TEAMSKILLS SCHOOL FOR CULINARY ARTS AND HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

INSTRUCTOR: Maria Fil A. Del Puerto

1.1 Mathematics in our World

(A Study of Patterns)
Module 1
Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics
1.1 Mathematics in our World
(A Study of Patterns)
Overview
 Welcome to the first module of Mathematics in the Modern World! This course begins
with an introduction to the nature of mathematics as an exploration of unseen patterns in
nature and environment, a rich language in itself governed by logic and reasoning, and an
application of inductive and deductive reasoning.
This section is composed of the following:
1.1 Mathematics in our World;
1.2 Mathematics Language and Symbols; and
1.3 Problem Solving and Reasoning

These topics will allow students to go beyond the typical understanding of mathematics as
purely a bunch of memorized formulas and duplicated mathematical computations, but as
a powerful tool used to understand better the world around us. Moreover, we will discuss
about the nature of mathematics, what it is, and how it is expressed, represented, and
used.

We will study mathematics as a language in order to read and write mathematical

texts and communicate ideas with precision and conciseness. We will also justify
statements and arguments made about mathematics and mathematical concepts using
different methods of reasoning.
Mathematics has always been perceived as a study of numbers, symbols, and rules. It is an
art of geometric shapes and patterns, a tool in decision-making and problem solving. It has
a language that differs from the ordinary speech. It is done with curiosity, with a penchant
for seeking patterns and generalities, with the desire to know the truth, with trial and error,
and without the fear of facing more questions and problems to solve.

In this module, we will focus on Lesson 1.1 - Mathematics in our World (A Study of
Patterns). The lesson is anchored by the following core idea: Mathematics is a useful way to
think about nature and the world. Our intention is to observe things, in both in nature and
the world, through pattern-seeking, understand the substantial interconnection and
relationship of the mathematics and the world, and appreciate mathematics as a discipline
full of essence and beauty.
Learning Outcomes
1. Identify patterns in nature and irregularities;
2. Articulate the importance in mathematics in one’s life;
3. Argue about mathematics, what it is, how it is expressed, represented, and used; and
4. Express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor.

Mathematics as a/an
What is MATHEMATICS?
The study of the relationships among numbers, quantities and shapes.
Enhances our critical thinking skills, reasoning, spatial thinking and creativity.
Helps organize patterns and regularities in the world.

PATTERNS AND NUMBERS IN NATURE AND THE WORLD

SYMMETRY
 In Mathematics, a meaning of symmetry defines that one shape is exactly like the
other shape when it is moved, rotated, or flipped. It states that “symmetry is a mirror
image”. When an image looks identical to the original image after the shape is being turned
or flipped, then it is called symmetry. It exists in patterns. You may have often heard of the
term ‘symmetry’ in day to day life. It is a balanced and proportionate similarity found in two
halves of an object, that is, one-half is the mirror image of the other half. And a shape that
is not symmetrical is referred to as asymmetrical. Symmetric objects are found all around
us, in nature, architecture, and art.

2. SPIRAL

Spiral is the curve in a plane. The curve start to emerge out from the fixed centre
point and moves progressively farther away as it rotates around the point.
 3. FRACTALS

A fractal is "a rough or fragmented geometric shape that can be split into parts, each
of which is (at least approximately) a reduced-size copy of the whole," a property called self-
similarity.
 4. TESSELLATIONS

A tessellation is a special type of tilling (a pattern of geometric shapes that fill a two-
dimentional space with no gaps and no overlaps) that repeats forever in all directions. They
can be composed of one or more shapes…anything goes as long as the pattern radiates in all
directions with no gaps or overlaps. You can find tessellations of all kinds in everyday
things- your bathroom tile, wallpaper, clothing, upholstery and even in paper towels.

THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

Was first discussed in Europe by Leonardo Pisano Bogollo (whose nickname is

Fibonacci). He is an Italian mathematician who discovered the sequence.
Fibonacci Day is celebrated on November 23 to honor one of the most influential
mathematicians of the middle ages.
The sequence goes like this:
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597, …
The sequence follows a fairly simple pattern: every two numbers, when added together,
equal the following number.

THE GOLDEN RATIO

- Denoted by phi (Φ) which approaches a value of 1.618034…

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FIBONACCI SEQUENCE AND GOLDEN RATIO

A B B/A=Φ
 2 3 1.5

3 5 1.6666666667

5 8 1.6

8 13 1.625

… … ….

