Cibse Am12.2013 CHP

A single copy of this document is licensed to
Licensed copy from CIS: atkins, Atkins Plc, 01/05/2014, Uncontrolled Copy.
atkins
On
01/05/2014
This is an uncontrolled copy. Ensure use of the

most current version of the document by searching
the Construction Information Service.
Combined heat and
power for buildings
CIBSE AM12: 2013
The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

222 Balham High Road, London, SW12 9BS
The rights of publication or translation are reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means
without the prior permission of the Institution.
© Second edition January 2013; The Chartered Institution of

Building Services Engineers London
Registered charity number 278104
ISBN 978-1-906846-30-5
This document is based on the best knowledge available at

the time of publication. However no responsibility of any
kind for any injury, death, loss, damage or delay however
caused resulting from the use of these recommendations
can be accepted by the Chartered Institution of Building
Services Engineers, the authors or others involved in its
publication. In adopting these recommendations for use each
adopter by doing so agrees to accept full responsibility for
any personal injury, death, loss, damage or delay arising out
of or in connection with their use by or on behalf of such

adopter irrespective of the cause or reason therefore and
agrees to defend, indemnify and hold harmless the Chartered
Institution of Building Services Engineers, the authors and
others involved in their publication from any and all liability
arising out of or in connection with such use as aforesaid
and irrespective of any negligence on the part of those
indemnified.
Typesetting and layout by CIBSE Publications
Printed in Great Britain by The Lavenham Press, Lavenham,

Suffolk CO10 9RN.
Cover illustration: The Energy Centre at the 2012 London

Olympic Park (architects: John McAslan and Partners). The
Energy Centre includes a gas-fired combined cooling, heating
and power (CCHP) plant to capture the heat generated by
electricity production. It also includes biomass-fired boilers
to generate heat and deliver low carbon energy. Cooling is
provided through a combination of electric, ammonia-based
chillers and absorption chillers, which are driven by heat
recovered from plant in the Energy Centre. (Photograph by
Hufton+Crow; courtesy of John McAslan and Partners.)
Note from the publisher

This publication is primarily intended to provide guidance to those responsible for the design,
installation, commissioning, operation and maintenance of building services. It is not intended
to be exhaustive or definitive and it will be necessary for users of the guidance given to exercise
their own professional judgement when deciding whether to abide by or depart from it.
Foreword to the third edition
CIBSE Applications Manual AM12: Small-scale chp for buildings was first published in
1999. With the growing concerns over global warming and the recognition of the role that
chp can play in delivering low carbon buildings this revised and updated edition has been
produced. A number of new sections have been added including:
—— a new chapter on district heating applications
—— more information on assessing environmental benefits
—— more detail on tri-generation and thermal storage.
Principal author
Paul Woods (AECOM)
AM12 Steering Group

The production of this publication has been greatly assisted by the work of the AM12
Steering Group. CIBSE are indebted to the following individuals and their organisations:
Phil Jones (chair)

Mark Anderson (Arup)
Huw Blackwell (Hoare Lea)
Lars Fabricius (SAV Systems)
Tony Gollogly (PB Energy Solutions)
Dr Julian Packer (Cogenco Ltd)
Dr Robin Wiltshire (BRE)
Reviewers
Detailed reviews have been carried out by the following. The CIBSE is very grateful for
their valuable contribution.
Dr Jonathan Williams (BRE)

Peter Pearson (Dalkia plc)
Huw Blackwell (Hoare Lea)
Dr Gregory Zdaniuk (Cofely GDF-Suez)
Acknowledgements (third edition)
CIBSE would like to acknowledge the valuable contributions provided by a wide range of
individuals and organisations including the following: AECOM, Cofely District Energy
Ltd, Combined Heat and Power Association (CHPA), Cogenco Ltd, Corporation of
London, Dalkia plc, EC Power A/S, EnerG Combined Power Ltd, David Hague (Cogen
Solutions Ltd), LowC Communities Ltd., SAV Systems, UK District Energy Association,
University of East Anglia, Veolia Environmental Services (UK) plc.
Editor
Ken Butcher
CIBSE Head of Knowledge
Nicholas Peake
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 The energy challenges 1
1.2 What is chp? 1
1.3 Why chp should be considered 3
1.4 Scope of AM12 4
1.5 Purpose of AM12 4
Part 1: Technologies, applications and regulations

2 CHP and energy centres (fossil fuel) 5
2.1 Spark-ignition gas engines (50 kWe to 10 MWe) 5
2.2 Mini or small-scale chp (<50 kWe) 6
2.3 Micro gas turbine chp 6
2.4 Individual dwelling chp (<2 kWe) 6
2.5 Larger-scale chp 7
2.6 Fuel cells 7
2.7 Combined cooling, heating and power (tri-generation) 8
3 Renewable energy and CHP 8

3.1 Biomass chp using combustion of solid biomass fuel 8
3.2 Biogas chp using gasification of solid biomass fuel 9
3.3 Liquid biofuel chp 10
3.4 Energy from waste 10
3.5 Biomethane injection 11
3.6 Integration of chp with renewable energy sources 11
3.7 Integration of chp with heat pumps 11
4 CHP for individual buildings 12

4.1 Introduction 12
4.2 Building heating, cooling and electrical demands 12
4.3 Fuel and electricity tariffs 13
4.4 Principles of chp sizing 13
4.5 Design of building heating systems to benefit chp operation 16
4.6 Building applications most suitable for chp 17
4.7 chp to improve security of electricity supply 17
5 Application of CHP to supply district heating 18

5.1 Principles of district heating 18
5.2 Typical applications of dh and chp 19
5.3 Selling electricity and private wire networks 19
5.4 Efficient design of dh systems to benefit chp operation 19
5.5 Use of thermal storage 21
5.6 District cooling 22
5.7 Large-scale district heating 22
6 Primary energy savings and environmental impact of chp 22

6.1 Primary energy savings 22
6.2 CO2 savings and impact of emission factors 24
6.3 CO2 benefits from tri-generation 26
6.4 Other emissions to air 26
6.5 Noise 27
6.6 Other environmental impacts 27
7 Legislation and regulations and impact on CHP viability 28

7.1 Planning 28
7.2 Building Regulations 28
7.3 Climate Change Act 28
7.4 Carbon trading: CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme 28
and the EU Emissions Trading Scheme
7.5 CHP Quality Assurance Programme 28
7.6 Other financial mechanisms 29
7.7 Parallel operation with dno system 29
Part 2: Project implementation
8 Feasibility studies 30
8.1 Introduction 30
8.2 Data gathering of energy demands and system temperatures 30
8.3 chp performance, heat recovery options 33
8.4 Optimum sizing of chp 33
8.5 Thermal storage 33
8.6 Tri-generation (cchp) 34
8.7 Integration with other low carbon technologies 34
8.8 Typical capital and maintenance costs and efficiencies 34
for gas-engine chp
8.9 Economic appraisal 34
8.10 Financing options 36
8.11 Feasibility report 38
9 Design 39
9.1 Allocation of responsibilities 39
9.2 Health and safety aspects 39
9.3 Energy balance for chp and heat recovery systems 40
9.4 System design: interfaces with heating circuit 41
9.5 System design: absorption chillers 43

9.6 System design: electrical interface 43
9.7 Fuel system 44
9.8 Combustion exhaust system 44
9.9 Combustion and ventilation air systems 44
9.10 Control systems 45
9.11 Maintenance facilities 45
9.12 Control of noise and vibration 46
9.13 Fire and gas detection and protection 47
9.14 Regulatory compliance and approvals 47
9.15 Specification: typical contents for chp package specification 48
9.16 Design of district heating 49
10 Procurement 51
10.1 Tendering 51
10.2 Assessment of tenders 52
11 Installation, commissioning and testing 53
11.1 Installation 53
11.2 Component testing, off-site testing 53
11.3 Commissioning 54
11.4 Client acceptance testing 55
12 Operation and maintenance 55
12.1 Operation 55
12.2 Operation and maintenance manuals 56
12.3 Maintenance and servicing 57
Part 3: Lessons learned
13 Lessons learned 59
13.1 Feasibility studies 59
13.2 Economic appraisals 59
13.3 Integration of chp into heating systems 60
13.4 District heating 60
13.5 Environmental impacts 60
13.6 Procurement 60
13.7 Detailed design and installation 61
13.8 Commissioning 61
13.9 Operation 61
13.10 Tri-generation and absorption chillers 61
References 62
Appendices 64
Appendix A1: Conversion factors 64
Appendix A2: Glossary of terms 64
Index 67
1
Combined heat and power for buildings
1 Introduction of the future low carbon energy strategies will increase the
costs of energy supply.
Key points:
In responding to these three challenges, energy strategies
—— Three energy challenges are climate change, also need to minimise the impact on the wider environment,
security of supply and competitive prices. whether this is related to air quality in cities, visual impact
—— CHP can assist in meeting these challenges. in the countryside or at sea, or the safe disposal of waste
products from energy systems.
—— primary energy savings of 23–30% are possible.
Energy use in buildings is a major contributor to CO2

emissions and the supply of heat for space heating and hot
1.1 The energy challenges water is associated with approximately 16% of total UK
CO2 emissions (CCC, 2010). The role and responsibility of
The UK faces three major challenges in its supply and use the building services engineer in meeting these challenges
of energy (see Figure 1.1). is therefore very significant.
First, the risks of climate change are now accepted and the Combined heat and power (chp) has been recognised as a
need to reduce cumulative CO2 emissions has become a technology that can reduce CO2 emissions. It can also be
fundamental part of the energy policies of all countries cost-effective to implement in many applications. The
with the Copenhagen Accord committing us to joint action. greater efficiency of fuel utilisation will also help improve
In the UK the Climate Change Act 2008 has set a legally energy security. chp thus has the potential to help meet all
binding requirement for an 80% reduction in CO2 emissions of the three challenges outlined above.
from 1990 levels by 2050.
The energy efficiency benefits obtained with a chp system
Secondly, the UK has benefited from indigenous energy
will still be needed even if the fuels used in the future are
resources of coal, oil and natural gas for many years. We are
low carbon, as such fuels will be in short supply and will
now facing a new situation where we will be increasingly
also have environmental impacts. Maximising the efficiency
importing fossil fuels from a declining resource against a
of utilisation of renewable fuel will remain an important
background of rising worldwide energy demand. At the
part of the case for chp in the future.
same time a significant proportion of power stations need
to be replaced as older coal-fired and nuclear stations need
to be closed. Energy security is becoming a more important 1.2 What is CHP?
issue with concerns over the potential for gas supply
interruption from unstable regimes, higher world prices for
gas and the potential for power outages if investment is not Our conventional energy supply system is based on the
forthcoming. separate production of electricity in power stations and
heat from boilers.
The third challenge is to maintain competitive energy
prices to enable both industry and society to thrive. Many chp (also known as cogeneration) is the name applied to
energy systems that produce both useful heat and electricity
CO2 reduction in a single process.
As a result of the second law of thermodynamics, power

stations reject to atmosphere about 50% to 60% of the
thermal energy used. In a chp plant a large proportion of
this heat is captured for use in heating buildings or for
process heat.
Electrical energy is also lost in the transmission and

distribution of power to buildings and this energy can also
be saved if the chp generates electricity more locally.
Energy prices Security of
• Fuel poverty supply
• Competitive • Heat reliability Although the production of electricity by chp is less
economy • Imported gas efficient than that which can be achieved from central
• Power blackouts power stations, the use of the heat that would otherwise be
Figure 1.1 The energy challenges rejected leads to a net saving in primary energy.
2 Combined heat and power for buildings
A comparison between the separate production of heat and

