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Ali, now formally allied with the Russian Empire, requested further assistance from his new
European partner, to recover Egypt from Abu al-Dhahab. The Russians had recently entered a
period of truce with the Ottomans, constraining their involvement in the region. They did,
however, promise Ali a large squadron. Impatient, Ali set out for Egypt with a small force that was
defeated near Cairo; he was imprisoned and died a few days later. When the Russian squadron
arrived in June 1773 and learned of Ali's fate, its commander allied with Zahir and the Druze
chieftain Yusuf Shihab. The latter had agreed to pay the Russians a tribute in exchange for their
liberation of Beirut from Jazzar Pasha, Shihab's insubordinate vassal whom he had recently
appointed as governor of the town. The bombardment of the town began on August 2, and Jazzar
surrendered after two months, on October 10. A few hundred Albanian mercenaries were left as
occupiers.
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The occupations are of debatable historical importance. Despite their brevity, they marked the first
time in over 250 years that Beirut was ruled by a power other than the Ottomans. It also marked
the first occasion on which Russian rule was imposed over an Arab city.
Contents
Background
First occupation
End of Ali Bey's revolt
Second occupation
Aftermath and legacy
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
Background
The pressure of Austria and Russia on the northern Ottoman frontiers since the beginning of the
18th century had encouraged insubordination among local governors in the largely decentralised
Arab provinces of Ottoman Syria.[1] In 1768, while the Russian Empire was suppressing a Polish
uprising near the Ottoman border, a Cossack regiment chased some of the rebels across the border
and reportedly carried out a massacre in the town of Balta.[2] The Sultan eventually responded by
declaring war on Russia.[3] He demanded military assistance from Ali Bey, a Mamluk, who was the
most powerful official in Ottoman Egypt at the time. Ali closely observed the course of the war,
sending the required 3,000 soldiers to the aid of the Sublime Porte in 1769. Early in the following
year, however, he declared Egypt's independence, chiefly in response to the war with Russia. Later
he struck an alliance with Zahir al-Umar, a wealthy Arab ruler in northern Palestine. Ali and Zahir
shared common ground in their opposition to Islamic fundamentalism, the Sultan's isolationist
policies towards Europe and the imposition of Ottoman dignitaries to their courts.[4]
At the same time, Tsarina Catherine the Great, lacking an organised Russian fleet in the Black Sea,
drew up plans with Count Alexei Grigoryevich Orlov to detach a large number of ships from the
Baltic Fleet and deploy them to the Mediterranean.[5] Russia hoped they would attack the Turkish
Straits from the rear, and that its naval presence in the Aegean Sea would provoke a Greek
rebellion.[1] This newly formed Mediterranean Fleet, headed by Orlov and commanded by Admiral
Grigory Spiridov, sailed from Copenhagen on September 23, 1769. By March 1, 1770, the first
detachment was anchored off the southern Morea, where the Orlov revolt broke out. This was
followed by bombardments and troop landings at different locations in the region over the coming
months.[6] On July 7 a Turkish fleet was crushed at the Battle of Chesma, which crippled the
Ottoman Navy and gave the Russians naval command of the Mediterranean for the remainder of
the war. Turkish ships that survived retreated to the Dardanelles. Rear-Admiral John Elphinstone
proposed a direct assault on Constantinople, but was instead convinced by Orlov to blockade the
Straits with his squadron, while the rest of the fleet went on the offensive in the northern
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Aegean.[7]
In late 1770, Ali Bey dispatched an army of 40,000 troops, commanded by his trusted general
Muhammad Bey Abu al-Dhahab, to Palestine where it joined forces with Zahir's army in the spring
of 1771 and went on to occupy several towns in the Levant. However, soon after the fall of
Damascus in early June, Ottoman agents managed to convince Abu al-Dhahab to turn against Ali
Bey, promising to appoint him as ruler of Egypt instead of his overlord. Abu al-Dhahab retreated
with his army, and became embroiled in a power struggle against his former master over the
control of Egypt. Zahir, for his part, became isolated in his sheikhdom and had to face the
inevitable Ottoman counteroffensive on his own.[10] Ali Bey was then convinced that he could