144 233 1.61805555556

233 377 1.6180257511

… … …

PATTERNS AND REGULARITIES IN THE WORLD AS ORGANIZED BY MATHEMATICS

1. MOTION OF A PENDULUM
The massive object is affectionately referred to as the pendulum bob. When the bob is
displaced from equilibrium and then released, it begins its back and forth vibration about
its fixed equilibrium position. The motion is regular and repeating, an example of periodic
motion.

2. REFLECTION IN A PLANE MIRROR

When a ray of light strikes a mirror, it is reflected by obeying following laws of
reflection. 

1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

2. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal all lie in the same plane.
 Lesson 2 : MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS
Mathematics is the language in which God has written the universe.
-Galileo Galilei

Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:
 Discuss the language symbols, and conventions of mathematics
 Explain the nature of mathematics as a language
 Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly
 Acknowledge that mathematics is a useful language.

2.1 Characteristics of Mathematical Language

Language is the system of words, signs and symbols which people use to express
ideas, thoughts and feelings. Language consists of the words, their pronunciation and the
methods of combining them to be understood by a community. Language is a systematic
means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of conventionalized signs, sounds,
gestures or marks having understood meanings.
Every science has its own lingo and word usage. Mathematical language is the
system used to communicate mathematical ideas. The language of Mathematics is more
precise than any other language one may think of. Like other languages, it has its own
grammar, syntax, vocabulary, word order, synonyms, negations, conventions, idioms,
abbreviations, sentence structure and paragraph structure. It has certain language
features unparalleled in other languages such as representation. The language also
includes a large component of logic. The ordinary language which gradually expands to
comprise symbolism and logic leads to learning of mathematics and its useful application
to problem situations.

1. PRECISE – Able to make very fine distinction based on definition.

Ex. A triangle is different to a cirle based on definition.
2. CONCISE – Able to say things briefly because it has in it different symbols.
Ex. Twice the number eight is sixteen. – 2 x 8 = 16
3. POWERFUL – Able to express complex thoughts with relative ease.
Ex. “3 + 4” means we need to add 3 and 4 to get 7.

2.2 Mathematical Expressions and Sentences

In this section, we are going to understand the composition of a mathematical
expression and sentences. It is very important to learn these basic concepts to help you
understand more complex mathematical concepts easily. The terms that will be discussed
in this section are considered as the building blocks of mathematical concepts.

Mathematical Symbols
DIGITS

SYMBOL OF OPERATIONS

INEQUALITY

GROUPING SYMBOLS

Mathematical Expressions
 Mathematical expressions consist of terms. The term of a mathematical expressions
is separated from other terms with either plus or minus signs. A single term may contain
an expression in parentheses or other grouping symbols.
In Algebra, variables or letters are used to represent numbers. An algebraic
expression is a quantity which contains numbers and variables. The variable also called a
literal coefficient, represents the unknown and makes use of letters. The number with
the variable is the numerical coefficient. Any single number is called a constant.
In the expression, 10x + 11, the numerical coefficient of x is the number 10 while x
is the literal coefficient of x, and it means 10 times x plus 11. The number 11 is the
constant.
Example Variables Numerical Constant No. of Terms Name
Coefficients
21x x 21 - 1 monomial
5x + 12y x, y 5, 12 - 2 binomial
7v + 8 v 7 8 2 binomial
3ab – c + 2d a, b, c, d 3, 2 - 3 trinomial

Mathematical Sentence

A mathematical sentence combines two mathematical expressions using a

comparison operator. These expressions either use numbers, variables, of both the
comparison operators include equal, not equal, greater than, greater than or equal to, less
than and less than or equal to. The signs which convey equality or inequality are also called
relation symbols because they specify how two expressions are related. A mathematical
expression containing the equal sign is an equation. The two parts of an equation are called
its members. A mathematical expression containing the inequality sign is an inequality.

2.3 Basic Concepts in Mathematics

2.3.1 Sets
The concept of set is one of the most basic in mathematics. A set is a well-
defined collection of distinct objects. The objects that make up a set (also known as the
set’s element or members) can be numbers, people, letters of the alphabet, other sets, etc.
Sets are conventionally named with capital letters. There is a simple notation for sets.
Braces are usually used to specify that the objects written between them belong to a set.
An element of a set is usually denoted by a lower-case letter. The symbol ϵ denotes
membership. Thus, x ϵ A, read as x is an element of A, means that x can be found in set A.
There are two ways to describe a set, namely:

Roster/Tabular Method Rule/Descriptive Method

The elements in the given set are listed or The common characteristics of the elements
enumerated, separated by a comma, inside a is defined. This method uses set builder
pair of braces notation where x is used to represent any
element of the given set.
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } A = { x │x is a positive integer less than or
equal to 5
B = { blue, yellow, Red } B = { x │x is a primary color