Gross calorific value and net calorific value
power and chp is shown in Figure 1.2.
Efficiencies of power plant are conventionally expressed using
The primary energy saving is calculated as: the net calorific value (ncv) of the fuel. This is the energy in the
fuel released when the combustion products are cooled but
—— Fuel used by chp = 100 units (35 units of electricity excludes energy released from the condensation of water vapour
and 45 units of heat produced) (latent heat). The gross calorific value (gcv) includes the energy
released from condensation and is thus a higher value.
—— Conventional electricity at 40% efficiency would
As energy is sold on the basis of gcv it is important to convert the
require 35/0.4 units of fuel = 88 units energy efficiencies to gcv basis before carrying out any analysis.
—— Conventional heat at 80% efficiency would require
45/0.80 units of fuel = 56 units
—— Total fuel required for conventional supply = 88 +
56 = 144 units A chp unit typically operates in parallel with the public
supply with additional electricity imported as required.
So the potential saving in primary energy is about 30%. The heat output is commonly supplemented with boiler
plant at times of peak demand. A thermal store can be
Improvements in efficiency of boilers and power stations included to smooth the heat demand, reduce the need for
are taking place. However, even if the boiler efficiency is peak boiler use and maximise electricity production at
assumed to be 85% and the conventional electricity supply times of higher electricity prices. The boilers and public
efficiency improves to 45%, the primary energy saving electricity supply connections are normally sized to meet
would still be 23%. chp efficiencies are also improving. the peak demands of the building when the chp is not
operating, as the chp unit requires regular maintenance.
An important question is whether chp represents a more The chp units are normally maintained by the supplier
efficient use of natural gas. In this case it is the efficiency of under a long-term maintenance contract with remote
gas power stations rather than the grid average that should monitoring of the operation allowing faults to be identified
be used; currently this efficiency is about 43% (gross and visits scheduled to maximise availability.
calorific value basis) delivered to customers.
A more detailed discussion of primary energy saving and It is important that other energy savings measures are fully
CO2 emissions is given in section 6. considered before the viability of a chp scheme is evaluated.
Failure to do so may result in the benefit of the chp scheme
being undermined by the later application of other energy
1.2.1 Types of CHP efficiency measures. It is usually more important to avoid
oversizing chp, rather than undersizing, unlike most
There are a number of types of chp and these are discussed building services plant.
in section 2 below.
The most common type for building applications, where When comparing district heating supplied by chp with
relatively low grade heat is required, is based on a spark- conventional systems the energy inputs to the district
ignition reciprocating gas engine directly driving a heating network for both heat losses and pumping energy
generator to produce electrical power. Heat is typically also need to be considered.
recovered from the engine jacket, the oil cooler and the
exhaust gases and, if the heat required is at low enough In summary, the higher primary energy efficiency obtained
temperature, from the intercooler. This type of chp was with chp delivers the energy cost savings required to
developed in the 1980s and is supplied as a fully packaged finance the chp installation and results in lower CO2
unit of which several thousand have been sold in the UK. emissions.
1.2.2 Applications
Losses
20 11 A wide range of buildings can be suitable for chp systems.
The economic return on the investment is determined
45 Heat 45 Boiler 56
demand partly by the operating hours, so buildings that have a year-
round demand for heat will generally be the most econom
ically attractive. These buildings include residential blocks,
100
CHP
hospitals, hotels and swimming pools. For other buildings,
144
Power
35 demand 35 chp systems will still be able to operate effectively and
Power
88 reduce costs and emissions but the payback period will be
station
longer due to fewer operating hours in the year. Combining
the demands of buildings with different heat demand
profiles through a district heating (dh) network will
improve the operating hours of the chp but will of course
53 incur additional cost for the dh network. For large campus-
type sites, e.g. a university, the higher efficiencies and lower
Losses costs associated with larger-scale chp often mean that a lack
Figure 1.2 The energy efficiency of chp (reproduced from GPG388 of summer heat demand is less of a barrier. The chp is
(Carbon Trust, 2004) by permission of the Carbon Trust) simply operated for 8–9 months of the year.
Introduction
3
1.2.3 Tri-generation power stations (e.g. natural gas) then a CO2 reduction of up
to 30% would be obtained for the energy produced by the
The term tri-generation is often used to describe a chp chp unit in accordance with Figure 1.1 above. For a given
system that also supplies heat to an absorption or adsorption site, the chp unit will not be perfectly matched to the heat
chiller so that heat, electricity and cooling are produced. If and electricity demands and boilers and the grid supply
the chp is efficient enough so that the heat has a low carbon will be needed to supplement its output. The CO2 reduction
content then there can be additional CO2 benefits. As for a typical site is therefore normally lower than 30%.
discussed in section 6.1 the effective CO2 content of chp
heat is very dependent on the source of the electricity that However, there is a secondary benefit from installing gas-
will be displaced and thus the benefit of using heat driven fired chp in the UK at present, which arises from displacing
chillers is expected to fall over time, especially when there coal-fired power generation that has about double the CO2
is no unabated coal-fired generation operating in summer. emissions of gas-fired power stations.
However this change might be offset by future improvements
in the coefficient of performance (cop) of heat driven
chillers. If the chp plant uses renewable fuels then further emissions
savings are possible allowing a site to achieve zero carbon
The additional running hours of the chp will generate in operation.
additional cost savings for the site that are needed to help
finance the additional cost of the absorption or adsorption The methodology for calculating CO2 reductions is
chiller. discussed further in section 6.2.
1.3 Why CHP should be considered 1.3.3 Security of electricity supply
chp is typically considered because of the following drivers:

The third reason for considering chp is to enhance the
—— lower operating costs security of electricity supply at the site. It is possible to
design chp systems to operate in ‘island’ mode, independent
—— reduced CO2 emissions of the public supply, and in some cases this will provide an
—— greater security of supply for electricity additional advantage for chp. However, chp units are not
equivalent to standby power generation as typically
—— government policy and incentives provided by diesel generators, and they are less able to
—— replacement of boiler capacity accept sudden load changes. They will require regular
maintenance so will not always be available to operate and
—— efficient use of renewable fuels. may be sized to meet the heat load rather than the electrical
demand. A specific design to improve security of supply
These are discussed in turn below. would therefore need to consider a larger number of smaller
units to maximise availability, a higher total capacity or a
1.3.1 Lower operating costs load shedding system to enable the site load to be controlled
to a level that the chp units can supply. Finally, if there are
Lower operating costs are achieved with a chp unit as the times when the chp units are scheduled to be turned off
energy purchased for a site changes as follows: (e.g. at night) the start-up times need to be considered as
gas engines will take longer to start and reach full-load than
—— More gas is purchased as both electricity and heat is diesel-powered standby generators. The chp units can only
produced from the chp. be started when supporting systems are also in operation,
e.g. ventilation and circulation pumps, heat rejection
—— Less electricity is purchased as the chp generates
capacity and gas fuel supply.
electricity on-site.
Maintenance costs for the chp unit need to be taken into 1.3.4 Government policy and financial
account. chp suppliers offer finance schemes that can incentives
deliver savings without capital investment.
The efficiency of the boilers may change as a result of their As a recognition of the environmental benefits and energy
operation only in peak periods and the energy prices saving potential of chp, the UK Government has encouraged
chp through various mechanisms. These incentives are
charged for electricity and gas may also change as a result of
the different demand profiles. discussed further in section 7 but are subject to change and
it will be necessary to check the latest position on the
relevant website.
1.3.2 Reduced CO2 emissions
Local government planning policies are increasingly
chp systems reduce CO2 emissions as a result of their requiring new buildings to adopt low and zero carbon
improved energy efficiency. The CO2 emissions at the site technologies beyond that required by the Building
will increase as more fuel is consumed but this is more than Regulations for England and Wales*. In many cases chp
offset by the reduced CO2 emissions at power stations as systems are an important component of the policy and the
less electricity needs to be produced for the national grid interconnection of buildings to form district heating
supply. The net reduction in CO2 emissions is thus networks, which then make chp systems more viable, is
dependent on the CO2 emissions factors for the fuel for the also a key part of energy planning policies in some cities.
chp and boilers and for the electricity displaced by the chp.
If the same fuel emissions factor is assumed for chp and * Requirements may differ in Scotland and Northern Ireland.
1.3.5 Boiler replacement and district heating —— Part 2 (sections 8 to 12) provides guidance on each
aspect of implementation of a typical chp project
chp is often considered in the context of replacement of from feasibility study through design, specifications,
boilers. In some sites this leads to a review of whether the procurement, commissioning and operation and
heating system should be centralised or decentralised, i.e. maintenance.
whether district heating should be retained, abandoned or —— Part 3 (section 13) provides lessons learned from
introduced. chp can be supplied at a range of sizes but is practical applications.
generally more efficient at a larger scale, and its introduc
tion at a time when boilers are being replaced provides an A number of Government regulations impact on chp within
opportunity to design the plant room to incorporate chp. the UK and section 7 provides an overview of the legislation
current at the time of publication. Regulations change
1.3.6 CHP and renewable energy frequently therefore it is essential that the reader checks
the current status of Government regulations or seeks
There are a number of ways in which renewable fuels can advice from the Combined Heat and Power Association
be used in conjunction with chp. The renewable fuels are (CHPA) (http://www.chpa.co.uk).
generally derived from biomass and as such are limited by
available land area. It is important therefore to maximise Appendices provide conversion factors and a glossary of
the availability of this limited renewable fuel by using it in terms.
the most efficient manner through chp.
1.4.4 Exclusions
1.4 Scope of AM12 Although district heating and cooling systems are included
in section 5, this is mainly in relation to the sizing and
1.4.1 Scale operation of the chp system. More detailed guidance is
available on district heating design in other publications.
chp systems can range in size from 1 kW to hundreds of The scope of the manual also refers to, but excludes detail
MW of electrical generation. AM12 is intended to provide of:
information directed towards chp used to supply buildings
and so the emphasis is on smaller packaged chp units of —— prediction of energy usage patterns
1 MWe or less, typically using reciprocating engines. A —— building energy management systems (bems)
section on district heating has been included, which design
describes some of the differences that might arise for larger-
scale chp systems. —— energy audits, and monitoring and targeting (m&t)
methods
Smaller-scale chp systems below 50 kWe tend to be pre- —— other energy saving measures
engineered as complete packages with controls and in some
cases thermal stores. For these types of systems, information —— other means of providing heat and/or power
should be sought from suppliers as some of the information —— uninterruptible power supplies (ups) and standby
in this manual may be less relevant. generation.
1.4.2 Applications A number of these are covered in other CIBSE publications,

see references.
This manual is intended to provide advice for designers of
chp systems in both new and existing buildings of all types 1.5 Purpose of AM12
and scales. It is intended to assist the designer of the
building services for these buildings and does not attempt This manual is intended to be read by anyone concerned
to provide advice on how to design the chp unit itself. The with energy matters in buildings: building services
emphasis is on how chp can best be integrated into a engineers, energy efficiency officers, energy managers,
building’s engineered systems and how to evaluate the consultants and designers.
operating cost and environmental benefits. In some cases,
the building heating system will need to be modified to The aim of the manual is to give the reader sufficient
maximise the chp benefits and the manual also provides background information and direction to promote, install
information on the nature of these desirable changes. and manage successful chp installations to supply both new
and existing buildings. The manual aims to incorporate
1.4.3 Organisation of the manual experience gained and to describe best practice so as to
enable new installations to benefit from the lessons of the
Following this introduction, the remainder of AM12 is past.
divided into three parts:
Some sections of the manual may also be relevant to
—— Part 1 (sections 2 to 7) deals with chp technologies architects, planners and energy policy makers seeking to
and their application deliver a lower carbon future.
Part
5 1: Technologies, applications and regulations
2 CHP and energy centres It is normal practice for the heat recovery system to be a
closed circuit as part of the chp package with a single
(fossil fuel) interface to the building heating system via a plate heat
exchanger.
Key points: chp units less than 1 MWe output are normally supplied as
—— Spark-ignition gas-engines are the predominant a packaged unit within an acoustic enclosure. The enclosure
prime-mover technology for CHP supplying requires a ventilation system to provide combustion air and
buildings. to provide cooling to remove heat lost from the engine. In
—— CHP can be classified as micro (domestic scale
some cases the heat in the ventilation air can be used
<2 kWe), mini or small-scale (<50 kWe) and directly or indirectly but in most cases it is dissipated.
above 50 kWe.
The main components of a chp unit based on spark-ignition
—— Above about 200 kWe, most engines are turbo- gas engine technology are:
charged, which improves their electrical efficiency.
—— prime mover: an engine to drive the generator
—— Heat can be recovered from the engine jacket, oil
cooler and exhaust gases. Additional heat can be —— fuel system: providing gas at appropriate pressure
recovered at lower temperature by a condensing
exhaust heat exchanger, from the intercooler heat —— generator: to produce electricity, which is fed into
rejection and from the ventilation air of the the building’s power distribution system
acoustic enclosure.
—— heat recovery system: to recover usable heat from the
engine
chp systems can be characterised by both capacity and type. —— cooling system: to dissipate heat rejected from the
The main characteristic of chp systems is the type of prime- engine that cannot be used
mover and common systems, based on fossil fuels, are
described below. Section 3 discusses chp systems that use —— combustion and ventilation air systems: to supply fresh
renewable fuels. air to, and carry radiated and convected lost heat
away from, the engine
—— exhaust gas silencer and chimney: to safely dissipate
2.1 Spark-ignition gas engines exhaust gases without causing a nuisance
(50 kWe to 10 MWe)
—— control system: to maintain safe and efficient
The most common type of chp is based on spark-ignition operation, to synchronise with the public supply
gas engines. These are either purpose-designed for and to provide a remote monitoring facility
stationary applications or derived from engines used in —— enclosure: to achieve physical and environmental
vehicles. The size ranges from 50 kWe to around 10 MWe, protection for the engine and operators, and to
with a typical life of 10–15 years. reduce noise.
Gas engines are available in naturally aspirated and turbo- The main components are shown in Figure 2.1.
charged types. Turbocharging is normally available in
engines larger than 200 kWe and typically improves
electrical efficiency from around 31% to 33% (gcv).
Engine
In naturally aspirated engines, air is drawn into the engine exhaust
gases
at atmospheric pressure without pre-compression. The
Engine Gas or oil Control
engine geometry and ambient conditions limit the air–fuel exhaust panel
mixture and, in high ambient temperature conditions,
engine performance is likely to be reduced.
In turbocharged engines, air for combustion (commonly Engine