reverse his recent setbacks through an alliance with Russia. On December 2, 1771, he sent an
Armenian envoy named Yaqub to meet with Orlov at the Mediterranean Fleet's headquarters on
the Aegean island of Paros where he offered the Russians an alliance.[11]
The offer was later accepted by the Tsarina, but her knowledge of the proposed alliance came after
Ali Bey was no longer ruling Egypt.[n 2] He had been forced to leave the country and seek refuge
with his ally Zahir when the standoff between him and Abu al-Dhahab finally escalated to armed
confrontations.[13] Ignorant of Ali's flight and with orders from Orlov to make contact with him, a
detachment commanded by General-Adjutant Rizo, a Greek, sailed for Damietta but quickly left
port after learning of his fate. The squadron then searched for him along the Palestinian coast and
eventually found him in Acre on June 3. Rizo later sent a detachment to the north, which
intercepted an Ottoman frigate from Beirut near Tyre. Meanwhile, in Sidon, Zahir's small army of
6,000 was being besieged by an Ottoman force of 30,000 that included Druze contingents. Rizo's
ships joined the garrison by bombarding the Ottoman attackers who withdrew shortly
afterwards.[14]
First occupation
The newly assembled coalition, wishing to exploit the Ottoman First bombardment of Beirut
setback in Sidon, decided to send the Russian squadron to the
small port town of Beirut, which was controlled at the time by
the Druze. According to the researcher William Persen, the aim
of this expedition was to both preoccupy the Druze and punish
them for siding with the Porte. Blockading their port would
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achieve this. Beirut was also the only port in the region which Date 18 June 1772 – 23
had so far remained under Ottoman rule.[15] June 1772
Likely unaware of a recent armistice between Russia and the Location Beirut
Porte, Rizo's squadron appeared off the town's coast on Result Occupation of the town
June 18 after it was reunited with its Tyre and Acre until 28 June
detachments. The force consisted of two frigates, the Sv.
Nikolai and the Sv. Pavel, four polaccas, five half-galleys and Belligerents
four xebecs. It was transporting an infantry division that was Imperial Druze garrison
largely made up of Greek and Albanian mercenaries. Russian Navy
Bombardment of the town began on the same day, and
Ottoman ships docked in its port were sunk.[16] In his version of the events, Auriant, author of
Catherine II et l'Orient, wrote that Beirut's defenders were given a 24-hour ultimatum by Rizo to
fly the Russian flag and pay a tribute. The naval offensive lasted five days and involved an
unsuccessful assault by a landing party on June 21. After two days of heavier bombardment, they
finally landed on June 23 and spent hours sacking the town and its bazaar. About 550,000 qirsh
worth of loot, in the form of both trade goods and cash, was taken.[n 3] The Russians left on
June 28, after receiving additional payment from Yusuf Shihab, a Druze emir who ruled over the
surrounding mountains. Shihab also agreed to a four-month alliance with the coalition.[18]
Orlov responded by telling Ali that he was bounded by the truce with the Porte. He pledged a small
force of Russian officers and artillery, and promised to give Ali all the assistance he needed as soon
as circumstances permitted. During the summer, Ali and Zahir's forces laid siege to the city of
Jaffa. The siege was joined in September by a Russian transport ship which landed artillery pieces
near the city. The ship left a month later, carrying a renewed plea to Orlov.[20] Another Russian
naval detachment, commanded by Lieutenant Panaiotti Alexiano,[21] arrived at Jaffa in November,
again joining the bombardment and informing Ali of Orlov's plan to commission a large fleet for
his cause. Alexiano's squadron consisted of the frigate Sv. Pavel and a number of polaccas, and had
earlier destroyed two Barbary ships off Damietta and captured some smaller vessels.[22]
Planted rumours of insubordination in Abu al-Dhahab's camp and growing dissent in Egypt had
caught Ali's attention. He grew impatient and, in April 1773, he set out for Egypt at the head of a
small force, despite being assured a month earlier that Russian assistance would arrive soon. Ali's
force was defeated by his rival's army near Cairo. He was taken prisoner and died a few days later,
likely by poisoning.[20] Jazzar, meanwhile, had fortified Beirut and chose to act independently of
Shihab, declaring that he would recognise only the Sultan's authority over the town. Orlov's
