Brazing / 1107
Brazing
Selection of
Brazing Processes
and Filler Metals
BRAZING comprises a group of joining pro-
cesses in which coalescence is produced by heat-
ing to a suitable temperature above 450 "C (840
OF) and below the solidus temperature(s) of the
base metal(s). The filler metal is distributed be-
tween the closely fitted surfaces of the joint.
HeatingBrazing Methods
Heating methods available for brazing include
torch (flame) heating, furnace (atmosphere or
vacuum) heating, induction heating, molten salt
bath (molten flux) heating, and electrical resis-
tance heating. The size and value of individual
assemblies, the numbers required, and the re-
quired rate of production will influence the selec-
tion of heating method. Other factors that also
must he considered include the rate of heating,
differential thermal gradients, and both external
and internal cooling rates. These factors vary tre-
mendously with different methods of heating, and
their effects on dimensional stability, distortion,
and joint structure must be considered.
Table 1 compares the characteristics of the
most commonly employed brazingiheating meth-
ods. Additional selection guidelines for these pro-
cesses are given below. More detailed informa-
tion on these brazing methods is given in the
articles that follow in this Section.
Manual torch brazing is the method most fre-
quently used for repairs, one-of-a-kind brazing
jobs, and short production runs, as an alternative
to fusion welding. Any joint that can be accessed
by a torch and brought to brazing temperature
(by the torch alone or in conjunction with auxil-
iary heating) can be readily brazed by this tech-
nique.
Furnace brazing is popular because of its
comparatively low equipment cost, furnace adapt-
ability, and minimal required jigging. Furnace
brazing is a low-cost process relative to other
processes such as torch brazing, induction braz-
ing, or salt-bath brazing when high-volume pro-
duction output is a primary factor.
Furnace brazing is used extensively where the
parts to be brazed can be assembled with the
Table 1 Relative rating of selected brazing process heating methods
Capital Running
Method cost Cost
Torch (flame) LIM MIH
Electrical resistance M M
Induction M/H M M/H
Furnace (atmosphere) MIH MIH
Furnace (vacuum) H L
Dip (flux bath) L/M M/H
(a) H, hiah; M, medium; L, low
brazing filler metal preplaced near or in the joint.
Furnace brazing is particularly applicable for
high-production applications in which continuous
conveyor-type furnaces are used.
Induction Brazing. The high-frequency induc-
tion heating method for brazing is clean and
rapid, lends itself to close control of temperature
and location, and requires little operator skill.
The capability to heat selectively enables the in-
duction method to he used when the nature of
the brazement demands localized brazing.
Induction brazing is well suited for mass pro-
duction. Mechanized brazing lines for moving as-
semblies to and from the coils are very common.
Dip brazing involves immersion of assembled
parts into a suitable molten bath to effect braz-
ing. The bath can be molten brazing filler metal,
molten chemical flux, or molten chemical salts.
The dip brazing method generally causes less dis-
tortion than torch brazing, because of its uni-
form heating. However, it may require relatively
complex tooling and is therefore best used in
medium- to high-production runs. This process is
particularly well suited for small- to medium-
sized parts with multiple hidden joints.
Resistance brazing is most applicable to rela-
tively simple joints in metals that have high elec-
trical conductivity. In this process, the work-
pieces are heated locally. Resistance brazing is
generally used for low-volume production in
joining electrical contacts, related electrical ele-
ments, copper commutator segments, stainless
steel tube to fittings, and so on.
Specialized brazing processes include diffu-
sion brazing (similar to diffusion welding/
bonding) and exothermic brazing (similar to
thermite welding). These processes are used pri-
marily in aerospace applications. Diffusion
brazing is used to join titanium, nickel, cobalt,
and aluminum alloys. Exothermic compounds
that generate enough heat to melt conven-
tional filler metals have been developed for
steels, aluminum alloys, and refractory metals.
Brazing Filler Metals
Brazing filler metal alloy compositions can be
grouped into four categories. The first and largest
group is eutectic-type alloys that have aluminum,
nickel, cobalt, or copper as a base, to which
siliconiboron (in the case of aluminum- and
nickel-base alloys) and phosphorus (in the case
Characteristics(a)
Operator
Basic Flux skill
output required Versatility required
L Yes H Yes
MIH Yes L No
YIN M NO
H YIN M No
H No M No
L/M Yes L Yes
of copper- and nickel-base alloys) are added. The
presence of one or more of these elements in the
alloys tends to impart lower melting temperatures
and surface tensions to the filler metal, as well
as compatibility with the base material in terms
of structure, composition, and properties.
The second group of brazing filler metals,
which are characterized by a phase diagram that
includes a peritectic reaction (for copper-tin al-
loys) or a minimum in the liquids curve (for
gold-nickel alloys), are used primarily in vacuum-
brazing applications and, therefore, require no
alloying elements to serve as fluxing agents.
The third group of alloys, which is probably
the most widely used, is based on the copper-
silver binary eutectic system that is modified by
substantial additions of zinc and cadmium (both
providing fluxing activity) and minor additions
of tin and nickel. However, applicability of
cadmium-containing alloys is limited, because of
more stringent Environmental Protection Agency
restrictions on cadmium usage.
The fourth group of brazing filler metal alloys
consists of eutectic titanium/zirconium-base al-
loys to which copper and/or nickel are added.
These materials are used to braze titanium-base
alloys.
The first three groups of conventional brazing
filler metals have been classified by the Ameri-
can Welding Society (AWS) into seven well-de-
fined categories (Table 2).
Furnace Brazing of Steels
FURNACE BRAZING is a mass-production
process for joining the components of small as-
semblies by a metallurgical bond, using a nonfer-
rous filler metal as the bonding material and a
furnace as the heat source. (Fig. I). Furnace braz-
ing is only practical if the filler metal can be
placed on the joint before brazing and retained
in position during brazing.
Furnace brazing requires the use of a suitable
atmosphere to protect the steel assemblies against
oxidation, or oxidation and decarburization, dur-
ing brazing and during cooling, which is accom-
plished in chambers adjacent to the brazing fur-
nace. The proper brazing atmosphere facilitates
proper wetting of the joint surfaces by the molten
copper filler metal, usually without use of a braz-
ing flux.
Although filler metals other than copper can
be used in furnace brazing of carbon and low-
alloy steels, copper (AWS BCu series) generally
is preferred because of its low cost and the high
strength of the joints produced. The high brazing
temperature necessary when copper filler metals
are used (1100 to 1150 "C, or 2000 to 2100 "F)
is also advantageous when steel assemblies are
to be heat treated after brazing.
Applicability
Generally, steel assemblies that are brazed
most efficiently and economically are small and
weigh less than 2.2 kg (5 Ib). Much larger assem-
blies can be brazed in specially built furnaces;
1108 / Joining

Table 2 Major classes of brazing filler metals cleaning methods are alkaline cleaning, solvent
AWS
cleaning, and vapor degreasing. When alkaline
No. . and tvoe
Allov. familv .. designation Forms Base materials ioined Maior
- aoolications
.. cleaning is used, it is important that all alkaline
AI-Si, eutectic BAISi Preforms, wire, rods, Aluminum and aluminum Car radiators, heat
compounds be removed from workpieces before
foil, powder, RS alloys, steel to aluminum exchangers, honeycomb they enter the brazing furnace. Pigmented draw-
foil(a) and aluminum to aircraft structures, ing compounds containing lead are generally re-
beryllium structural parts moved by mechanical cleaning methods, such as
Cu-X, solid solution BCu Preforms, wire, rods, Copper and copper alloys, Heat exchangers, structural dry grit blasting or wet blasting with an abrasive
Cu-Zn, peritectic RBCuZn foil, powder, RS copper to mild steel, parts, automotive parts slurry. If they are not completely removed, draw-
Cu-Sn, peritectic None foil copper to stainless steel ing compounds containing lead are extremely
Cu-P, eutectic BCuP Preforms, wire, rods, Copper to copper, copper to Electrical contacts, bus bars, detrimental to the quality of the brazed joint and
foil, powder, RS silverioxide powered heat exchangers
foil
to the life of furnace components.
metal composites
Cu-Ag, eutectic Preforms, foil, Most ferrous and nonferrous Most widely used utility Assembling and Fixturing. Components to be
BAg
powder metals, except aluminum tiller metals furnace brazed are generally designed for assem-
and magnesium bly by press fitting, expanding, swaging, or other
TM-Si-B(b), eutectic means that eliminate the need for fixtures.
(NiiFe +Cr)-Si-B BNi Powder, tape(c), RS AISI 300 and 400 series Aircraft turbine components, Brazing. The assemblies are moved into the
foil steels and nickel- and automotive parts, heat brazing chamber of the furnace, where they are
cobalt-base superalloys: exchangers, honeycomb heated under a suitable protective atmosphere.
carbon steels: low-alloy structures
When the assembly reaches a temperature higher
steels: and copper
(Ni,Pd)-Si-B None Powder, tape, RS AISI 300 series stainless Honeycomb structures, than the melting point of the filler metal, the
foil steels, cemented carbide, cemented filler metal wets and flows over the steel surfaces
superalloys carbideipolycrystalline and is drawn into the joints by capillary action.
diamond tools, In making the bond, the filler metal forms a solid
orthodontics, catalytic solution with, but does not melt, the steel sur-
converters face. Heating time for furnace brazing of most
(Co,Cr)-Si-B BCo Powder, tape, RS Cobalt-base heat-resistant Aircraft engines, honeycomb steel assemblies is from 10 to 15 min.
foil corrosion-resistant marine structures
Cooling. The assemblies are moved to the
superalloys
Au-Ni, solid solution BAu Preforms, wire, rods, Nickel-base heat-resistant Honeycomb structures, cooling chamber of the furnace, where they are
foil, tape alloys, steels structural turbine parts cooled under a protective atmosphere (usually the
Cu-(Ti,Zr)-Ni None Cladded strip, RS Titaniumizirconium-base Titanium tubing, aircraft same atmosphere as was used in the brazing
eutectic and foil alloys engines, honeycomb chamber). They remain in the cooling chamber
peritectic aircraft structures, aircraft until they have cooled enough so that they will
structural parts, chemical not discolor when exposed to air, usually to
reactors about 150 "C (300 O F ) .
(a) May be produced as rapidly solidified, ductile, amorphousimicrocrystallinefoil. (b) This group includes alloys based on
transition metals, such as nickel, iron, and cobalt. (c) Brazing filler metal is carried on a plastic-bonded tape. Source: American Brazing Furnaces
Welding Society
Furnaces used for brazing are classified into
four groups: (1) hatch type, with either air or
controlled atmospheres, in which workpieces are
the size of assemblies is limited by the heat re- loads that can be supported at 1100 "C (2000 OF) loaded and unloaded manually; (2) continuous
quired to bring them to the brazing temperature. without sagging of furnace fixtures. type, with either air or controlled atmospheres,
The brazing temperature, which is considerably which feature an automatic conveying system; (3)
higher than those employed in heat treatment of retort type, with controlled atmospheres; and (4)
steel, imposes limitations on furnace design and Sequence of Operations vacuum type. The batch- and continuous-type
operation, including the maximum feasible size Furnace brazing entails four processing opera- furnaces are used most frequently for brazing of
of the heating chamber, the degree of tightness tions: cleaning, assembling and fixturing, braz- carbon and low-alloy steel assemblies. The
and temperature uniformity that can he main- ing, and cooling. method of heating varies with the application.
tained, the time required to heat the workpieces Cleaning generally is limited to removal of Some furnaces are heated by gas or oil, but most
to the brazing temperature, and the weight of oils used in machining operations. The preferred are heated by electrical resistance.

Furnace

Filler Filler metal

metal melts and flows Filler metal
wire

Flux
Fillet
Filler metal

Conveyor

Fig. 1 Cross-sectional view of three-part assembly as it proceeds through furnace brazing operation. Filler metal wire (filler metal encircled by flux) gradually melts and flows into
voids between the three sections and then cools to form a single-unit workpiece as it is conveyed through the furnace.