called ‘charge air’) is received via a compressor, driven by a Generator
turbine in the exhaust gas stream. The resulting increased Hot
air mass flow rate enables the engine power output to be water
increased for a given engine frame size. A disadvantage of supply
this arrangement is that compression of the charge air
increases its temperature, and to avoid undesirable
combustion effects the air must be cooled in an intercooler
or after-cooler. The heat liberated from the intercooler may
be recovered to the building heating systems (if these are
designed to operate at a sufficiently low temperature) or Exhaust heat Engine heat Cool return water
exchanger exchanger
rejected to atmosphere. In conditions of high ambient
temperature the plant rating may be reduced depending on Figure 2.1 Principal components of a gas-engine chp unit (reproduced
the design and capacity of the intercooler cooling system. from GPG388 (Carbon Trust, 2004) by permission of the Carbon Trust)
There are two main types of generator: synchronous and control system. Much of this manual is directly applicable
asynchronous. Synchronous generators rotate at a governed to this type of chp. However, as the units tend to be
fixed speed, which is usually an integer multiple of the standardised, advice should be sought from the suppliers at
supply system frequency, e.g. 1000, 1500 or 3000 r/min for a an early stage of design.
50 Hz system. The generator maintains its own frequency
standard and can thus continue to run at the desired Typical applications will be in smaller commercial and
frequency when isolated from the public supply. residential buildings. Figures 2.3 and 2.4 show examples of
Synchronisation with the main supply requires special this system type.
control and instrumentation equipment to match frequency,
phase and voltage on connection. Asynchronous generators
do not have the ability to maintain a frequency standard 2.3 Micro gas turbine CHP
but rely on the mains supply frequency to monitor and
maintain the desired generated frequency. This means that This type of chp is based around small-scale gas turbines,
operation in isolation as a standby mode is not possible. which have been introduced in the last 10 years. Typically
The majority of chp schemes will use synchronous gener such turbines produce an electrical output of about
ators. Generators are typically low voltage up to 1 MWe and 100 kWe. Micro-turbines differ from larger-scale gas
are normally high voltage above 3 MWe. Between 1 MWe turbines by running at high speed and a dc generator is
and 3 MWe either are possible, depending on the relative used together with an inverter. Their main benefit is that
costs of generator, transformer and switchgear, and maintenance intervals are much longer than for recipro
maintenance costs. cating engines, so availability is higher and maintenance
costs lower. However electrical efficiency is generally lower
than the equivalent sized spark-ignition gas engine chp.
Figure 2.2 illustrates a typical gas engine chp unit with

acoustic enclosure doors open.
2.4 Individual dwelling CHP
2.2 Mini or small-scale CHP (< 2 kWe)
(<50 kWe)
chp systems suitable for use in individual dwellings have
In recent years a new generation of small-scale chp systems been the subject of considerable research and development
(<50 kWe) have been introduced. These have been designed over the last 10 years. They offer the potential for obtaining
specifically to provide longer running hours between the benefits of chp without the need for, or cost of, district
servicing (10 000 hours is typical) and a sophisticated heating and may offer a replacement for the domestic gas
boiler. Most systems include an auxiliary burner to enable
peak heating demands to be met.
There are two principal types:

—— Stirling engine: this is a reciprocating engine but
with the heat energy provided through an external
heat exchanger. Its electrical efficiency is generally
much lower than the larger spark-ignition
reciprocating engines, however it can be well suited
to the small outputs of an individual dwelling chp
system. It will typically have a 1 kWe electricity
output.
—— Fuel cell: these utilise a chemical reaction to
generate electricity, rather than a combustion
process. The fuel cell offers the potential for a
higher electrical efficiency than other types of chp
Figure 2.2 A typical gas engine chp unit with acoustic enclosure doors
open (photo courtesy of EnerG Combined Power Ltd)
and hence lower CO2 emissions and cost savings.
The high electrical efficiency also means that
Figure 2.3 Mini-chp system (photo courtesy of SAV Systems and

EC Power) Figure 2.4 Mini-chp system (photo courtesy of Baxi-SenerTec UK)
Part
operation will be viable even with only partial heat 2.5.2 Dual-fuel reciprocating engines
recovery, and running hours can be extended to
improve operational savings. As a result of the high These engines use the compression-ignition principle as
efficiency the power output will be typically 2 kW, used most commonly with diesel engines in vehicles. As
sufficient to provide heating for the dwelling. The gas has been cheaper than oil for some time engines have
output of fuel cells can be modulated to meet been developed where gas provides the main fuel but a
variable energy demands, which is important in small amount of oil is also injected so that ignition takes
individual dwellings where demands are highly place when the cylinder is compressed. The advantage is a
variable. The main challenges to development higher electrical efficiency at the expense of a small
include reducing initial cost, prolonging the life of additional fuel cost and higher emissions of NOx, SOx and
the fuel cell stack and reducing the size of the particulates as a result of the use of oil.
system. Fuel cells are considered in more detail in
section 2.6. An additional advantage is that it can also run on oil alone
should that prove financially beneficial (e.g. if an inter
At present, domestic chp is still in the early stages of ruptible gas contract is used). The oil used may also be
development and more experience is needed to establish derived from renewable sources.
performance and the environmental and cost benefits. The
Carbon Trust has conducted early field trials of a number of There are a few examples of this type of chp engine but
different types of units (Carbon Trust, 2011). The main mainly for larger district heating schemes (e.g. Citigen, in
market is expected to be in larger detached houses, as in the City of London, and Southampton). On the continent,
higher density housing district heating and larger-scale larger-scale spark-ignition engines are more common than
chp is likely to be preferred on efficiency or cost grounds. dual-fuel engines.
2.5 Larger-scale CHP 2.6 Fuel cells

A potential alternative to reciprocating engines and gas
2.5.1 Gas turbines turbines is the fuel cell. This is an electrochemical device
comprising an anode and a cathode separated by an
electrolyte. Fuel (hydrogen) is supplied continuously to the
Gas turbines are available in the range 500 kWe to over anode and oxygen to the cathode. The chemical reaction
200 MWe, although the choice of models below 1000 kWe is creates a voltage difference. Each cell generates about 1 volt
very limited. They are most commonly used in industrial so a number of cells are combined to form a cell stack. As
chp applications of 2.5 MWe and above, where the high hydrogen is not readily available, a reforming stage is
grade heat in the exhaust can be utilised to generate process required (either external or internal to the fuel cell) to
steam, or in conjunction with a waste heat boiler and a convert a fuel such as natural gas to provide the hydrogen-
steam turbine to generate additional electrical power rich fuel source.
(known as a combined cycle gas turbine).
Fuel cells have been developed both for stationary electricity
The electrical efficiency of gas turbines in open cycle (i.e. generation and also for vehicular applications. Typical sizes
without a steam turbine) is lower than reciprocating currently available or in development as chp units range
engines for gas turbines of 500 to 1500 kWe. Larger turbines from domestic scale 1 kWe units to 500 kWe. There are a
have higher electrical efficiencies but still do not compare number of different types of fuel cell, which are characterised
well with spark-ignition gas engines when in open cycle by the electrolyte used.
mode below about 5 MWe. In combined cycle applications
the electrical efficiency can be over 50% but the complexity The most common types for chp applications are:
of this type of plant means that the scale required is typically —— Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (pemfc): This
over 50 MWe. operates at a low temperature of 80 °C and requires
higher grade hydrogen. Also known as solid
Gas turbines require higher pressure gas than spark- polymer fuel cells (spfc).
ignition gas engines, so a gas compressor is required. The —— Phosphoric acid fuel cell (pafc): This type is closest to
electricity used for the compressor is significant and so being generally commercially available. It is less
sites with access to gas mains at higher pressure will be sensitive to fuel quality.
more effective.
—— Molten carbonate fuel cell (mcfc): The electrolyte is
typically a mix of lithium carbonate and potassium
When considering chp, gas turbines have the advantage of carbonate. This is a high temperature fuel cell
producing most of the available heat as high temperature operating at 650 °C, which allows internal
exhaust gas, which may be used to provide high temperature reformation of the fuel.
hot water or steam. The firing of additional fuel into the
exhaust (supplementary or auxiliary firing) may be used to —— Solid oxide fuel cell (sofc): The electrolyte is a solid
produce additional heat at higher combustion efficiency ceramic and the operating temperature is 1000 °C.
than conventional boilers. This type has the potential for high electrical
efficiencies. It is also the basis for a domestic scale
fuel cell chp presently under development.
There are several examples of gas turbine chp systems
supplying buildings, especially in hospitals or universities —— Alkaline fuel cells (afc): Fuel cells of this type use
where a steam distribution system exists. Some of these use hydrogen as a fuel and were originally developed
steam to supply absorption chillers. for space exploration applications. These are
unlikely to be used unless a hydrogen economy is chiller utilisation is maximised and frequent start/stops are
developed. avoided. The absorption chiller is normally sized so that its
heat requirement does not exceed the chp heat output as
—— Direct methanol fuel cells (dmfc): These have been
otherwise boiler heat would be used for the absorption
developed for vehicular applications.
chiller, which is less efficient than using electric chillers. If
there is no other heat demand in the summer cooling period
Fuel cells offer the potential for higher electrical efficiencies
then the absorption chiller heat requirement will need to
than the equivalent sized reciprocating engines with figures
match the chp heat output closely to avoid heat rejection or
of 35% to 55% (gcv basis) quoted. This would result in
part-load operation.
lower CO2 emissions. In addition, as the combustion
process is avoided emissions of nitrogen oxides are much
Absorption and adsorption chillers are normally only
lower.
considered for cooling loads greater than 250 kW.
Although a few demonstration projects exist in the UK,
fuel cell chp has a much higher capital cost than The environmental benefits from tri-generation are
conventional gas-engines and the life expected from the discussed in section 6.3.
fuel stack is also limited to around 40 000 hours.
Fuel cells should be considered for applications where

continuous running can be expected as this will maximise 3 Renewable energy
the stack life. and CHP
Fuel cells generate dc electricity and so an inverter is

normally used to produce ac for parallel operation with the Key points:
grid supply.
—— Spark-ignition gas-engines are the predominant
type of CHP for buildings
The temperature of heat available is typically 80 °C for
pemcs but higher temperatures are available from the sofc —— CHP is a concept that can be applied to any
and mcfc types. thermal electricity generation process.
—— CHP using renewable fuels: solid biomass, liquid
Further technical developments include the use of hybrid biofuels and biogas are feasible and there are a
systems combining a high temperature fuel cell (mcfc and wide range of technologies in use and under
sofc) with a micro-turbine to improve power efficiencies development.
further. —— If there is good heat utilisation over the year, CHP
should result in a more efficient use of renewable
Further information is provided in BSRIA BG 9/2003: Fuel biofuel which will always be a limited and
cell technology: The scope for building services applications valuable resource .
(BSRIA, 2003). —— Combining CHP and solar thermal is normally not
appropriate.
2.7 Combined cooling, heating and —— CHP and photovoltaics or wind are generally
compatible.
power (tri-generation)
—— Gas-fired CHP and a biomass boiler may be
A chp unit can be seen as a source of low cost and low integrated but can be difficult to control
carbon heat. This heat is normally used to displace boilers automatically, especially for small-scale systems.
but can also be used as heat source for an absorption or —— CHP and heat pumps compete for the same base
adsorption chiller. heat load but could be complementary in the
future as marginal electricity grid emissions fall
There are two basic types of absorption chiller: single effect and heat pumps become more viable.
and double effect. Single effect chillers can use low
temperature hot water and have cops of around 0.7 and the
double effect chillers use higher temperature hot water,
steam or exhaust gases from the chp and cops are around 3.1 Biomass CHP using combustion
1.3. Units are also available which can use multiple heat of solid biomass fuel
sources. The cops of such units are much less than those of
vapour compression chillers so it is important that the The renewable fuel most likely to be considered for chp at
carbon content of the heat from the chp is low and that the present is wood chips or wood pellets. These have found a
cost of heat production is low. The lower cops also mean growing market for small boilers for heating. Wood pellets
that about twice as much heat needs to be rejected from the are compacted small wood chips and sawdust. They have a
condenser circuit. higher price than wood chips but have a lower moisture
content and hence a higher calorific value. They are also
The adsorption chiller uses a silica gel as the refrigerant, denser and easier to transport and store.
which is alternately heated and cooled. This type of chiller
offers lower maintenance costs and higher efficiencies The twin benefits of using biomass as a fuel for chp is that
when operating with lower temperature heat sources. the energy is produced from a renewable source and also
the energy in the fuel is used in the most efficient way. This
It would normally be the case that the absorption chiller is is important in the context of biomass as the amount of
sized to supply the base cooling load with vapour compres biomass is limited in any given area and there will always
sion chillers used for peak periods so that the chp/absorption be competition for the land area needed for food production
Part
or amenity space. The main drawback of biomass chp is the in a modified gas engine to produce electricity and heat. It
much higher capital cost for the chp plant compared to gas- is important to have a uniform product entering the gasifier
fired plant, especially at a small scale and limited operational because carry-over of tars in the syngas can be a problem.
experience. However the newer generation of gasifiers appear to have
made progress in overcoming this problem. Such systems
There are a number of types of chp that use conventional are supplied as fully integrated packaged units with the
combustion of the fuel. These are described below. gasifier and chp system running from the same control
system which can then be integrated into the building’s
bms. Gasification brings higher electrical efficiencies due to
3.1.1 Steam turbines gas engine technology having advantages over steam based
systems.
Conventional steam turbine technology can be used for
biomass chp with an electrical output of greater than
There is limited experience of wood gasifiers at a small
2 MWe but are most suitable for systems over 10 MWe. It
scale but there are now a few applications in the UK of
offers robust, well proven technology, with a very good
larger schemes of 1 to 5 MWe capacity. In Europe there are
part-load performance. However, at a small-scale, lower
several wood gasifiers of less than 1 MW capacity that have
electrical efficiencies (20–25%) along with high capital,
been running successfully for some years, and this
operating and maintenance costs are some of the
technology is now starting to become available in the UK.
disadvantages. This option is best considered in the context
Gasifiers are most reliable in continuous operation so
of a large district heating system. The steam turbine can be
proper consideration should be given to sizing and the use
designed either as an extraction condensing unit or a back-
of thermal stores to modulate the heat use in building
pressure turbine. The former will be of benefit if there are
schemes. Capital costs remain high compared to bio-liquid

