President of The United States

President of the United States - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States
President of the United States

The president of the United States (POTUS)[A] is the
President of the
head of state and head of government of the United States of
America. The president directs the executive branch of the
United States of America
federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the
United States Armed Forces.
The power of the presidency has grown substantially[11] since

the first president, George Washington, took office in 1789.[6]
While presidential power has ebbed and flowed over time, the Presidential seal
presidency has played an increasingly strong role in American
political life since the beginning of the 20th century, with a
notable expansion during the presidency of Franklin D.
Roosevelt. In contemporary times, the president is also looked
upon as one of the world's most powerful political figures as
the leader of the only remaining global superpower.[12][13] Presidential flag
[14][15] As the leader of the nation with the largest economy by
nominal GDP, the president possesses significant domestic and
international hard and soft power.
Article II of the Constitution establishes the executive branch

of the federal government and vests the executive power in the
president. The power includes the execution and enforcement
of federal law and the responsibility to appoint federal
executive, diplomatic, regulatory, and judicial officers. Based
on constitutional provisions empowering the president to
appoint and receive ambassadors and conclude treaties with
foreign powers, and on subsequent laws enacted by Congress,
the modern presidency has primary responsibility for
conducting U.S. foreign policy. The role includes responsibility
for directing the world's most expensive military, which has
the second largest nuclear arsenal.
Incumbent
The president also plays a leading role in federal legislation Joe Biden
and domestic policymaking. As part of the system of checks since January 20, 2021
and balances, Article I, Section 7 of the Constitution gives the
Executive branch of the U.S.
president the power to sign or veto federal legislation. Since
modern presidents are also typically viewed as the leaders of government
their political parties, major policymaking is significantly Executive Office of the President
shaped by the outcome of presidential elections, with
Style Mr. President[1][2]
presidents taking an active role in promoting their policy
priorities to members of Congress who are often electorally (informal)
dependent on the president.[16] In recent decades, presidents The Honorable[3]
have also made increasing use of executive orders, agency (formal)
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President of the United States - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States
regulations, and judicial appointments to shape domestic His Excellency[4][5]

policy. (diplomatic)
The president is elected indirectly through the Electoral Type Head of state
College to a four-year term, along with the vice president. Head of
Under the Twenty-second Amendment, ratified in 1951, no government
person who has been elected to two presidential terms may be
elected to a third. In addition, nine vice presidents have Abbreviation POTUS
become president by virtue of a president's intra-term death or Member of Cabinet
resignation.[B] In all, 45 individuals have served 46
Domestic Policy
presidencies spanning 58 full four-year terms.[C]
Council
Joe Biden is the 46th and current president of the United National Economic
States, having assumed office on January 20, 2021. Council
National Security
Council
Contents Residence White House
History and development Seat Washington, D.C.
Origins Appointer Electoral College or
1789–1933 via succession
Imperial Presidency
from vice
Critics of presidency's evolution
presidency
Legislative powers Term length Four years,
Signing and vetoing bills
renewable once
Setting the agenda
Promulgating regulations Constituting Constitution of the
Convening and adjourning Congress instrument United States
Executive powers Formation March 4, 1789[6]

[7][8]
Administrative powers
Foreign affairs First holder George
Commander-in-chief Washington[9]
Juridical powers and privileges Salary 400,000 United
Leadership roles States dollars per
Head of state year
Head of party
Website www.whitehouse
Global leader
.gov (https://www.w
Selection process hitehouse.gov/)
Eligibility
Campaigns and nomination
Election
Inauguration
Incumbency
Term limit
Vacancies and succession
Declarations of inability
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Removal
Circumvention of authority
Compensation
Residence
Travel
Protection
Post-presidency
Activities
Pension and other benefits
Presidential libraries
Political affiliation
Timeline of presidents
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
Historiography and memory
Primary sources
External links
History and development
Origins
In July 1776, during the American Revolutionary War, the Thirteen Colonies, acting jointly through
the Second Continental Congress, declared themselves to be 13 independent sovereign states, no
longer under British rule.[18] Recognizing the necessity of closely coordinating their efforts against
the British,[19] the Continental Congress simultaneously began the process of drafting a
constitution that would bind the states together. There were long debates on a number of issues,
including representation and voting, and the exact powers to be given the central government.[20]
Congress finished work on the Articles of Confederation to establish a perpetual union between the
states in November 1777 and sent it to the states for ratification.[18]
Under the Articles, which took effect on March 1, 1781, the Congress of the Confederation was a
central political authority without any legislative power. It could make its own resolutions,
determinations, and regulations, but not any laws, and could not impose any taxes or enforce local
commercial regulations upon its citizens.[19] This institutional design reflected how Americans
believed the deposed British system of Crown and Parliament ought to have functioned with
respect to the royal dominion: a superintending body for matters that concerned the entire
empire.[19] The states were out from under any monarchy and assigned some formerly royal
prerogatives (e.g., making war, receiving ambassadors, etc.) to Congress; the remaining
prerogatives were lodged within their own respective state governments. The members of Congress
elected a president of the United States in Congress Assembled to preside over its deliberation as a
neutral discussion moderator. Unrelated to and quite dissimilar from the later office of president of
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the United States, it was a largely ceremonial position without much influence.[21]
In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies. With peace at
hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs.[18] By 1786, Americans found their
continental borders besieged and weak and their respective economies in crises as neighboring
states agitated trade rivalries with one another. They witnessed their hard currency pouring into
foreign markets to pay for imports, their Mediterranean commerce preyed upon by North African
pirates, and their foreign-financed Revolutionary War debts unpaid and accruing interest.[18] Civil
and political unrest loomed. Events such as the Newburgh Conspiracy and Shays' Rebellion
demonstrated that the Articles of Confederation were not working.
Following the successful resolution of commercial and fishing disputes between Virginia and
Maryland at the Mount Vernon Conference in 1785, Virginia called for a trade conference between
all the states, set for September 1786 in Annapolis, Maryland, with an aim toward resolving
further-reaching interstate commercial antagonisms. When the convention failed for lack of
attendance due to suspicions among most of the other states, Alexander Hamilton led the
Annapolis delegates in a call for a convention to offer revisions to the Articles, to be held the next
spring in Philadelphia. Prospects for the next convention appeared bleak until James Madison and
Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washington's attendance to Philadelphia as a
delegate for Virginia.[18][22]
When the Constitutional Convention convened in May 1787, the 12 state delegations in attendance
(Rhode Island did not send delegates) brought with them an accumulated experience over a
diverse set of institutional arrangements between legislative and executive branches from within
their respective state governments. Most states maintained a weak executive without veto or
appointment powers, elected annually by the legislature to a single term only, sharing power with
an executive council, and countered by a strong legislature.[18] New York offered the greatest
exception, having a strong, unitary governor with veto and appointment power elected to a three-
year term, and eligible for reelection to an indefinite number of terms thereafter.[18] It was through
the closed-door negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U.S. Constitution
emerged.
1789–1933
As the nation's first president, George Washington established many norms that would come to
define the office.[23][24] His decision to retire after two terms helped address fears that the nation
would devolve into monarchy,[25] and established a precedent that would not be broken until 1940
and would eventually be made permanent by the Twenty-Second Amendment. By the end of his
presidency, political parties had developed,[26] with John Adams defeating Thomas Jefferson in
1796, the first truly contested presidential election.[27] After Jefferson defeated Adams in 1800, he
and his fellow Virginians James Madison and James Monroe would each serve two terms,
eventually dominating the nation's politics during the Era of Good Feelings until Adams' son John
Quincy Adams won election in 1824 after the Democratic-Republican Party split.
The election of Andrew Jackson in 1828 was a significant milestone, as Jackson was not part of the
Virginia and Massachusetts elite that had held the presidency for its first 40 years.[28] Jacksonian
democracy sought to strengthen the presidency at the expense of Congress, while broadening
public participation as the nation rapidly expanded westward. However, his successor, Martin Van
Buren, became unpopular after the Panic of 1837,[29] and the death of William Henry Harrison and
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subsequent poor relations between John Tyler and Congress led to

further weakening of the office.[30] Including Van Buren, in the 24
years between 1837 and 1861, six presidential terms would be
filled by eight different men, with none serving two terms.[31] The
Senate played an important role during this period, with the Great
Triumvirate of Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John C. Calhoun
playing key roles in shaping national policy in the 1830s and
1840s until debates over slavery began pulling the nation apart in
the 1850s.[32][33]
Abraham Lincoln's leadership during the Civil War has led

