrinkage.
.., This effect can be estimated by simplifying the grain
dh/dt = (dh/dt\l) + (dh/dt)(2) + (dh/dt\3) (27)
boundaries as a set of straight lines or planes, distributed
da/dt = (da/dt)(l) + (da/dt)(2) + (dh/dt)(3) (28) around the cavity profile, directed towards the cavity
centre, and intersecting the profile with a spacing I apart.
At a later stage of bonding, the value of void width may
Here, I is the diameter of the grain, as shown in Fig. 4.
approach that of vO,id height. Then, the above equations
Thus the number of such boundaries N around a quarter
can be simplified to
of the profile is given by
da/dt = dh/dt = (d V/dt)/(2nR) . . (29)
N = INT(8R/l) . (33)
As can be seen, these relationships are functions of the
where R is the radius of the profile and 8 the angle of one-
variables a and h, and can be solved by using numerical
quarter of the profile.
methods. It should be noted that in all the equations
For one such boundary j (j = 1, 2, ... , N), since' a stress
concerned, tensile stresses are assumed positive and
gradient exists in region Ij adjacent to the cavity, a flux of
compressive stresses negative.
atoms diffuses through the boundary into the cavity.
Surface diffusion redistributes the mass along the profile of
the cavity to maintain a smooth surface. This contribution
should be merged into the coupled process, (d V/dt)D(1)'
Instantaneous plastic deformation
However, the rigid collapse of the boundary is part of the
matrix creep and has already been considered. The volume
It has been assumed that the bonding surfaces are brought diffusion adjacent to those boundaries is neglected because,
int() contact in a ridge-to-ridge and valley-to-valley for the material with a small grain size, boundary diffusion
manner, as shown in Fig. 1a. When pressure is applied, the seems much more important.
void ridge will deform instantaneously to such an extent Similarly, the same types of relationship as those for
that the contact stress is no more than the deforming diffusion through a bondline can be obtained by sub-
resistance of the metal. The deforming resistance can be stituting aj, bj, Bj, dj, O"pj for a, b, B, d, O"p, as shown in

Materials Science and Technology November 1987 Vol. 3

 Guo and Ridley Modelling of diffusion bonding of metals 949

Fig. 4, i.e. and Y. It is obvious that this treatment is not suitable for
interstitial solutions.
X.-
_ [DGBbGBQcrPi]1/3
---- As for two-phase alloys, the law of mixtures has been
(34)
J AkT(crpj/Gt used for a microduplex titanium alloy in Ref. 6, in the
Bj = bj when Xj> bj, and Bj = Xj when Xj < bj (35) absence of an alternative more rigorous approach, and
has led to predictions in reasonable agreement with
1dBcrpj+ [3(Bj-2a)(dj-aj-B) experiment.
x (l/Bj+ 1/p)-2Bj(dj-aj-B)/pjJy Hence, if FA and FB are the volume proportions of phase
1j
(36)
cr = 2BJ+3(Bj-2a)(dj-aj-B) A and phase B in the alloy, it is assumed that
FADA + FBDB
(dV) Y Y)
12DGBbGB ( D = . (45)
. . . (37)
dt D(1)j = BjkT crIj- Bj - P; The relationship can only be regarded as approximate
since it is assumed that matter is transported by diffusion
where to an extent related to the volume fractions of the phases
a2 + h2 present. For boundary diffusion it assumes that two types
pj~R=~ · (38) of boundary, a/a and fl/fl, rather than a/a, a/fl, and fl/fl
boundaries, are involved in the diffusion process. In
The sum of the contributions of all the grain boundaries is practice few data exist for diffusion along boundaries
expressed as between dissimilar phases. However, it is unlikely that the

(dV)
dt D(l)
= (dV)
dt D(1)0
+ f (dV)dt D(1)j
j= 1
· (39)
approach will lead to significant error unless the slowest
diffusion process is rate controlling and is appreciably less
rapid than other diffusional processes.
where, on the right hand side, the first term is due to the
coupled process without considering the effect of grain size,
and the second term is the summation of the contributions
of all other grain boundaries.
The values of ai' dj, bj, and crpj can be determined as10 Effect of stress state