Kinds of Sets

Empty/Null Set Universal Set Finite Set Infinite Set

Has no element and It is the totality of all It is a set with A set with
is denoted by ᵩ or by the elements of the countable number of uncountable number
a pair of braces with sets under elements. of elements.
no element inside. consideration.
Ex. A = { } Ex. Ex. Ex.
B=ᵩ U C = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } E = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,…}
D = { 2, 4, …. 10 } F = { …, - 3, -2, -1 }

Relationship between Sets

Joint Sets Disjoint Sets Equal Sets Equivalent sets

Joint sets have at Disjoint sets have no Equal sets have the Equivalent sets have
least one common common element. same elements. the same number of
element. elements.
Ex. Ex. Ex. Ex.
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4 } C = { 1, 3, 5, 7 } B = { 2, 4, 6, 8 } A = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }
B = { 2, 4, 6, 8 } D = { 2, 4, 6, 8 } D = { 2, 4, 6, 8 } C = { 1, 3, 5, 7 }

A and B are joint sets B and D are disjoint B and D is equal sets A and C are
since they have 2 sets since they don’t since they have the equivalent sets since
common elements ( 2 have common same elements. they have same
and 4) elements. number of elements.

Subset
A subset is a set where all of its elements can be found on a bigger set. The symbol ⊂
means “a subset of” while ⊄ means “not a subset of”. If the first set equals the second set,
then it is an improper subset. The symbol ⊆ is used to mean an improper subset.
A null set is always a subset of any given set and is considered an improper subset of
the given set. Other than the set itself and the null set, all are considered proper subsets.
The set containing all the subsets of the given set with n number of elements is called
the power set of 2” number of elements.
Set Operations
2.3.2 Relation
Let’s start by saying that a relation is simply a set or collection of ordered pairs.
Nothing really special about it. An ordered pair is written in the form (x, y), commonly
known as a point, has two components which are the x and y coordinates. The x coordinate
is also known as the abscissa while the y coordinate is named as the ordinate.

Main Ideas and Ways How to Write or Represent Relations

As long as the numbers come in pairs, then that becomes a relation. If you can write
a bunch of points (ordered pairs) then you already know how a relation looks like. For
instance, here we have a relation that has five ordered pairs. Writing this in set notation
using curly braces.

However, aside from set notation, there are other ways to write this same relation. We
can show it in a table, plot it on a Cartesian plane, and express it in using a mapping
diagram.
2.3.3 Functions
On the other hand, a function is actually a “special” kind of relation because it
follows an extract rule. Just like a relation, a function is also a set of ordered pairs;
however, every domain or x-value must be associated/ corresponded to only one range or y-
value.

Let us look at these two relations,

If we analyze the given definition of function, we can conclude that relation A is not a
function since one element in the domain, which is 5, corresponds to two values in the
range which are 9 and 3. On the other hand, relation B is a function since no element in
the domain was repeated and each of them corresponds to a unique value in the range.
To effectively check if a relation is a function, you may refer to the type of
correspondence below.
Evaluating Functions
The common notation of a function is usually written as:
f(x)
f(x) means f is some expression involving the variable x. Don’t think of this too literally, that
is, f is being multiplied to x. Instead, consider this as a mathematical expression which is
read as “f is a function of x”.
Functions can also be written in different ways using other variables such as,
g(x), h(x), k(x)
In addition, functions may take other input values other than x,
f(a), h(m), k(r)

Example 1. Evaluate the function f(x)=3x – 5 when x= -1

f(x)=3x – 5
f(-1)=3(-1) – 5
f(-1)= -3 – 5
f(-1)= -8

Example 2. Evaluate the function h(k)=2k2 – 5k + 1 when k=3

h(k)=2k2 – 5k + 1
h(3)=2(3)2 – 5(3) + 1
h(3)=2(9) – 15 + 1
h(3)=18 – 15 + 1
h(3)=4

Operation on Functions
The rules on performing operations of functions, f and g, are the following:
The sum f + g is the function defined by:
(f + g) x = f(x) + g(x)
The difference f – g is the function defined by:
(f - g) x = f(x) - g(x)
The product f*g is the function defined by:
(f * g) x = f(x) * g(x)
The quotient f/g is the function defined by:
(f / g) x = f(x) / g(x)

Examples:
Perform the following operations on f(x) = 2x2 – 4 and g(x) = x2 + 4x – 2.
a. f(x) + g(x)
 f(x) + g(x) = (2x2 – 4) + (x2 + 4x – 2)
= 2x2 + x2 + 4x – 4 – 2
= 3x2 + 4x – 6

b. f(x) - g(x) = 2x2 – 4 - (x2 + 4x – 2)

= 2x2 - x2 - 4x - 4 + 2
= x2 – 4x -2

c. f(x) * g(x) = (2x2 – 4)(x2 + 4x – 2)

= 2x4 + 8x3 – 4x2 – 4x2 – 16x + 8
= 2x4 + 8x3 – 8x2 – 16x + 8

d. f(x) ÷ g(x) = 2x2 – 4

x2 + 4x – 2

Another way to combine two functions to create a new function is called the composition of
functions .  In the composition of functions we substitute an entire function into another
function.