Batch-type furnaces, which heat each work-
load separately, normally consist of an insulated
chamber with an external reinforced steel shell,
a heating system for the chamber, and one or
more access doors to the heated chamber. Stan-
dard batch furnaces may be box type, top loading
(pit type), side loading, or bottom loading. Gas-
or oil-fired batch furnaces without retorts require
that flux be used on the parts for brazing.
Typically, such a furnace accommodates four
trays at a time-one in the heating chamber and
three in the cooling chamber. As soon as the tray
in the heating chamber reaches brazing tempera-
ture, the operator pulls the end tray out of the
cooling chamber and pulls the other two trays
closer to the end. The operator then pushes the
hot tray of brazed assemblies into the empty
space in the cooling chamber and pushes a new
tray of unbrazed assemblies into the heating
chamber.
Continuous-type furnaces receive a steady
flow of incoming assemblies. The two common
furnace types used for copper brazing of steels
are the mesh-belt and roller-hearth conveyor fur-
naces. Mesh-belt conveyor furnaces offer the ad-
vantages of continuous operation at high capacity
and accurate, automatic cycle timing in both the
heating and cooling chambers.
Protective Furnace Atmospheres
The gas atmospheres used in furnace brazing
serve primarily to protect the steel assemblies
from oxidation or scaling and to assist the flow
of filler metal by promoting wetting of steel sur-
faces. Both functions require a gas atmosphere
that is reducing. When required, the atmosphere
may also serve to maintain the carbon content of
the steel by preventing carburization or decarbur-
ization at elevated temperatures. To satisfy all
requirements, the atmosphere must provide com-
plete protection to assemblies in both the heating
and cooling chamber of the brazing furnace.
High-temperature brazing using a BCu or a
high-temperature copper alloy filler metal can be
conducted in hydrogen or dissociated ammonia
atmospheres. Low-temperature brazing using
BAg series filler metals also is possible when
hydrogen or dissociated ammonia atmospheres
are used. Endothermically generated atmospheres
containing from 14 to 16 percent hydrogen can
also be used for properly cleaned carbon steels.
Filler Metals
As indicated above, filler metals used for fur-
nace brazing include the AWS BAg and BCu se-
ries and high-temperature copper alloys contain-
ing nickel and manganese that are not covered
by AWS specifications. The BNi series filler
metals can be used for some alloy steels and
tool steels. Compositions for these various filler
metals can be found in tables accompanying sub-
sequent articles in this Section.
Selection of the proper filler metal depends on
strength and temperature requirements. The BAg
series of filler metals generally has good long-
term strength at temperature up to 200 "C (400
O F ) . Some of the higher temperature filler metals,
such as BAg-13 and BAg-I3a, can be used for
joints that require high strength up to 425 "C
(800 O F ) . The BCu filler metals, which are the
most commonly employed, are generally used for
service up to 480 "C (900 O F ) .
Torch Brazing of Steels
TORCH BRAZING is a brazing process in
which the heat is obtained from a gas flame or
flames impinging on or near the joint to be
brazed. Torches used in this process may be of
the handheld type or may consist of fixed burners
with one or many flames. Several types of fuel
gas are available for combustion with oxygen or
air. Torch brazing can be performed as a com-
pletely manual, partly mechanized, or a com-
pletely automatic process.
Joint Design. In torch brazing of steel, the
frequently used filler metals need a joint clear-
ance (at brazing temperature) of 0.025 to 0.125
mm (0.001 to 0.005 in.) for capillary flow.
Where thermal expansion is significant, an allow-
ance is made on room-temperature measurements.
Lap joints designed for shear loads are generally
preferred to butt joints designed for tensile loads.
For maximum joint efficiency, the length of the
overlap should measure at least three times the
thickness of the thinnest member to he joined.
Fuel Gases
Acetylene, natural gas (methane), propane, and
proprietary gas mixtures are the types of fuel gas
most often used in torch brazing of steel. Hydro-
gen, butane, and producer (city) gas are seldom
employed. In manual torch brazing, pure oxygen
is chiefly used as the combustion agent because
of its high heating rate. As a less expensive
source of lower-grade oxygen, compressed air or
a high-volume low-pressure blower is also suit-
able.
Equipment for Torch Brazing
Manual Torch Brazing. Although any flame-
producing device can be used for torch brazing,
commercial applications are accomplished with
the same type of torch, controls, and gases used
for torch fusion welding. Conversion to brazing
merely requires changes in torch nozzles and
goggle lenses.
Feeding brazing filler metal and melting
T
Y Meltina and flowina
/ /
V
Fluxing and loading
Fig. 2 Schematic of an eight-station automatic torch brazing operation that produces magnet armature assemblies
(230 piecesih) used as striking members of a printing machine
Brazing / 1109
Automated Systems. Torch brazing can be
rather easily automated with appropriate gas sup-
plies, indexing fixtures, and cycle controls. Usu-
ally, such systems involve multiple-station rotary
indexing tables. The part is fed into a holding
fixture at the first station and is then indexed to
one or more preheating stations, depending on
the heating time required. A brazing station is
next, followed by a cooling station and an ejec-
tion station (see Fig. 2).
Filler Metals
Silver and copper-zinc brazing alloys are the
filler metals used in torch brazing of low-carbon
and low-alloy steels. The product forms, nominal
compositions, and melting and brazing tempera-
ture ranges of the filler metals most frequently
used are given in Table 3.
Silver-alloy filler metals BAg-I through 7,
20, 27, and 28 are used for torch brazing most
types of steel to themselves or to other metals,
except aluminum and magnesium, and are avail-
able in several product forms. Alloys BAg-8
through 19 and BAg-21 through 26 are used
chiefly in furnace or induction brazing, and are,
for the most part, used in joining base metals
other than low-carbon and low-alloy steels.
The most frequently used alloys of the group
shown in Table 3 are BAg-1, l a and 3; the first
two are outstanding for high fluidity, low melting
temperature, and narrow melting range.
Copper-zinc filler metals are used extensively
in manual torch brazing and braze welding of
low-carbon and low-alloy steels. They can also
be used to join nickel-base and copper-nickel al-
loys to themselves or to steel, where corrosion
resistance is not required. Table 3 gives the nom-
inal compositions and melting characteristics of
four copper-zinc alloys used as filler metals for
torch brazing of steels. The two RB types are
classified for braze welding and brazing; the two
R types are for braze welding only. The R types
are included in Table 3 to clarify a distinction
among the four standard copper-zinc filler metals
that is often overlooked; only the two RB types
are used in torch brazing.
1
7 Air blast cooling
1110 / Joining

Table 3 Filler metals for torch brazing low-carbon and low-alloy steels
Solidus Liquidus
Nominal composition, 70 temperature temperature Brazing temperature
AWS
classification Product form Ag Cu Zn Cd Ni Sn Fe Mu Si P "C "F "C "F "C OF

Silver alloys(a)
BAg- I Strip, wire, powder 45 15 16 24 ... . . . . . . . . . ... ... 605 1125 620 1145 620-760 1145- 1400
BAg- I a Strip, wire, powder 50 15.5 16.5 18 ... . . . . . . . . . ... ... 625 1160 635 I I75 635-760 1175-1400
BAg-2 Strip, wire, powder 35 26 21 18 ... . . . . . . . . . ... ... 605 1125 700 1295 700-760 1295-1400
BAg-2a Strip, wire, powder 30 27 23 20 ... ... ... 605 1125 710 1310 710-760 1310- 1400
BAg-3 Strip, wire, powder 50 15.5 15.5 16 3.0 ... ... 630 1170 690 1270 690-760 1270-1400
BAg-4 Strip, wire, powder 40 30 28 .. 2.0 ... ... 660 1220 780 1435 780-900 1435-1650
BAg-5 Strip, wire, powder 45 30 25 . . . . . . ... ... 665 1225 745 1370 745-845 1370-1550
BAg-6 Strip, wire, powder 50 34 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... 675 1250 775 1425 775-870 1425- 1600
BAg-7 Strip, wire, powder 56 22 17 . . . . . . 5.0 . . . . .
. ... ... 620 1145 650 1205 650-760 1205- 1400
BAg-20 Strip, wire, powder 30 38 32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... 675 1250 765 1410 765-870 I4 10- 1600
BAg-27 Strip, wire, powder 25 35 26.5 13.5 ... . . . . . . . . . ... ... 605 1125 745 I375 705-760 1300-1400
BAg-28 Strip, wire, powder 40 30 28 . . . . . . 2 . . . . .
. ... ... 650 1200 710 1310 710-815 1310- 1500
Copper-zinc alloys
RBCuZu-A(a) Strip, rod, wire, powder ... 59 40 . . . . . . 0.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . 890 1630 900 1650 910-955 1670-1750
RBCuZn-D(a) Strip, rod, wire, powder ... 48 41 .( 10.0 . . . . . . . . . 0.15 0.25 920 1690 935 1715 940-980 1720-1800
RCuZn-B(b) Rod ... 58 38 ... 0.5 0.95 0.7 0.25 0.08 865 1590 880 1620 ... ...
RCuZn-C(b) Rod ... 58 39 . . . . . . 0.95 0.7 0.25 0.08 ... 870 1595 880 1620 ...

(a) Classified for braze welding and brazine. (b) Classified for braze welding. Source: Abstracted from the mandatory and nonmandatory sections of AWS A5.7, AWS A5.8, and other sources

Fluxes
Surface oxide films inhibit the wetting of the
base metal by the filler metal and, therefore, the
capillary flow of the filler metal in the joint.
They also prevent the formation of a true metal-
to-metal braze bond. Fluxes must have sufficient
chemical and physical activity to reduce or dis-
solve the thin surface oxide films without attack-
ing the base metal severely. They are not made
to dissolve heavy oxides, greases, or dirt. For
these reasons, fluxes are not intended to serve as
substitutes for prebraze cleaning or for removal
of heavy oxide films.
Flux Types. For torch brazing of low-carbon
and low-alloy steels, fluxes can be grouped
roughly into three general types. Fluxes that con-
form to AWS FB3A or FB3C can be used when
torch brazing with the BAg filler metals. High-
temperature torch brazing with RBCuZn filler
metals can utilize either a vapor flux that is sup-
plied in the flame or a high-temperature flux that
conforms to FB3D. Table 4 lists the characteris-
tics of these three fluxes as well as other fluxes
used in brazing various ferrous and nonferrous
alloys.
Induction
Brazinrr of Steels
INDUCTION BRAZING is a process in which
the surfaces of components to be joined are se-
lectively heated to brazing temperature by electri-
cal energy transmitted to the workpiece by induc-
tion, rather than by a direct electrical connection,
using an inductor or work coil. Heating is the
result of eddy current or ZZR losses in the work-
piece; because of the electrical resistivity of the
workpiece and the flow of induced alternating
current through it, heat is generated. When the
work metal being heated is ferromagnetic, as
most steels are. some additional heating results
from hysteresis.
The depth of heating by induction depends pri-
marily on the frequency of the alternating cur-
rent. As the frequency is increased, both the
theoretical depth of current penetration and the
depth of the heated zone in the workpiece de-
crease. For example, the theoretical depth of cur-
rent penetration is about 0.90 mm (0.035 in.) at
a frequency of 3 kHz, but decreases to about
0.075 mm (0.003 in.) at 500 kHz.
Process Capabilities
The primary advantage of induction brazing
over other brazing processes is high-speed local-
ized heating that minimizes oxidation and thus
reduces cleaning after brazing. Because the heat-
ing is localized, warpage is often less than when
the entire assembly is heated, and the nature and
extent of metallurgical changes, such as softening
of cold worked or heat treated metal, are also
minimized.
Metals Brazed. With the exception of alumi-
num and magnesium, most of the common metals
and alloys that can be joined by other brazing
processes can be brazed satisfactorily by induc-
tion in air.
Size Limitations. Induction brazing is applied
most conveniently to small- and medium-size as-
semblies. Brazing of large assemblies, such as
cylindrical bodies several feet in diameter, entails
major design and installation problems, even with
an adequate power supply.
Shape Limitations. Assemblies of almost any
shape can be heated for brazing by induction,
depending primarily on limitations imposed by
construction of a suitable inductor, matching the
impedance of the inductor and setup with output
characteristics of the power supply, efficiency in
heating, and cost.
Power Supply
Induction brazing is usually done at frequen-
cies of 10 kHz and higher. A variety of types of
commercial power supplies are available, ranging
in rate from about one-half to several hundred
kilowatts, thus providing a wide selection that
can be used for single or multiple inductors.
Solid-htate generators, which have replaced motor
generators and vacuum tube generators, operate
at frequencies of 50 to 200 kHz or 50 to 350
kHz.
Inductors
Variables that affect the pattern of heating ob-
tained by induction and that are therefore perti-
nent to induction brazing include: (1) the shape
of the inductor that produces the magnetic field,
(2) the number of turns in the inductor, (3) the
spacing between turns of the inductor, (4) the
distance (air gap) between the turns of the induc-
tor and the workpiece, (5) the presence of sharp
corners on that portion of the workpiece within
the magnetic field, ( 6 ) the presence of metallic
shields within or near the inductor, (7) the oper-
ating frequency, and (8) the alternating-current
power input.
Magnetic Fields and Heating Patterns. Fig-
ure 3 shows examples of magnetic fields and
heating patterns produced by induction. The pat-
terns of magnetic flux for a single-turn and a
multiple-turn inductor and the heating patterns
developed by these inductors are shown in Fig.
3(a). Figure 3(b), (c). and (d), respectively, illus-
trate heating patterns of inductor pitch, or the
distance between turns in a multiple-turn induc-
tor, showing that finer pitch windings develop a
deeper heat pattern than loose windings: coup-
ling, or the air gap between inductor and work-
piece, showing that deepest heat patterns occur
with loose couplings; and sharp corners in a mul-
tiple-turn inductor, such as corners in a keyway.
Filler Metals
Requirements of a filler metal for induction
brazing are:
Melting temperature lower than temperatures
at which the metals being brazed are adversely
affected
Ability to we! the metals being brazed
Narrow melting range (difference between sol-
idus and liquidus temperatures)
Sufficient fluidity at the brazing temperature
to enable the filler metal to flow rapidly
through the joint by capillary action
 Brazing / 1111