aj = [R2+(R:-h)2_2R(R-h) cos (8-8)J1/2

From the analyses in the modelling,10 it is obvious that
= {h2+2R(R-h)[1-cos(8-8)J}1/2 '. (40) atomic diffusion depends only on the normal stress
_ d _ daj gradient, which provides the driving force for diffusion.
d (41a) Therefore, it seems that stress state alone does not directly
j - cos aj - Rsin(8-8)
influence the atomic diffusion in certain directions, if the
bj = dj-aj (41b) stress gradient is the same. However, it should be noted
that, for biaxial and triaxial stress states, the main flux of
6pj = 0·56p (1 + cos ~- ~ sin I1j cos I1j) · (42) atoms will be in the direction of the resultant gradient,
which is not necessarily the direction of the bondline. In
where this case, the atomic flux along the bond line will be
influenced by other components of the stress gradient.
8j = (l/R)j }
Moreover, stress state influences the degree of plastic
cos aj = (R/a) sin (8-8) · (43)
deformation and the creep behaviour. In a fixed condition,
aj = cos-1 [(R/a)sin(8-8) deformation may become easier, the fewer the compressive
Now, equations (34)-(37) can be solved by using equations stresses. In the case of diffusion bonding, humplike surface
(40)-(43). asperities may cause faster bonding than long ridges,
because the former result only in a uniaxial compressive
stress state when contacted together, whereas the latter
lead to a biaxial stress state (plane strain).
Similarly, the creep strain rate under uniaxial com-
Diffusion bonding of alloys pressive stress is higher than that under a biaxial or triaxial
compressive stress state. Therefore, for power law creep in
different stress states the constant A should be different.
As indicated in Ref. 13, it is obvious that the above In the equation
modelling for diffusion around a grain boundary is suitable
mainly for pure metals but may be used for some low- 8 = A'(cr/Gt . . . . (46)
alloyed materials. As far as most alloys are concerned, the constants A' and n are usually obtained from uniaxial
modifications need to be made. tensile creep tests. For creep in the biaxial stress state,
Darken 14 has proposed a phenomenological theory of which is the case in the present model, the concept of
diffusion in binary alloys based on the assumption that equivalent stress cre and equivalent strain Ce is
each constituent diffuses independently, relative to a fixed introduced.16 Hence
reference frame, and the atomic volume is essentially
constant. This theory has been proved to be identical to cre = (J3/2)cr (47a)
the mechanism of diffusion via vacant sites, if the vacant
sites are in local thermal equilibrium.15 This mechanism is
Ce = (2/J3)c (47b)
consistent with that of diffusion around a boundary in Therefore,
diffusion bonding. Therefore, the theory can be used in the
8 = (J3/2t+ A'lcr/Gln
1
present paper, in the absence of measured diffusion data.
Accordingly, if Fx and Fy are the atomic fractions of or
constituents X and Y in a binary solid solution alloy, the 8 = Alcr/Gln (48a)
diffusion coefficient is 15
A = (J3/2)n+ 1 A' (48b)
D = FxDy+FyDX ••••• • (44)
where A is the modified constant for the power law creep of
where Dx and Dy are the diffusivities of the components X long ridges in diffusion bonding.

Materials Science and Technology November 1987 Vol. 3

 950 Guo and Ridley Modelling of diffusion bonding of metals

1.0 10 -
0 O.7MPo.
0 1.4M Pa \ • > 0.95 "to
0.8 \ o <0.95 to
0
l.LJ
0
• 2.1 M Pa \
\
_._.- Experim!ntal
Z
a \
(D
0.6
\ \
z
a
t=
« 0.4 -
lJ
0
Q..
o o 0-"
o. \
o 000.. \
\
\

0.::: L \ \
u- .•.
1.4MPa lLJ 0.\ \
« 0:::
. \
w
0:: 0.2 ~
«
til o O. ~.. \
V)
llJ
0::: \ \
n. \ \
o e\ \
\ \\
\ \
5 Comparison of present model (full lines) and that of \
Pilling et al.6 (dashed lines) with experimental
results7 (points) for Ti-6AI-4V; temperature 877°C;
grain size 5 Jim, surface roughness height 30 Jim,
wavelength 60 Jim
I
105
TIME,s
Comparison of predictions with 6 Comparison of predictions of present model (full
experimental data line) with predictions (dashed line) and experi-
mental results (points and chain dotted line) of
Pilling et al.6 for Ti-6AI-4V; temperature 927°C,
Few systematic experimental studies appear to have been grain size 5 Jim, surface roughness height 30 Jim, and
made of the factors which influence diffusion bonding in wavelength 60 Jim
metals and alloys. The most detailed data are those
available for Ti-6AI-4V alloy and for copper, and it is
these data which have been compared with the predictions The area fraction bonded at 877°C for three pressures
of the· current model. The material parameters used in the (0'7, 1-4, and 2·1 MPa) for material of grain size 5 Jlm with
model are summarized in Table 1 for the titanium alloys constant surface roughness is shown in Fig. 5. The
and in Table 2 for copper. predictions of the present model are compared with those
of the diffusion bonding model of Pilling et al.6 and with
DIFFUSION BONDING OF Ti-6AI-4V ALLOY the limited experimental data of Pilling and Ridley.7 The
The experimental data on the diffusion bonding of present model shows an improved agreement with
titanium alloys available in the literature are surprisingly experiment for the times required to produce a sound bond
limited in view of the increasing commercial significance of (i.e. high area fraction bonded) compared with the earlier
the process as part of the superplastic forming-diffusion model.
bonding fabrication route, used particularly for the The combinations of pressures and times required to
manufacture of aerospace components. produce a sound bond at 927°C in Ti-6AI-4V alloy of