significant times of the year when the heat demand is lower
chp, but due to the relatively lower cost of solid biomass
than the chp output and there are financial benefits from
against bio-liquid fuel, the returns in both operation and
maintaining electrical output.
investment can be attractive, especially where Government
incentives apply.
3.1.2 Air turbine
The use of solid biomass is generally seen as a more
Systems of this type use a micro-turbine supplied with air sustainable solution as woodland is often on land that is
heated from the combustion of the biomass. Additional unsuitable for large-scale agriculture thus avoiding com
heat recovery is obtained from the exhaust gases rejected by petition with food production. However the sustainability
the heat exchanger, which heats the air for the turbine. The of any biomass resource needs to be carefully considered in
benefit of this approach is that all of the components are the light of competing uses and scale of demand (CCC,
well proven. The disadvantage is that the micro-turbine is 2011).
relatively inefficient as the air temperature that can be
supplied is limited. The electrical efficiency is around 20%, The UK Government is currently promoting the sustainable
thermal efficiency about 50%. management of woodlands through various grant schemes,
leading to more fuel sources becoming available.
3.1.3 Organic Rankine cycle (ORC)
Gasification of biomass and use in chp can provide a more
Biomass chp systems based on orc technology are now efficient use of biomass in terms of CO2 saved per unit of
commercially available from a few manufacturers in Europe biomass fuel provided the heat produced is well utilised.
but there is limited experience in the UK. These systems
use an organic working fluid with a lower boiling point Wood chip size and moisture content are likely to be the
than water/steam, such as freon or an organic solvent. This most important aspects of uniformity but gasifier
allows the system to work more efficiently at lower dimensions and internal design are also critical design
temperatures and pressures, and at smaller scales more elements.
suited to biomass fuel. Electrical outputs are typically in
the range 200 kWe to 2.0 MWe, with thermal to electrical
output typically around 5:1. The main drawback is the
relatively high capital cost.
3.1.4 Stirling engine
The Stirling engine operates with an external heat source

so the products of combustion are separated from the
working fluid. Some small-scale biomass chp systems are
now commercially available. The electrical efficiency is
relatively low so a building with a high heat demand
relative to electrical demand would be preferred.
3.2 Biogas CHP using gasification

of solid biomass fuel
Gasification systems turn biomass material into a fuel Figure 3.1 Biomass gasifier used for chp (courtesy of the University of
known as synthesis gas or syngas. This gas is then burned East Anglia)
Tar problems can be minimised by operating at the approved by the Office of the Gas and Electricity Markets
appropriate temperatures, which will vary depending on (Ofgem).
the type of plant.
The liquid fuels currently available for chp are:
The production of biochar from the gasifier/pyrolysis plant
is potentially beneficial to the economics and overall —— 100% biodiesel
sustainability of the process.
—— pure vegetable oil, e.g. rape seed oil
3.3 Liquid biofuel CHP —— bioethanol

—— generator fuel derived from waste oils from the food
Liquid biofuels (also known as ‘bioliquids’) are likely to be industry.
well suited to chp engine applications as some may have
been developed for vehicle applications. As a result, higher
electrical efficiencies can be achieved compared to other Information on the CO2 content (and other greenhouse
renewable chp technologies. The main concerns with this gases) of some bioliquids used for transport applications
technology are as follows: can be obtained from the Department for Environment,
Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA, 2011). However it is
—— The land taken for the production of the feedstock recommended that fuel-specific factors are obtained from
for bioliquids may compete with food crops. other sources or from suppliers, as knowledge in this area is
However, in many circumstances bioliquids are still developing.
produced from crops that are grown within the
practice of sustainable agriculture as part of

a standard crop rotation. 3.4 Energy from waste
—— Where there is a change of land use to grow crops
for fuel the different CO2 impacts of the change of 3.4.1 Large-scale combustion and
land use need to be considered. steam turbines
—— There may be a more beneficial application for the
fuel than use in chp for buildings. The most established waste-to-energy technology is mass
combustion (incineration) to raise steam for a steam turbine
—— There is limited long-term operating experience generator. Typically these are large-scale plants handling
with engines operating on these fuels. over 100 000 tonnes p.a. of waste. The steam turbine can be
—— The price of the fuel is relatively high. used as a chp plant either with steam extraction or as a
back-pressure turbine if there is sufficient base-load heat
—— The maintenance costs are higher. demand. Typically such plants supply large district heating
—— NOx emissions are higher than for natural gas schemes, such as those in Sheffield (see Figure 3.3) and
engines, but can be mitigated through using higher Nottingham.
flue stacks.
—— The energy used for processing some fuels can be 3.4.2 Landfill gas
high increasing the carbon content.
Landfill gas is produced when waste that has been landfilled
—— There is a need to store the fuel on-site and in some
releases a methane rich gas. This can be used as fuel in gas
cases keep its temperature above a minimum level.
engines to produce electricity and in this form has been one
of the largest contributors of renewable electricity in recent
Set against these disadvantages is the potential to achieve years. It would be possible to obtain heat from the gas
higher chp electrical efficiency and also to receive financial engine in a similar way to conventional gas engines and
incentives such as Renewable Obligation Certificates supply a district heating network. An alternative approach
(ROCs). To receive ROCs the chp installation needs to be would be to pipe the landfill gas to a location closer to the
buildings and site the gas engine at that location.
Figure 3.3 The Sheffield energy from waste plant, which supplies the
Figure 3.2 Rapeseed oil energy centre (courtesy of LowC Communities city’s district heating network (courtesy of Veolia Environmental
Ltd) Services (UK) plc)
Part
3.4.3 Anaerobic digestion (AD) year. In the summer period, the heat available from the chp
is likely to be greater than the heat demand so surplus low
This process is used to treat organic wastes to produce a carbon heat is available, assuming the chp is sized to supply
biogas that can be used directly in spark-ignition gas some of the space heating demand. chp is unlikely to be
engines to produce electricity with some of the heat from sized to meet the peak heating demand so the use of boilers
the engine used to drive the process. There is the potential in peak winter conditions would be expected. The chp unit
for additional heat recovery, which could be used to supply may not operate at night due to the low electricity price
a district heating scheme. The digestate produced as a although correct sizing of the unit and the use of thermal
byproduct from the process can be used as a liquid fertiliser. stores can be used to meet any heat demand at night.
The volumes of waste and digestate are significant, so to
reduce transport costs the ad plants are normally sited in The above operating characteristics mean that integration
rural areas close to the source of farm wastes. In the future with other renewable energy sources needs to be carefully
with food waste segregation ad plants may become more considered to maximise the opportunities of the site:
widespread thereby providing opportunities for heat
—— If there is surplus heat in summer, solar thermal
recovery.
systems will not be appropriate with chp as
currently they would offer only a small CO2 saving
3.4.4 Advanced thermal treatment of waste compared to operating the chp plant. However, in
the future this could change as electricity emission
factors fall and CO2 content of heat from chp rises.
3.4.4.1 Gasification
Using solar thermal with chp will reduce the
operating hours of the chp unit, which would
This process can be applied to general waste streams and

reduce its economic advantage.
involves heating the waste with restricted oxygen levels
which breaks down the material and releases a syngas, part —— If there is a need for peak heat demands to be met
of which is used to provide heating for the process. The from boilers in winter then biomass boilers could
surplus heat is used for the production of steam and a steam have a role; a thermal store is recommended in this
turbine generator used for electricity production. This case.
provides the potential for the plant to operate in chp mode
to supply a district heating network. This technology is Solar photovoltaic panels will generate most in summer
relatively new, a recent example being at Newport, Isle of when the chp output is lower and could therefore
Wight. complement chp operation if the site electricity demand is
relatively constant over the year. Small-scale wind would be
3.4.4.2 Pyrolysis similarly compatible with chp but is likely to generate more
electricity in winter.
The pyrolysis process involves heating the waste in the
absence of oxygen and again a syngas can be produced. 3.7 Integration of CHP with
This type of plant can be smaller-scale and the syngas could
be used with a gas engine with heat recovery for supplying heat pumps
a district heating system. Pyrolysis processes can also be
designed to produce bio-oil. The solid byproduct biochar is Heat pumps are another form of low carbon heat with very
of interest as a soil conditioner and for carbon sequestration. similar characteristics to chp. Whereas a chp plant sacrifices
These plants can be smaller-scale and could therefore be electrical efficiency to produce heat at a useful temperature,
more easily integrated with urban district heating. An a heat pump requires electricity to raise the temperature of
example is the plant at Avonmouth, Somerset. the heat drawn from ambient sources.
As chp and heat pumps are a higher capital cost than

3.5 Biomethane injection boilers, both will typically be sized to supply base heat load
and achieve long running hours and therefore are unlikely
A further option for the future use of renewable fuels is the to be compatible technologies.
production of biogas and conversion to biomethane of a
suitable quality to inject into the national gas grid. By this Heat pumps are most suited to low temperature applications
means, chp can continue to use the national gas supply and such as underfloor heating and fresh air heating as the
operate at high efficiencies but with a progressively coefficient of performance is related to the temperature at
decreasing carbon content and an increasing renewable which the heat is supplied. Heat pumps are also more
fuel content. A few examples of biomethane injection based efficient when using elevated temperature heat sources, for
on anaerobic digestion processes have been implemented example heat rejection from cooling systems for buildings
in the UK and a major study for National Grid (National where there is domestic hot water heating and a cooling
Grid, 2009) concluded that there was significant potential demand in summer.
from this resource, equivalent to between 15% and 48% of
the residential gas demand. chp is more suited to higher temperature applications
including domestic hot water heating and district heating
where a higher flow temperature reduces the cost of the
3.6 Integration of CHP with district heating network.
renewable energy sources
With the current electricity emission factors, typically heat
A chp system is primarily designed to produce low carbon from chp has a lower carbon content than heat from heat
heat. The best economic case will be obtained when the chp pumps (see section 6, Figure 6.2). However in the future,
unit operates for the maximum number of hours in the when the electricity system has reduced its carbon
emissions, the two technologies will become similar in Determination of the heat and power demands will be made
performance. by studying graphically presented demand load data.
Whereas conventional heating and power plant ratings are
In the longer term, the marginal electricity emission factors set by maximum projected demands to cover seasonal
may vary significantly by season, time of day and as a result peaks, chp plant rating selection is affected by minimum
of the output of wind farms. In this situation a hybrid demands and seasonal and diurnal profiles. Consequently,
system using both chp and heat pumps combined with the building services engineer will need to be able to
significant heat storage could provide an optimum solution establish the instantaneous values of heat and power usage
whilst also contributing to the control of the national grid. during the projected operating period of the chp plant. In
practice, half-hourly or hourly data may be used. Using
averaged data for a whole day or week may hide too many
variations in demand level to be a safe method of assessing
4 CHP for individual buildings profiles, particularly for the final analysis and the choice of
chp plant.
Key points: In existing buildings, heat and power demands are

substantially predetermined although they may be altered
—— Use a load duration curve to study the demand by changing building occupancy, improving building
profiles. thermal efficiency, or adding new equipment or plant. The
—— Develop an operating model to simulate CHP chp designer may have only limited scope for altering peak
energy flows over the year with the appropriate demands or profiles. Demand profiles for new buildings
level of complexity. must be assumed from design data or other means.