historians to regard him as one of the nation's greatest
presidents.[D] The circumstances of the war and Republican
domination of Congress made the office very powerful,[34][35] and George Washington, the first
Lincoln's re-election in 1864 was the first time a president had president of the United States
been re-elected since Jackson in 1832. After Lincoln's
assassination, his successor Andrew Johnson lost all political
support[36] and was nearly removed from office,[37] with Congress remaining powerful during the
two-term presidency of Civil War general Ulysses S. Grant. After the end of Reconstruction, Grover
Cleveland would eventually become the first Democratic president elected since before the war,
running in three consecutive elections (1884, 1888, 1892) and winning twice. In 1900, William
McKinley became the first incumbent to win re-election since Grant in 1872.
After McKinley's assassination, Theodore Roosevelt became a dominant figure in American

politics.[38] Historians believe Roosevelt permanently changed the political system by
strengthening the presidency,[39] with some key accomplishments including breaking up trusts,
conservationism, labor reforms, making personal character as important as the issues, and hand-
picking his successor, William Howard Taft. The following decade, Woodrow Wilson led the nation
to victory during World War I, although Wilson's proposal for the League of Nations was rejected
by the Senate.[40] Warren Harding, while popular in office, would see his legacy tarnished by
scandals, especially Teapot Dome,[41] and Herbert Hoover quickly became very unpopular after
failing to alleviate the Great Depression.[42]
Imperial Presidency
The ascendancy of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933 led further

toward what historians now describe as the Imperial
Presidency.[43] Backed by enormous Democratic majorities in
Congress and public support for major change, Roosevelt's New
Deal dramatically increased the size and scope of the federal
government, including more executive agencies.[44]: 211–12 The
traditionally small presidential staff was greatly expanded, with
the Executive Office of the President being created in 1939,
none of whom require Senate confirmation.[44]: 229–231
President Franklin D. Roosevelt
Roosevelt's unprecedented re-election to a third and fourth
delivers a radio address, 1933.
term, the victory of the United States in World War II, and the
nation's growing economy all helped established the office as a
position of global leadership.[44]: 269 His successors, Harry Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower,
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each served two terms as the Cold War led the presidency to be viewed as the "leader of the free
world,"[45] while John F. Kennedy was a youthful and popular leader who benefitted from the rise
of television in the 1960s.[46][47]
After Lyndon B. Johnson lost popular support due to the Vietnam War and Richard Nixon's
presidency collapsed in the Watergate scandal, Congress enacted a series of reforms intended to
reassert itself.[48][49] These included the War Powers Resolution, enacted over Nixon's veto in
1973,[50][51] and the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 that sought to
strengthen congressional fiscal powers.[52] By 1976, Gerald Ford conceded that "the historic
pendulum" had swung toward Congress, raising the possibility of a "disruptive" erosion of his
ability to govern.[53] Ford failed to win election to a full term and his successor, Jimmy Carter,
failed to win re-election. Ronald Reagan, who had been an actor before beginning his political
career, used his talent as a communicator to help re-shape the American agenda away from New
Deal policies toward more conservative ideology.[54][55]
With the Cold War ending and the United States becoming the world's undisputed leading
power,[56] Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama each served two terms as president.
Meanwhile, Congress and the nation gradually became more politically polarized, especially
following the 1994 mid-term elections that saw Republicans control the House for the first time in
40 years, and the rise of routine filibusters in the Senate in recent decades.[57] Recent presidents
have thus increasingly focused on executive orders, agency regulations, and judicial appointments
to implement major policies, at the expense of legislation and congressional power.[58] Presidential
elections in the 21st century have reflected this continuing polarization, with no candidate except
Obama in 2008 winning by more than five percent of the popular vote and two — George W. Bush
and Donald Trump — winning in the Electoral College while losing the popular vote.[E] Both
Clinton and Trump were impeached by a House controlled by the opposition party, but the
impeachments did not appear to have long-term effects on their political standing.[59][60]
Critics of presidency's evolution
The nation's Founding Fathers expected the Congress—which was the first branch of government
described in the Constitution—to be the dominant branch of government; they did not expect a
strong executive department.[61] However, presidential power has shifted over time, which has
resulted in claims that the modern presidency has become too powerful,[62][63] unchecked,
unbalanced,[64] and "monarchist" in nature.[65] In 2008 Professor Dana D. Nelson expressed belief
that presidents over the previous thirty years worked towards "undivided presidential control of
the executive branch and its agencies".[66] She criticized proponents of the Unitary executive
theory for expanding "the many existing uncheckable executive powers—such as executive orders,
decrees, memorandums, proclamations, national security directives and legislative signing
statements—that already allow presidents to enact a good deal of foreign and domestic policy
without aid, interference or consent from Congress".[66] Bill Wilson, board member of Americans
for Limited Government, opined that the expanded presidency was "the greatest threat ever to
individual freedom and democratic rule".[67]
Legislative powers
Article I, Section 1 of the Constitution vests all lawmaking power in Congress's hands, and Article 1,
Section 6, Clause 2 prevents the president (and all other executive branch officers) from
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simultaneously being a member of Congress. Nevertheless, the modern presidency exerts

significant power over legislation, both due to constitutional provisions and historical
developments over time.
Signing and vetoing bills
The president's most significant legislative power derives from

the Presentment Clause, which gives the president the power to
veto any bill passed by Congress. While Congress can override a
presidential veto, it requires a two-thirds vote of both houses,
which is usually very difficult to achieve except for widely
supported bipartisan legislation. The framers of the
Constitution feared that Congress would seek to increase its
power and enable a "tyranny of the majority," so giving the
President Lyndon B. Johnson signs
indirectly elected president a veto was viewed as an important the 1964 Civil Rights Act as Martin
check on the legislative power. While George Washington Luther King Jr. and others look on.
believed the veto should only be used in cases where a bill was
unconstitutional, it is now routinely used in cases where
presidents have policy disagreements with a bill. The veto – or threat of a veto – has thus evolved
to make the modern presidency a central part of the American legislative process.
Specifically, under the Presentment Clause, once a bill has been presented by Congress, the
president has three options:
1. Sign the legislation within ten days, excluding Sundays—the bill becomes law.
2. Veto the legislation within the above timeframe and return it to the house of Congress from
which it originated, expressing any objections—the bill does not become law, unless both
houses of Congress vote to override the veto by a two-thirds vote.
3. Take no action on the legislation within the above timeframe—the bill becomes law, as if the
president had signed it, unless Congress is adjourned at the time, in which case it does not
become law (a pocket veto).
In 1996, Congress attempted to enhance the president's veto power with the Line Item Veto Act.
The legislation empowered the president to sign any spending bill into law while simultaneously
striking certain spending items within the bill, particularly any new spending, any amount of
discretionary spending, or any new limited tax benefit. Congress could then repass that particular
item. If the president then vetoed the new legislation, Congress could override the veto by its
ordinary means, a two-thirds vote in both houses. In Clinton v. City of New York, 524 U.S. 417 (htt
ps://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/524/417/) (1998), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled such a
legislative alteration of the veto power to be unconstitutional.
Setting the agenda
For most of American history, candidates for president have sought election on the basis of a
promised legislative agenda. Formally, Article II, Section 3, Clause 2 requires the president to
recommend such measures to Congress which the president deems "necessary and expedient."
This is done through the constitutionally-based State of the Union address, which usually outlines
the president's legislative proposals for the coming year, and through other formal and informal
communications with Congress.
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The president can be involved in crafting legislation by