Example 1:
Let f(x) = x2 and g(x) = x – 3. Find f(g(x)).
f(g(x)) = f(x – 3)
= (x – 3)2
= (x – 3)(x – 3)
= x2 – 3x - 3x + 9
= x2 – 6x + 9

Let f(x) = 2x – 1 and g(x) = x + 2. Find f(g(x)).

f(g(x)) = f(x + 2)
= 2(x + 2) – 1
= 2x + 4 – 1
= 2x + 3
 REASONING AND PROBLEM SOLVING

LESSON 1 – INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING

LESSON 2 – POLYA’S PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY
LESSON 3 – RECREATIONAL PROBLEMS USING MATHEMATICS

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the module, you should be able to:
 Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about
mathematics and mathematical concepts.
 Solve problems involving problems and recreational problems following Polya’s four
steps.
 Organize one’s methods and approaches to proving and solving problems.

Introduction
Mathematics has always been seen as a tool for problem solving. Math by nature is
based on logical and valid reasoning so that it used for decision-making. A good decision
maker is one who can find resolution his/her reasoning ability and mathematical strategy.
In this, you will learn to organize your own methods and approaches to solve mathematical
problems.

LESSON 1 – INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING

INDUCTIVE REASONING
The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the examination of specific
examples. The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is often called a conjecture,
since it may or may not be correct or in other words, it is a concluding statement that is
reached using inductive reasoning.
 Inductive reasoning uses a set of specific observations to reach an overarching
conclusion or it is the process of recognizing or observing patterns and drawing a
conclusion.

So in short, inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by

examining specific examples.

Take note that inductive reasoning does not guarantee a true result, it only provides
a means of making a conjecture.

Based on the given definition above, we could illustrate this by means of a diagram.

Observe and look Analyze what is really Make a

for a pattern happening in the pattern conjecture

Also, in inductive reasoning, we use the “then” and “now” approach. The “then” idea
is to use the data to find pattern and make a prediction and the “now” idea is to make a
conjecture base on the inductive reasoning or find a counter-example.

Examples:

1. Use the inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following list:
3, 6, 9, 12, 15,?

The given sequence of number is clearly seen that each successive number is three
(3) larger than the preceding number, which is if the first number is increased by 3 the
result is 6. Now, when this 6 is increased by 3 the next number would be 9. If we are going
to continue the process, if 15 is increased by 3 then the next number would be 18. Hence
the required number is 18.

2. Write a conjecture that describe the pattern 2, 4, 12, 48, 240. Then use the
conjecture to find the next item in the sequence.

Step 1. Look for a pattern

2, 4, 12, 48, 240,…?

Step 2. Analyze what is happening in the given pattern.

The numbers are multiplied by 2, then 3, then 4, then 5. The next
number will be the product of 240 times 6 or 1,440.

Step 3. Make a conjecture.

Now, the answer is 1,440

3. Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture out of the following procedure.

a. Pick a number
b. Multiply the number by 8
c. Add 6 to the product
d. Divide the sum by 2
e. And subtract 3
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive
reasoning to make
a conjecture about the relationship between the size of the resulting number and the
size of the original number.
Original number: 5
Multiply by 8: 5 x 8 = 40
Add 6: 40 + 6 = 46
Divide 2: 46 ÷ 2 = 23
Subtract 3: 23 – 3 = 20

We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20. Starting with 6 as
our original number produces a final result of 24. Starting with 10 produces a final
result of 40. Starting with 100 produces a final result of 400. In each of these cases
the resulting number is four times the original number. We conjecture that following
the given procedure produces a number that is four times the original number.

Conclusions based on inductive reasoning may not always be true. In other

words, a conjecture formed by using inductive reasoning may be incorrect. To
illustrate this, consider the results below,

11 x (1)(101) = 1111
11 x (2)(101) = 2222
11 x (3)(101) = 3333
11 x (4)(101) = 4444
11 x (5)(101) = 5555
11 x (6)(101) = ?