—— Analyse a range of CHP sizes against a number of
economic and environmental parameters to Both existing and new building heat and power demand
establish an optimum size. profiles may be modified by the choice of plant. Examples
include:
—— Consider the benefits of thermal storage.
—— hws calorifiers utilising chp heat, rather than
electric heating at point of use
4.1 Introduction —— absorption chilling plant utilising chp heat rather
than power to produce the desired chilling.
The economic and environmental benefits of a chp scheme,
whether for new or existing buildings, are determined by a chp units will be most effective in buildings where the ratio
number of factors: of heat demand to power demand is steady throughout the
day between 1.3:1 and 2.0:1. However, even if these
—— building heat and power demand profiles conditions do not apply chp may still be viable — the main
—— fuel and electricity tariffs factor influencing feasibility is the operating hours of the
chp plant. The operating hours may be improved by
—— chp plant rating and efficiencies connecting together buildings with different demand
patterns, e.g. a school or office and residential buildings or
—— chp maintenance costs
by the use of a correctly sized thermal store.
—— chp plant running hours.
Heat demand profiles can be visualised in a number of
Although the above factors are shown as distinct items, ways. Particularly useful is the load duration curve, which
they are all interlinked. For the successful application of
3000
any chp scheme, all the factors must be assessed together.
Heat demand / kW
For any application, there may be a broad range of possible 2500

solutions but only a limited number of optimum solutions. 2000
In this section, the fundamental factors and how they 1500
interact are examined.
1000
This section discusses chp for individual buildings 500
although much of the information is also relevant for 0
district heating schemes connecting a number of buildings 0 249 497 745 993 1241 1489 1737 1985 2233 2481 2729 2977
together. The application of chp to district heating is Hours
discussed in more detail in section 5. Figure 4.1 Load duration curve for an office building
For a detailed discussion of environmental benefits, see 120

Percentage of total heat
section 6. 100
80
60
4.2 Building heating, cooling and 40
electrical demands 20
0
The application of a chp scheme in a building depends –20
initially upon the presence of heat and power demands and 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
the extent to which they are compatible with, or close to, CHP heat input rate / kW
the optimum duty cycle of any prospective chp plant. Figure 4.2 Proportion of load supplied against chp capacity
Part
takes the demand in each hour and plots this in descending —— A simpler approach would be to use a 24-hour
order. This enables the annual demand that can be met model for a typical day in each month (or a typical
from a given chp capacity to be determined (see Figures 4.1 weekday and weekend day in each month). However
and 4.2). For this example 80% of the annual demand can the daily profiles still need to be determined for
be supplied with a chp unit sized at about 30% of the peak each month. There is a loss of accuracy as the
demand. variation of demand within each month is not
captured.
4.3 Fuel and electricity tariffs —— A further option is to assume a day/night split of
demand and calculate averages for each month.
This is clearly a simplification as the 24-hour
The operating cost benefit of chp, i.e. the difference between
variation in demand is not modelled. This may not
the cost of power and heat generated by chp plant and the
be too much of a disadvantage if a thermal store is
same power and heat generated conventionally, will depend
included in the scheme which is sufficiently large
on the fuel and electricity prices. Where the electricity
to result in a smoothed profile.
price is relatively high compared to fuel, chp will achieve
high savings, but with low electricity prices and high fuel —— Another approach is to divide the demand profile
prices savings will reduce. The difference between into a series of slices or ‘bins’ and calculate the chp
electricity and gas prices is often referred to as the ‘spark- operation for each of these slices before summing
gap’ or ‘spark spread’. It is important to be aware of the for the year. The disadvantage of this approach is
sensitivity of the economic savings to the relative difference that it is not easy to reflect the variations in
in energy prices. If both electricity and gas prices rise electricity and fuel prices that are related to the
together then the saving from chp operation will also time of day or month of the year.
increase. The savings may be negative (losses) on night rate
electricity, particularly if the unit is operating at part load Whereas in most engineering calculations it is possible to
in this period. make simplifications that result in a conservative or
pessimistic answer, simplifying a chp model generally will
The cost of electricity generated by a gas engine chp result in a more optimistic result with respect to the chp
generator will be constant throughout the day, since gas operating hours and hence the economic return.
tariffs are independent of time of day (this is the case for
smaller contracts — larger schemes could obtain gas Although developing an hour by hour model is the best
contracts with varying prices through the year). The cost of approach (and, in the absence of metered data, demand
imported electricity varies through the day for many tariffs. profiles can be predicted or modelled assuming typical
In the seasonal time of day (stod) tariffs the variation can occupancy patterns and external temperatures), in some
be very marked during winter month peak hours. cases it may be sufficient to use a monthly model,
particularly where the availability of data is limited.
However the night/day split that typically is a function of
4.4 Principles of CHP sizing both heat demand and electricity price should always be
modelled as the differences in night and day operational
Once an understanding of the site’s heat and electricity costs and heat demand are normally significant.
demand profile has been established the designer is then
faced with the task of deciding on the size of the chp. The operating model should be able to:
—— determine whether the chp is worth operating
There is no straightforward way to size a chp. Some based on the relative fuel and electricity prices in
guidance recommends sizing only to meet the lowest each time period considered
demand that occurs — the base-load that will result in the
longest running hours and the shortest payback period. —— determine the output of the chp to follow the heat
However this is not necessarily the most economically demand or electricity demand taking account of
advantageous approach and certainly would limit the part-load operation, and hence the chp fuel used
amount of CO2 savings that could be achieved on a given —— establish the heat needed from the peak and standby
site. boilers and hence the boiler fuel use
The recommendations given below are a more rigorous —— make allowance for chp downtime for maintenance
approach to the problem and allow both economic and —— include any constraints on number of starts
environmental benefits to be assessed. (especially for gas turbines)
—— model the operation of a thermal store
4.4.1 Constructing an operating model
—— determine the net import or export of electricity
It would be normal practice to use a spreadsheet model to and its costs/revenue
carry out the calculations. This model can be constructed —— calculate the operating costs to compare with the
in a number of ways: non-chp conventional operating costs.
—— The most accurate would be to use an hour by hour
model over a whole year with heat and electricity 4.4.2 Evaluating CHP options
demand profiles representing an average year. This
is the recommended approach for new buildings Once the operating model has been set up it is necessary to
where dynamic simulation modelling has been run a number of cases for a range of chp sizes starting with
carried out or for existing sites with actual metered a size that just meets the lowest demand (base-load sizing)
demand data. and increasing the capacity until say 90% of the annual heat
demand is satisfied by the chp plant. To carry out the the year. There comes a point when the additional
calculations it is necessary to have the following data for capital cost for a larger size cannot be justified on
each size of chp unit: the fewer hours of operation. Note that this
economic comparator gives different results to
—— capital cost
maximising the irr, which will tend to result in a
—— efficiencies smaller chp size that is simply maximising running
hours and meeting baseload demand.
—— maintenance costs
—— As the chp size increases the CO2 savings will
—— minimum turndown ratios
increase. This is a result of the chp unit delivering
—— impact of number of starts. more of the heat demand. However, without a
thermal store, if the chp is too large it will have to
It is also necessary to carry out a net present value (npv) shut down in periods of low demand or reject
calculation for each option (see section 8.9) and a CO2 surplus heat. Hence there is typically an optimum
emissions reduction calculation (see section 6.2). size which maximises the running hours and hence
the CO2 savings.
The criteria for project evaluation are typically:
500
—— maximise the internal rate of return (irr) (or Boiler heat produced
450
minimise the payback period) for the project
CHP heat output for
investment 400
heating MW·h
—— maximise the npv of the project investment 350 Total space heating
300 and DHW demand

—— minimise the net present cost (the negative of npv) MW·h
of energy supply to the site. 250
200
In addition, clients may also wish to take into account CO2
150
savings for each option. A value for the CO2 saved can be
included in the economic calculations if desired. 100
50
Selecting a chp size to provide the shortest payback period
0
and highest irr may not be the best option in terms of Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
minimising the total cost of energy supply for the site. This Figure 4.3 chp size too small; this will produce good payback for chp
is because the highest irr will tend to result in a chp sized but limited impact on site energy costs
to meet the baseload and therefore have the longest
operating hours. A baseload chp will however have least 500
impact on the site’s energy costs as a whole, taking account 450
Boiler heat produced
of boiler fuel use. Hence for most clients, minimising the CHP heat output for
net present cost for the total site energy demands will be 400
heating MW·h
more appropriate. 350 Total space heating
300 and DHW demand
In general it is better to undersize chp than oversize, as heat
MW·h
demands are often overestimated and can reduce over time 250
as a result of energy efficiency improvements. 200
150
Typical results from such a sizing exercise will examine a
range of chp sizes as in Figures 4.3 to 4.5. Figure 4.3 100
represents a baseload sizing that maximises the chp plant’s 50
operating hours and will produce the shortest payback 0
period. Figure 4.4 shows a large chp installation that meets Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
much of the winter demand but is oversized for the summer Figure 4.4 chp size is too large; the chp cannot supply heat in summer
period when boilers have to be used. The operating hours when demand is low
are much reduced accordingly. Figure 4.5 shows a chp size 500
that seeks to minimise the total costs of energy supply for Boiler heat produced
the site taking account of capital and operating costs. The 450
size is such that the summer demand can still be supplied 400 CHP heat output for
heating MW·h
from the chp plant. 350 Total space heating
300 and DHW demand
Figure 4.6 represents typical results for a chp project and
MW·h
shows the irr, net present cost and CO2 emissions for a 250
range of chp sizes. 200
The results show that: 150

100
—— As the chp size increases the npv increases to a
maximum and then falls. There is therefore an 50
optimum size that maximises npv. This optimum 0
occurs as a larger chp unit will produce a greater Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
saving per hour of operation but will have a higher Figure 4.5 chp size that may be optimum to minimise life cycle costs of
capital cost and will operate for fewer hours over heat supply
Part
The comparison can result in two optimum points based on —— the expected trading value through the CRC Energy
either maximum npv or maximum CO2 savings. To resolve Efficiency Scheme or through the European
this issue, two approaches can be taken: Union’s Energy Trading Scheme.
—— Include a value for the CO2 saved and re-run the
economic model with the CO2 saving creating an 4.4.3 Operation of CHP in low demand
additional revenue stream. (summer) periods
—— Calculate the cost per tonne of CO2 saved for each
If a baseload chp size is not the selected solution then
increment of chp capacity and determine with the
consideration needs to be given as to how the chp will
client what additional capacity can be justified
operate when heat demands are lower than its rated heat
when the chp investment is compared with other
output. A number of options can be evaluated:
options to save CO2.
—— Operation at part-load: This is the most straight
The value of carbon could be derived from: forward. However there is a loss of efficiency and
maintenance costs will increase. This is because
—— the shadow price of carbon published by the maintenance contracts are normally written in
Government terms of a charge per hour run, not on the basis of
electricity generation.
30
—— Use of multiple chp units: Using two or more chp
units would allow better load following and two
units of different sizes provide the greatest
25
flexibility. However there will be higher capital and
20
maintenance costs from using two units and also
some loss of efficiency (see below).
IRR / %
15 —— Use of a thermal store: A thermal store would enable

the chp to operate at full output for fewer hours in
10 the low demand period instead of modulating
down. The surplus heat would be stored for later in
5 the day when the chp would be turned off.
0 —— Heat rejection: To avoid part-load operation the
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 excess heat could be rejected to maintain chp
CHP capacity / kW operation at full electrical output. This may have a
cost and environmental penalty (see below).
500 In practice more than one of these approaches may be used.
450
400
4.4.4 Export of electricity
Net present value / kW
350
300 The above discussion has focused particularly on heat.
250 Where the chp electricity is all sold to a licensed supplier,
200
i.e. there is no host site to take the electricity generated
directly, then optimising on heat demand will be correct.
150
Where there is the potential for export of electricity there
100 are additional complexities. If the electricity generated is
50 only a small part of the site demand it will be sufficient to
0 assume that the electricity generated displaces the incoming
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 electricity. Where the chp output is similar to the site
CHP capacity / kW demand it is possible that the electricity supplier will
change the selling price to reflect the change in load factor
for the site, which can significantly affect the npv of a
1400
potential project. Therefore the price structure that would
1200 result from the installation of chp should be carefully
evaluated. Where there is significant export, the net
CO2 savings / tonnes p.a.
1000 electricity income could fall off sharply as export prices are
much lower than import prices (typically 30–50% lower).
800 This can be a limiting factor on the size of the chp that can
600
be installed.
400
4.4.5 Multiple units
200
In addition to sizing of a single chp it is also likely that the
0 option of using two or more chp units will need to be
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
evaluated. The same approach can be used. The capital
CHP capacity / kW costs for two chp units will be higher than one unit of the
Figure 4.6 Internal rate of return, net present value and CO2 savings same total capacity and the maintenance costs higher and
versus chp size the performance slightly less efficient. However the
advantage is that some maintenance can be programmed to heat demands are lower than forecast by the original
take place in periods of low demand when one engine can designers, especially if there have been subsequent fabric
be kept in operation, improving the overall availability, and efficiency improvements to the building. If heat emitters
that periods of low demand can be supplied from one are oversized it is possible to reduce the flow temperature
engine, improving the percentage of heat that can be and rebalance the heat emitters to reduce return
supplied. It is not necessary to have two equal sized units temperatures.
— greater flexibility is achieved by having two different
sizes. Again there is no substitute for detailed modelling of There is some flexibility in the design of chp systems with
this option against the demand profiles. varying degrees of heat recovery as shown in Table 4.1. The
values for individual engines may differ from these figures
For small-scale chp (<50 kWe) there is unlikely to be a so discussions with the chp supplier at an early stage is
significant capital or maintenance penalty for multiple advisable.
units and therefore their use is attractive as it offers a
significant gain in flexibility. These units are supplied with Heat rejection equipment may be required if the
a control system that provides automatic sequencing of the temperatures for heat demand and heat supply from chp
units to follow electricity or heat demand. are not compatible; for example, the heat from the second-
stage intercooler is frequently rejected as the heat demand
is normally above 40 °C. Clearly any heat rejection reduces
4.4.6 Heat rejection the benefits of having chp and will need to be limited. Heat
rejection may also be included to provide greater flexibility
For a relatively small cost it is possible to include a heat in operation.
rejection system in the design. This can be achieved by
means of an air blast radiator or by a bypass damper in the In larger systems where part of the demand is required as
chp exhaust. This results in additional flexibility in that steam and part as hot water it is possible to have a low
the chp can continue to generate full electrical output even pressure steam-raising heat exchanger in the exhaust and
when the heat demand is low. It can be economic to operate separate heat recovery for low temperature hot water from
in this manner if the electricity price is relatively high the engine jacket/oil cooler circuit. This is often achieved
compared to the gas price. It may still be better in terms of by ducting the chp exhaust to a fired shell steam boiler
CO2 reduction to operate with an element of heat rejection modified to accept this exhaust gas flow to supplement its
depending on the electricity emissions factor used and the output. Exhaust gas can also be used directly as the heat
relative efficiencies of chp and boilers. source for an absorption chiller.
If the majority of the heat demand is high temperature or