1.0
(0) (b) (c)
o
~o.'il
z
o
m
~ 0.6
~
«

•
•
----: --:::: J
600 700 800 900 1000
--- 500 600 700 800 900 600 700 eoo 900 1000
T EM PERATURE, °c . TEMPERATURE ,oC TEMPERATURE ,~C
a 3/60; b 30/250; c 70/500
7 Comparison of predictions of present model (full lines) and that of Derby and Wallach8 (dashed lines) with
experimental data18 (points) for pure copper at various values of surface roughness (height, Jim/wavelength,
Jim); pressure 4·9 MPa, time 4 min

Materials Science and Technology November 1987 Vol. 3

 Guo and Ridley Modelling of diffusion bonding of metals 951

to Table 1 Material parameters for a-Ti and P-Ti (After

Ref. 17) and Ti-6AI-4V (After Ref. 6)
(0)
0 Parameter rx-Ti fJ-Ti
l.J.J
a 0.8
z a-Ti and P-Ti
0 Atomic volume, m3 1·76 x 10-29 1·81 x 10-29
co Burgers vector, m 2·95 x 10-10 2·86 x 10-10
« 0.6
LJJ
Shear modulus at 300 K,
MN m-2 4·36x104 2·05x103
0:: Temperature coefficient of
« shear modulus, K-l 6·2x10-4 2'6x10-4
--I Surface energy, J m-2 1·0 1·0
«
z: 0.4
Volume diffusion coefficient
(pre-exponential), m2 S-1 8·6 x 10-10 1·9 X 10-7
0 Volume diffusion activation
J- energy, kJ mol-1 150 153
u Grain boundary diffusion
« 0.2 coefficient (pre-exponential),
a::: m2s-1 6 x 10-7 9 x 10-8
u..
Grain boundary width, m 5·9 x 10-10 5·72 x 10-10
Grain boundary diffusion
activation energy, kJ mol-I 97 153
0 Ti-6AI-4V (stress dependence of strain rate)
1.0 Strain rate e=Ac<a/G)n
(b) Strain rate power law creep constant
Ac = A<5DGBO exp (- QGB/ RT) (G/KT)
D
w Exponent n = 1 ·43
Creep constant A' = 1·2 x 10-9
z 0_8
0
Yield stress ay= 9·4 x 108 x [1 -4 x 10-4 X (T -300)]
a
co
« 0.6
w
0::
« ) experimental data and that it shows an improvement over
the predictions of the Derby- Wallach model for the
roughest surface finish (Fig. 7c).
The effect of bonding pressure on the fractional area

/:/
--I
« 0.4 bonded at 800 e
for 4 min for two values of surface
0

z roughness is shown in Figs. 8a and 8b. Agreement between

.-« 0.2
a
u
the predictions of the present model and experimental data
is excellent, again with improved agreement for the
roughest surface finish compared with that of the Derby-
0::
u.. // Wallach model (Fig. 8b).

0-----·- -- The effect of time on the fractional area bonded at 550

for a bonding pressure of 35 MPa and constant surface
roughness is shown in Fig. 9. It can be seen that the
0
e

0.1 1.0 10 experimental results available show considerable scatter at

the relatively low bonding temperature involved, but the
BONDING PRESSURE,MPa predictions of the present model are in satisfactory
a 3/60; b 70/500 agreement with the data from Ref. 8.
8 Comparison of predictions of present model (full
lines) and that of Derby and Wallach8 (dashed lines)
with experimental data18 (points) for pure copper at
two values of surface roughness (height, Jlm/ Conclusions
wavelength, Jim); temperature-SOOo-C,time 4 min