Simple arithmetic shows that the answer is 6666, hence it is conjectured that
the product of 11 and a multiple of 101 is number where all digits are equal. But is
11 x n(101) =nnnn true for all n?
Suppose n = 10. Then 11 x (10)(101) = 11,110, which obviously does not satisfy
the previous conclusion. This method of disproving a statement is to give a
counterexample.

Counterexamples
A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all cases. If you can
find one case for which a statement is not true, called a counterexample, then the
statement is a false statement.

Find a counterexample. Verify that each of the following statements is a false

statement by finding counterexample. For all number x:
a. x> 0
b. x2 > x

Solution
 A statement may have many counterexamples, but we need only find one
counterexample to verify that the statement is false.
a. Let x = 0. Then │0│= 0. Because 0 is not greater than 0, we have found a
counterexample. Thus “for all numbers x, │x│> 0” is a false statement.
b. For x=1, we have 12 = 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1, we have found
counterexample. Thus “for all numbers x, x2 > x” is a false statement.

TRY!
Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by finding a
counterexample for each.
For all number x:
x
a. =1
x

x+3
b. =x+1
3

Find the next 3 terms in the following:

1. 17, 23, 29, 35, 41, ___, ___, ___

2. 2, -4, 8, -16, 32, ___, ___, ___
3. 100, 81, 64, ___, ___, ___

DEDUCTIVE REASONING

Deductive reasoning is distinguished from inductive reasoning, in that it is the

process of reaching a conclusion by applying general principles and procedures. The
following are examples of deductive reasoning:
- All squares are rectangle. All rectangles have four angles.
Therefore, logics tell us that all squares have four right angles.

- All dogs have good sense of smell. Blackeye is a dog.

Therefore, using deductive reasoning tells us that Blackeye has a good sense of smell.

Example:
Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number
that is four times the original number.
Procedure:
1. Pick a number.
2. Multiply the number by 8.
3. Add 6 to the product.
4. Divide the sum by 2.
5. Subtract 3.
Solution:
 Let n represent the original number.
Multiply the number by 8. 8n
Add 6 to the product. 8n + 6
Divide the sum by 2. 8n
= 4n++63
2
Subtract 3. 4n + 3 – 3
4n
We started with n and ended with 4n. The procedure given in this example produces
a number that is four times the original number.

Example:
Solve for a logic puzzle.
Each of four neighbors, Sean, Mary, Sarah and Brian, has a different
occupation ( editor, banker, chef or dentist ). From the following clues,
determine the occupation of each neighbor.
1. Mary gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
4. The banker lives next door to Brian.
Solution:
From clue 1. Mary is not the banker or the dentist. In the following chart, write
(which stands for “ruled out by clue 1” ) in the Banker and the Dentist columns of
Mary’s row.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Sean
Mary X1 X1
Sarah
Brian

From clue 2. Sarah is not the editor. Write X2 (ruled out by clue 2)in the Editor
column of Sarah’s row. We know from row 1 that the banker is not the last to get
home, and we know from clue 2 that Sarah is the last to get home; therefore Sarah,
is not the banker. Write X2 in the Bah’nker column of Sarah’s row.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Sean
Mary X1 X1
Sarah X2 X2
Brian

From clue 3, Sarah is not the dentist. Write X3 for this condition. There are
now Xs for three of the four occupations in Sarah’s row; therefore, Sarah must be the
chef. Place a √ in that box. Since Sarah is the chef, none of the other three people can
be the chef. Write X3 for these conditions. There are now Xs for three of the four
occupations in Maria’s row; therefore, Maria must be the editor. Insert a √ to indicate
that Maria is the editor, and write X3 twice to indicate that neither Sean nor Brian is
the editor.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Sean X3 X3
Mary √ X1 X3 X1
Sarah X2 X2 √ X3
 Brian X3 X3

From clue 4, Brian is not the banker. Write X4 for this condition. Since there
are three Xs in the Banker column, Sean must be the banker. Place a √ in that box.
Thus Sean cannot be the dentist. Write X4 in that box. Since there are 3 Xs in the
Dentist column, Brian must be the dentist. Place a √ in that box.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Sean X3 √ X3 X4
Mary √ X1 X3 X1
Sarah X2 X2 √ X3
Brian X3 X4 X3 √

Sean is the banker, Maria is the editor, Sarah is the chef, and Brian is
the dentist.

LEARNING POINTS

 The type of reasoning that uses specific examples to reach a general conclusion is
called inductive reasoning . The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is
called conjecture which may or may not correct.

 Deductive reasoning is distinguished from inductive reasoning in that it is the

process of reaching a conclusion by applying general principles and procedures

Determine whether the argument is an example of inductive reasoning or deductive

reasoning.