promised squadron, commanded by Captain Mikhail Gavrilovich Kozhukhov,[23] reached Acre in
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June. Hearing of Ali's death, Kozhukhov agreed to a "treaty of friendship" with Zahir.[24]
Second occupation
Kozhukhov appeared with his squadron of at least 222 guns off Beirut's coast on July 6, carrying a
force of 1,200 Albanian mercenaries and mobile artillery units. Zahir had already negotiated an
alliance with Shihab, when the latter was denied assistance by the Pasha of Damascus against
Jazzar. During the month-long negotiations that followed, the Druze emir managed to persuade
Kozhukhov, through Zahir and his uncle Amir Musa Mansur, to deliver Beirut to him. Shihab was
to pay a tribute of 300,000 qirsh and place the town under Russian protection. On his part,
Kozhukhov promised that his troops would not pillage the town as the Russian occupiers of 1772
had. Both sides agreed that the Russians would hold Mansur as a hostage, pending full payment by
Shihab.[25]
Order of battle
By the time it appeared before Beirut, Kozhukhov's squadron consisted of the following ships:[26]
A bombardment began on August 2 and lasted the entire day, Second bombardment of
destroying the port area and its towers.[27] The noise was so Beirut
loud it could be heard in Sidon, about 25 miles (40 km) away,
according to the city's French consul. Arabic sources said that Date 2 August 1773 – 10
it could even be heard in Damascus.[28] Much of Beirut was October 1773
destroyed, but Jazzar refused to surrender. Kozhukhov ordered Location Beirut
the landing of troops and artillery units for a ground assault.
Result Occupation of the town
The walls were breached in several places but Shihab would
not commit his forces to storming the town, citing the until late January or
agreement which gave Kozhukhov the task of delivering the early February 1774
town to the Druze in exchange for payment. Kozhukhov chose Belligerents
to maintain the naval and land blockade, cutting off the town
Imperial Jazzar's garrison
from its food supply.[29] Shihab and Zahir's troops routed an
Ottoman relief army commanded by the Pasha of Tripoli which Russian Navy
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The Albanians occupied Beirut until late January or early February 1774,[32] though it remains
unclear whether they received the balance of the tribute due.[n 4] According to French consular
reports from Sidon, the occupiers kept the Russian flag raised over Beirut, along with a large
portrait of Catherine the Great over the town's main gate, to which travellers were forced to pay
their respects.[29]
In addition to being the first time an Arab city came under Russian rule, the events also marked the
first time that Beirut had not been under Ottoman control since the Ottoman conquest of the
region over two and a half centuries earlier.[35] "Place des Canons" ("Cannons Square") became the
common name for today's Martyrs' Square in Beirut's Central District in 1773. This name remained
in use, though unofficially, until the 1950s. It was a reference to the large artillery pieces that the
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Russians stationed in the plaza, which was then an empty area known as the Bourj, east of the
walled town.[36]
The importance of this short-lived occupation remains a subject of debate among the relatively few
historians and scholars who have analysed it. In his 1952 evaluation of the events, William Persen
played down the occupation, describing it simply as a "new force of Western penetration in the
Middle East."[35] Soviet scholars like P. Perminov, on the other hand, described it as an early
manifestation of modern Cold War era assistance by the Soviet Union to national liberation
movements in Third World nations.[35]
Notes
1. Çeşme is sometimes spelled "Chesma" or "Chesme".
2. By the time Yaqub reached Paros, Orlov had been gone for four days on a mission to Livorno.
Spiridov, who had been in charge there, told Ali's envoy that he was not at liberty to form an
alliance. Yaqub then sailed to Livorno, where he met Orlov, after which he travelled all the way
to Saint Petersburg to pass the message to Catherine herself.[12]
3. According to Lusignan, a certain Amir Mahamut was appointed by the Greek captain Anton
Psaro, as governor of Beirut, in response to calls by members of the local Greek Orthodox
community for greater protection in the face of their Druze overlords. Lusignan, however, also
designates April as the month in which the events take place, contradicting other accounts of
this occupation.[17]