suggesting, requesting, or even insisting that Congress enact
laws he believes are needed. Additionally, he can attempt to
shape legislation during the legislative process by exerting
influence on individual members of Congress.[68] Presidents
possess this power because the Constitution is silent about who
can write legislation, but the power is limited because only
members of Congress can introduce legislation.[69]
President Barack Obama delivers
The president or other officials of the executive branch may his 2015 State of the Union
draft legislation and then ask senators or representatives to Address, with Vice President Joe
introduce these drafts into Congress. Additionally, the Biden and Speaker of the House
president may attempt to have Congress alter proposed John Boehner.
legislation by threatening to veto that legislation unless
requested changes are made.[70]
Promulgating regulations
Many laws enacted by Congress do not address every possible detail, and either explicitly or
implicitly delegate powers of implementation to an appropriate federal agency. As the head of the
executive branch, presidents control a vast array of agencies that can issue regulations with little
oversight from Congress.
In the 20th century, critics charged that too many legislative and budgetary powers that should
have belonged to Congress had slid into the hands of presidents. One critic charged that presidents
could appoint a "virtual army of 'czars'—each wholly unaccountable to Congress yet tasked with
spearheading major policy efforts for the White House".[71] Presidents have been criticized for
making signing statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a
bill or plan to execute it.[72] This practice has been criticized by the American Bar Association as
unconstitutional.[73] Conservative commentator George Will wrote of an "increasingly swollen
executive branch" and "the eclipse of Congress".[74]
Convening and adjourning Congress
To allow the government to act quickly in case of a major domestic or international crisis arising
when Congress is not in session, the president is empowered by Article II, Section 3 of the
Constitution to call a special session of one or both houses of Congress. Since John Adams first did
so in 1797, the president has called the full Congress to convene for a special session on 27
occasions. Harry S. Truman was the most recent to do so in July 1948 (the so-called "Turnip Day
Session"). In addition, prior to ratification of the Twentieth Amendment in 1933, which brought
forward the date on which Congress convenes from December to January, newly inaugurated
presidents would routinely call the Senate to meet to confirm nominations or ratify treaties. In
practice, the power has fallen into disuse in the modern era as Congress now formally remains in
session year-round, convening pro forma sessions every three days even when ostensibly in recess.
Correspondingly, the president is authorized to adjourn Congress if the House and Senate cannot
agree on the time of adjournment; no president has ever had to exercise this power.[75][76]
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Executive powers
The president is head of the executive branch of the federal government Suffice it to say that
and is constitutionally obligated to "take care that the laws be faithfully the President is made
executed".[77] The executive branch has over four million employees, the sole repository of
including the military.[78] the executive powers
of the United States,
Administrative powers and the powers
entrusted to him as
well as the duties
Presidents make numerous federal appointments. An incoming
imposed upon him
president may make up to 6,000 upon taking office and 8,000 more
are awesome indeed.
while serving. Ambassadors, members of the Cabinet, and other
officers, are all appointed by a president with the "advice and consent"
of a majority of the Senate. When the Senate is in recess for at least ten Nixon v. General
days, the president may make recess appointments.[79] Recess Services
appointments are temporary and expire at the end of the next session Administration, 433
of the Senate. U.S. 425 (https://s
upreme.justia.co
The power of a president to fire executive officials has long been a m/cases/federal/u
contentious political issue. Generally, a president may remove s/433/425/) (1977)
executive officials purely at will.[80] However, Congress can curtail and (Rehnquist, J.,
constrain a president's authority to fire commissioners of independent dissenting)
regulatory agencies and certain inferior executive officers by statute.[81]
To manage the growing federal bureaucracy, presidents have gradually

surrounded themselves with many layers of staff, who were eventually organized into the Executive
Office of the President of the United States. Within the Executive Office, the president's innermost
layer of aides (and their assistants) are located in the White House Office.
The president also possesses the power to manage operations of the federal government by issuing
various types of directives, such as presidential proclamation and executive orders. When the
president is lawfully exercising one of the constitutionally conferred presidential responsibilities,
the scope of this power is broad.[82] Even so, these directives are subject to judicial review by U.S.
federal courts, which can find them to be unconstitutional. Moreover, Congress can overturn an
executive order via legislation (e.g., Congressional Review Act).
Foreign affairs
Article II, Section 3, Clause 4 requires the president to "receive Ambassadors." This clause, known
as the Reception Clause, has been interpreted to imply that the president possesses broad power
over matters of foreign policy,[83] and to provide support for the president's exclusive authority to
grant recognition to a foreign government.[84] The Constitution also empowers the president to
appoint United States ambassadors, and to propose and chiefly negotiate agreements between the
United States and other countries. Such agreements, upon receiving the advice and consent of the
U.S. Senate (by a two-thirds majority vote), become binding with the force of federal law.
While foreign affairs has always been a significant element of presidential responsibilities,
advances in technology since the Constitution's adoption have increased presidential power. Where
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formerly ambassadors were vested with significant power to

independently negotiate on behalf of the United States,
presidents now routinely meet directly with leaders of foreign
countries.
Commander-in-chief
One of the most important of executive powers is the

President George H. W. Bush and
president's role as commander-in-chief of the United States
Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev
Armed Forces. The power to declare war is constitutionally
sign the 1990 Chemical Weapons
vested in Congress, but the president has ultimate
Accord in the White House.
responsibility for the direction and disposition of the military.
The exact degree of authority that the Constitution grants to the
president as commander-in-chief has been the subject of much
debate throughout history, with Congress at various times
granting the president wide authority and at others attempting to
restrict that authority.[85] The framers of the Constitution took
care to limit the president's powers regarding the military;
Alexander Hamilton explained this in Federalist No. 69:
The President is to be commander-in-chief of the army

and navy of the United States. ... It would amount to
nothing more than the supreme command and
direction of the military and naval forces ... while that
[the power] of the British king extends to the
DECLARING of war and to the RAISING and
REGULATING of fleets and armies, all [of] which ... Abraham Lincoln, the 16th
would appertain to the legislature.[86] [Emphasis in president of the United States,
the original.] successfully preserved the Union
during the American Civil War.
In the modern era, pursuant to the War Powers Resolution,

Congress must authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days, although that process relies
on triggering mechanisms that have never been employed, rendering it ineffectual.[87]
Additionally, Congress provides a check to presidential military power through its control over
military spending and regulation. Presidents have historically initiated the process for going to
war,[88][89] but critics have charged that there have been several conflicts in which presidents did
not get official declarations, including Theodore Roosevelt's military move into Panama in
1903,[88] the Korean War,[88] the Vietnam War,[88] and the invasions of Grenada in 1983[90] and
Panama in 1989.[91]
The amount of military detail handled personally by the president in wartime has varied
greatly.[92] George Washington, the first U.S. president, firmly established military subordination
under civilian authority. In 1794, Washington used his constitutional powers to assemble 12,000
militia to quell the Whiskey Rebellion—a conflict in western Pennsylvania involving armed farmers
and distillers who refused to pay an excise tax on spirits. According to historian Joseph Ellis, this
was the "first and only time a sitting American president led troops in the field", though James
Madison briefly took control of artillery units in defense of Washington, D.C., during the War of
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1812.[93] Abraham Lincoln was deeply involved in overall strategy and in day-to-day operations
during the American Civil War, 1861–1865; historians have given Lincoln high praise for his
strategic sense and his ability to select and encourage commanders such as Ulysses S. Grant.[94]
The present-day operational command of the Armed Forces is delegated to the Department of
Defense and is normally exercised through the secretary of defense. The chairman of the Joint
Chiefs of Staff and the Combatant Commands assist with the operation as outlined in the
presidentially approved Unified Command Plan (UCP).[95][96][97]
Juridical powers and privileges
The president has the power to nominate federal judges,