4.5 Design of building heating steam, and if the site is large enough, a gas turbine could be
systems to benefit considered where all of the heat (typically >3 MWe) is
CHP operation available as high temperature exhaust gases.
Many of the problems of poor chp performance are a result The building services heating system will assist the chp
of inadequate attention to the integration of chp into the operation if it is designed with low return temperatures
heating circuit design. Analysis of the design is necessary at
all part-load operating conditions, not just under maximum Table 4.1 Operating temperatures on building services systems and heat
demand. recovery opportunities
Flow temperature Return temperature Constraints
There are a number of key objectives for the integration of
chp: — <40 ºC Heat recovery from
second-stage intercooler
(1) The chp unit should operate in preference to the possible
boilers at all times.
— <50 ºC Condensing exhaust
(2) The chp unit output remains at maximum when heat exchanger possible
boilers need to be used to meet the demand. 80 ºC (max.) As low as possible Small-scale chp
but <60 ºC
(3) The heat recovery from the chp unit is optimised.
90 ºC 70–75 ºC Standard conditions
(4) The chp unit should always be able to generate suitable for most chp
heat, even at part-load. units
(5) The building heating system should be designed so — >75 ºC Risk of chp tripping out
that return temperatures do not result in the chp if this temperature is
unit shutting down unnecessarily. exceeded
>100 ºC — Leaks will result in flash
steam
Operating temperatures with spark-ignition gas engine
110 ºC 70 ºC This is feasible if the
For new buildings the designer has the opportunity to heat recovery is in two
stages with the higher
select flow and return temperatures for the heating circuits
temperatures from the
to suit the chp plant, condensing boilers and the design of exhaust boiler
the heat emitters.
Low pressure steam Two separate heat
In retrofit situations, the existing operating temperatures from exhaust; 90 ºC recovery circuits
hot water from jacket
will be a constraint. Often heat emitters are oversized and
Part
(e.g. below 70 °C and preferably lower) and a variable 4.6.2 Applications with potential for CHP
volume control system. This will reduce the risk of the chp
shutting down prematurely as a result of rising return chp plant is less commonly applied in the applications
temperatures under part-load conditions. Low return shown in Table 4.3, but these are nonetheless contenders
temperatures also enable thermal storage to be incorporated for further consideration.
more effectively as the amount of energy stored per unit of
volume increases. Further discussion of the design of Any building that includes a swimming pool should be
heating circuits for chp is given in section 9. viewed as having the potential for a chp scheme for both
domestic and pool water heating.
4.6 Building applications most If the heat/power profile of a building does not immediately
suitable for CHP seem appropriate, further analysis may identify alternative
conditions that would improve the viability. Examples
Building heat and power loads and profiles are, to a greater include:
or lesser extent, dependent on occupancy. Hence, buildings
—— Using heat-driven absorption or adsorption chilling
that are suitable for chp schemes are those where occupancy
plant to extend the base load heat demand into the
and energy use regimes normally extend beyond the normal
summer months. Absorption chillers may save CO2
9 to 5 weekday office hours.
and avoid the use of greenhouse gases as refrigerants.
Buildings with high domestic hot water heating demands —— Energy linking with other nearby buildings that
are attractive as they will provide the opportunity for the have a complementary heat/power profile. This is
chp to operate in summer. the basis on which university systems are often suc
cessful where accommodation units and academic
The connection of buildings of different types in a mixed buildings exist on the same campus.
use scheme or through district heating will generally result
in longer operating hours.
Table 4.3 Less common applications for chp schemes
It is important to estimate how the demand may vary over Application Reason
a typical 24-hour period as assuming a uniform average
demand is likely to result in an optimistic assessment of Offices/town halls Especially where normal occupancy extends
into the evening; may be combined with
chp.
absorption chilling
Museums Need to maintain stable temperature conditions,
4.6.1 Common applications of CHP independently of opening hours
Buildings that have historically proved suitable for chp

Data centres Year round cooling demand
schemes are shown in Table 4.2. Prisons 24-hour occupancy
Schools Extended occupancy, particularly for:
Table 4.2 Suitable applications for chp schemes — boarding schools
— schools with swimming pools
Application Reason — adult education centres
Swimming pools Continuous demand for pool heating and pump Large retail stores and Extended operating hours; potential benefit
power. High demand for domestic hot water shopping centres from an associated absorption chilling plant
Leisure centres Operate from early morning to late evening.
High demand for domestic hot water
Hospitals 24-hour operation. Need high ambient
temperatures for patient care. High demand for
domestic hot water
4.7 CHP to improve security of
Residential homes Elderly residents needing high ambient
electricity supply
temperatures. High demand for domestic hot
water
The presence of a chp generator could provide the security
Hotels Long operating hours, need to maintain of being able to maintain an energy supply in the event of a
customer comfort. Often include leisure failure in the public electricity supply. The extent to which
facilities. High demand for domestic hot water
this will apply will depend upon the way in which the
District heating Potential for long operating hours due to electrical system is configured.
linking of buildings with differing demand
profiles and economies of scale
University campus Office/teaching areas require heat during the Careful consideration must be given to the final arrangement
day and for evening activities. Accommodation to resolve the potentially conflicting requirements of chp
areas require heat early morning and evenings plant (i.e. near continuous running, load limitations and
maintenance requirements) and conventional standby
Military sites and 24-hour operation and occupancy. Requirement
barracks for standby generating capacity for critical
generators (i.e. low running hours, high availability and
operational facilities. Normally centralised independence of standby supply).
domestic hot water for accommodation blocks
Police, fire and 24-hour operation and occupancy. Requirement In particular, chp should not be used for life safety systems
ambulance stations for standby generating capacity for critical
as there will be significant downtime for chp maintenance.
operational facilities
Separate diesel standby generators should always be used.
Additional electrical protection will be required to ensure be used directly in the building’s heating system (direct
that systems can safely be returned to normal operation on connection) or through a heat exchanger (indirect
restoration of the public supply. connection). A direct connection can also be used with a
mixing system where the flow temperature in the building
Where standby operation is considered, the load connected heating system can be lower than in the dh network.
to the generator under distribution network operator (dno)
failure conditions must be within the generator’s rating.
An efficient dh system will have a flow/return differential
Load shedding arrangements may be required, but may be
temperature between 30 °C and 50 °C to reduce flow rates
difficult and expensive to achieve. Gas engines cannot
on the network and keep pipe sizes small. The system will
accommodate as large a step change in load as diesel engines
also be more efficient if return temperatures do not rise
so if a chp unit is being used for standby purposes, the load
under part load conditions as this would involve additional
will need to be controlled to avoid step changes in load
pumping energy and heat losses from the return pipe. The
greater than about 30% of maximum output.
use of two-port control valves and variable flow systems
within the building heating systems is therefore strongly
Where standby plants can be run on peak-lopping or
recommended.
regional peak export duty during winter months (stor
contracts) when tariff margins are greatest, the additional
cost to upgrade to chp plant operation may well be A dh network will need to ensure that the flow temperature
worthwhile. In these circumstances, the savings on power is maintained above a set level at all points of the network
import charges and reductions in plant operation may be and this typically is achieved by using bypasses to maintain
recovered, even if running hours are as low as 1000 hours a minimum flow rate. The best system is where these
per year. bypasses are temperature controlled to avoid unnecessary

bypass flows, which would add to pumping energy.
5 Application of CHP to The dh system will operate as a variable flow system and
variable speed pumps should be used to minimise energy
supply district heating consumption using pressure differential sensors within the
network to control pump speed. Often multiple pumps are
used to enable the flow rate and head requirements to be
followed more closely.
Key points:
—— The difference between flow and return
temperatures for district heating should be at
A fundamental requirement for a dh network is that the
least 30 °C. design flow rate can be supplied to all customers during
maximum demand periods. This means that the flow rate
—— Heat emitters and domestic hot water heating into each customer’s connection must be limited regardless
systems should be designed to achieve low return of the differential pressure on the network. This is most
temperatures.
easily achieved using a differential pressure control valve
—— Controls should be variable volume (two-port (dpcv) to limit the pressure across the heat exchanger or
control valves) to maintain low return control valve, or across the building heating system in the
temperatures at part-load and minimise case of direct connection. The dpcv is then adjusted (using
pumping energy. a balancing valve in addition, if necessary) to set the
—— Where bypasses are included the bypass flow rate required design flow rate.
should be limited and controlled so as to
maintain a minimum flow temperature in the
network. In addition to chp plant of all types and scale, dh networks
can be supplied with heat from:
—— fossil fuel boilers

5.1 Principles of district heating
—— biomass boilers
District heating (dh) is not an energy supply technology; it
is only a means of transporting heat to a number of buildings —— industrial waste heat sources with a heat pump to
such that a wider variety of heat sources can be used. In raise the temperature if necessary
addition, the inclusion in the dh scheme of buildings of
varied type, size, age and occupancy patterns results in a —— large-scale solar thermal systems
diversity of demand that tends to reduce peaks and provide
more continuous demands. This can be advantageous for —— large-scale heat pump systems, especially with
chp systems and other high capital cost plant where longer
ground or river as the heat source or in combination
running hours will improve the economic case. with district cooling
Note: many of the principles set out below are also applicable
—— deep geothermal heat.
to any large heating circuit and the distinction between
district heating and building services heating design is
somewhat arbitrary. The efficiency of heat pumps depends strongly on the
temperature at which heat is supplied as well as the tempera
A dh network consists of flow and return pipes connecting ture of the heat source. This means that the flow temperature
each building’s heating system to a centralised pumping from a dh network supplied by a heat pump will probably
arrangement. At the building connections the dh water can be below 80 °C for efficiency reasons.
Part
5.2 Typical applications of 5.4 Efficient design of DH systems

DH and CHP to benefit CHP operation
A dh network is a significant capital investment and any 5.4.1 New buildings or buildings with
scheme should be seen as a long-term strategic infrastructure extensive refurbishment
suitable for sites with a long life. The advantage of dh is
that, provided routes for the pipework are carefully chosen,
alterations to any given building will not have a major If new building services are being specified to operate in
impact on the operation of the central plant. In this respect conjunction with a dh supply there is the potential to
a chp system supplying a dh scheme is more flexible than if optimise the design to the benefit of the dh system.
chp were to be installed in each building in an area.
Ultimately this will lead to lower energy supply costs and
lower CO2 emissions, even though the initial cost for the
building services may be slightly higher. The main design
Typical applications where a diversity of demand will lead principles to be followed are:
to more constant heat loads and longer running hours for
chp include: —— Selection of low operating temperatures and
especially low return temperatures. Typical space
heating circuit temperatures of 60–70 °C flow and
—— New mixed use developments including housing, offices,
40 °C return should be considered.
retail and leisure: this type of scheme has the
potential for reasonable summer heat demands for —— Selection of hot water heating systems to deliver
domestic hot water, daytime heating demands from low return temperatures using the dh supply;
offices and retail and evening heat demands from typically this would involve:
leisure and housing.
(a) instantaneous plate heat exchangers to
—— University campus: a wide range of academic meet peak hot water demands
buildings often exists including laboratories where
high air change rates can lead to significant heat (b) storage of hot water but with heating
demands. If student accommodation is provided on provided by external plate heat exchangers.
the campus, this will result in extended heating
through the evening. Many universities, libraries The domestic hot water heat exchangers should be sized to
and leisure facilities function with long opening give a dh return temperature of 40 °C (preferably lower).
hours. Student accommodation is often used in the Storage calorifiers should be avoided as the return tempera
summer for short courses and conferences. tures will be higher than the stored temperature except at
cold start-up.
5.3 Selling electricity and private Variable volume control systems should be used with two-
wire networks port control valves to ensure return temperatures on the dh
network do not rise at part-load.
Unlike a building or campus application, a chp plant
installed to supply a district heating network may not be Bypass flows in the heating circuit should be avoided to
displacing imported electricity but will have to sell prevent rising return temperatures at part-load. If bypasses
electricity to a customer that may not have any connection are necessary to maintain flow temperatures they should be
with the heat supply. There are a number of options temperature controlled and only open to allow the
available: minimum flow rate when needed.
—— selling to a licensed supplier who will then sell on A design and control system that ensures that heat is taken
to their customers from the dh network as the priority heat source and that if
boilers within the building are retained for use in peak
—— direct sale to a large electricity user using a periods the heat taken from the dh network remains at its
dedicated cable connection maximum level when the boilers operate.
—— sale to one or more customers using the existing Correct commissioning is needed to ensure that the
distribution network operator (dno) infrastructure intended design return temperatures are achieved. There
through paying use of system charges will always be a tendency in commissioning to have higher
return temperatures than design and higher heating circuit
flow rates as this will be seen as providing greater margin.
—— direct sales to the buildings in the area using a
This approach should be avoided.
private wire network
—— ‘netting off ’ chp generation as part of a large The location of the dh heat exchanger in the circuit is an
electricity sales contract. important consideration to achieve the above objectives.
Where on-site boilers are installed or retained, the heat
exchanger can be in either a series or parallel arrangement
For a private network, terms will need to be offered for the with the boilers, however, if it is in parallel a common
use of the system by other electricity suppliers if competition header bypass should be avoided and the dh heat exchanger
on electricity supply is to be maintained. and boilers should have separate shunt pumps.
Energy centre DH network Building connection (indirect) Building heating system
Controls
(D) (E) (H)