4. Some Arab chroniclers, such as Tannus al-Shidyaq, wrote that the Russians were fully repaid.
On the other hand, Paul Masson, author of Histoire du commerce français dans le Levant au
XVIIIe siècle, wrote that "100 purses" were never paid.[29]
References
1. Persen 1955, p. 276.
2. Sicker 2001, pp. 69–70.
3. Gallant 2015, p. 18.
4. Persen 1955, pp. 277–278; Smilianskaya, Velizhev & Smilianskaya 2011, pp. 346–347
5. Anderson 1952, p. 278.
6. Anderson 1952, p. 282; Gallant 2015, pp. 18–19.
7. Persen 1955, p. 276; Anderson 1952, p. 291.
8. Smilianskaya, Velizhev & Smilianskaya 2011, pp. 333–334.
9. Smilianskaya, Velizhev & Smilianskaya 2011, pp. 334–336.
10. du Quenoy 2014, pp. 131–132; Persen 1955, p. 278.
11. Persen 1955, p. 279.
12. du Quenoy 2014, p. 132.
13. du Quenoy 2014, p. 133.
14. Persen 1955, pp. 279–280; Anderson 1952, p. 298.
15. du Quenoy 2014, pp. 133–134; Persen 1955, p. 280.
16. du Quenoy 2014, pp. 133–134; Anderson 1952, p. 298.
17. Persen 1955, p. 280.
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Sources
!"Anderson, R. C. (1952). Naval Wars in the !"Mariti, Giovanni (1774). Istoria della guerra
Levant 1559–1853 (https://hdl.handle.net/20 accesa nella Soría l'anno 1771: Dalle armi di
27/mdp.39015005292860). Princeton: Aly-Bey dell' Egitto e continovazione del
Princeton University Press. successo a detto Aly-Bey fino a quest' anno
OCLC 1015099422 (https://www.worldcat.or 1772, Volume 2 (https://books.google.com/b
g/oclc/1015099422). ooks?id=P-9AAAAAcAAJ) [History of the
!"Gallant, Thomas W. (2015). The Edinburgh war in Syria in the year 1771: From the arms
History of the Greeks, 1768 to 1913: The of Aly-Bey of Egypt and the further
Long Nineteenth Century. Edinburgh successes of the aforementioned Aly-Bey to
University Press. ISBN 9780748636051. the present year of 1772, Volume 2].
Stamperia Allegrini, Pisoni, e Comp.
!"Harris, William; Harris, William W. (2014).
Lebanon: A History, 600–2011. Oxford !"Persen, William (1955). "The Russian
University Press. ISBN 9780190217839. occupations of Beirut, 1772–74". Journal of
the Royal Central Asian Society. 42 (3–4):
!"Khalaf, Samir (2013). Heart of Beirut: 275–286. doi:10.1080/03068375508731555
Reclaiming the Bourj. Saqi. (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0306837550873
ISBN 9780863565908. 1555).
!"Philipp, Thomas (2001). Acre: The Rise and
Fall of a Palestinian City, 1730–1831.
Columbia University Press.
ISBN 9780231123273.
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!"du Quenoy, Paul (2014). "Arabs under !"Smilianskaya, Irina; Velizhev, Michael;
Tsarist Rule: The Russian Occupation of Smilianskaya, Elena (2011). Россия в
Beirut, 1773–1774". Russian History. 41 (2): Средиземноморье. Архипелагская
128–141. doi:10.1163/18763316-04102002 экспедиция Екатерины Великой [Russia
(https://doi.org/10.1163%2F18763316-0410 in the Mediterranean. The Archipelago
2002). expedition of Catherine the Great] (in
!"Sicker, Martin (2001). The Islamic World in Russian). Moscow: Indrik.
Decline: From the Treaty of Karlowitz to the ISBN 978-5-91674-129-2.
Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire. !"Solov'ev, Sergeĭ M. (1991). The Rule of
Greenwood Publishing Group. Catherine the Great: War, Diplomacy and
ISBN 9780275968915. Domestic Affairs, 1772–1774. Academic
International Press. ISBN 9780875691220.
Further reading
!"Michael F., Davie; Frumin, Mitia (2007). "Late 18th century Russian Navy maps and the first 3D
visualization of the walled city of Beirut" (http://www.e-perimetron.org/vol_2_2/davie_frumin.pd
f) (PDF). E-Perimetron. 2 (2): 52–65.
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