Table 4 Brazing fluxes

Activity temperature range
Classitication Form Filler metal type Typical ingredients Application “F “C Recommended base metals
~ ~

FB3-A Paste BAg and BCuP Borates, fluorides General-purpose flux for most ferrous 1050-l600 565-870 All brazeable ferrous and nonferrous metal,
and nonferrous alloys. (Notable except those with aluminum or
exception aluminum bronze, etc. magnesium as a constituent. Also used to
See flux 4-A) braze carbides
FB3-C Paste BAg and BCuP Borates, fluorides, Similar to 3-A, but with capability for 1050-1700 565-925 All brazeable ferrous and nonferrous metal,
boron extended heating times or except those with aluminum or
temperature through use of a magnesium as a constituent. Also used to
deoxidizing additive braze carbides
FB3-D Paste BAg, BCu, BNi, BAu, Borates, fluorides Similar to 3-C, but with a higher 1400-2200 760-1205 All brazeable ferrous and nonferrous metal,
and RBCuZn active-temperature range except those with aluminum or
magnesium as a constituent. Also used to
braze carbides
FB3-E Liquid BAg and BCuP Borates, fluorides Low-activity liquid flux used in 1050-1600 565-870 All brazeable ferrous and nonferrous metal,
brazing jewelry or to augment except those with aluminum or
furnace brazing atmospheres magnesium as a constituent. Also used to
braze carbides
FB3-F Powder BAg and BCuP Borates, fluorides Similar to 3-A in a powder form 1200-1600 650-870 All brazeable ferrous and nonferrous metal,
except those with aluminum or
magnesium as a constituent. Also used to
braze carbides
FB3-G Slurry BAg and BCuP Borates, fluorides Similar to 3-A in a slurry form 1050-1600 565-870 All brazeable ferrous and nonferrous metal,
except those with aluminum or
magnesium as a constituent. Also used to
braze carbides
FB3-H Slurry BAg and BCuP Borates, fluorides, Similar to 3-C in a slurry form 1050-1700 565-925 All brazeable ferrous and nonferrous metal,
boron except those with aluminum or
magnesium as a constituent. Also used to
braze carbides
FB3-I Slurry BAg, BCu, BNi, BAu, Borates, fluorides Similar to 3-D in a slurry form 1400-2200 760-1205 All brazeable ferrous and nonferrous metal,
and RBCuZn except those with aluminum or
magnesium as a constituent. Also used to
braze carbides
FB3-J Powder BAg, BCu, BNi, BAu, Borates, fluorides Similar to 3-D in a slurry form 1400-2200 760-1205 All brazeable ferrous and nonferrous metal,
and RBCuZn except those with aluminum or
magnesium as a constituent. Also used to
braze carbides
FB3-K Liquid BAg, BCuP, and Borates Exclusively used in torch brazing by 1400-2200 760-1205 All brazeable ferrous and nonferrous metal,
RBCuZn passing fuel gas through a except those with aluminum or
container of flux. Flux applied by magnesium as a constituent. Also used to
the flame braze carbides
FB4-A Paste BAg and BCuP Chlorides, General-purpose flux for many alloys 1100-1600 595-870 Brazeable base metals containing up to 9%
fluorides, borater containing metals that form Al (aluminum brass, aluminum bronze,
refractory oxides Monel K500). May also have application
when minor amounts of titanium or other
metals are present, which form refractory
oxides

Note: The selection of a flux designation for a specific type of work may be based on the filler metal type and the description above, but the information here is generally not adequate for
flux selection.

(a) Magnetic flux and heating patterns

(C) Effect of coupling on heating pattern

Fig. 3 Magnetic fields and heating patterns produced by various inductors

1112 / Joining

Table 5 Compositions, solidus and liquidus temperatures, and brazing-temperature ranges for filler metals frequently used in induction
brazing
Composition, 70 Solidus temperature Liquidus temperature Brazing temperature
AWS
classification Ag Cu Zn Cd Ni “C OF “C “F “C ‘F
BAg-I 44-46 14-16 14-18 23-25 ... 605 1125 620 1145 620-760 1145-1400
BAg-2 34-36 25-27 19-23 17-19 ... 605 1125 700 1295 700-845 1295- 1550
BAg-3 49-5 1 14.5-16.5 13.5-17.5 15-17 2.5-3.5 630 1170 690 1270 690-8 15 1270- I500
BAg- I a 49-5 I 14.5-16.5 15.5-17.5 17-19 1160-1 I75 ... ... ... ... 620-760 1145-1400
BAg-5 44-46 29-3 1 24-26 ... 1225-1370 ... ... ... ... 745-845 1370-1550
BAg-7(a) 55-57 2 1-23 16-18 ... 1145-1205 ... ... ... ... 650-760 1205- 1400

(a) Contains 5.0% Sn

0 Composition chemically compatible with the
base metal
0 Ability to form joints that have the required
mechanical properties.
Selection of Alloy. Compositions, solidus and
liquidus temperatures, and brazing-temperature
ranges for the alloys that are most widely used
as filler metals in induction brazing of steel are
given in Table 5. Of these alloys, BAg-I is used
much more extensively than the others.
Fluxes
Flux or another means of oxygen exclusion is
required for induction brazing. The flux used
should decompose oxides without corroding the
base metal or the filler metal, should be ex-
tremely active because of the short brazing times
employed, and should be easy to remove after
brazing.
Type FB3-A flux meets these requirements and
is used for an estimated 95% of the induction
brazing applications that involve steel. This flux
is composed of a wetting agent and one or more
of the following: boric acid, borates, fluorides,
and fluoborates. It is effective within the temper-
ature range of 565 to 870 “C (1050 to 1600 OF).
Resistance Brazing
RESISTANCE BRAZING is a resistance join-
ing process in which the workpieces are heated
locally and filler metal that is preplaced between
the workpieces is melted by the heat obtained
from resistance to the flow of electric current
through the electrodes and the work. In the usual
application of resistance brazing, the heating cur-
rent is passed through the joint itself. Equipment
is the same as that used for resistance welding,
and the pressure needed for establishing electrical
contact across the joint is ordinarily applied
through the electrodes. The electrode pressure
also is the usual means for providing the tight
fit needed for capillary behavior in the joint. The
heat for resistance brazing can be generated
mainly in the workpieces themselves, in the elec-
trodes, or in both, depending on the electrical
resistivity and dimensions.
brazing range from 0.025 mm (0.001 in.) diam
wire to assemblies with joint areas of about 65
to 95 cm’ (10 to 15 in.’). Joint area in most
high-production resistance brazing is small, usu-
ally not more than 0.65 to 4 cm’ (0.1 to 0.6
in.’).
Metals Joined. The work metal most fre-
quently joined by resistance brazing is copper.
Resistance brazing with high-resistivity elec-
trodes or electrode facings is an efficient method
of providing localized heating at the joint in this
highly conductive metal, but avoiding fusion of
the copper base metal. In addition, copper is the
only frequently used metal that can be brazed
in air with self-fluxing filler metals (copper-
phosphorus alloys, BCuP type) and, thus, without
the use of a flux.
In plants where copper and copper alloy assem-
blies are resistance brazed, the process occasionally
is applied to assemblies made of steel or other met-
als. Typical resistance brazed low-carbon steel as-
semblies are transformer brackets made by joining
hat-shape strips 3 mm (‘/8 in.) thick by 25 mm ( I in.)
wide to flat strips 3 by 25 by 150 mm ( %by 1 by 6
in.), making a 25 mm ( I in.)-square joint at each end
of the flat strip using preplaced foil of BAg-la filler
metal. Fins made of steel or other metals are resis-
tance brazed to low-carbon steel tubing for heat ex-
changers.
Stainless steel, nickel alloys, and aluminum are
resistance brazed to a limited extent. For exam-
ple, stainless steel internal baffle plates are
joined by this process to the inner walls of 1020
steel tubes in heat-exchanger applications. Addi-
tional metals, not mentioned above, are also oc-
casionally resistance brazed.
Equipment
Resistance brazing ordinarily is done with con-
ventional resistance welding equipment, as de-
scribed in the article “Resistance Spot Welding”
(RSW) in this Section. This equipment can be
used for some resistance brazing applications
Table 6 Properties of five carbon electrode materials used in resistance brazing
Grade Electrode material
without modification. Generally, heating and
cooling times are longer and electrode force is
lower for resistance brazing than for RSW.
Resistance spot welding machines may be
modified to provide ranges of operating condi-
tions suitable for resistance brazing, or machines
may be designed especially for resistance braz-
ing. Other changes often needed to adapt RSW
equipment for resistance brazing are in electrode
holders and electrodes.
Metal Electrodes
The materials used most frequently in resis-
tance brazing are RWMA class 2 (chromium cop-
per), RWMA class 14 (molybdenum), and various
grades of carbon-graphite and graphite. Other
standard and special electrode materials are
sometimes used for special applications.
Carbon Electrodes
Ordinarily, two general types of carbon elec-
trodes are used in resistance brazing: carbon-
graphite and electrographite (artificial graphite).
These electrode materials are made by simultane-
ously heating and blending the finely divided raw
materials with coal tar pitch, which serves as a
binder.
Compositions and properties of the commercial
carbon electrode materials vary; no generally ac-
cepted industry standards and terminology exist.
The properties of five grades that are generally
typical of the materials used in carbon electrodes
for resistance brazing are given in Table 6.
Arrangement of Electrodes
In most resistance brazing, the electrodes apply
the brazing force and are arranged in line with
the workpieces between them. This arrangement
of electrodes, workpieces, and filler metal is
shown in Fig. 4. In making some butt joints or
where space limitations or work configurations
Flexural
strength
Electrical resistivity Scleroscnpe (minimum) Apparent density
pfl mm Cl in. hardness MPa ksi gem' Ibiin.’