A model for diffusion bonding has been established, which

grain size 5 ~m and constant surface roughness are shown is based on realistic geometric assumptions and which
in Fig. 6. The predictions of the present model are
compared with the experimental data of Pilling et ai.,6 for
which a sound bond is defined as one having a lap shear Table 2 Material parameters for copper (After Ref. 8)
strength which is greater than 95% of that of the parent
metal. The current model predicts essentially the correct Parameter Value
relationship between bonding pressure and time, but tends
to overestimate the times required to produce a sound Atomic volume, m 3
1·18 x 10-29
bond. However, the model shows an improvement over the Burgers vector, m 2·56 x 10-10
Melting temperature, K 1356
times predicted from the model of Pilling et al.6 The Shear modulus at 300 K, M N m-2 4·29 x 104
origins of the discrepancies are uncertain but could reflect Temperature coefficient of shear modulus, K-1 -3·97 X 10-4
the reliability of the available diffusion data. Surface energy, J m-2 1·75
Volume diffusion coefficient (pre-exponential), m2 S-1 6·2x10-5
Volume diffusion activation energy, kJ mol-1 207
DIFFUSION BONDING OF COPPER Product of grain boundary diffusion coefficient (pre-
The experimental data used are from the work of Ohashi exponential) and grain boundary width, m S-1
3
5·12x10-15
and Hashimoto,18 or are those measured by Derby and Grain boundary diffusion activation energy, kJ mol-1 105
Product of surface diffusion coefficient (pre-
Wallach.8 In Figs. 7a-c, the experimental and predicted exponential) and surface thickness, m3 S-1 . 6·0 X 10-10
effect of temperature on the fractional area bonded is Surface activation energy, kJ mol-1 205
shown for three values of surface roughness at a bonding Creep constant A' 7·42 x 105
Power law creep exponent n 4·8
pressure of 4·9 MPa and bonding time of 4 min. It can be
Normalized yield stress ay/ G 5 x 10-3
seen that the present model is in good agreement with the

Materials Science and Technology November 1987 Vol. 3

952 Guo and Ridley Modelling of diffusion bonding of metals

1.0 17. H. J. FROST and M. F. ASHBY: 'Deformation-mechanism maps',

D 44; 1982, Oxford, Pergamon Press. .
~ 0.8 18. O. OHASHI and T. HASHIMOTO: J. Jpn Weld. Soc., 1976,45,76.
o
CD

~ 0.6
0::
«
....J
« ./
...- .-----
z
o
i=
LJ
• Appendix 1
«
0::
LL.

Diffusion around grain boundary

o
o 20 40 60 B0 100 120
BONDING Tl ME, min From Ref. 13, it is known that the atom flux J from the
grain boundary to the void neck surface is given by
9 Comparison of predictions of present model (full
line) with predictions (dashed lines) and experi- -D
mental data (points) of Derby and WaliachB for J = nkT Vu · (49)
copper; temperature 550°C, pressure 35 M Pa,
surface roughness height 3 pm, wavelength 40 Jim where Vu is the chemical potential gradient of atoms. By
assuming a constant divergence of the flux along the
boundary and an identical chemical potential gradient for
grain boundary diffusion and volume diffusion, Johnson13
takes into account most of the possible mechanisms for
showed that
diffusion bonding. The effective diffusion distance and the
effects of grain size, phase proportions, and stress state are Vu = nV(J(r) · (50)
also considered quantitatively.
Therefore,
With the aid of the model, the time to form a sound
bond and the fractional area bonded after a certain time D
can be predicted. The changes in interfacial void volume VJ = - kT V2(J(r) = const · (51)
and void shape can be obtained as a function of bonding
time or fractional area bonded. The predictions of the
or
model have been compared with the experimental results V2(J(r) = const . (52)
available for Ti-6AI-4V and copper and show good From previous assumptions, equation (52) can be solved
agreement. using the following conditions (Fig. 2):
(i) (J~Y/p, atr=a
(ii) d(J/dr = 0, at r = a+B
Acknowledgments
(iii) r+ B
adr = a,8-y
The authors are grateful to Dr J. Pilling for helpful (iv) (J = (In at r > a+B
discussions. One of the authors (ZXG) wishes to thank the (v) (Jpd = (JIB+(Jn(d-a-B)
Government of the People's Republic of China and the
Thus,
British Council for financial support.