including members of the United States courts of appeals and
the Supreme Court of the United States. However, these
nominations require Senate confirmation before they may take
office. Securing Senate approval can provide a major obstacle
for presidents who wish to orient the federal judiciary toward a
particular ideological stance. When nominating judges to U.S.
district courts, presidents often respect the long-standing
President Joe Biden with his
tradition of senatorial courtesy. Presidents may also grant Supreme Court appointee Justice
pardons and reprieves. Gerald Ford pardoned Richard Nixon a Brown Jackson, Vice President
month after taking office. Presidents often grant pardons Harris in background, 2022
shortly before leaving office, like when Bill Clinton pardoned
Patty Hearst on his last day in office; this is often controversial.
[98][99][100]
Two doctrines concerning executive power have developed that enable the president to exercise
executive power with a degree of autonomy. The first is executive privilege, which allows the
president to withhold from disclosure any communications made directly to the president in the
performance of executive duties. George Washington first claimed the privilege when Congress
requested to see Chief Justice John Jay's notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation with Great
Britain. While not enshrined in the Constitution or any other law, Washington's action created the
precedent for the privilege. When Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning
over subpoenaed evidence to Congress during the Watergate scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in
United States v. Nixon, 418 U.S. 683 (https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/418/683/)
(1974), that executive privilege did not apply in cases where a president was attempting to avoid
criminal prosecution. When Bill Clinton attempted to use executive privilege regarding the
Lewinsky scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in Clinton v. Jones, 520 U.S. 681 (https://supreme.just
ia.com/cases/federal/us/520/681/) (1997), that the privilege also could not be used in civil suits.
These cases established the legal precedent that executive privilege is valid, although the exact
extent of the privilege has yet to be clearly defined. Additionally, federal courts have allowed this
privilege to radiate outward and protect other executive branch employees, but have weakened that
protection for those executive branch communications that do not involve the president.[101]
The state secrets privilege allows the president and the executive branch to withhold information
or documents from discovery in legal proceedings if such release would harm national security.
Precedent for the privilege arose early in the 19th century when Thomas Jefferson refused to
release military documents in the treason trial of Aaron Burr and again in Totten v. United States
92 U.S. 105 (https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/92/105/) (1876), when the Supreme
Court dismissed a case brought by a former Union spy.[102] However, the privilege was not
11 of 42 31/12/2022 23:37
formally recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court until United States v. Reynolds 345 U.S. 1 (https://
supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/345/1/) (1953), where it was held to be a common law
evidentiary privilege.[103] Before the September 11 attacks, use of the privilege had been rare, but
increasing in frequency.[104] Since 2001, the government has asserted the privilege in more cases
and at earlier stages of the litigation, thus in some instances causing dismissal of the suits before
reaching the merits of the claims, as in the Ninth Circuit's ruling in Mohamed v. Jeppesen
Dataplan, Inc.[103][105][106] Critics of the privilege claim its use has become a tool for the
government to cover up illegal or embarrassing government actions.[107][108]
The degree to which the president personally has absolute immunity from court cases is contested
and has been the subject of several Supreme Court decisions. Nixon v. Fitzgerald (1982) dismissed
a civil lawsuit against by-then former president Richard Nixon based on his official actions. Clinton
v. Jones (1997) decided that a president has no immunity against civil suits for actions taken before
becoming president, and ruled that a sexual harassment suit could proceed without delay, even
against a sitting president. The 2019 Mueller report on Russian interference in the 2016
presidential election detailed evidence of possible obstruction of justice, but investigators declined
to refer Donald Trump for prosecution based on a United States Department of Justice policy
against indicting an incumbent president. The report noted that impeachment by Congress was
available as a remedy. As of October 2019, a case was pending in the federal courts regarding
access to personal tax returns in a criminal case brought against Donald Trump by the New York
County District Attorney alleging violations of New York state law.[109]
Leadership roles
Head of state
As head of state, the president represents the United States government to its own people, and
represents the nation to the rest of the world. For example, during a state visit by a foreign head of
state, the president typically hosts a State Arrival Ceremony held on the South Lawn, a custom was
begun by John F. Kennedy in 1961.[110] This is followed by a state dinner given by the president
which is held in the State Dining Room later in the evening.[111]
As a national leader, the president also fulfills many less formal

ceremonial duties. For example, William Howard Taft started
the tradition of throwing out the ceremonial first pitch in 1910
at Griffith Stadium, Washington, D.C., on the Washington
Senators's Opening Day. Every president since Taft, except for
Jimmy Carter, threw out at least one ceremonial first ball or
pitch for Opening Day, the All-Star Game, or the World Series,
usually with much fanfare.[112] Every president since Theodore
Roosevelt has served as honorary president of the Boy Scouts of President Ronald Reagan reviews
America.[113] honor guards during a state visit to
China, 1984.
Other presidential traditions are associated with American
holidays. Rutherford B. Hayes began in 1878 the first White
House egg rolling for local children.[114] Beginning in 1947, during the Harry S. Truman
administration, every Thanksgiving the president is presented with a live domestic turkey during
the annual National Thanksgiving Turkey Presentation held at the White House. Since 1989, when
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the custom of "pardoning" the turkey was formalized by George

H. W. Bush, the turkey has been taken to a farm where it will
live out the rest of its natural life.[115]
Presidential traditions also involve the president's role as head

of government. Many outgoing presidents since James
Buchanan traditionally give advice to their successor during the
presidential transition.[116] Ronald Reagan and his successors
have also left a private message on the desk of the Oval Office
President Woodrow Wilson throws
on Inauguration Day for the incoming president.[117]
out the ceremonial first ball on
The modern presidency holds the president as one of the Opening Day, 1916.
nation's premier celebrities. Some argue that images of the
presidency have a tendency to be manipulated by
administration public relations officials as well as by presidents themselves. One critic described
the presidency as "propagandized leadership" which has a "mesmerizing power surrounding the
office".[118] Administration public relations managers staged carefully crafted photo-ops of smiling
presidents with smiling crowds for television cameras.[119] One critic wrote the image of John F.
Kennedy was described as carefully framed "in rich detail" which "drew on the power of myth"
regarding the incident of PT 109[120] and wrote that Kennedy understood how to use images to
further his presidential ambitions.[121] As a result, some political commentators have opined that
American voters have unrealistic expectations of presidents: voters expect a president to "drive the
economy, vanquish enemies, lead the free world, comfort tornado victims, heal the national soul
and protect borrowers from hidden credit-card fees".[122]
Head of party
The president is typically considered to be the head of their political party. Since the entire House
of Representatives and at least one-third of the Senate is elected simultaneously with the president,
candidates from a political party inevitably have their electoral success intertwined with the
performance of the party's presidential candidate. The coattail effect, or lack thereof, will also often
impact a party's candidates at state and local levels of government as well. However, there are often
tensions between a president and others in the party, with presidents who lose significant support
from their party's caucus in Congress generally viewed to be weaker and less effective.
Global leader
With the rise of the United States as a superpower in the 20th century, and the United States
having the world's largest economy into the 21st century, the president is typically viewed as a
global leader, and at times the world's most powerful political figure. The position of the United
States as the leading member of NATO, and the country's strong relationships with other wealthy
or democratic nations like those comprising the European Union, have led to the moniker that the
president is the "leader of the free world."
Selection process
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Eligibility
Article II, Section 1, Clause 5 of the Constitution sets three qualifications for holding the
presidency. To serve as president, one must:
▪ be a natural-born citizen of the United States;

▪ be at least 35 years old;
▪ be a resident in the United States for at least 14 years.[123]
A person who meets the above qualifications would, however, still be disqualified from holding the
office of president under any of the following conditions:
▪ Under Article I, Section 3, Clause 7, having been impeached, convicted and disqualified from
holding further public office, although there is some legal debate as to whether the
disqualification clause also includes the presidential office: the only previous persons so
punished were three federal judges.[124][125]
▪ Under Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment, no person who swore an oath to support the
Constitution, and later rebelled against the United States, is eligible to hold any office.
However, this disqualification can be lifted by a two-thirds vote of each house of Congress.[126]
There is, again, some debate as to whether the clause as written allows disqualification from
the presidential position, or whether it would first require litigation outside of Congress,
although there is precedent for use of this amendment outside of the original intended purpose
of excluding Confederates from public office after the Civil War.[127]
▪ Under the Twenty-second Amendment, no person can be elected president more than twice.
The amendment also specifies that if any eligible person serves as president or acting
president for more than two years of a term for which some other eligible person was elected
president, the former can only be elected president once.[128][129]
Campaigns and nomination
The modern presidential campaign begins before the primary

elections, which the two major political parties use to clear the
field of candidates before their national nominating
conventions, where the most successful candidate is made the
party's presidential nominee. Typically, the party's presidential
candidate chooses a vice presidential nominee, and this choice
is rubber-stamped by the convention. The most common
previous profession of presidents is lawyer.[130]
President Jimmy Carter (left)
Nominees participate in nationally televised debates, and while debates Republican nominee
the debates are usually restricted to the Democratic and Ronald Reagan on October 28,
Republican nominees, third party candidates may be invited, 1980.
such as Ross Perot in the 1992 debates. Nominees campaign
across the country to explain their views, convince voters and
solicit contributions. Much of the modern electoral process is concerned with winning swing states
through frequent visits and mass media advertising drives.
Election
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The president is elected indirectly by the voters of