I Carbon-graphite, hard(a) 20 0.00080 70 24 3.5 1.74 0.0629

Applicability 2 Carbon-graphite, hard, oxidation 20 0.00080 70 24 3.5 1.75 0.0632
Parts of many different shapes can be resis- resistant(b)
tance brazed, provided that the surfaces to be 3 Carbon-graphite, soft 19 0.00075 40 16.5 2.4 1.57 0.0567
4 Electrographite(a) 1I 0.00042 50 17.2 2.5 1.73 0.0625
joined are either flat or conform over a sufficient
5 Electrographite, oxidation resistant(b) II 0.00042 50 17.2 2.5 1.75 0.0632
contact area and that they can be held together
under pressure to permit the heating current to
(a) This type of carbon electrode material is also frequently used in air carbon arc cutting. (b) Similar to the electrode material
flow through the joint and the filler metal to be listed immediately above, but impregnated with a small percentage of an oxidation retardant, usually an inorganic compound
distributed throughout the joint by capillary ac- containing boron or phosphorus, for longer life
tion. Workpieces that can be joined by resistance
 Brazing / 1113

Water-cooled rnelol Water-coded copper alloy Filler metal ring Circular bath dip brazing. In this process, the assembly
electrode ( l o f 217 electrode holder ( l o t 21 clomprnq
electrode
to be brazed is immersed in a bath of molten
(I of 2) salt, which provides the heat and may supply the
fluxing action for brazing as well. The bath tem-
perature is maintained above the liquidus of the
filler metal, but helow the melting range of the
base metal.
Flanged fin,
fluxed and
press-filled
Furnaces
A salt-bath furnace consists essentially of a
workpieces metal or ceramic (refractory) pot that serves as
a container for the molten salt. Some salt-bath
Filler-metal furnaces are externally heated by gas, oil, or
wafer
coated) (flux coaled1
electrical resistance; this type of furnace lends
itself more readily to intermittent operation and
Fig. 4 Arrangements for resistance brazing. (a) For brazing small flat parts or small flat portions of larger components, is not widely used for high-volume production.
using opposed water-cooled metal electrodes of the conventional resistance welding type. (b) For brazing large On the other hand, furnaces that are internally
flat parts, typically of a highly conductive metal such as copper, using opposed carbon block electrodes attached to heated by immersed or submerged electrodes are
water-cooled copper alloy electrode holders. (c) For brazing flanged fins to a tube, using circular clamping electrodes not well suited to intermittent operation; there-
fore, they are used for high-volume production.

do not permit the use of opposed electrodes, the
electrodes are merely connected on either side of
the joint to provide the brazing current; other
means are used to apply the brazing force to the
joint.
Filler Metals
Of the large number of filler metals available,
only a few are used extensively in resistance
brazing (Table 7). More attention is given in re-
sistance brazing to selecting compatible filler
metals having the lowest brazing temperature, be-
cause in resistance brazing, the maximum local
temperature reached by the work must be kept
as low as possible, while providing uniform heat-
ing of the faying surfaces and the filler metal.
Fluidity of the filler metal is not critical in most
resistance brazing because the filler metal is usu-
ally preplaced and the bond area is relatively
large. The general types of filler metal usually
selected for resistance brazing various classes of
work metals are:
Workpiece metal Filler metal alloys
Steel, stainless steel, heat-resistant Silver (BAg type)
alloys, copper, copper alloys,
nickel alloys
Aluminum alloys AI-Si
Copper and copper alloys cu-P
to prevent or minimize oxidation of the work
metal during heating, dissolving oxides that are
present or that may form during heating, and as-
sisting the molten filler metal in wetting the work
metal to promote capillary flow. The flux in re-
sistance brazing, however, has the additional
function of serving as an electrical conductor to
permit passage of the brazing current through the
joint; most dry fluxes are nonconductors and
must be mixed with water in order to conduct
current.
Application. The flux is usually applied as a
dilute water-base paste shortly before the parts
and filler metal are assembled for brazing. Arcing
and an explosion may occur if the paste is not
a thin, uniform layer and free from lumps. If the
flux should dry before brazing is started, it may
be possible to restore electrical conductivity by
moistening it, but results are not always consis-
tent. Once melted, the flux remains conductive.
If the filler metal is in powder form, flux can
be combined with it in a fine-particle paste.
Selection. The same fluxes are used for resis-
tance brazing as for other brazing processes on
the same work metals. Type FB3-A fluxes are
general-purpose fluxes suitable for most metals
that are commonly resistance brazed.
Salts
The types of salts used in dip brazing of car-
bon and low-alloy steels are neutral chloride
salts, neutral chloride salts plus a fluxing agent
such as borax or cryolite, and carburizing and
cyaniding salts, which are also fluxing types of
salts. Types and compositions of brazing salts
and temperatures used for brazing of carbon and
low-alloy steels with various filler metals are
given in Table 8.
Fluxing agents such as borax and cryolite are
added to neutral chloride salts to produce a flux-
ing environment in the bath. When these fluxing
agents are used with silver alloy or copper-zinc
filler metals, periodic flux additions are required
to maintain the fluxing potential of the bath.
Above 650 "C (1200 OF), the fluxing potential
can decrease rapidly because of oxidation from
contact with air or the parts being brazed; there-
fore, the fluxing agent must be replenished more
frequently.
Carburizing and cyaniding salts provide their
own fluxing action. In addition, they supply car-
bon or carbon and nitrogen to the surface of the
steel assembly as it is being brazed. Although
silver brazing alloys have been used successfully,
RBCuZn-A filler metal is generally preferred.

These types of filler metal all have relatively low

Dip Brazing Fluxes
An adequate fluxing environment is needed to
brazing temperatures (Table 7). of Steels in ensure good flow and penetration of the brazing
alloy in salt-bath dip brazing. When brazing is
Fluxes and Cleaning Molten Salt done in a neutral chloride salt bath, a flux is
usually applied to the assemblies before brazing.
A flux is used in almost all resistance brazing. Generally, the application of flux to the assembly
It serves the same purposes in resistance brazing DIP BRAZING in molten salt is also referred is not necessary when using a cyanide bath or
as in other brazing processes: providing a coating to as salt-bath dip brazing and molten chemical- other fluxing bath.
Flux can be applied by brushing, dipping, or
spraying the parts to be brazed before, during,
Table 7 Filler metals used for resistance brazing operations or after assembly. After flux application, if any
moisture is present, the assemblies must he pre-
AWS Composition, wt% Liquidus Solidus heated to dry them before immersion in the salt
class UNSNo. Ag Cu Zn Cd P Sn "C OF "C OF bath. Typical fluxes employed for prefluxing of
BAg- I PO7450 45 15 16 24 ... ... 620 1145 605 II25 carbon steels and low-alloy steels that are to he
BAg- IA PO7500 50 15.5 16.5 18 ... ... 635 I175 625 II60 brazed in a salt bath are AWS types FB3-A and
BAg-2 PO7350 35 26 21 in ... ... 700 1295 605 II25 FB3-C.
BAg-7 PO7563 56 22 17 ... ... 5 650 I205 620 I145
BAg-8 PO7720 72 2n ... ... ... 780 1435 780 1435
BAg- I8 PO7600 60 30 ... ... ... 10 720 1325 600 1115 Filler Metals
BCuP- I c55 Ino ... 95 ... ... 5 ... 925 I695 710 1310
BCuP-2 C55181 ... 97 ... ... ... The brazing filler metals shown in Table 8 are
3 795 I460 710 1310
BCuP-5 C55284 15 80 ... ... 5 ... no0 1475 II90
the most widely used for salt-bath dip brazing of
-
645
~
carbon and low-alloy steels. Although silver al-
1114 / Joining
Table 8 Typical salts used for molten salt dip brazing of carbon and low-alloy steels with
selected filler metals
Filler metal Type of salt
BAg-1 through BAg-8, and Neutral
BAg-18 Cyaniding-fluxing
Neutral
RBCuZn-A Neutral
Fluxing
Carhurizing-fluxing(water
soluble)
Carburizing and self-fluxing
RBCuZn-D Neutral
BCu-1 and 1A Neutral
Neutral
(a) Temoeratures shown are those of the salt bath. (h) Used with mechanical agitation
loys BAg-13 and 13A (not shown in Table 8)
can be used for brazing in a salt bath, they have
been supplanted in most applications by copper-
zinc alloys, which are less costly and have simi-
lar brazing temperature ranges. The rapid heating
rate and nonoxidizing environment in a salt bath
minimize dezincification of copper-zinc alloys,
thereby facilitating the use of these alloys.
Joint Design
The filler metal providing the bond in brazed
joints is drawn by capillary action between
closely adjacent matching surfaces. A diametral
clearance of 0.025 to 0.075 mm (0.001 to 0.003
in.) is considered necessary for good flow and
penetration of silver or copper-zinc filler metals
in most joints. For copper brazing, joint clearance
can range from a slight interference fit to a posi-
tive diametral clearance of about 0.05 mm (0.002
in.). When brazing dissimilar metals that have
differing coefficients of thermal expansion or dis-
similar masses of the same metal, the designer
must he aware of the differing rates of expansion
to ensure that the required joint clearance is ob-
tained between the components at the brazing
temperature.
Brazing of Cast Irons
BRAZING of gray, ductile, and malleable cast
irons differs from brazing of steel in two princi-
pal respects: special precleaning methods are nec-
essary to remove graphite from the surface of the
iron, and the brazing temperature is kept as low
as feasible to avoid reduction in the hardness and
strength of the iron.
The processes used for brazing cast irons are
the same as those used for brazing steel-fur-
nace, torch, induction, and dip brazing. As with
other metals, selection of the brazing process de-
pends largely on the size and shape of the assem-
bly, the quantity of assemblies to be brazed, and
the equipment available.
Filler Metal and Flux
Because most cast irons are brazed at relatively
low temperatures, the filler metals used are al-
most exclusively silver brazing alloys. Of these
Brazing temperature
range(a)
Nominal composition, 70 OC "F
55 BaCI2,25 NaCI, 20 KCI 620-870 1150-1600
20-30 Na2C03,20-30 KC1, 650-870 1200- 1600
30-40 NaCN
730-870 1350-1600
50 NaC1, 50 KCI
80 BaCl,, 20 NaCl 9 15-940 1615- 1725
79 BaCI,, 20 NaCI, 1 borax 915-940 1615- 1725
30 NaCI, 30 KCI, 20 915-940 1615- I725
carbonate, 15-20 NaCN,
activator (proprietary)
50 carbonate, 50 chloride with 8 15-925 1500- 1700
graphite addition(b)
90 BaCI,, 10 NaCl 1040-1050 1900-1925
95 BaCI,, 5 NaCl 1095- 1150 2000-2100
100 BaCI, 1095-1150 2000-2100
silver alloys, BAg-1 is most often used for braz-
ing of cast iron, principally because it has the
lowest brazing-temperature range. A fluoride-
type flux such as AWS type FB3-A is usually
used with BAg-I filler metal.
Brazeability
Relatively high silicon content and sand inclu-
sions on as-cast surfaces have some adverse ef-
fects on the brazeability of cast iron. These ef-
fects, however, are less significant than the
adverse effect of graphite, which is present in all
gray, ductile, and malleable cast irons. Graphite
has essentially the same effect on machined joint
surfaces as on as-cast surfaces. Malleable iron is
generally considered to be the most brazeable,
and gray iron the most difficult to braze, of the
three types of cast irons.
Preparation of Castings for Brazing
Preferred joint designs for brazing cast irons
are generally the same as for steel. Best results
are obtained using diametral clearances in the
range of 0.05 to 0.125 mm (0.002 to 0.005 in.).
Diametral clearances up to 0.25 mm (0.010 in.)
may be used, but this much clearance will result
in lower joint strength and added filler-metal
cost.
Cleaning of Cast irons. Prior to brazing, cast
irons require special cleaning procedures. Ductile
and malleable cast iron are usually cleaned by
abrasive blasting with steel or nickel shot to re-
move the graphite, silicon, and sand inclusions
on the surface. Other methods for preparing duc-
tile and malleable cast irons include various pick-
ling and other chemical treatments, searing with
an oxidizing flame, and heating to temperatures
between 870 and 900 "C (1600 and 1650 "F) in
a strongly decarburizing atmosphere.
Gray cast irons generally require cleaning in
fused salts prior to brazing, because that method
has proved to be the most effective. The fused
salt bath generally is maintained at temperatures
between 400 and 480 "C (750 and 900 OF). At
these temperatures, salt baths exhibit the required
high chemical activity that is necessary to re-
move surface oxides, graphite, and sand from the
iron surface. This action is further enhanced by
the induction of direct current into the bath. By
changing the polarity, the action of the bath can
be changed from oxidizing to reducing, and vice
versa.
In some applications, the brazing of all types
of cast irons has been accomplished without spe-
cial cleaning by using a black-type flux (AWS
FB3-C or AMS 341 1) and by silver brazing with
a filler metal that contains nickel, such as BAg-
3, BAg-4, or BAg-24. Brazing with RBCuZn-type
filler metals has also been done without prior
precleaning. If joint integrity, repeatability, and
consistency are important, then prior precleaning
is recommended.
Brazing of
Stainless Steels
STAINLESS STEELS, as a class, are no more
difficult to braze than carbon and low-alloy
steels. The high quantities of chromium present
in stainless steels cause the chromium oxide
films on the surfaces of all stainless steels, as
well as films of titanium oxide that form on the
surfaces of titanium-stabilized stainless steels
such as 321. These oxides, which are refractory
and strongly adherent, prevent wetting of the
base metal by the molten filler metal.
The formation of chromium oxide is acceler-
ated when stainless steels are heated in air.
Therefore, although the oxide may have been re-
moved from the surface by chemical cleaning at
room temperature, a new oxide layer that seri-
ously interferes with wetting forms rapidly when
the steel is heated in air to the brazing tempera-
ture.
Brazing Processes. Stainless steels can he
brazed by all conventional brazing processes, in-
cluding furnace, torch, induction, resistance, and
salt-bath dip brazing. Furnace brazing is most
widely used, because applications generally re-
quire brazing in a prepared atmosphere or
vacuum.
Filler Metals
Most stainless steels can be brazed with any
one of several different filler metal families, in-
cluding silver, nickel, copper, and gold. In most
applications, filler metals are selected on the
basis of their mechanical properties, corrosion re-
sistance, service temperature, and compatibility
with the base metal. This selection leads to the
required brazing temperature, based on service
use or manufacturing sequence, and to the re-
quired heating method. Table 9 lists the composi-
tion requirements of the filler metals that are
most commonly used to braze stainless steels.
Silver brazing filler metals, specifically the
BAg group, are the most widely used type of
filler metal in the brazing of stainless steels. The
BAg-3 filler metal, which contains 3% Ni, is
probably selected most frequently, although sev-
eral other filler metals also can be used success-
fully.
Joints brazed with silver-base filler metals can-
not be used for high-temperature service applica-
tions. The recommended maximum service tem-
perature is 370 "C (700 "F) (BAg-3). The
recommended joint fitting allowances for silver
brazing are relatively loose, that is, the diametral
clearance is generally from 0.05 to 0.10 mm
(0.002 to 0.004 in.).
Of the silver brazing filler metals shown in
Table 9, all except BAg-I9 and, possibly, BAg-
 Brazing / 1115