Va = ;2 [a,8-Y (1 + ;)] · (53)

2dB(Jp + [3(B - 2a)(d - a - B)

References x (l/B+ 1/p)-2B(d-a-B)/pJy
2B2 +3(B-2a)(d-a-B)
1. c. H. HAMILTON: in Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. on 'Titanium science
and technology', (ed. R. I. Jaffee and H. M. Burte), Vol. 1, (equation (6) above).
625; 1973, New York, Plenum Press. The atom fluxes through a grain boundary and through
2. G. GARMONG, N. E. PATON, and A. S. ARGON: Metall. Trans., the volume adjacent to the boundary are, respectively,

((J _ !B _!)
1975, 6A, 1269.
3. A. A. L. WHITE and D. J. ALLEN: in Proc. Conf. on 'Joining of 1 =_ 3DGB £5GB (54)
metals', Vol. 2, 96; 1981, London, Institution of Metallurgists. GB BkT I p
4. B. DERBY and E. R. WALLACH: Met. Sci., 1982, 16, 49.
5. B. DERBY and E. R. WALLACH: Met. Sci., 1984, 18, 427.
6. J. PILLING, D. W. LIVESEY, J. B. HAWKYARD, and N. RIDLEY: Met.
Sci., 1984, 18, 117.
J v ~~;(a,-i-~)
=- . (55)

7. J. PILLING and N. RIDLEY: in Proc. 5th Int. Conf. on 'Titanium For volume diffusion, it is assumed that the limiting area
science and technology' (ed. G. Lutjering et al.), Vol. 2, through which the flux travels is equal to the neck radius.
733-739; 1985, Oberursel, FRG, Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Therefore,
Metallkunde.

(dV)
8. B. DERBY and E. R. WALLACH: J. Mater. Sci., 1984, 19, 3140.
= -2JGB-4Jv
9. B. DERBY and E. R. WALLACH: J. Mater. Sci., 1984, 19,3149.
10. z. x. GUO: MSc thesis, University of Manchester, 1985. dt 0(1)

II. I. W. CHEN and A. S. ARGON: Acta Metall., 1981, 29, 1759. 6

=--(DGB£5GB+2Dvp) y
((JI---- y)
12. L. MARTINEZ and w. D. NIX: Scr. Metall., 1981, 15,757. BkT B p
13. D. L. JOHNSON: J. Appl. Phys., 1969,40, 192.
14. L. s. DARKEN: Met. Technol., 1948,15, (1), AIMME TP2311.
15. J. BARDEEN: Phys. Rev., 1949, 76, 1403. (dV) = JGB 2a = 6aDGB£5GB ((J _! _!)
dt 0(2) B B2 k T I B p
16. W. JOHNSON and P. B. MELLOR: 'Plasticity for mechanical
engineers', 57; 1962, London, Van Nostrand Reinhold. (equations (7) and (8) above).

Materials Science and Technology November 1987 Vol. 3

 Guo and Ridley Modelling of diffusion bonding of metals 953

From Fig. 3, it can be shown that

Appendix 2 x = d_[R2_(y+R_h)2]1/2 (59)
Combining equations (58) and (59) we have

Power law creep (~~)c= I~I"J: SA {d-[R2_(Y~R-h)2r/2

. . . . . .
r
.
dy
. (60)
As shown in Fig. 3, the void ridge is divided into N slices; This corresponds to the rate of collapse of bond surfaces
N can be any integer that satisfies the accuracy required. due to creep. Thus,
The stress, acting on the ith slice with the thickness of h/ N
(i = 1,2, ... , N), is
(Ji = (d/xi)(Jp (56)
(~~)c(2) = 4a (~~ \ . . . . . . . . . . (61)

If a constant volume is assumed, the mass transferred into

so the strain rate of the slice is
the void due to the creep of the slice i is
Sz' = SAI(JJGln . . (57)
d~ = dhi X Xi = (h/N)SAI(JJGln dt Xi
From the definition of true strain and strain rate
Thus,
N
~i = (~~) = dei = Sidt = SAlo)GI"dt d Vc = 4 lim I d~
N-+(fJ i= 1

dhi = (h/N)SAI(JJGln dt Therefore,

N N h
dh = lim L dhi = SA lim L -lo)Gln dt
(ddtV) = 4dSAIa p/Gln
N-+(fJ i=l N-+(fJ i=l N C(l)

Therefore,
X f
h
0
{
d_[R2_(y+R_h)2]1/2
d }n-l dy
dh = SA fh I(JJGln dh . (58)
dt 0 (equation (12) above).

Magnetic materials have many

MAGNETISM important uses. This book begins
AND with a development of the basic
ideas of magnetism from first
MAGNETIC principles and goes on to an
MATERIALS elementary treatment of the
theory of different types of
J. ~ Jakubovics materials.

CONTENTS
.Fundamentals of magnetism • Bulk magnetic properties and
.Classification of materials by their measurement
magnetic properties • Magnetic materials for practical
applications

Book 401 210x148mm 148pp ISBN 0 904357 95 3 Paperback Published 1987

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