Thermal (J)
store (B)
Peak (A)
CHP M
boiler (F)
(C)
(G)
(A) Thermal store to minimise use of (D) Differential pressure control valve to limit (G) Plate heat exchanger sized for close
peak boiler maximum flow and limit pressure across return temperatures
control valve (E)
(B) Variable speed pumps with a range (H) Two-port control valve to maintain low
of duties to suit demand pattern (E) Two-port control valve to ensure variable return temperature
volume in DH network and to vary secondary
(C) Temperature controlled bypass at temperature (J) Heat emitters sized to give low return
extremities of network temperature
(F) Heat meter to encourage careful use of
energy
Figure 5.1 Features of an efficient district heating system
5.4.2 Existing buildings The above considerations should ensure that the peak
demand situation is satisfactory. At part load conditions the
For existing buildings the dh supply may meet the peak dh network energy (pumping and heat loss) can be
demand of the building or supply only part of the demand minimised by ensuring that return temperatures do not
with peak demands being met by boilers installed within rise above (and preferably fall below) the peak design return
the building. temperature. This will not be achieved if three-port control
valves are used. It would be preferable for such systems to
be converted to operate as variable volume, two-port control
5.4.2.1 DH supplies peak demand valves and it may be worth establishing with the dh
company how such a change could be financed through the
In this case the dh company will provide a heat exchanger heat service contract. The recommendations for new
that can be installed either in parallel with the boilers or in buildings above would then apply for the conversion works.
the return to the boilers. The dh company will wish to have These conversion works may be justified on the energy
return water at as low a temperature as possible and the savings generated within the building, irrespective of any
contract for the supply of heat may include penalties for district heating or chp benefit.
high return temperatures or incentive payments for lower
return temperatures. The maximum supply rate into the
building will be constrained by two factors: the size of the It is also possible that the operating temperatures could be
heat exchanger and the primary flow rate from the dh lowered, which will benefit the dh system. It is likely that
system. The flow rate will be determined by assumed return there will be a general oversizing of heat emitters as a result
temperature and if the secondary (building side) return of design margins or possibly as a result of improved
temperatures rise above this assumed value the heat insulation after the services were installed. It may be
delivered to the building will be lower than the agreed possible to examine bems data to see whether control valves
figure. It is therefore necessary for the building services are fully open at times of peak demand. If they are not then
designer to ensure that the temperatures set out in the this would indicate potential for reducing temperatures. A
contract can be achieved. The key issues are: gradual reduction in flow temperature whilst monitoring
internal conditions through a winter period would enable
—— Checking that the building circuit flow temperature the lowest maximum required flow temperature to be
does not exceed the design value at time of peak established.
demand (this will be a set point on the dh heat
exchanger control).
5.4.2.2 DH supplies part of demand
—— Limiting any bypasses in the heating system to the
minimum compatible with avoiding dead legs. It
would be preferable for such bypasses to be In this case the dh supplies part of the demand and there
temperature controlled. will be an agreed maximum supply rate so that the dh
network will only meet a proportion of the annual demand,
—— Ensuring that the system is balanced so that at with the building boilers being required to operate at times
times of peak demand the return temperature is at of peak demand.
design condition. This may require balancing of all
heat emitters and ahu coils in the building. This The guidance above should be followed but in addition:
re-balancing will not only help the dh network but
will also avoid unnecessary pumping energy on the —— the dh heat exchanger should be used as the priority
building system. heat source in preference to the boilers
Part
—— when the boilers are also required to operate, the

dh heat exchanger should continue to supply its
maximum heat output.
These requirements are most easily achieved by connecting

the dh heat exchanger into the return pipe before a common
header. This may require some pipework modifications to
combine the returns.
5.5 Use of thermal storage
The use of a thermal store in association with a chp system

(and often with other low carbon heating technology)
brings four potential advantages:
—— It enables heat demands greater than the maximum
output of the chp to be met from chp heat stored
earlier thus reducing the use of boilers and
increasing chp running hours.
—— It enables heat demands lower than the minimum
turndown of the chp to be met from chp heat stored

earlier reducing the use of boilers and increasing
chp running hours.
—— It enables the chp unit to operate at full output

rather than at part-load thus improving its
efficiency.
—— It allows heat demands to be supplied outside the
normal economic operating regime of the chp, e.g. Figure 5.2 Thermal store supplying a small district heating system
at night when electricity prices are low and it would (courtesy of Cofely District Energy Ltd.)
not be economic to run the chp thus reducing the
use of boilers.
5.5.1 Designing a thermal store
Thermal stores consist of a cylindrical vessel of hot water.

This should be installed between flow and return circuits
and will remain full of water at all times.
For a store located internally there will be space constraints,

and costs will also be dependent on volume. So it is prefer
able to reduce the size of the store as far as possible. This is
achieved by maximising the temperature difference between
flow and return on the heating circuit. As the flow tempera
ture is normally limited to about 90 °C, in practice this
means having as low a return temperature as is practicable.
The other benefit to having a large temperature difference

is that the depth of the mixing layer between the hotter
flow water and the cooler return water is smaller. The water Figure 5.3 Thermal store at the London 2012 Olympic Park (courtesy of
in this mixing layer cannot be delivered to the scheme so Cofely District Energy Ltd.)
the useful volume of the store is reduced by this amount.
The depth of the layer can be minimised as a proportion of
the volume of the store by:
—— having taller cylinders (i.e. large height to diameter
—— ensuring velocities at entry and exit are low by
ratio)
using large diameter pipe connections and baffle
—— by using low return temperatures, and therefore a plates.
greater difference in density between flow and
return
A higher flow temperature can be used for the chp and store
—— ensuring there is flow into the store only during circuit than that supplied to the building by using a variable
filling and recovering of energy, and no flow temperature mixing valve. This enables the maximum
through the store when the demand and supply is temperature difference to be achieved within the store so
matched that more heat energy can be stored.
5.5.2 Sizing of the thermal store High water quality needs to be maintained using chemical
and physical water treatment. Smaller pipe systems using
To establish the optimum size of the store it is necessary to low temperatures and pressures can use pre-insulated all-
use an hour by hour operating model preferably for the plastic systems with cross-linked polyethylene (pex) or
whole year, and to carry out a series of calculations with a polybutylene (pb) carrier pipes.
range of store sizes. The aim would be to optimise on the
npv or CO2 emissions savings, as described in section 4.4.
If it is considered that the most important aspect of the 6 Primary energy savings
store is to meet the demand at times when the chp is not
operating, then this would be a fairly straightforward
and environmental
calculation as the store would need to hold the heat energy impact of CHP
required to supply all of the heat demand in this period.
5.6 District cooling Key points:

—— The equivalent heat efficiency of CHP is given by:
Many of the principles outlined above apply equally to
district cooling (except that temperatures are reversed). CHP thermal efficiency
District cooling systems have limited temperature differ CHP equivalent = —————————————
( )
ences (e.g. 4 °C to 14 °C) so controlling pumping energy by heat efficiency CHP electrical efficiency
avoiding low return temperatures at part-load is important. 1 – ——————————
Grid efficiency
A direct connection will avoid the need for a temperature
differential across a heat exchanger, which could be of This efficiency can be compared directly with a
benefit in reducing flow rates. boiler efficiency.
—— Equivalent heat efficiency for a heat pump is
The limited temperature difference available inevitably given by:
means larger pipe sizes and higher capital costs. Hence
district cooling systems tend to be found only where there Heat pump equivalent = CoP Í grid efficiency
is high density of cooling demand with good load factors. heat efficiency
The cooling source may be provided by absorption or
adsorption chillers supplied by chp or by large efficient —— The CO2 content of a unit of heat supplied by CHP
vapour compression chillers. is given by:
CO2 content = [Ef – (Ee Í he)] / hh

An alternative approach is to install absorption chillers in
the buildings, supplied from the dh network. where Ef is the fuel emission factor, Ee is the
electricity emission factor, he and hh are the CHP
electrical and thermal efficiencies respectively.
5.7 Large-scale district heating
Large-scale district heating operates on the same principles
as described above. The main difference is that the chp
6.1 Primary energy savings
heat source may be a major power station and will be
The energy efficiency of heat supply can be calculated using
operated primarily to generate electricity. As a result a
the ‘equivalent heat efficiency’ concept and used to compare
flexible design is often used where the steam is extracted
heating options.
from the steam turbine when required for heat and there is
full condensing capability so that electricity generation can
be maximised when there is low heat demand. This For a boiler:
flexibility can be used to advantage when combined with
large-scale heat storage as heat can be extracted from the Heat output
Equivalent heat efficiency = —————– (6.1)
steam turbine at night, when electricity demand is low, and Fuel used
stored for the following day.
For a heat pump:
The other feature of large-scale district heating is the
ability to use multiple heat sources and to vary their relative Heat output
contribution in both the short-term and long-term to Equivalent heat efficiency = —————————–
Primary energy input
minimise operating costs and CO2 emissions. This could be
an important advantage in the future, when CO2 emissions
associated with grid electricity are lower, as a means of Heat output
avoiding the risk of having ‘stranded’ assets that are less = —————————————––
beneficial, which could be the case with smaller schemes (Electricity used / Grid efficiency)
where gas fired chp is the only realistic heat source.
= cop Í he, grid (6.2)
District heating networks are now installed using pre-
insulated pipe systems buried directly in the ground. These where cop is the coefficient of performance (i.e. useful heat
comprise a steel carrier pipe, rigid polyurethane pipe output divided by the electricity consumption over the
insulation and a high density polyethylene outer casing. A year) and he, grid is the grid efficiency.
surveillance system is included to detect the ingress of
moisture into the insulation that could cause corrosion. The grid efficiency is given by:
Part
and so the chp electrical efficiency will therefore generally