1. Emma enjoyed reading the novel Under the Dome by Stephen King, so she will
enjoy reading his next novel.
2. All pentagons have exactly five sides. Figure A is a pentagon. Therefore, Figure A
has exactly five sides.
3. Every English setter likes to hunt. Duke is an English setter, so Duke likes to
hunt.
4. Cats don’t eat tomatoes. Tigger is a cat. Therefore, Tigger does not eat tomatoes.
5. Two computer programs, a bubble sort and a shell sort, are used to sort data. In
each of 50 experiments, the shell sort program took less time to sort the data than
did the bubble sort program. Thus the shell sort program is the faster of the two
sorting programs.

Lesson 2. Polya’s Problem Solving Strategy

Whether you like it or not, whether you are going to be a mother, father, teacher,
computer programmer, scientist, researcher, business owner, coach,
mathematician, manager, doctor, lawyer, banker (the list can go on and
on),  problem solving is everywhere.  Some people think that you either can do it
or you can't.  Contrary to that belief, it can be a learned trade.  Even the best
athletes and musicians had some coaching along the way and lots of practice. 
That's what it also takes to be good at problem solving.
 Problem-solving is the cornerstone of school mathematics. The main reason of
learning mathematics is to be able to solve problems. Mathematics is a powerful tool that
can be used to solve a vast variety of problems in technology, science, business and
finance, medicine, and daily life. It is strongly believed that the most efficient way for
learning mathematical concepts is through problem solving. This is why the National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics NCTM advocates in Principles and Standards for
School Mathematics, published in 2000, that mathematics instruction in American schools
should emphasize on problem solving and quantitative reasoning. So, the conviction is that
children need to learn to think about quantitative situations in insightful and imaginative
ways, and that mere memorization of rules for computation is largely unproductive. Of
course, if children are to learn problem solving, their teachers must themselves be
competent problem solvers and teachers of problem solving. The techniques discussed in
this and the coming sections should help you to become a better problem solver and should
show you how to help others develop their problem-solving skills.

One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a study of problem solving was
George Polya (1887–1985). He was born in Hungary and moved to the United States in
1940.In his book How to Solve It”, George Polya enumerates the four steps of problem –
solving :

P´olya’s Four-Step Process In his book How to Solve It, George P´olya identifies a
four-step process that forms the basis of any serious attempt at problem solving. These
steps are:

Step 1. Understand the Problem Obviously if you don’t understand a problem, you
won’t be able to solve it. So it is important to understand what the problem is asking. This
requires that you read slowly the problem and carefully understand the information given
in the problem. In some cases, drawing a picture or a diagram can help you understand the
problem.

Step 2. Devise a Plan There are many different types of plans for solving problems. In
devising a plan, think about what information you know, what information you are looking
for, and how to relate these pieces of information. The following are few common types of
plans:

• Guess and test: make a guess and try it out. Use the results of your guess to guide
you.

• Use a variable, such as x.

• Draw a diagram or a picture.

• Look for a pattern.

• Solve a simpler problem or problems first- this may help you see a pattern you can
use.

• make a list or a table.

Step 3. Carry Out the Plan This step is considered to be the hardest step. If you get
stuck, modify your plan or try a new plan. Monitor your own progress: if you are stuck, is it
because you haven’t tried hard enough to make your plan work, or is it time to try a new
plan? Don’t give up too soon. Students sometimes think that they can only solve a problem
if they’ve seen one just like it before, but this is not true. Your common sense and natural
thinking abilities are powerful tools that will serve you well if you use them. So don’t
underestimate them!

Step 4. Look Back This step helps in identifying mistakes, if any. Check see if your
answer is plausible. For example, if the problem was to find the height of a telephone pole,
then answers such as 2.3 feet or 513 yards are unlikely-it would be wise to look for a
mistake somewhere. Looking back also gives you an opportunity to make connections: Have
you seen this type of answer before? What did you learn from this problem? Could you use
these ideas in some other way? Is there another way to solve the problem? Thus, when you
look back, you have an opportunity to learn from your own work.

Examples:

 Find the value of the algebraic expression at the given value.

1. 4.5 + x; when x = 3.2

1 4
2. yz; when y= and z=
3 5
3. A CCTV camera cost P7,050.00 each. How much would it cost if Maritess buy 6 of it?