Table 9 Typical compositions and properties of standard brazing filler metals for brazing stainless steel
Solidus Liquidus
Composition(a),% temperature temperature Brazing temperature range
~~

Silver Ag Cu Zn Cd Ni Sn Li Mn Other@) 'C "F 'C "F "C "F

BAg-I 44.0-46.0 14.0-16.0 14.0-18.0 23.0-25.0 ... ... ... ... 0.15 610 1I25 620 1145 620-760 1145-1400
BAg-la 49.0-51.0 14.5-16.5 14.5-18.5 17.0-19.0 ... ... ... ... 0.15 630 1160 635 I175 635-760 1175-1400
BAg-2 34.0-36.0 25.0-27.0 19.0-23.0 17.0- 19.0 ... ... ... ... 0.15 610 1125 700 1295 700-845 1295-1550
BAg-2a 29.0-3 1.0 26.0-28.0 21 .O-25.0 19.0-21.0 ... ... ... ... 0.15 610 1125 710 1310 710-845 1310- I550
BAg-3 49.0-5 I .0 14.5-16.5 13.5-17.5 15.0-17.0 2.5-3.5 ... ... ... 0.15 630 1I70 690 1270 690-815 1270-1500
BAg-4 39.0-41.0 29.0-3 1 .0 26.0-30.0 ... 1.5-2.5 ... ... ... 0.15 670 1240 780 1435 780-900 1435-1650
BAg-5 44.0-46.0 29.0-31.0 23.0-27.0 ... ... ... ... ... 0.15 680 1250 745 1370 745-845 1370-1550
BAg-6 49.0-51.0 33.0-35.0 14.0-18.0 ... ... ... ... ... 0.15 690 1270 775 1425 775-870 1425- 1600
BAg-7 55.0-57.0 2 1.O-23.0 15.0-19.0 ... ... 4.5-5.5 ... ... 0.15 620 1I45 650 1205 650-760 1205- 1400
BAg-8 71.O-73.0 bal ... ... ... ... ... ... 0.15 780 1435 780 1435 780-900 1435-1650
BAg-8a 71.O-73.0 bal ... ... ... ... 0.25-0.50 ... 0.15 770 1410 765 1410 765-870 1410- 1600
BAg-9 64.0-66.0 19.0-21.0 13.0- 17.0 ... ... ... ... ... 0.15 670 I240 720 1325 720-845 1325- 1550
BAg- 10 69.0-7 1 .0 19.0-21 .0 8.0-12.0 ... ... ... ... ... 0.15 690 1275 740 I360 740-845 1360-1550
BAg-13 53.0-55.0 bal 4.0-6.0 ... 0.5-1.5 ... ... ... 0.15 720 1325 860 1575 860-970 1575- I775
BAg-13a 55.0-57.0 bal ... ... 1.5-2.5 ... ... ... 0.15 770 1420 895 1640 870-980 1600- 1800
BAg-18 59.0-61.0 bal ... ... ... 9.5-10.5 ... ... 0.15 600 1115 720 1325 720-845 1325-1550
BAg- I9 92.0-93.0 bal ... ... ... ... 0.15-0.30 ... 0.15 760 1400 890 1635 875-980 1610- 1800
BAg-20 29.0-3 1 .0 37.0-39.0 30.0-34.0 ... ... ... ... ... 0.15 680 1250 765 1410 765-870 1410- 1600
BAg-21 62.0-64.0 27.5-29.5 ... ... 2.0-3.0 5.0-7.0 ... ... 0.15 690 1275 800 1475 800-900 1475-1650
BAg-22 48.0-50.0 15.0- 17.0 21 .O-25.0 ... 4.0-5.0 ... ... 7.0-8.0 0.15 680 1260 700 I290 700-830 1290- I525
BAg-23 84.0-86.0 ... ... ... ... ... ... bal 0.15 960 1760 970 1780 970-1040 1780- 1900
BAg-24 49.0-5 1.0 19.0-21.0 26.0-30.0 ... 1.5-2.5 ... ... ... 0.15 660 1220 705 1305 710-843 1305- 1550
BAg-25 19.0-21.0 39.0-41.0 33.0-37.0 ... ... ... ... 4.5-5.5 0.15 740 1360 790 1455 790-846 1455-1555
BAg-26 24.0-26.0 37.0-39.0 3 1.0-35.0 ... 1.5-2.5 ... ... 1.5-2.5 0.15 710 1305 800 1475 800-870 1475-1600
BAg-27 24.0-26.0 34.0-36.0 24.5-28.5 12.5-14.5 ... ... ... ... 0.15 610 1125 745 1375 745-860 1375-1575
BAg-28 39.0-41.0 29.0-3 1.0 26.0-30.0 ... ... 1.5-2.5 ... ... 0.15 650 1200 710 1310 710-845 1310- 1550
BAg-33 24.0-26.0 29.0-3 1.0 26.5-28.5 16.5-18.5 ... ... ... ... 0.15 610 1 I25 680 I260 680-760 1260-1400
BAg-34 37.0-39.0 3 1 .O-33.0 26.0-30.0 ... ... 1.5-2.5 ... ... 0.15 650 1200 720 1330 720-845 1330- I550

Compasitiou(a),90 Solidus temperature Liquidus temperature Brazing temperature range

Coooer cu P Pb A1 Other@) T O F "C OF "C "F
BCu- 1 99.90(c) 0.075 0.02 0.01 0.10 1080 1981 1080 1981 1095-1 150 2000-2100
BCu- la 99.0(c) ... ... ... 0.30 1080 1981 I080 1981 1095- I 150 2000-2 100
BCu-2 86.5(c) ... ... ... 0.50 1080 1981 1080 1981 1095-1150 2000-2100

Solidus Liquidus
ComDosition(aL90 temperature temperature Brazing temperature range
~~

Nickel(d) Cr B Si Fe C P S Al Ti Mu Cu Zr Ni Other(b) "C "F "C "F "C "F

BNi-I 13.0-15.02.75-3.50 4.0-5.0 4.0-5.0 0.6-0.9 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.05 ... ... 0.05 bal 0.50 975 1790 1035 1900 1065-1205 1950-2200
BNi-la 13.0-15.02.75-3.50 4.0-5.0 4.0-5.0 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.05 ... ... 0.05 bal 0.50 975 1790 1075 1970 1075-1205 1970-2200
BNi-2 6.0-8.0 2.75-3.50 4.0-5.0 2.5-3.5 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.05 ... ... 0.05 bal 0.50 990 1780 1000 1830 1010-1175 1850-2150
BNi-3 ... 2.75-3.50 4.0-5.0 0.5 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.05 ... ... 0.50 bal 0.50 980 1800 1035 1900 1010-1175 1850-2150
BNi-4 ... 1.5-2.2 3.0-4.0 1.5 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.05 ... ... 0.05 bal 0.50 980 1800 1065 1950 1010-1175 1850-2150
BNi-5 18.5-19.5 0.03 9.75-10.50 ... 0.10 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.05 ... ... 0.05 bal 0.50 1080 1975 1135 2075 1150-1205 2100-2200
BNi-6 ... ... ... ... 0.10 10.0-12.0 0.02 0.05 0.05 ... ... 0.05 bal 0.50 880 1610 875 1610 925-1095 1700-2000
BNi-7 13.0-15.0 0.01 0.10 0.2 0.08 9.7-10.5 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.04 ... 0.05 bal 0.50 890 1630 890 1630 925-1095 1700-2000
BNi-8 ... ... 6.0-8.0 ... 0.10 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.05 21.5-24.5 4.0-5.0 0.05 bal 0.50 980 1800 1010 1850 1010-1095 1850-2000
BNi-9 13.5-16.5 3.25-4.0 ... 1.5 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.05 ... ... 0.05 bal 0.50 1055 1930 1055 1930 1065-1205 1950-2200

Liquidus
Precious Composition(a),% Solidus temperature temperature Brazing temperature range
metals Au cu Pd Ni Othedb) 'C OF "C 'F "C "F
BAu-I 37.0-38.0 bal ... ... 0.15 990 1815 1015 1860 1015- 1095 1860-2000
BAu-2 79.5-80.5 bal ... ... 0.15 890 1635 890 1635 890- 1010 1635- I850
BAu-3 34.5-35.5 bal ... 2.5-3.5 0.15 975 1785 1030 1885 1030- 1090 1885-1995
BAu-4 81 5 8 2 . 5 ... ... bal 0.15 950 1740 950 1740 950-1005 1740- 1840
BAu-5 29.5-30.5 ... 33.5-34.5 35.5-36.5 0.15 1135 2075 1165 2130 1165-1230 2130-2250
BAu-6 69.5-70.5 ... 7.5-8.5 21.5-22.5 0.15 1010 1845 1045 1915 1045-1 120 1915-2050

Solidus Liquidus
Compmitiou(a), % temperature temperature Brazing temperature range
~~

Cobalt Cr Ni Si W Fe B C P S At Ti Zr Co Other(b) "C "F "C O F "C "F

BCo-l 18.0-20.0 16.0-18.0 7.5-8.5 3.5-4.5 1.0 0.7-0.9 0.35-0.45 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.05 bal 0.50 1120 2050 1150 2100 1150-1230 2100-2250

(a) Single values are maximum percentages, unless otherwise indicated. (b) Other elements, total. (c) Minimum. (d) All BNi alloys have a limit of 0.10 Co and 0.005 Se. Source: AWS A5.8-
81, "Specification for Brazing Filler Metals"