each state and the District of Columbia through the
Electoral College, a body of electors formed every
four years for the sole purpose of electing the
president and vice president to concurrent four-year
terms. As prescribed by Article II, Section 1, Clause 2,
each state is entitled to a number of electors equal to
the size of its total delegation in both houses of
Congress. Additionally, the Twenty-third
Amendment provides that the District of Columbia is
entitled to the number it would have if it were a state, Map of the United States showing the number of
but in no case more than that of the least populous electoral votes allocated following the 2010
state.[131] Currently, all states and the District of census to each state and the District of
Columbia select their electors based on a popular Columbia for the 2012, 2016 and 2020
election.[132] In all but two states, the party whose presidential elections; it also notes that Maine
presidential–vice presidential ticket receives a and Nebraska distribute electors by way of the
plurality of popular votes in the state has its entire congressional district method. 270 electoral
votes are required for a majority out of 538
slate of elector nominees chosen as the state's
votes possible.
electors.[133] Maine and Nebraska deviate from this
winner-take-all practice, awarding two electors to the
statewide winner and one to the winner in each
congressional district.[134][135]
On the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December, about six weeks after the election,
the electors convene in their respective state capitals (and in Washington, D.C.) to vote for
president and, on a separate ballot, for vice president. They typically vote for the candidates of the
party that nominated them. While there is no constitutional mandate or federal law requiring them
to do so, the District of Columbia and 32 states have laws requiring that their electors vote for the
candidates to whom they are pledged.[136][137] The constitutionality of these laws was upheld in
Chiafalo v. Washington (2020).[138] Following the vote, each state then sends a certified record of
their electoral votes to Congress. The votes of the electors are opened and counted during a joint
session of Congress, held in the first week of January. If a candidate has received an absolute
majority of electoral votes for president (currently 270 of 538), that person is declared the winner.
Otherwise, the House of Representatives must meet to elect a president using a contingent election
procedure in which representatives, voting by state delegation, with each state casting a single vote,
choose between the top three electoral vote-getters for president. To win the presidency, a
Candidate must receive the votes of an absolute majority of states (currently 26 of 50).[132]
There have been two contingent presidential elections in the nation's history. A 73–73 electoral
vote tie between Thomas Jefferson and fellow Democratic-Republican Aaron Burr in the election of
1800 necessitated the first. Conducted under the original procedure established by Article II,
Section 1, Clause 3 of the Constitution, which stipulates that if two or three persons received a
majority vote and an equal vote, the House of Representatives would choose one of them for
president; the runner-up would become vice president.[139] On February 17, 1801, Jefferson was
elected president on the 36th ballot, and Burr elected vice president. Afterward, the system was
overhauled through the Twelfth Amendment in time to be used in the 1804 election.[140] A quarter-
century later, the choice for president again devolved to the House when no candidate won an
absolute majority of electoral votes (131 of 261) in the election of 1824. Under the Twelfth
Amendment, the House was required to choose a president from among the top three electoral vote
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recipients: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and William H. Crawford. Held February 9,
1825, this second and most recent contingent election resulted in John Quincy Adams being
elected president on the first ballot.[141]
Inauguration
Pursuant to the Twentieth Amendment, the four-year term of office for both the president and the
vice president begins at noon on January 20.[142] The first presidential and vice presidential terms
to begin on this date, known as Inauguration Day, were the second terms of President Franklin D.
Roosevelt and Vice President John Nance Garner in 1937.[143] Previously, Inauguration Day was on
March 4. As a result of the date change, the first term (1933–37) of both men had been shortened
by 43 days.[144]
Before executing the powers of the office, a president is required to recite the presidential Oath of
Office, found in Article II, Section 1, Clause 8 of the Constitution. This is the only component in the
inauguration ceremony mandated by the Constitution:
I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of
the United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the
Constitution of the United States.[145]
Presidents have traditionally placed one hand upon a Bible while taking the oath, and have added
"So help me God" to the end of the oath.[146][147] Although the oath may be administered by any
person authorized by law to administer oaths, presidents are traditionally sworn in by the chief
justice of the United States.[145]
Incumbency
Term limit
When the first president, George Washington, announced in his Farewell Address that he was not
running for a third term, he established a "two terms then out" precedent. Precedent became
tradition after Thomas Jefferson publicly embraced the principle a decade later during his second
term, as did his two immediate successors, James Madison and James Monroe.[148] In spite of the
strong two-term tradition, Ulysses S. Grant sought nomination at the 1880 Republican National
Convention for a non-consecutive third term, but was unsuccessful.[149]
In 1940, after leading the nation through the Great Depression and focused on supporting U.S.
allied nations at war with the Axis powers, Franklin Roosevelt was elected to a third term, breaking
the long-standing precedent. Four years later, with the U.S. engaged in World War II, he was re-
elected again despite his declining physical health; he died 82 days into his fourth term on April 12,
1945.[150]
In response to the unprecedented length of Roosevelt's presidency, the Twenty-second

Amendment was adopted in 1951. The amendment bars anyone from being elected president more
than twice, or once if that person served more than two years (24 months) of another president's
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four-year term. Harry S. Truman, president when this term limit

came into force, was exempted from its limitations, and briefly
sought a second full term—to which he would have otherwise been
ineligible for election, as he had been president for more than two
years of Roosevelt's fourth term—before he withdrew from the 1952
election.[150]
Since the amendment's adoption, five presidents have served two

full terms: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton,
George W. Bush, and Barack Obama. Jimmy Carter, George H. W.
Bush, and Donald Trump each sought a second term but were
defeated. Richard Nixon was elected to a second term, but resigned
before completing it. Lyndon B. Johnson, having held the
presidency for one full term in addition to only 14 months of John
F. Kennedy's unexpired term, was eligible for a second full term in
1968, but he withdrew from the Democratic primary. Additionally, Franklin D. Roosevelt won a
Gerald Ford, who served out the last two years and five months of record four presidential
Nixon's second term, sought a full term but was defeated by Jimmy elections (1932, 1936, 1940
Carter in the 1976 election. and 1944), leading to the
adoption of a two-term limit.
Vacancies and succession
Under Section 1 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, ratified in

1967, the vice president becomes president upon the removal
from office, death, or resignation of the president. Deaths have
occurred a number of times, resignation has occurred only
once, and removal from office has never occurred.
The original Constitution, in Article II, Section 1, Clause 6,