4. Half of a number plus 10 is 42. What is the number?

5. Three-fourths of a number decreased by 8 is 56. What is the number?

6. One-eight of a number added to 16 is 124. What is the number?

7. The sum of two consecutive numbers is 61. What are they?

8. The sum of two consecutive number is 93. What are the numbers?

9. The sum of two consecutive odd numbers is 88, find the numbers.

10. The sum of three consecutive numbers is 63. What are numbers?
MATHEMATICS AS A TOOL

“Statistical tools derived from mathematics are useful in processing and

managing numerical data to d

DATA MANAGEMENT decisions on whether their companies will earn or lose

based on the information they gather about the economic environment, the
market, the competition, the labor force, and some other factors. This information
is usually associated with data.

Data come in different forms and from different sources. You read them in a
daily newspaper, hear them over the radio, see them on television, and find them
on the internet. We have great quantities of data related to sports, business,
education, traffic, law enforcement, and hundreds of some other human activities.
These vast data are made available to assist us in our decision-making. If these
data are not properly managed and analyzed, everything will be meaningless and
void or lead us to false and unreliable information.
 Statistics provides us the tool through which such data are collected, analyzed,
and presented to arrive at some rich and interesting information. These tools,
which are derived from mathematics, are useful in processing and managing
numerical data to describe a phenomenon and predict values.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Organize and present data in forms that are both meaningful and useful to
decision makers;

2. Use a variety of statistical tools to process and manage numerical data;

3. Use the methods of linear regression and correlations to predict the value of a
variable given certain conditions; and

4. Advocate the use of statistical data in making important decisions.

BASIC STATISTICAL CONCEPTS

The study of statistics can be organized in different ways. One way is to

subdivide statistics into two branches : descriptive statistics and inferential
statistics. To understand the difference between the two, definitions of population
and sample are helpful.

A population generally consists of the totality of the observations, individuals,

or objects in which the investigator is interested. One should not start collecting
data without carefully defining the population to be considered in the study. It
should be in agreement with the objective, and its statistical elements should be
properly identified. A sample is a portion of a population. This is a small but
representative cross section of the population. It is used to give inferences on the
population from which it was extracted.

If a researcher is using data gathered on a group to describe or reach

conclusions about that same group, the statistics are called descriptive statistics.
For example, if an instructor produces statistics to summarize a class’
examination performance and uses those statistics to reach conclusions about
that class only, the statistics are descriptive. The instructor can use these
statistics to discuss class average or talk about the range of class scores.

If a researcher gathers data from a sample and uses the statistics generated to
reach conclusions about the population from which the sample was drawn, it is
called inferential statistics. For example, a soft drink company asked 500 students
from a certain university about the number of bottles of soft drink they consumed
in a week and infer from the data the number of bottles of soft drink consumed by
all 50,000 students in the campus.

Statisticians and researchers are interested in particular variables of a sample

or population. A variable is a characteristic of interest about an object under
 investigation that can take on different possible outcomes, such as age, hair color,
height, weight, and religious preference.

There are basically two kinds of variables:

1. Qualitative variables are variables that can be placed into distinct categories,
according to some characteristic or attribute. For example, if subjects are
classified according to sex (male or female), then the variable gender is
qualitative. Some other examples of qualitative variables are religious
preference and geographic location.

2. Quantitative variables are numerical and can be ordered or ranked. For

example, the variable age is numerical, and people can be ranked according to
their ages. Some other examples of quantitative variables are height, weight,
and body temperature.

Quantitative variables can be further classified into two groups: discrete and
continuous.

Discrete variables can be assigned values such as 0, 1, 2, and 3 and are said
to be countable. The data are obtained by means of counting. Examples of
discrete variables are the number of children in a family and the number of
calls received by a telephone operator each day for a month. Continuous
variables, on the other hand, can assume an infinite number of values in an
interval between any two specific values. The data for this variable are obtained
by means of direct or indirect measuring. Temperature, for example, is a
continuous variable, since the variable can assume an infinite number of
values between any two given temperature.

The bulk of data gathered every day should not be analyzed the same way
statistically because the values are represented differently. For this reason, data are
categorized according to four levels of data measurement:

1. Nominal level – is the lowest level of data measurement. The numbers

representing nominal data are used only for identification or classification.
These numbers may serve as labels and have no meaning attached to their
magnitude. Examples are ID number of a student, numbers on the uniform
jerseys of basketball players, and plate numbers of vehicles.

2. Ordinal level – is higher than the nominal level. The numbers are used not
only to classify items but also to reflect some rank or order of the
individuals or objects. It indicates that objects in one category are not only
different from those in the other categories of the variable, but they may
also be ranked as either higher or lower, bigger or smaller, better or worse
than those in the other categories. Examples are ranks given to the winners
in a singing contest, hotel classifications, and military ranks.