13, are used at brazing temperatures that fall
within the effective range of sensitizing tempera-
tures (540 to 870 "C, or 1000 to 1600 O F ) for
austenitic stainless steels. Chromium carbide pre-
cipitation occurs in the sensitizing temperature
range, which impairs the corrosion resistance of
the base metal. Carbide precipitation, however,
depends on time as well as temperature, and ex- provides joints that have excellent corrosion re-
posure to the sensitizing temperature range for sistance and high-temperature strength. These
only a few minutes is unlikely to result in a filler metals are typically supplied in the form
significant amount of precipitate. of powders mixed with a binder. A limited num-
Nickel brazing filler metals are the next most ber of filler metals are also available as sintered
frequently used filler metals for stainless steels. rods, preforms, and foils. However, these filler
The BNi group of nickel brazing filler metals metals may alloy with stainless steel, forming
1116 / Joining
intermetallic phases with two undesirable charac-
teristics. First, the phases are considerably less
ductile than either the base metal or the filler
metal, even at elevated temperatures, and are
therefore a potential source of rupture. Second,
the alloys formed with stainless steel are higher-
melting-point alloys that are likely to freeze at
brazing temperatures, thus blocking further flow
into the joint during brazing. To achieve flow in
deep joints, diametral clearances as large as 0.10
to 0.20 mm (0.004 to 0.008 in.) are necessary.
Copper Brazing Filler Metals. The high braz-
ing temperature and the need for a protective at-
mosphere generally limits the use of copper filler
metals to furnace applications. The BCu brazing
filler metals (which are practically pure copper)
melt at approximately 1080 "C (1980 "F), and
flow freely at 1120 "C (2050 OF).
Copper is not recommended for exposure to
certain corrosive substances, such as the sulfur
in jet fuel and in sulfur-bearing atmospheres.
Furthermore, copper brazing filler metals exhibit
poor oxidation resistance at elevated temperatures
and should not be exposed to service tempera-
tures higher than 430 "C (800 OF). When copper
brazing filler metal is used, the recommended di-
ametral allowance on joint fit ranges from a 0.10
mm (0.004 in.) clearance to a 0.05 mm (0.002
in.) interference.
Gold brazing filler metals (the BAu group)
are sometimes used for the brazing of stainless
steel, although their high cost restricts their use
to specialized applications, such as the fabrica-
tion of aerospace equipment. When gold brazing
filler metal is used, there is minimal alloying
with the stainless steel base metal. As a result,
joints exhibit good ductility, strength, and corro-
sion reFistance. When maximum corrosion resis-
tance is needed, BAu-4 should be used.
Cobklt brazing filler metals (the BCo-I
group)l are very rarely used for the brazing of
stainless steels. However, this type of filler metal
is included in Table 9, and it is available for
that purpose.
Fluxes
Flux usually is not required for furnace brazing
in strongly reducing or inert atmospheres. How-
ever, in some furnace brazing applications, flux
is necessary. It is always required for torch braz-
ing and is usually required for induction and re-
sistance brazing, unless atmospheric protection is
provided.
Any of the AWS types of FB3-A through FB3-
J fluxes (refer to Table 4) are suitable for all
stainless steel brazing applications where flux is
needed. The FB3-A, -F, and -G types of flux
contain borates and fluorides and have an effec-
tive temperature range from 570 to 870 "C (I050
to 1600 OF). These fluxes are suitable for use
with silver brazing filler metals.
Type FB3-C flux contains the same ingredients
as type FB3-A, except for the addition of boron,
and it has a higher effective temperature range
from 570 to 930 "C (1050 to 1700 OF). This flux
has an extended heating time capability.
The FB3-D, -I, and -J types of flux also con-
tain borates and fluorides, such that its activity
ranges from 760 to 1200 "C (1400 to 2200 OF).
These fluxes are often selected for use with silver
brazing filler metals if the brazing temperature
is above 730 "C (1350 OF). They are well suited
for use with copper, nickel, and gold brazing
filler metals.
Brazing of
Heat- Resistant A1loys
HEAT-RESISTANT ALLOYS are frequently
referred to as superalloys because of their
strength, oxidation resistance, and corrosion re-
sistance at elevated service temperatures (650 to
1205 "C, or 1200 to 2200 O F ) .
Brazing Filler Metals
The AWS has classified several gold-, nickel-,
and cobalt-base brazing filler metals that can be
used for elevated-temperature service (see Table
9 in the previous section "Brazing of Stainless
Steels"). These brazing filler metals are suitable
for high-temperature service; however, if the ap-
plication is for temperatures above 980 "C (1800
OF) or in severe environments, the required braz-
ing filler may not be classified by AWS. It
should be noted that for lower service tempera-
tures, copper (BCu) (below 480 "C, or 900 "F)
and silver (BAg) (below 425 and 200 "C, or 800
and 400 OF) brazing filler metals have been used
for many successful applications.
Many nickel-palladium-base brazing filler met-
als exhibiting good wetting and flow are not clas-
sified by AWS but are also available. These filler
metals have been developed to replace gold-con-
taining (BAu) brazing filler metals, which are
more expensive. Diffusion brazing alloys, which
are proprietory compositions developed by tur-
bine ensine manufacturers, are also not classified
by AWS.
Product Forms. Available forms of AWS clas-
sified and proprietory brazing filler metals in-
clude wire, foil, tape, paste, and powder. The
form used can be dictated by the application or
by the composition of the filler metal. If the filler
metal required for a specific application is only
available as a dry powder, then brazing aids such
as cements and pastes are available to help posi-
tion the brazing filler metal.
Surface Cleaning and Preparation
Cleaning of all surfaces that are involved in
the formation of the desired brazed joint is neces-
sary to achieve successful and repeatable brazed
joints.
Chemical cleaning methods are most widely
used. As part of any chemical cleaning procedure
for preprocessing assemblies for brazing, a de-
greasing solvent should be used to remove all
oils and greases and to ensure wettability of the
chemicals used for cleaning.
Mechanical cleaning usually is confined to
those metals with heavy tenacious oxide films or
to repair brazing on components exposed to ser-
vice. Mechanical methods are standard machining
processes-abrasive grinding, grit blasting, fil-
ing, or wire brushing (stainless steel bristles must
be used). These are used not only to remove sur-
face contaminants, but to slightly roughen or fray
the surfaces to be brazed.
Hydrogen Fluoride Cleaning. Nickel- or cobalt-
base superalloy components that require repair
brazing can be processed in hydrogen fluoride
atmospheres in order to remove oxide films. Hy-
drogen fluoride reduction is quite effective in
reducing oxides of aluminum and titanium.
Nickel Flashing. Some nickel-base superalloys
containing high aluminum and titanium contents
receive an electroplate of nickel, commonly re-
ferred to as flashing. Thickness of the flash plate
is kept under 0.015 mm (0.0006 in.) for alloys
with less than 4% (Ti + A l ) and 0.020 to 0.030
mm (0,0008 to 0.0012 in.) for alloys with greater
than 4% (Ti + Al).
Controlled Atmospheres
Controlled atmospheres (including vacuum) are
used to prevent the formation of oxides during
brazing and to reduce the oxides present so that
the brazing filler metal can wet and flow on
clean base metal. Controlled-atmosphere brazing
is widely used for the production of high-quality
joints. Large tonnages of assemblies of a wide
variety of base metals are mass produced by this
process.
Controlled atmospheres are not intended to
perform the primary cleaning operation for the
removal of oxides, coatings, grease, oil, dirt, or
other foreign materials from the parts to be
brazed. All parts for brazing must be subjected
to appropriate prebraze cleaning operations as
dictated by the particular metals. Controlled at-
mospheres commonly are employed in furnace
brazing; however, they may also be used with
brazing processes that utilize induction, resis-
tance, infrared, laser, and electron-beam heat
sources. In applications where a controlled atmo-
sphere is used, postbraze cleaning is generally
not necessary. In special cases, flux may be used
with a controlled atmosphere ( I ) to prevent the
formation of oxides of titanium and aluminum
when brazing in a gaseous atmosphere, (2) to
extend the useful life of the flux, and (3) to mini-
mize postbraze cleaning. Fluxes should not be
used in a vacuum environment.
Pure dry hydrogen is used as a protective at-
mosphere because it dissociates the oxides of
many elements. Hydrogen with a dew point of
- 5 1 "C ( - 60 OF) dissociates the oxides of most
elements found in heat-resistant alloys.
Inert gases such as helium and argon, do not
form compounds with metals. In equipment de-
signed for brazing at ambient pressure, inert
gases reduce the evaporation rate of volatile ele-
ments, in contrast to brazing in a vacuum. Inert
gases permit the use of weaker retorts than re-
quired for vacuum brazing. Elements such as zinc
and cadmium, however, vaporize in pure dry
inert atmospheres.
Vacuum. An increasing amount of brazing of
heat-resistant alloys, particularly precipitation-
hardenable alloys that contain titanium and alu-
minum, is done in a vacuum. Vacuum brazing in
the range of 13 mPa torr) has proved ade-
quate for brazing most of the nickel-base super-
alloys.
Nickel-Base Alloys
In the selection of a brazing process for a
nickel-base alloy, the characteristics of the alloy
must be carefully considered. The nickel-base
alloy family includes alloys that differ signifi-
cantly in physical metallurgy (such as the mecha-
nism of strengthening) and in process history
(cast versus wrought). These characteristics can
have a profound effect on their brazeability.
Precipitation-hardening alloys present sev-
eral difficulties not normally encountered with
solid-solution alloys. Precipitation-hardening al-
loys often contain appreciable (greater than l %)
quantities of aluminum and titanium for improved

strength and corrosion resistance. The oxides of
these elements are almost impossible to reduce in
a controlled (vacuum or hydrogen) atmosphere.
Therefore, nickel plating or the use of a flux is
necessary to obtain a surface that allows wetting
by the filler metal.
Because these alloys are hardened at tempera-
tures of 540 to 815 "C (1000 to 1500 OF), brazing
at or above these temperatures may alter the alloy
properties. This frequently occurs when using sil-
ver-copper filler metals, which occasionally are
used on heat-resistant alloys.
Liquid metal embrittlement is another diffi-
culty encountered in brazing of precipitation-
hardening alloys. Many nickel-, iron-, and cobalt-
base alloys crack when stressed parts are exposed
to molten metals. This is usually confined to the
silver-copper filler metals.
Cobalt-Base Alloys
The brazing of cobalt-base alloys is readily ac-
complished with the same techniques used for
nickel-base alloys. Because most of the popular
cobalt-base alloys do not contain substantial
amounts of aluminum or titanium, brazing atmo-
sphere requirements are less stringent. These ma-
terials can be brazed in either a hydrogen atmo-
sphere or a vacuum.
Cobalt-base alloys, much like nickel-base al-
loys, can be subject to liquid metal embrittlement
or stress-corrosion cracking when brazed under
residual or dynamic stresses. This frequently is
observed when using silver- or silver-copper-base
(BAg)'filler metals. Liquid metal embrittlement
of cobalt-base alloys by copper-base (BCu) filler
metals occurs with or without the application of
stress; therefore, BCu filler metals should be
avoided when brazing cobalt-base alloys.
Brazing of
Aluminum Alloys
BRAZING of aluminum alloys was made pos-
sible by the development of fluxes that disrupt
t h e o x i d e film on aluminum without harming the
underlying metal and filler metals (aluminum al-
loys) that have suitable melting ranges and other
desirable properties. The aluminum-base filler
metals used for brazing aluminum alloys have
liquidus temperatures much closer to the solidus
temperature of the base metal than those for braz-
ing most other metals. For this reason, close tem-
perature control is required in brazing of alumi-
num. The brazing temperature should be
approximately 40 "C (70 OF) below the solidus
temperature of the base metal, but if temperature
is accurately controlled and the brazing cycle is
short, it can be as close as 5 "C (10 OF). Alumi-
num alloys, depending on composition, can be
brazed with commercial filler metals from 550
to 640 "C (1020 to 1180 OF). Most brazing is
done at temperatures between 560 and 615 "C
(1040 and 1140 OF).
Much of the equipment and many of the tech-
niques used to prepare, braze, and inspect alumi-
num alloys are the same as those used for other
metals.
Base Metals
The non-heat-treatable wrought alloys typically
used as base metals are listed in Table 10. Those
Brazing / 1117
Table 10 Melting ranges and brazeability dered alloy and flux or from powdered alloy and
of some common~aIuminumalloys binder for either flux or fluxless processes. These
materials are available in the United States from
Melting range
only a few vendors.
Allov 'C "F Brazeabilitda)
Brazing sheet is usually made by roll bonding
Non-heat-treatablewrought alloys the filler metal to the base metal. It can be single
I350 646-657 1195-1215 clad (on one side only) or double clad, and is
1100 643-657 1190-1215 an extremely useful way to apply filler metal.
3003(b) 643-654 1190-I2lO Brazing sheet is advantageously used in the
3004 629-652 1165-1205
assembly of high-production items, such as heat
5005 632-652 1170-1205
exchangers and other complex assemblies, be-
5050 627-652 1160-1205
5052 593-649 1100-1200 cause the filler metal is already in place, thus
avoiding an extra step that would slow down the
Heat-treatable wrought alloys assembly operation. Brazing sheet is an excellent
6053 593-652 1100-1205 A aid in assemblies where many joints need to be
6061 593-649 1100-1200 A
brazed simultaneously.
6063 616-654 1140-1210 A
6951(c) 616-654 1140-1210 A
7005 607-649 1125-1200 B Fluxes
Casting alloys(d) Brazing that is performed in air or other oxy-
gen-containing atmospheres requires the use of a
443.0 574-632 1065-1 170 B
356.0 557-613 1035-1135 B chemical flux. These fluxes, whether used in
710.0 596-646 1105-1 195 B torch, furnace, or dip brazing, or in braze pastes,
711.0 604-643 1120-1190 A usually contain chlorides and/or fluorides, the
fumes of which are hazardous to the operator if
(a) A, generally brazeable by all commercial procedures; B,
brazeable with special techniques or in specific applications inhaled. Flux fumes must be exhausted, not only
for health reasons, but because they are highly
that justify preliminary trials or testing to develop the proce-
dure and to check the performance of brazed joints: C, limited corrosive to most metals.
brazeability. (b) Used both plain and as the core of brazing Fluxes act as deoxidizers and prevent reoxida-
sheet. (c) Used only as the core of brazing sheet. (d) Sand and tion by coating the surfaces. They are used to
permanent mold castings only aid the wetting and flow of the filler metal on
deoxidized and clean aluminum.
There are four generic types of fluxes in two
basic formulas: chloride active and fluoride ac-
tive. Chloride-active fluxes consist of either a
that are most successfully brazed are the lxxx
and 3xxx series and the low-magnesium members straight chloride flux or a chloride flux modified
of the 5xxx series. with zinc. Fluoride-active fluxes consist of either
The commonly brazed heat treatable wrought a straight fluoride or a modified fluoride that pro-
alloys are the 6xxx series. Because the 2xxx and duces an inert film over the brazed parts after
7xxx series of aluminum alloys have melting brazing. In both cases, the modification is in-
points that are too low, they are not normally tended to reduce corrosion in postbrazed prod-
brazeable. Exceptions are the 7072 alloy, which ucts.
is used for cladding material only, and 7005 In torch brazing, fluxes can be applied dry or
alloy. Alloys with a solidus temperature above mixed with either alcohol or water and painted,
595 "C (1100 OF) are readily brazed using the or sprayed, or they can be applied by dipping
aluminum-silicon filler metals. the joining parts.
There are several brazeable cast aluminum al- Fluxes for dip brazing are less active than
loys, which are listed in Table 10 along with those used for torch or furnace brazing, because
their melting range and degree of brazeability. parts to be brazed are totally immersed in the
The most readily brazeable are those with the molten flux. Therefore, oxygen cannot reach the
higher solidus temperatures, such as the 710 and surface of the parts to reform oxides. In dip braz-
71 1 alloys. ing, the flux acts as a heat transfer medium, in
addition to its fluxing action, to bring the alumi-
num parts to final temperature for brazing.
Filler Metals Powdered fluxes are mixed with liquids and
Alloys used in flux brazing usually contain be- powders to form pastes. Pastes can be mixed in
tween 7 and 12% silicon-balanced aluminum, and the brazing operation or they can be bought pre-
tramp metals are controlled to levels below 0.2%. mixed from several suppliers.
Alloys employed in fluxless vacuum brazing
use higher percentages of silicon (>9%) and
have varying additions of magnesium to enhance
oxide film modification to promote wetting, as Brazing of Copper
well as reduce the partial pressures of oxygen-
bearing gases in the chamber. These alloys are and Copper Alloys
primarily found in clad form. Some are semipro-
prietary to processes used in the automotive heat- MOST COPPERS AND COPPER ALLOYS
exchanger industry. The vacuum (fluxless) alloys, can be brazed satisfactorily, using one or more
BAlSi-6 through - 1 I , are identified in Table 11. of the conventional brazing processes. These pro-
The alloys BAISi-3 through -5 also can be used cesses include furnace, torch, induction, resis-
with the fluxless process if modifications related tance, and dip brazing.
to magnesium are made, either in the base metal
or as an addition to the furnace.
Nonclad forms of brazing alloys are usually Brazeability
shim or wire stock and are limited to AA4047. Brazeability is generally rated from very good
Some paste forms are also available from pow- to excellent. With some alloys, however, difficul-
1118 / Joining