stated only that the vice president assumes the "powers and
duties" of the presidency in the event of a president's removal,
President William McKinley and his
death, resignation, or inability.[151] Under this clause, there was
successor, Theodore Roosevelt
ambiguity about whether the vice president would actually
become president in the event of a vacancy, or simply act as
president,[152] potentially resulting in a special election. Upon the death of William Henry Harrison
in 1841, Vice President John Tyler declared that he had succeeded to the office itself, refusing to
accept any papers addressed to the "Acting President," and Congress ultimately accepted it. This
established a precedent for future successions, although it was not formally clarified until the
Twenty-fifth Amendment was ratified.
In the event of a double vacancy, Article II, Section 1, Clause 6 also authorizes Congress to declare
who shall become acting president in the "Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or Inability, both of
the president and vice president".[152] The Presidential Succession Act of 1947 (codified as
3 U.S.C. § 19 (https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/3/19)) provides that if both the president
and vice president have left office or are both otherwise unavailable to serve during their terms of
office, the presidential line of succession follows the order of: speaker of the House, then, if
necessary, the president pro tempore of the Senate, and then if necessary, the eligible heads of
federal executive departments who form the president's cabinet. The cabinet currently has 15
members, of which the secretary of state is first in line; the other Cabinet secretaries follow in the
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order in which their department (or the department of which their department is the successor)
was created. Those individuals who are constitutionally ineligible to be elected to the presidency
are also disqualified from assuming the powers and duties of the presidency through succession.
No statutory successor has yet been called upon to act as president.[153]
Declarations of inability
Under the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the president may temporarily transfer the presidential
powers and duties to the vice president, who then becomes acting president, by transmitting to the
speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the Senate a statement that he is unable to
discharge his duties. The president resumes his or her powers upon transmitting a second
declaration stating that he is again able. The mechanism has been used by Ronald Reagan (once),
George W. Bush (twice), and Joe Biden (once), each in anticipation of surgery.[154][155]
The Twenty-fifth Amendment also provides that the vice president, together with a majority of
certain members of the Cabinet, may transfer the presidential powers and duties to the vice
president by transmitting a written declaration, to the speaker of the House and the president pro
tempore of the Senate, to the effect that the president is unable to discharge his or her powers and
duties. If the president then declares that no such inability exist, he or she resumes the presidential
powers unless the vice president and Cabinet make a second declaration of presidential inability, in
which case Congress decides the question.
Removal
Article II, Section 4 of the Constitution allows for the removal of high federal officials, including
the president, from office for "treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors". Article I,
Section 2, Clause 5 authorizes the House of Representatives to serve as a "grand jury" with the
power to impeach said officials by a majority vote.[156] Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 authorizes the
Senate to serve as a court with the power to remove impeached officials from office, by a two-thirds
vote to convict.[157]
Three presidents have been impeached by the House of Representatives: Andrew Johnson in 1868,
Bill Clinton in 1998, and Donald Trump in 2019 and 2021; none have been convicted by the Senate.
Additionally, the House Judiciary Committee conducted an impeachment inquiry against Richard
Nixon in 1973–74 and reported three articles of impeachment to the House of Representatives for
final action; however, he resigned from office before the House voted on them.[156]
Circumvention of authority
Controversial measures have sometimes been taken short of removal to deal with perceived
recklessness on the part of the President, or with a long-term disability. In some cases, staff have
intentionally failed to deliver messages to or from the President, typically to avoid executing or
promoting the President to write certain orders. This has ranged from Richard Nixon's Chief of
Staff not transmitting orders to the Cabinet due to the President's heavy drinking, to staff removing
memos from Donald Trump's desk.[158] Decades before the Twenty-fifth Amendment, in 1919,
President Woodrow Wilson had a stroke that left him partly incapacitated. First lady Edith Wilson
kept this condition a secret from the public for a while, and controversially became the sole
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gatekeeper for access to the President (aside from his doctor), assisting him with paperwork and
deciding which information was "important" enough to share with him.
Compensation
Presidential pay history
Since 2001, the president's annual salary has been $400,000,
Year Salary in
along with a: $50,000 expense allowance; $100,000 established
Salary
2021 USD
nontaxable travel account, and $19,000 entertainment
account. The president's salary is set by Congress, and under 1789 $25,000 $568,625
Article II, Section 1, Clause 7 of the Constitution, any increase 1873 $50,000 $1,130,972
or reduction in presidential salary cannot take effect before the
1909 $75,000 $2,261,944
next presidential term of office.[161][162]
1949 $100,000 $1,138,881
1969 $200,000 $1,477,858
Residence
2001 $400,000 $612,141
The White House in Washington, D.C. is the official residence Sources:[159][160]
of the president. The site was selected by George Washington,
and the cornerstone was laid in 1792. Every president since John Adams (in 1800) has lived there.
At various times in U.S. history, it has been known as the "President's Palace", the "President's
House", and the "Executive Mansion". Theodore Roosevelt officially gave the White House its
current name in 1901.[163] The federal government pays for state dinners and other official
functions, but the president pays for personal, family, and guest dry cleaning and food.[164]
Camp David, officially titled Naval Support Facility Thurmont, a mountain-based military camp in
Frederick County, Maryland, is the president's country residence. A place of solitude and
tranquility, the site has been used extensively to host foreign dignitaries since the 1940s.[165]
President's Guest House, located next to the Eisenhower Executive Office Building at the White
House Complex and Lafayette Park, serves as the president's official guest house and as a
secondary residence for the president if needed. Four interconnected, 19th-century houses—Blair
House, Lee House, and 700 and 704 Jackson Place—with a combined floor space exceeding 70,000
square feet (6,500 m2) comprise the property.[166]
Presidential residences
White House, the official residence Camp David, the official

retreat
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Blair House, the official guest

house
Travel
The primary means of long-distance air travel for the president is one of two identical Boeing
VC-25 aircraft, which are extensively modified Boeing 747 airliners and are referred to as Air Force
One while the president is on board (although any U.S. Air Force aircraft the president is aboard is
designated as "Air Force One" for the duration of the flight). In-country trips are typically handled
with just one of the two planes, while overseas trips are handled with both, one primary and one
backup. The president also has access to smaller Air Force aircraft, most notably the Boeing C-32,
which are used when the president must travel to airports that cannot support a jumbo jet. Any
civilian aircraft the president is aboard is designated Executive One for the flight.[167][168]
For short-distance air travel, the president has access to a fleet of U.S. Marine Corps helicopters of
varying models, designated Marine One when the president is aboard any particular one in the
fleet. Flights are typically handled with as many as five helicopters all flying together and
frequently swapping positions as to disguise which helicopter the president is actually aboard to
any would-be threats.
For ground travel, the president uses the presidential state car, which is an armored limousine
designed to look like a Cadillac sedan, but built on a truck chassis.[169][170] The U.S. Secret Service
operates and maintains the fleet of several limousines. The president also has access to two
armored motorcoaches, which are primarily used for touring trips.[171]
Presidential transportation
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The presidential limousine, The presidential plane, Marine One helicopter, when
dubbed "The Beast" called Air Force One the president is aboard
when the president is on
board
Protection
The U.S. Secret Service is charged with protecting the president

and the first family. As part of their protection, presidents, first
ladies, their children and other immediate family members,
and other prominent persons and locations are assigned Secret
Service codenames.[172] The use of such names was originally
for security purposes and dates to a time when sensitive
electronic communications were not routinely encrypted;
today, the names simply serve for purposes of brevity, clarity, President Reagan surrounded by
and tradition.[173] Secret Service
Post-presidency
Activities
Some former presidents have had significant careers after

leaving office. Prominent examples include William
Howard Taft's tenure as chief justice of the United States
and Herbert Hoover's work on government
reorganization after World War II. Grover Cleveland,
whose bid for reelection failed in 1888, was elected
president again four years later in 1892. Two former
presidents served in Congress after leaving the White From left: George H. W. Bush, Barack
House: John Quincy Adams was elected to the House of Obama, George W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and
Representatives, serving there for 17 years, and Andrew Jimmy Carter. Photo taken in the Oval
Johnson returned to the Senate in 1875, though he died Office on January 7, 2009; Obama formally
soon after. Some ex-presidents were very active, took office thirteen days later.
especially in international affairs, most notably Theodore
Roosevelt;[174] Herbert Hoover;[175] Richard Nixon;[176]
and Jimmy Carter.[177][178]
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Presidents may use their predecessors as emissaries to deliver private messages to other nations or
as official representatives of the United States to state funerals and other important foreign events.
[179][180] Richard Nixon made multiple foreign trips to countries including China and Russia and
was lauded as an elder statesman.[181] Jimmy Carter has become a global human rights
campaigner, international arbiter, and election monitor, as well as a recipient of the Nobel Peace
Prize. Bill Clinton has also worked as an informal ambassador, most recently in the negotiations
that led to the release of two American journalists, Laura Ling and Euna Lee, from North Korea.
During his presidency, George W. Bush called on former Presidents Bush and Clinton to assist with
humanitarian efforts after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. President Obama
followed suit by asking Presidents Clinton and Bush to lead efforts to aid Haiti after an earthquake
devastated that country in 2010.
Clinton was active politically since his presidential term ended, working with his wife Hillary on
her 2008 and 2016 presidential bids and President Obama on his 2012 reelection campaign.
Obama was also active politically since his presidential term ended, having worked with his former
vice president Joe Biden on his 2020 election campaign. Trump has continued to make
appearances in the media and at conventions and rallies since leaving office.
Pension and other benefits
The Former Presidents Act (FPA), enacted in 1958, grants lifetime benefits to former presidents
and their widows, including a monthly pension, medical care in military facilities, health insurance,
and Secret Service protection; also provided is funding for a certain number of staff and for office
expenses. The act has been amended several times to provide increases in presidential pensions
and in the allowances for office staff. The FPA excludes any president who was removed from office
by impeachment.[182]
According to a 2008 report by the Congressional Research service:[182]
Chief executives leaving office prior to 1958 often entered retirement pursuing various
occupations and received no federal assistance. When industrialist Andrew Carnegie
announced a plan in 1912 to offer $25,000 annual pensions to former Presidents, many
Members of Congress deemed it inappropriate that such a pension would be provided
by a private corporation executive. That same year, legislation was first introduced to
create presidential pensions, but it was not enacted. In 1955, such legislation was
considered by Congress because of former President Harry S. Truman’s financial
limitations in hiring an office staff
The pension has increased numerous times with congressional approval. Retired presidents receive
a pension based on the salary of the current administration's cabinet secretaries, which was
$199,700 per year in 2012.[183] Former presidents who served in Congress may also collect
congressional pensions.[184] The act also provides former presidents with travel funds and franking
privileges.
Prior to 1997, all former presidents, their spouses, and their children until age 16 were protected by
the Secret Service until the president's death.[185][186] In 1997, Congress passed legislation limiting
Secret Service protection to no more than 10 years from the date a president leaves office.[187] On
January 10, 2013, President Obama signed legislation reinstating lifetime Secret Service protection
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for him, George W. Bush, and all subsequent presidents.[188] A first spouse who remarries is no
longer eligible for Secret Service protection.[187]
There are five living former U.S. presidents: Jimmy Carter, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, Barack
Obama, and Donald Trump. The most recent death of a former president was George H. W. Bush
(served from 1989 to 1993), on November 30, 2018, aged 94.
Presidential libraries
Every president since Herbert Hoover has created a repository