3. Internal level – is second to the highest level of data measurement. The

measurements have all the properties of ordinal data; in addition, the
distances between consecutive numbers have meaning. The zero point value
on this level is arbitrary; that is, zero is just another point on the scale
 relative to a certain concept and does not mean the absence of the
phenomenon. Examples are temperature reading in Celsius scale, scores in
intelligence tests, and scholastic grades of students.

4. Ratio level – is the highest level of data measurement. It has the same
properties as interval level but the zero point value of this level is absolute;
that is, the zero value represents the absence of the characteristic being
considered. Examples are height, weight, time and volume.

Data that are collected must be organized and presented effectively for analysis
and interpretation. They can be presented in different forms as follows:

1. Textual presentation – presents data in a paragraph form which combines

text and figures. Examples are data in business, finance, economics, or
industries, which are used to make emphasis or to make comparisons,
contrasts, syntheses, generalizations, or findings.

2. Tabular presentations – presents data in tables. Tabulation is a process of

summarizing classified data and arranging them in a table. It gives a more
precise, systematic, and orderly presentation of data in rows and columns.
It makes comparison of figures easy and comprehensible. The table below
displays the Philippine population by region based on the 2010 and 2015
cesuses.

Table 1. Population Enumerated in 2010 & 2015

REGION 2010 2015

PHILIPPINES 92, 337, 852 100, 981, 437

NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION 11, 855, 975 12, 877, 253

CORDILLERA 1, 616, 867 1, 722, 006
ADMINISTRATIVE REGION
REGION I – ILOCOS 4, 748, 372 5, 026, 128
REGION II – CAGAYAN 3, 229, 163 3, 451, 410
VALLEY
REGION III – CENTRAL 10, 137, 737 11, 218, 177
LUZON
REGION IV-A – CALABARZON 12, 609, 803 14, 414, 774
MIMAROPA REGION I 2, 744, 671 2, 963, 360
REGION V – BICOL 5, 420, 411 5, 796, 989
REGION VI – WESTERN 4, 194, 579 4, 477, 247
VISAYAS
REGION VII – CENTRAL 5, 513, 514 6, 041, 903
VISAYAS
NEGROS ISLAND REGION 2 4, 194, 525 4, 414, 131
REGION VIII – EASTERN 4, 101, 322 4, 440, 150
VISAYAS
REGION IX – ZAMBOANGA 3, 407, 353 3, 629, 783
PENINSULA
REGION X – NORTHERN 4, 297, 323 4, 689, 302
MINDANAO
REGION XI – DAVAO 4, 468, 563 4, 893, 318
REGION XII – 4, 109, 571 4, 545, 276
SOCCSKSARGEN
REGION XIII – CARAGA 2, 429, 224 2, 596, 709
ARMM 3, 256, 140 3, 781, 387

Source: Philippine Statistics Authority

3. Graphical presentation – is an effective method of presenting statistical

results and can present clear pictures of the data. There are several kinds of
graphs, and some of these are as follows:

Bar graph consists of bars either vertically or horizontally and usually

constructed for comparative purposes. The lengths of the bars represent the
frequencies or magnitudes of the quantities being compared.
 Philippine Population (2008-2018)

Line graph shows the relationship between two or more sets of quantities.
It may show the relationship between two variables, and it is best used to
establish trends.
 Pie chart is used to represent quantities that make up a whole. It is a
circular diagram cut into subdivisions. The size of each section indicates the
proportion of each component part of the whole. The pie chart can be
constructed using percents or the actual figures. The slices of the pie must be
drawn in proportion to the different values of the items.

395/6450 X 100 =6.1%

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

One type of measure being used to describe a data set is the measure of central
tendency, which yields information about the center or majority of a group of
numbers. It is a single value that stands for or represents a group of values in the
data set. The most common measures are the arithmetic mean, median, and mode.

Arithmetic Mean (denoted by x̄ ) or simply mean is the sum of all values in the
data set divided by the number of values that are summed. It is written
mathematically as
 ∑x
x̄ = n

where x = individual value

n = total number of values

The mean is a more stable or reliable measure of central tendency in which its
value is dependent upon every item in the set. It is preferred for interval or ratio
measurements and is used in the computation of some other advanced statistical
measures.

Example. The following are the scores in a quiz by ten students in Algebra,.
Find the mean score of the data set.

5 12 20 16 15 23 10 18 7 11

Solution. From the given data set, n = 10

5+12+ 20+16+15+23+ 10+ 18+7+11 137

x̄ = 10 = 10

x̄ = 13.7

Sometimes each value is the data set associated with a certain weight or degree
of importance. In such cases, the weighted mean is computed.

The weighted mean of a set of values c