Table 11 Compositions and solidus, liquidus, and brazing temperature ranges of brazing filler metals for use on aluminum alloys
Temwrature
Composition(a), % Solidus Liquidus Brazing
AWS
classification Si cu Mg Zn Mn Fe OC "F "C OF 'C "F
BAISi-2 6.8-8.2 0.25 ... 0.20 0.10 0.8 577 1070 613 1135 599-621 1110-1 150
BAISi-3(b) 9.3-10.7 3.3-4.7 0.15 0.20 0.15 0.8 52 1 970 585 1085 571-604 1060-1120
BAISi-4 11.0-13.0 0.30 0.10 0.20 0.15 0.8 577 1070 582 1080 582-604 1080- I I20
BAISi-5(c) 9.0-1 1 .o 0.30 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.8 577 1070 59 1 1095 588-604 1090- 1120
BAISi-h(d) 6.8-8.2 0.25 2.0-3.0 0.20 0.10 0.8 559 1038 607 1 I25 599-621 1110-1 I50
BAISi-7(d) 9.o- 11.o 0.25 1.0-2.0 0.20 0.10 0.8 559 1038 596 1105 588-604 1090-1 120
BAISi-B(d) 11.0-13.0 0.25 1.o-2.0 0.20 0.10 0.8 559 1038 579 1075 582-604 1080-1120
BAISi-Y(d) 11.O-13.0 0.25 0.10-0.5 0.20 0.10 0.8 562 1044 582 1080 582-604 1080-1120
BAISi-lO(d) 10.0- 12.0 0.25 2.0-3.0 0.20 0.10 0.8 559 1038 582 1080 582-604 1080-1200
BAISi-1l(d)(e) 9.0-1 1.0 0.25 1.0-2.0 0.20 0.10 0.8 559 1038 596 1105 582-604 1080-I120

(a) Princioal allovine elements. (b) Contains 0.15% Cr (c) Contains 0.20% Ti. (d) Solidus and liquidus temperature ranges vary when used in vacuum. (e) Contains 0.02-0.20% Bi

ties may be encountered. For example, some
lead-containing alloys can form a dross that in-
terferes with wetting, and tin-containing alloys,
if not stress relieved before brazing, may crack
when subjected to rapid localized heating.
Filler Metals
Table 12 presents the nominal compositions,
solidus and liquidus temperatures, and electrical
conductivities of some filler metals used in braz-
ing of copper and copper alloys, as well as the
joint clearance used with each. The filler metals
listed in Table 12 represent four series: (1) cop-
per-zinc (RBCuZn) alloys, (2) copper-phosphorus
and Cu-Ag-P (BCuP) alloys, (3) silver (BAg) al-
loys, and (4) gold (BAu) alloys.
The most widely used silver alloy is BAg-1,
which has a solidus temperature of 607 "C (1 125
"F) and a liquidus temperature of 618 "C ( 1 145
OF). It is generally recognized as being the low-
est-melting-point silver brazing alloy.
Other widely used filler metals are the RB-
CuZn, BCuP, and BAu series. The copper-zinc
(RBCuZn) filler metals have relatively high liq-
uidus temperatures and are anodic to copper,
leading to lower corrosion resistance. Zinc-con-
taining filler metals sometimes lose this element
or form voids if overheating is allowed to occur.
The copper-phosphorus (BCuP) filler metals
are self-fluxing when used to braze copper.
Fluxes may he necessary when joining other cop-
per alloys. The high-phosphorus filler metals are
not resistant to sulfur-containing atmospheres.
Copper-phosphorus and Cu-Ag-P brazing filler
metals are recommended only for copper and
copper alloys without nickel, because brittle
phosphide can form when nickel is present.
Silver alloy (BAg) filler metals can join all
brazeable coppers and copper alloys, as well as
many dissimilar combinations. The lower-melt-
ing-point alloys are good for joining brass. There
is a trend toward avoiding filler metals that con-
tain cadmium, because of its toxicity. Cadmium-
bearing filler metals must not be used for food
equipment. Lithium-containing filler metals that
are joined in protective atmospheres are self-
fluxing.
Gold (BAu) alloys are high-cost filler metals
that are used in specialized applications, such as
vacuum and electronic products. Although these
filler metals can join copper alloys, they are gen-
erally not used because of their cost. The main
application is in situations where low vapor pres-
sure is important.
Brazing Fluxes
Four primary categories of fluxes are used to
braze coppers and copper alloys. There are no
standard compositions and fluxes are classified
by type only (refer to Table 4).
Type FB3-A is the general-purpose, low-tem-
perature flux used with all coppers and copper
alloys, except those with high levels of alu-
minum.
Types FB3-C and FB3-D have higher active
temperature ranges, respectively, up to 1205 "C
(2200 OF). These fluxes can be used with any
filler metal that is appropriate from Table 12.
Other fluxes are classified by liquid, powder, and
slurry forms, according to application.
Type FB4-A flux is specifically designed for
aluminum-containing copper alloys and has a
wide range of activity from 595 to 879 "C (1100
to 1600 OF).
The highest-temperature fluxes are types FB3-
I, FB3-J, and FB3-K, which work at temperatures
from 760 to 1205 "C (1400 to 2200 OF). These
are generally used with the RBCuZn filler metals,
with long and active conditions at temperature,
although they can be used with all other brazing
filler metals for copper alloys.
Joint Clearance and Design
Joint clearances are primarily related to the
brazing filler metals being used and their capil-
lary attraction. If the gap is too small, then the
brazing filler metal will not flow into the joint.
Typical joint clearances are identified in Table
12.
Clearance can also influence the mechanical
strength of the brazed joints. Allowances should
be made in joint design for relative expansion of
the parts at the brazing temperature, especially

Table 12 Compositions and selected properties of filler metals used in brazing of copper and copper alloys
Solidus Liquidus
AWS filler Nominal composition, 70 temperature temperature Conducti~ty(a,, Typical diametral joint clearance
metal
designation Ag cu P Zn Cd Ni Other "C "F 'C "F 7oIACS mm in.
RBCuZn-A ... 59.25 ... 40 ... ... 0.75 Sn 890 1630 900 1650 26 0.05-0.13 0.002-0.005
RBCuZn-D ... 48 ... 42 ... 10 ... 920 1690 935 1715 ... ... ...
BCuP-1 ... 95 5 ... ... ... ... 710 1310 900 1650 ... 0.05-0.13 0.002-0.005
BCuP-2 ... 92.75 7.25 ..' ... ... ... 710 1310 795 1460 ... 0.025-0.075 0.01 1-0.003
BCuP-4 6 86.75 7.25 ... ... ... ... 645 1190 725 1335 ... 0.025-0.075 0.001-0.003
BCuP-5 15 80 5 ... ... ... ... 645 1190 800 1475 10 0.025-0.13 0.001-0.005
BAg- I 45 15 ... 16 24 ... ... 605 1125 620 1145 28 0.05-0.13 0.002-0.005
BAg-la 50 15.5 ... 16.5 18 ... ... 625 1160 635 1175 24 0.05-0.13 0.002-0.005
BAg-2 35 26 ... 21 18 ''_ ... 605 1125 700 1295 29 0.05-0.13 0.002-0.005
BAg-3 50 15.5 ... 15.5 16 3 ... 630 1170 690 1270 18 0.05-0.13 0.002-0.005
BAg-5 45 30 ... 25 ... ... ... 675 1250 745 1370 19 0.05-0.13 0.002-0.005
75 22 ... 3 ... ... ... ... ... 740 1365 ... 0.05-0.13 0.002-0.005
(b)
BAg-8 77 23 ... ... ... ... ... 780 1435 780 1435 ... 0.05-0.13 0.002-0.005
BAg-8a 72 27.8 ... ... ... ... 0.2 Li 765 1410 765 1410 8%) 0.05-0.13 0.002-0.005
BAg- 19 92.5 7.3 ... ... ... ... 0.2 Li 780 1435 890 1635 88(c) 0.05-0.03 0.002-0.005
BAu-4 ... ... ... ... ... 18 82 Au 950 1740 950 1740 6 0.05-0.13 0.002-0.005

(a) Ratio of the resistivity of the material at 20 "C (68 OF) to that of IACS, expressed as a percentage and calculated on a volume basis. (b) Special filler metal used in brazing nickel silver
knife handles. (c) Conductivity of filler metal after volatilization of lithium in brazing
 Brazing / 11 19

Table 13 Atmospheres for brazing copper and copper alloys

AWS brazing Composition of atmosphere, 90
atmosphere Maximum dew
type No. Source point incoming gas H2 N2 CO COz Filler metals Base metals Remarks

I Combusted fuel gas Room temperature 0.5-1 87 5-1 0.5-1 BAg(a), BCuP, Copper, brass(a) Referred to commonly
(low-hydrogen) RBCuZn(a) as exothermic
generated atmospheres
2 Combusted fuel gas Room temperature 14-15 '0-71 9-10 9-10 BCu, BAg(a), RBCuZn, Copper(b), brass(a), low Decarburizes
(decarburizing) BCuP nickel, Monel, Referred to commonly
medium-carbon as endothermic
steel(c) generated atmospheres
3 Combusted fuel gas, -40 "C (-40 OF) 15-16 73-75 10-11 Same as 2 Same as 2 plus Referred to commonly
dried medium- and high- as endothermic
carbon steels, Monel. generated atmospheres
nickel alloys
4 Combusted fuel gas, -40 "C (-40 OF) 38-40 41-45 17-19 '.. Same as 2 Same as 2 plus Carburizes
dried (decarburizing) medium- and high-
carbon steels
5 Dissociated ammonia -.54"C(-6SoF) 75 25 ... ... BAg(a), BCuP, Same as for I , 2, 3, 4
RBCuZn(a), BCu, plus alloys containing
BNi chromium
6A Cryogenic or purified - 68 "C ( - 90 O F ) 1-30 70-99 ... ... Same as 5 Same as 3
N2 iH2
68 Cryogenic or purified - 29 "C ( - 20 "F) 2-20 70-99 1-10 ... Same as 5 Same as 4
NZ + HZ iCO
6C Cryogenic or purified -68 "C (-90 OF) ... I00 ... ... Same as 5 Same as 3
N2
7 Deoxygenated and dried -S9"C(-7S°F) loo _'' ... ... Same as 5 Same as 5 plus cobalt,
hydrogen chromium, tungsten
alloys and carbides(d)
8 Heated volatile Inorganic vapors Brasses Special purpose. May be
materials (zinc, cadmium, used in conjunction
lithium, volatile with I through 5 to
fluorides) avoid use of flux
9 Purified inert gas Inert gas (helium, ... ... Same as 5 Same as 5 plus Special purpose. Parts
argon, etc.) titanium, zirconium, must be very clean
9A Purified inert gas + H2 Inert gas (helium, 1-10 ." hafnium and atmosphere must
argon, etc.) be pure