known as a presidential library for preserving and making
available his papers, records, and other documents and
materials. Completed libraries are deeded to and maintained by
the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA); the
initial funding for building and equipping each library must
come from private, non-federal sources.[189] There are
currently thirteen presidential libraries in the NARA system. Presidents Barack Obama, George
There are also presidential libraries maintained by state W. Bush, Bill Clinton, George H.W.
governments and private foundations and Universities of Bush, and Jimmy Carter at the
Higher Education, such as: dedication of the George W. Bush
Presidential Library and Museum in
▪ the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, Dallas, 2013
which is run by the State of Illinois;
▪ the George W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum,
which is run by Southern Methodist University;
▪ the George H. W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by Texas A&M
University; and
▪ the Lyndon Baines Johnson Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by the University of
Texas at Austin.
Several former presidents have overseen the building and opening of their own presidential
libraries. Some have even made arrangements for their own burial at the site. Several presidential
libraries contain the graves of the president they document:
▪ the Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum in Independence, Missouri;

▪ the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood Home in Abilene,
Kansas;
▪ the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum in Yorba Linda, California; and
▪ the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library and Museum in Simi Valley, California.
These gravesites are open to the general public.
Political affiliation
Political parties have dominated American politics for most of the nation's history. Though the
Founding Fathers generally spurned political parties as divisive and disruptive, and their rise had
not been anticipated when the U.S. Constitution was drafted in 1787, organized political parties
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developed in the U.S. in the mid-1790s nonetheless. They evolved from political factions, which
began to appear almost immediately after the Federal government came into existence. Those who
supported the Washington administration were referred to as "pro-administration" and would
eventually form the Federalist Party, while those in opposition joined the emerging Democratic-
Republican Party.[190]
Greatly concerned about the very real capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity
holding the nation together, Washington remained unaffiliated with any political faction or party
throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never to be
affiliated with a political party.[191][192] Since Washington, every U.S. president has been affiliated
with a political party at the time of assuming office.[193][194]
The number of presidents per political party at the time they were sworn into office (arranged in
alphabetical order by last name) are:
Party # Name(s)
Chester A. Arthur, George H. W. Bush, George W. Bush, Calvin Coolidge,
Dwight D. Eisenhower, Gerald Ford, James A. Garfield, Ulysses S. Grant,
Republican 19 Warren G. Harding, Benjamin Harrison, Rutherford B. Hayes, Herbert Hoover,
Abraham Lincoln,[F] William McKinley, Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan,
Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Donald Trump
Joe Biden (incumbent), James Buchanan, Jimmy Carter, Grover Cleveland,
Bill Clinton, Andrew Jackson, Lyndon B. Johnson, John F. Kennedy, Barack Obama,
Democratic 15
Franklin Pierce, James K. Polk, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman,
Martin Van Buren, and Woodrow Wilson
Democratic-
4 John Quincy Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and James Monroe
Republican
Whig 4 Millard Fillmore, William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, and John Tyler[G]

Federalist 1 John Adams
National Union 1 Andrew Johnson[H]

None 1 George Washington
Timeline of presidents
The following timeline depicts the progression of the presidents and their political affiliation at the
time of assuming office.
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See also
▪ Outline of American politics United States
portal
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Notes Politics portal
A. The informal term POTUS originated in the Phillips Code, a

shorthand method created in 1879 by Walter P. Phillips for the rapid transmission of press
reports by telegraph.[10]
B. The nine vice presidents who succeeded to the presidency upon their predecessor's death or
resignation and served for the remainder of his term are: John Tyler (1841); Millard Fillmore
(1850); Andrew Johnson (1865); Chester A. Arthur (1881); Theodore Roosevelt (1901); Calvin
Coolidge (1923); Harry S. Truman (1945); Lyndon B. Johnson (1963); and Gerald Ford (1974).
C. Grover Cleveland served two non-consecutive terms, so he is counted twice, as both the 22nd
and 24th president.[17]
D. Nearly all scholars rank Lincoln among the nation's top three presidents, with many placing him
first. See Historical rankings of presidents of the United States for a collection of survey results.
E. See List of United States presidential elections by popular vote margin.
F. Republican Abraham Lincoln was elected for a second term as part of the National Union Party
ticket with Democrat Andrew Johnson in 1864.
G. Former Democrat John Tyler was elected vice president on the Whig Party ticket with Harrison
in 1840. Tyler's policy priorities as president soon proved to be opposed to most of the Whig
agenda, and he was expelled from the party in September 1841.
H. Democrat Andrew Johnson was elected vice president on the National Union Party ticket with
Republican Abraham Lincoln in 1864. Later, while president, Johnson tried and failed to build a
party of loyalists under the National Union banner. Near the end of his presidency, Johnson
rejoined the Democratic Party.
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452073.shtml?source=RSSattr=Politics_4452073). CBS. September 16, 2008. Archived from
the original (http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/09/16/earlyshow/main4452073.shtml?sourc
e=RSSattr=Politics_4452073) on October 6, 2008. Retrieved November 12, 2008.
174. Edmund Morris, Colonel Roosevelt (2011)
175. Gary Dean Best, The Life of Herbert Hoover: Keeper of the Torch, 1933–1964 (2013)
176. Kasey S. Pipes, After the Fall: The Remarkable Comeback of Richard Nixon (2019)
177. Douglas Brinkley. The Unfinished Presidency: Jimmy Carter's Journey Beyond the White
House (1998).
178. John Whiteclay, Chambers II (1979). "Presidents Emeritus". American Heritage. 30 (4): 16–25.
179. "Shock and Anger Flash Throughout the United States" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150906
144021/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=TE4tAAAAIBAJ&sjid=bM4FAAAAIBAJ&dq=r
eagan%20assassination%201981&pg=1392%2C4423618). Associated Press. March 31, 1981.
Archived from the original (https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=TE4tAAAAIBAJ&dq=reaga
n%20assassination%201981&pg=1392%2C4423618) on September 6, 2015. Retrieved
March 11, 2011.
180. "Four Presidents" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110512020542/http://www.reagan.utexas.edu
/archives/photographs/four.html). Reagan Presidential Library, National Archives and Records
Administration. Archived from the original (http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/photographs/
four.html) on May 12, 2011. Retrieved April 3, 2011.
181. "Biography of Richard M. Nixon" (https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/1600/presidents/richar
dnixon). whitehouse.gov. December 30, 2014 – via National Archives., The White House.
182. Stephanie Smith (March 18, 2008). "Federal Pension and Retirement Benefits" (https://fas.org/
sgp/crs/misc/98-249.pdf) (PDF). Federation of American Scientists. Congressional Research
Service, The Library of Congress. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210107170308/http
s://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/98-249.pdf) (PDF) from the original on January 7, 2021. Retrieved
November 10, 2020.
183. Schwemle, Barbara L. (October 17, 2012). "President of the United States: Compensation" (htt
ps://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS20115.pdf) (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved
January 10, 2013.
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184. "Former presidents cost U.S. taxpayers big bucks" (http://www.toledoblade.com/Politics/2007/0

1/07/Former-presidents-cost-U-S-taxpayers-big-bucks-tab-from-1977-to-2000-is-pegged-at-370
-million.html). Toledo Blade. January 7, 2007. Retrieved May 22, 2007.
186. "Obama signs bill granting lifetime Secret Service protection to former presidents and spouses"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20160823000643/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obama
-signs-bill-granting-lifetime-secret-service-protection-to-former-presidents-and-spouses/2013/0
1/10/c4474416-5b5a-11e2-b8b2-0d18a64c8dfa_story.html). The Washington Post. Associated
Press. January 10, 2013. Archived from the original (https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/o
bama-signs-bill-granting-lifetime-secret-service-protection-to-former-presidents-and-spouses/2
013/01/10/c4474416-5b5a-11e2-b8b2-0d18a64c8dfa_story.html) on August 23, 2016.
Retrieved January 10, 2013.
187. "United States Secret Service: Protection" (https://www.secretservice.gov/protection/). United
States Secret Service. Retrieved November 9, 2017.
188. "Obama signs protection bill for former presidents" (http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/201
3/jan/10/inside-politics-obama-signs-protection-bill-for-fo/?page=all). The Washington Times.
January 10, 2013. Retrieved August 14, 2013.
190. "U.S. Senate: Party Division" (https://www.senate.gov/history/partydiv.htm). U.S. Senate.
Retrieved January 2, 2017.
191. Jamison, Dennis (December 31, 2014). "George Washington's views on political parties in
America" (http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2014/dec/31/george-washingtons-views-politi
cal-parties-america/). The Washington Times. Retrieved July 1, 2016.
192. "Political Parties" (https://www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/the-first-president/political-
parties/). Mount Vernon, Virginia: Mount Vernon Ladies' Association. Retrieved March 24,
2019.
193. "The Presidents of the United States of America" (http://www.enchantedlearning.com/history/us
/pres/list.shtml). Enchanted Learning. Retrieved August 2, 2018.
194. "Political Parties of the Presidents" (https://www.presidentsusa.net/partyofpresidents.html).
Presidents USA. Retrieved August 2, 2018.
Further reading
▪ Ayton, Mel Plotting to Kill the President: Assassination Attempts from Washington to Hoover
(Potomac Books, 2017), United States
▪ Balogh, Brian and Bruce J. Schulman, eds. Recapturing the Oval Office: New Historical
Approaches to the American Presidency (Cornell University Press, 2015), 311 pp.
▪ Kernell, Samuel; Jacobson, Gary C. (1987). "Congress and the Presidency as News in the
Nineteenth Century" (http://pages.ucsd.edu/~skernell/resources/congresspresasnews.pdf)
(PDF). Journal of Politics. 49 (4): 1016–1035. doi:10.2307/2130782 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2
F2130782). JSTOR 2130782 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2130782). S2CID 154834781 (http
s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154834781).
▪ Lang, J. Stephen. The Complete Book of Presidential Trivia. Pelican Publishing. 2001.
ISBN 1-56554-877-9
▪ Graff, Henry F., ed. The Presidents: A Reference History (3rd ed. 2002) online (https://www.pre
sidentprofiles.com//), short scholarly biographies from George Washington to William Clinton.
40 of 42 31/12/2022 23:37
▪ Greenberg, David. Republic of Spin: An Inside History of the American Presidency (W. W.
Norton & Company, 2015). xx, 540 pp. bibliography (http://wp.comminfo.rutgers.edu/dgreenber
g/wp-content/uploads/sites/96/2015/11/RoS-Bibliography.pdf)
▪ Han, Lori Cox. The Presidency (ABC-CLIO, 2021). wide-ranging reference book.
▪ Han, Lori Cox, ed. Hatred of America's Presidents: Personal Attacks on the White House from
Washington to Trump (ABC-CLIO, 2018).
▪ Hopper, Jennifer Rose. "Reexamining the Nineteenth-Century Presidency and Partisan Press:
The Case of President Grant and the Whiskey Ring Scandal." Social Science History 42.1
(2018): 109–133.
▪ Leo, Leonard—Taranto, James—Bennett, William J. Presidential Leadership: Rating the Best
and the Worst in the White House. Simon and Schuster. 2004. ISBN 0-7432-5433-3
▪ Marshall, Jon. Clash: Presidents and the Press in Times of Crisis (U of Nebraska Press, 2022).
▪ Shade, William G. and Ballard Campbell, eds. American Presidential Campaigns and Elections
(2003)
▪ Sigelman, Lee; Bullock, David (1991). "Candidates, issues, horse races, and hoopla:
Presidential campaign coverage, 1888–1988" (http://blogs.cornell.edu/bigreddc/files/2013/09/S
choolsAmerican-Politics-Research-1991-Sigelman-5-32.pdf) (PDF). American Politics
Quarterly. 19 (1): 5–32. doi:10.1177/1532673x9101900101 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F153267
3x9101900101). S2CID 154283367 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154283367).
▪ Tebbel, John William, and Sarah Miles Watts. The Press and the Presidency: From George
Washington to Ronald Reagan (Oxford University Press, 1985). online review (https://www.jsto
r.org/stable/2131296)
▪ Waterman, Richard W., and Robert Wright. The image-is-everything presidency: Dilemmas in
American leadership (Routledge, 2018).
▪ Presidential Studies Quarterly (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/17415705), published by
Wiley, is a quarterly academic journal on the presidency.
Historiography and memory

▪ Greenstein, Fred I. et al. Evolution of the Modern President: A Bibliographical Survey (1977)
annotated bibliography of 2500 scholarly articles and books covering each president. online (htt
ps://archive.org/details/evolutionofmoder0000gree)
Primary sources
▪ Waldman, Michael—Stephanopoulos, George. My Fellow Americans: The Most Important
Speeches of America's Presidents, from George Washington to George W. Bush. Sourcebooks
Trade. 2003. ISBN 1-4022-0027-7.
External links
▪ White House homepage (https://whitehouse.gov/)
▪ United States Presidents Collection. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript
Library.
41 of 42 31/12/2022 23:37
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The power of the presidency has grown substantially[11] since

Article II of the Constitution establishes the executive branch

regulations, and judicial appointments to shape domestic His Excellency[4][5]

Executive powers Formation March 4, 1789[6]

History and development

subsequent poor relations between John Tyler and Congress led to

Abraham Lincoln's leadership during the Civil War has led

After McKinley's assassination, Theodore Roosevelt became a dominant figure in American

The ascendancy of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933 led further

Critics of presidency's evolution

simultaneously being a member of Congress. Nevertheless, the modern presidency exerts

Signing and vetoing bills

The president's most significant legislative power derives from

Setting the agenda

The president can be involved in crafting legislation by

Convening and adjourning Congress

To manage the growing federal bureaucracy, presidents have gradually

formerly ambassadors were vested with significant power to

One of the most important of executive powers is the

The President is to be commander-in-chief of the army

In the modern era, pursuant to the War Powers Resolution,

Juridical powers and privileges

The president has the power to nominate federal judges,

As a national leader, the president also fulfills many less formal

the custom of "pardoning" the turkey was formalized by George

Presidential traditions also involve the president's role as head

▪ be a natural-born citizen of the United States;

Campaigns and nomination

The modern presidential campaign begins before the primary

The president is elected indirectly by the voters of

In response to the unprecedented length of Roosevelt's presidency, the Twenty-second

four-year term. Harry S. Truman, president when this term limit

Since the amendment's adoption, five presidents have served two

Vacancies and succession

Under Section 1 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, ratified in

The original Constitution, in Article II, Section 1, Clause 6,

White House, the official residence Camp David, the official

Blair House, the official guest

The U.S. Secret Service is charged with protecting the president

Some former presidents have had significant careers after

Pension and other benefits

According to a 2008 report by the Congressional Research service:[182]

Every president since Herbert Hoover has created a repository

▪ the Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum in Independence, Missouri;

These gravesites are open to the general public.

Whig 4 Millard Fillmore, William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, and John Tyler[G]

National Union 1 Andrew Johnson[H]

Notes Politics portal

A. The informal term POTUS originated in the Phillips Code, a

75. Forte, David F. "Essays on Article II: Convening of Congress" (https://www.heritage.org/constitu

101. Millhiser, Ian (June 1, 2010). "Executive Privilege 101" (https://web.archive.org/web/201006092

123. "Article II. The Executive Branch, Annenberg Classroom" (https://constitutioncenter.org/interacti

152. Feerick, John. "Essays on Article II: Presidential Succession" (https://www.heritage.org/constitu

184. "Former presidents cost U.S. taxpayers big bucks" (http://www.toledoblade.com/Politics/2007/0

Historiography and memory

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=President_of_the_United_States&oldid=1129715905"

This page was last edited on 26 December 2022, at 20:02 (UTC).

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