(a) Flux required in addition to atmosphere when alloys containing volatile components are used. (b) Copper should be fully deoxidized or oxygen-free. (c) Heating time should be minimized
to avoid objectionable decarburization. (d) Flux must be used in addition to the atmosphere if appreciable quantities of aluminum, titanium, silicon, or beryllium are present.

where dissimilar metals are involved. Penetration Effects of Brazing on Properties

of the brazing filler metal through a joint to the Brazing of Titanium
opposite side of placement can be an effective
measure of brazing filler metal flow, and a pref- and Titanium Alloys
erable joint design allows this observation to be
made. Generally, braze joints should he designed
for an effective joint area of 80%. in order to BE C A U SE TI TA N I U M can become embrittled
allow for voids. by the interstitial absorption of hydrogen, nitro-
In the cas e of a la p joint, the joint length gen, and oxygen gases, brazing should be done
should he, at a minimum, three times the thick- in a vacuum at a pressure of to torr
ness of the thinnest component being joined. or in dry inert-gas atmosphere. Filler metal selec-
tion in brazing titanium alloys is also critical,
because they react with many of the constituents
Brazing Processes of brazing filler metals to form undesirable inter-
T h e selection of the brazing process is a s im- metallic compounds.
portant as the selection of the brazing filler
metal. In fact, one often depends on the other.
W hen a specific process is required, the range
of allowable filler metals may be restricted (see,
Table 14 Titanium brazing allow
for example, Tables 5 and 7). T he number of
Type Form
parts to be made and the production rates desired
also influence brazing process selection. Another 10Pd-Ag Prealloyed ring
consideration is the materials to be joined, be- 95Ag-5AI Powder, wire, foil
c a us e brazing may affect their mechanical prop- 9Pd-9Ga-Ag Powder, wire, foil
erties. All parts for brazing must be cleaned prior 3003 A1 Foil
15Cu-15Ni-Ti,20Cu-20Ni-Ti Powder foil
to the brazing operation.
Brazing can be carried out with a flux or in 48Zr-4RTi-4Be Powder, ring
an atmosphere. Several different atmospheres are 48Zr-48Ti-4Be with 2% Ni Powder
appropriate for copper and copper-alloy furnace 76.5Al-I6.5Cu-4.0Sn-3.OSi Foil, wire, powder
brazing. A W S atmosphere types, as well a s ap-
proximate compositions, filler metals, and braze 66.SAl-2 5Cu-SSn-3.5Si Foil. wire, powder
metal combinations, are described in Table 13.
Note that some base metals require a low d e w
Source: Sandvik Soecial Metals Corooration
point, in addition to the protective atmospheres.
Pure titanium and (Y alloys are not heat treata-
ble, and their material properties ar e not affected
by brazing. In contrast, selection of filler materi-
als and brazing cycles that are compatible with
the heat treatment required for a-P and P-tita-
nium base metals may present s o m e difficulty.
Ideally, brazing should be conducted 50 to 80 "C
(100 to 150 OF) below the transus; the ductility
of a-@ base metals may b e impaired if this tem-
perature is exceeded. Th e p transus can h e ex-
ceeded when @-titanium metals ar e brazed; how-
ever, if the brazing temperature is too high. base-
metal ductility after heat treatment may b e im-
Description
No brittle intermetallic compound formed
Considered ductile
Furnace braze at (870 "C) 1600 "F ductile
Considered ductile
Brittle when used only as a braze, useful diffusion bonding
mechanism
Brittle but strong
Brittle but strong
Developed for bicycle and aerospace furnace braze at 30 "C
(1350 O F ) , ductile
Developed for bicycle and aerospace furnace braze at 30 "C
( I 3.50 O F ) , ductile
1120 / Joining
paired and considerable interaction between the
filler metal and the base metal may occur. The
tensile properties of heat treatable titanium alloys
also may be adversely affected by brazing, unless
the assembly can be heat treated after brazing.
Equipment Precautions
When titanium is brazed, precautions must be
taken to ensure that the brazing retort or chamber
is free of contaminants from previous brazing op-
erations. Mechanical properties of titanium may
deteriorate because of gaseous contamination
from the brazing furnace. Also, the choice of ma-
terials to be used in fixtures must be carefully
considered. Nickel or materials containing high
amounts of nickel generally should be avoided;
SOLDERING involves :ating a joint to a suit-
able temperature and using a filler metal (solder)
that melts below 450 "C (840 OF). The solder is
distributed between the closely fitted surfaces of
the joint by capillary action. Heat is required to
raise the joint to a suitable temperature and melt
the solder and to promote the action of a flux
on the metal surface so that the molten solder
will wet and flow into the joint.
Successful soldering involves shaping the parts
to fit closely together, cleaning the surfaces to
be joined, applying a flux, assembling the parts,
and applying the heat and solder. Flux residues
are removed when the joint is cooled.
Solder Alloys
The primary criterion used to select a solder
is its melting properties. Alloy selection is also
determined by the heat sensitivity of the substrate
material, the temperature conditions that are ex-
pected during service, and the pasty range of the
alloy. The melting characteristics of solders are
expressed as the solidus and the liquidus temper-
atures for the alloy. Solders composed of one
metallic element, such as tin or indium, have a
single melting temperature. Alloys with a eutectic
composition have liquidus and solidus tempera-
tures, but they are coincident, and the tempera-
ture value is referred to as the "eutectic tempera-
ture." The temperature spread between the
solidus and liquidus temperatures define the
pasty range of the alloy. Solders are commer-
cially available with liquidus temperatures that
are as low as 11 "C (51 O F ) , for the ternary Ga-
In-Sn alloy, to as high as 425 "C (795 O F ) , for the
germanium-aluminum solder. Metal alloys with
melting temperatures that exceed 450 "C (840 O F )
are categorized as brazing filler metals.
Specifications and standards have established
requirements for certain solder alloys in terms of
composition limits, impurity levels, and a nomen-
clature for referencing particular compositions. In
the United States, the specifications of solder
alloy compositions are found in ASTM B 32 and
Federal Specification QQ-S-57 IE. Users in the
European community prefer the International Or-
ganization for Standardization (KO) specification
ISOiDIS 9453.
nickel and titanium form a low-melting eutectic
at about 942 "C, or 1728 "F (28.4 wt% Ni). If
titanium workpieces come in contact with fix-
tures or a retort made of a nickel-base alloy, the
parts may fuse together if the brazing tempera-
ture is in excess of 942 "C (1728 OF). If a fixture
material, such as stainless steel, which may con-
tain a high nickel content is used, it should be
oxide coated. In most applications, coated graph-
ite or carbon steel fixture materials are used.
Filler Metals
Braze filler metals initially used for brazing
titanium and its alloys were silver with additions
of lithium, copper, aluminum, or tin. Most of
these brazed filler metals were used in low-tem-
Soldering
Tin-Lead Solders
Care should be taken in specifying the correct
solder for the job, because each alloy is unique
with regard to its composition and properties.
When tin-lead solders are referred to, the tin con-
tant is customarily given first-for example,
40%Sn-60%Pb. Table 1 lists compositions of tin-
lead solders as well as those of Sn-Pb-Sb, Sn-
Pb-Ag, and lead-silver solder compositions.
Solders in the tin-lead system are the most
widely used of all joining materials. Industrial
soldering alloys are in use that contain combina-
tions of materials from 100% Pb to 100% Sn, as
demanded by the particular application. The util-
ity of the tin-lead combination is highlighted by
examination of the constitution diagram between
these two materials, shown in Fig. I . Soldering
alloys can be obtained with melting temperatures
as low as 180 "C (360 "F) and as high as 315
"C (600 "F) within this system. Except for the
pure metals and the eutectic solder at 63%Sn-
37%Pb, all soldering alloys melt within a temper-
ature range that varies according to the alloy
composition. Each alloy has unique characteris-
tics. In general, properties are influenced by the
melting characteristics of the alloys, which in
some measure are related to their load-carrying
and temperature capabilities.
Applications. Soldering alloys containing less
than 5% Sn are used for joining tin-plated con-
tainers and for automobile radiator manufacture.
For automobiles, a small additional amount of
silver is usually added to provide extra joint
strength at automobile radiator operating temper-
atures. Soldering alloys of 10%Sn-90%Pb and
20%Sn-80%Pb are also used in radiator joints.
With compositions between 10%Sn-90%Pb and
25%Sn-75%Pb, care must be taken to avoid any
kind of movement during the solidification phase
to prevent hot tearing in solders with a wide
freezing range, as indicated by the constitution
diagram (Fig. i ) .
Higher-tin-content solders at the 25%Sn-
75%Pb and 30%Sn-70%Pb compositions have
lower liquidus temperatures and can be used for
joining materials with sensitivity to high temper-
ature, or where the wetting characteristics of the
tin are important to providing sound soldered
joints. Soldering alloys i n the composition range
perature applications (540 to 600 "C, or 1000 to
1100 O F ) . Commercial braze filler metals includ-
ing silver-palladium, titanium-nickel, Ti-Ni-Cu,
and Ti-Zr-Be, are now available that can be used
in the 870 to 925 "C (1600 and 1700 "F) range.
Higher strengths and improved resistance to crev-
ice-type corrosion are desirable characteristics
that current braze filler metals enjoy. For joining
applications requiring a high degree of corrosion
resistance, the 48Ti-48Zr-4Be and 43Ti-43Zr-
12Ni-2Be braze filler metals were developed. A
Ag-Pd-Ga braze filler metal (Ag-9Pd-9Ga),
which flows at 900 to 910 "C (1650 to 1675 O F ) ,
is another excellent filler metal with which to
fill large gaps. Table 14 lists filler metals for
brazing titanium alloys.
described above usually are applicable to indus-
trial products and generally are used in conjunc-
tion with inorganic fluxing materials.
The widely used general-purpose soldering al-
loys contain 40 to 50% Sn. These solders are
used for plumbing applications, electrical connec-
tions, and general soldering of domestic items.
The 60%Sn-40%Pb and 63%Sn-37%Pb alloys are
used most extensively in the electronic industries.
Impurities in Tin-lead Solders
Impurities in solders can affect their perfor-
mance and must be kept to a minimum. ASTM
standards for soldering alloys set maximum toler-
able impurities in alloys as provided by the sup-
plier or refinery. Impurities can be inadvertently
picked up during normal usage of the alloys, es-
pecially when solder pots with recirculation sys-
tems and passage of components through the
molten materials are used. The purity of solders
supplied by reputable manufacturers usually is
adequate for most applications. Particular solder-
ing operations may require the use of superpurity
materials that can be supplied upon request. Im-
purities present in sufficient quantities can affect
wetting properties, flow within the joint, melting
temperature of the solder, strength capabilities of
joints, and oxidation characteristics of the solder-
ing alloys. The most common impurity elements
are listed below with their principal levels and
effects.
Aluminum. Traces of aluminum in a tin-lead
solder bath can seriously affect soldering quali-
ties. More than 0.005% of this metal can cause
grittiness, lack of adhesion, and surface oxidation
of the soldering alloy. A deterioration in surface
brightness of a molten bath sometimes is an indi-
cation of the presence of aluminum.
Antimony may be found in solders for any
one of three reasons: as an impurity, that is, not
intentionally added to the material; as a minor
addition of 0.25 wt%, minimum, to try to prevent
the formation of the low-temperature allotrope of
tin (a of tin at 13.2 "C, or 55.8 OF); and as a
principal component, representing 1 to 5 wt%, to
improve monotonic and creep strength of the sol-
der. The levels of added antimony should be less
than 7 wt% of the tin component of the solder
(the solubility limit of antimony in tin) in order