Delivered electricity
he, grid = ————————–—— (6.3) be lower than the best power station efficiency. However,
Primary fuel input (Fps) electricity grid losses also need to be taken into account,
which reduces the effective grid electrical efficiency at the
point of supply, narrowing the gap with chp. In equation
The performance of a chp system needs to be defined in 6.7, as the chp electrical efficiency tends towards the grid
terms of two factors, i.e: efficiency then the equivalent heat efficiency tends towards
infinity, i.e. the heat would eventually be rejected close to
Thermal efficiency (hh) = Hchp / Fchp (6.4) ambient temperature and could be classed as ‘waste heat’.
At the other extreme, if the chp electrical efficiency tends
where Hchp is the useful heat output and Fchp is the fuel towards zero then the chp equivalent heat efficiency tends
input. towards the chp thermal efficiency, i.e. the chp is tending to
become the equivalent of a boiler. So the most efficient chp
Electrical efficiency (he) = Echp / Fchp (6.5) is where the electrical efficiency is as high as possible.
where Echp is the electricity generated and Fchp is the fuel
input. Equation 6.7 can be plotted in various ways and Figure 6.1
shows how the equivalent heat efficiency varies with chp
Note: the chp performance can also be defined using total electrical efficiency for three different grid efficiencies
efficiency (i.e. heat plus electricity, divided by fuel input), (40%, 45% and 50%) and for a total chp efficiency (thermal
or heat-to-power ratio plus one of the two efficiencies plus electrical) constant at 80% in all cases.
defined above; however two parameters are always needed
to define chp performance. Figure 6.1 shows that the equivalent heat efficiency
increases as the chp electrical efficiency increases. The
The equivalent heat efficiency for chp is given by: increase is significant; for the 40% grid efficiency case the
chp equivalent heat efficiency increases from 200% to 360%
Heat output for an increase in electrical efficiency from 30% to 35%.
Equivalent heat efficiency (hh,eq) = —————– Similarly, to maintain the same equivalent heat efficiency of
Net fuel used 200% as the grid efficiency improves from 40% to 50%, the
chp electrical efficiency would need to improve from 30%
The net fuel used is the chp fuel (Fchp) minus the power to 40%.
station fuel (Fps) displaced by chp electricity generated
(Echp). All of the chp equivalent heat efficiencies are higher than
those for boilers, which are typically 80% to 90%. Figure 6.1
Therefore the equivalent heat efficiency is: can also be used to compare chp with heat pumps. From
equation 6.2, for example, with a grid efficiency of 40%, a
hh,eq = Hchp / (Fchp – Fps) (6.6) heat pump with a cop of 3 has an equivalent heat efficiency
of 120% (i.e. 3 Í 40%) and a chp with an electrical efficiency
Substituting for Fps from equation 6.3: of 20% would have the same equivalent heat efficiency.
However, for a grid efficiency of 50%, a heat pump with a
hh,eq = Hchp / [Fchp – (Echp / he, grid)] cop of 4 would have an equivalent heat efficiency of 200%
(i.e. 4 Í 50%) and a chp would need to have an electrical
Substituting for Echp from equation 6.5: efficiency of 40% to be as efficient.
hh,eq = Hchp / [Fchp – (Fchp he / he, grid)]
400
Rearranging gives: 350
Equivalent heat efficiency / %
hh,eq = (Hchp / Fchp) / [1 – (he / he, grid)] 300
250
Substituting for (Hchp / Fchp) from equation 6.4:
200
hh,eq = hh / [1 – (he / he, grid)] (6.7)
150
i.e: 100
50
chp thermal efficiency
chp equivalent
= ————————————
( )
heat efficiency 0
chp electrical efficiency 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45%
1 – ————————–—— CHP electrical efficiency
Grid efficiency
Grid efficiency 40% Heat pump CoP 3·5
grid efficiiency 45%
Equation 6.7 is fundamental to chp performance and merits Grid efficiency 50%
Heat pump CoP 3
further explanation. One implication of the second law of Grid efficiency 45% grid efficiency 40%
thermodynamics is that the highest electrical efficiency Heat pump CoP 4 Gas boiler at 85%
will be achieved when discharging heat at the lowest grid efficiency 50% efficiency
possible cold sink temperature, i.e. ambient temperature. Figure 6.1 Equivalent heat efficiencies for chp (chp total efficiency =
For heat to be useful it will always need to be above ambient 80%)
The current grid efficiency is about 39% as calculated from energy efficiency gains and hence the mitigation of climate
Table 5.6 of the Digest of UK Energy Statistics (DECC, 2010). change, it does not take account of the variation in CO2
This excludes transmission and distribution electrical emissions that result from using different types of fuel.
losses so the average efficiency for delivered energy is
around 36%. The CO2 savings associated with chp can be established by
calculating the total CO2 emissions for the building or
Typical equivalent heat efficiencies calculated from the district heating scheme both with and without chp
above equations are as follows. installed; the difference is the CO2 saving.
For current technology and a grid efficiency of, say, 40%: Without chp:
—— Individual gas boiler: 85% CO2 emissions = [(H / hboiler) Í Ef,boiler] + (P Í Eelec)
—— Air source heat pump (cop = 2.5): 100%
(6.8)
—— Gas-engine chp (35% electrical efficiency and 45%
thermal efficiency): 360% where H is total heat consumption for the site (MW·h),
hboiler is the boiler efficiency, Ef,boiler is the emissions factor
For future technology and a grid efficiency of, say, 50%: for the boiler fuel (kg/MW·h), P is the electrical consumption
—— Individual gas boiler: 85% for the site (MW·h) and Eelec is the emissions factor for
electricity (kg/MW·h).
—— Air source heat pump (cop = 2.5) = 125%
—— chp (35% electrical efficiency and 45% thermal With chp:

efficiency): 150%
CO2 emissions = [(H – Hchp) / hboiler Í Ef,boiler]
—— Heat pump (cop = 4): 200%
—— chp (40% electrical efficiency and 40% thermal + (Fchp Í Ef,chp) + [(P – Pchp) Í Eelec]
efficiency): 200%.
(6.9)
Equation 6.7 shows the importance of achieving a high
electrical efficiency for the chp plant in relation to the grid where Hchp is the heat supplied from chp (MW·h), Fchp is
efficiency. As grid efficiency improves, chp electrical the fuel used by the chp (MW·h), Ef,chp is the emissions
efficiency will also need to improve if the benefits of chp factor for the chp fuel (kg/MW·h) and Pchp is the electricity
are to be maintained, for example by the use of fuel cells or, supplied by chp (MW·h)
at a larger-scale, combined cycle gas turbines.
The boiler efficiency (hboiler) is the heat produced divided
It is more meaningful to consider the relative energy by the fuel input (based on gross calorific value (gcv)).
efficiencies of chp and conventional grid electricity when
both sources are using the same fuel (i.e. natural gas). The above equations assume that the boiler efficiency is
Currently gas-fired power stations are about 47% efficient constant whereas in some cases the boiler efficiency may be
or 43% efficient after taking account of grid losses, although reduced by the addition of chp if the boilers operate
these efficiencies are likely to improve with the new intermittently and at lower load.
generation of combined cycle gas turbine (ccgt) plant
being constructed, so the figures given above for 50% grid This approach results in a single absolute CO2 saving for
efficiency may be achieved for gas-fired power stations in the site and does not involve assigning this saving to either
the future. heat or electricity.
Often chp efficiencies are quoted as being 80% (referring to

the total efficiency) and then compared with the grid
efficiency of 40%, thus indicating a doubling of energy Net (lower) calorific value and gross (higher) calorific value
efficiency. As the analysis above shows, this is a false Energy efficiencies are defined by the ratio of useful energy
comparison, for a low chp electrical efficiency of, say, 15%, produced to the energy in the fuel that is used. There are two
a chp total efficiency of 80% may be only slightly better definitions for the calorific value of the fuel used to convert the
volume or mass of a fuel to energy:
than a boiler. Similarly, heat pumps are often claimed to
have an efficiency of more than 100% (which is true — net calorific value (NCV) is the energy recovered from the
provided that cop Í grid efficiency >100%) and that this combustion gases but excluding the latent heat recovered
from the water vapour produced
must therefore always be better than a chp that has a
practical maximum total efficiency of 80%. Again, this is an — gross calorific value (GVC) includes the energy that can be
erroneous conclusion — the chp equivalent heat efficiency obtained by condensing the water vapour.
can be significantly better than a heat pump depending on Energy is sold using GCV and emission factors are based on GCV.
the seasonal cop of the heat pump, the chp electrical It is therefore important to use GCV efficiencies in calculations of
efficiency and the electricity grid efficiency. cost-effectiveness and environmental impact of CHP.
There is a convention in the power industry to state efficiencies
in terms of NCV and so the efficiencies used must be carefully
6.2 CO2 savings and impact of checked and converted to GCV if necessary.
emission factors The conversion from NCV to GCV depends on the fuel used. For
UK natural gas, the GCV is 1.108 times the NCV, so an efficiency
quoted using NCV needs to be divided by this conversion factor
Although the primary energy approach described in section to provide an efficiency based on GCV.
6.1 provides some useful insights into the potential for
25
6.2.1 CO2 emissions due to heat supplied Figure 6.2 demonstrates that the key issue in the comparison
is the emission factor assumed for the grid electricity. As
If it is necessary to compare chp with other options a similar the electricity supply is composed of a mix of power stations
approach can be used to calculate the site CO2 emissions. with wide variation in emissions factor (from hydro
However it may also be useful to compare the options on electricity and wind energy with near zero emissions to
the basis of the CO2 content of the heat supplied. The chp coal-fired power stations with around 900 g/kW·he), it is
unit is installed to provide heat, not electricity and, on this not obvious which emissions factor to use.
basis, its CO2 emissions can be compared with, say, a
biomass boiler. It will be the heat demand that is constant An average emissions factor is the approach taken within
in each case. Part L of the Building Regulations 2010 (DCLG, 2010)
where 529 g/kW·he is to be used in assessing the benefits
The method given below calculates the CO2 emissions from displacing grid electricity.
associated with a unit of heat produced by the different
technologies. Figure 6.2 also shows the importance of electrical efficiency
of the chp in achieving low CO2 emissions.
For a boiler, the CO2 emissions associated with heat output
are given by the fuel emission factor divided by the Long-term decarbonisation of the electricity grid will mean
efficiency; for a heat pump, they are given by the electricity that, over time, chp systems will save less CO2 as they will
emission factor divided by the cop. be competing with lower-carbon grid electricity. However,
natural gas fired chp with efficiencies greater than 20%
electricity and 60% thermal will still result in CO2 savings
For a chp plant, the CO2 emissions are given by:
provided unabated gas fired power stations are still

operating on the system.
( ) ( )
chp fuel
chp-generated elec.
It is possible that the gas supply will also be decarbonised
Í – Í
fuel emission factor through the injection of biomethane, which may offset
elec. emission factor
————————–———————————— some of the reductions in CO2 savings. chp would make
better use of this renewable energy.
chp heat generated
In the longer term beyond 2030, it may be necessary to

This can be expressed in terms of the chp thermal efficiency move away from the small-scale natural gas fired plant that
and chp electrical efficiency as follows: dominates the chp market at present to the use of renewable
fuels or extraction of heat from major power stations,
Fchp Í Ef – Echp Í Ee together with the greater use of district heating. District
CO2 content of chp heat = ————————–— heating systems may also use low carbon heat sources other
than chp, including heat pumps. The impact on chp
Hchp applications will depend greatly on the rate of
decarbonisation of the grid.
= (Ef / hh) – Ee (he / hh)
In addition to the comparison of technologies on the basis
= (Ef – Ee he ) / hh (6.10) of CO2 emissions, the flexibility of generation is likely to
become important as the amount of intermittent wind
where Echp , Hchp and Fchp are the chp energy flows for energy increases. The use of local smaller generators that
electricity generated, heat and fuel respectively, Ef is the
fuel emission factor, Ee is the electricity emission factor, 300
CO2 emissions per kW·h heat / (g / kW·h)
and he and hh are the chp electrical and thermal efficiencies

250
respectively.
200
Another type of chp plant is where heat is extracted in the
150
form of low pressure steam from a power station built
primarily for electricity generation, irrespective of the 100
energy source (i.e. fossil fuel, energy from waste, biomass or
nuclear). When steam is extracted from the steam turbine 50
at a useful temperature, there will be a reduction in the 0
electricity generated. In this case the CO2 content of heat
relates to the emissions from other power stations on the –50
system that would have to operate in order to replace this
‘lost’ electricity. The ratio of heat extracted to electricity –150
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
reduction is termed the ‘z-factor’ and is typically in the CO2 emissions per kWh electricity / g/kWh
range of 6 to 8. Hence:
CHP at 25% Gas boiler at 85%
CHP at 35% Heat pump (CoP = 2)
CO2 content of heat extraction = Ee / z (6.11)
CHP at 42% Heat pump (CoP = 3)
The above equations have been plotted graphically as Steam turbine extraction z=7
Figure 6.2 for comparison, with the main variable being the Figure 6.2 CO2 emissions for heat from various sources against electricity
electricity emission factor for the grid supply. It is assumed emissions factor (Note: stated chp efficiencies relate to electrical
that gas is the fuel used for chp and a gas emission factor of efficiency; total chp efficiency (i.e. thermal plus electrical) is kept
198 g/kW·h (DCLG, 2010). constant at 80%. All efficiencies are on gcv basis)
can respond quickly could have a valuable role in helping potentially have a negative impact on the local environment
to balance the grid. and will need to be assessed and controlled.
As with most fuel combustion sources, the principal means

6.3 CO2 benefits from tri-generation for reducing the impact is to ensure good dispersion of the
combustion gases away from people who might be affected
The CO2 benefits from tri-generation can be assessed in a (the term ‘sensitive receptors’ is used). This can be achieved
similar way by first calculating the CO2 content of heat by using a sufficiently high stack to ensure dispersion by
from chp and then the CO2 content of ‘coolth’ from the the air such that ground level concentrations are low. Care
absorption chiller from: needs to be taken when there are tall buildings in the
vicinity. Generally stacks should be at a height above the
CO2 content of coolth is the CO2 content of the heat sup- roof line to avoid turbulence around the building, which
plied divided by the cop of the heat-driven chiller. could cause the plume to return downwards and reach
occupants of the building. Stack exit velocities should be
This can then be compared with the CO2 content of coolth 10–15 m/s. Using lower exhaust temperatures to maximise
from a conventional electrically driven chiller from: heat recovery may have the undesirable effect of reducing
the buoyancy of the plume.
CO2 content of electricity
CO2 content of coolth = ——————————–– Engine emissions are determined by the quality of fuel, the
cop of electric chiller
mixture of air and fuel, and the efficiency of the combustion
(6.12) process. For a given engine, maximum shaft power output
will be achieved when combustion takes place under

Typical results for a single effect absorption chiller coupled stoichiometric conditions, i.e. just the right amount of
to a gas fired chp system with a range of electrical efficiencies oxygen for the amount of fuel. However, this will not
are plotted as Figure 6.3. It can be seen that with current achieve minimum emissions.
electricity emission factors of around 500 g/kW·h, tri-
generation offers some benefits compared to an electric It is normal to supply engines with an excess of oxygen (air)
chiller with a cop of 4, but if the electricity emission factor to reduce the NOx and CO levels. Both of these pollutants
falls to around 400 g/kW·h (as is predicted) there will be no are addressed in the UK Air Quality Strategy (DEFRA,
CO2 savings even for a very efficient chp. A detailed 2007), which identifies that NOx in particular can have
comparison of relative benefits is recommended given that adverse effects on human health and can contribute to
cops for electrically driven chillers are improving. Account
acidification of the environment. Most engine manufac
should also be taken of ancillary electricity for condenser turers design engines to comply with recognised emission
cooling, as a single effect absorption chiller will require standards.
around twice the energy of an electrically driven chiller for
its heat rejection system. Where stringent emission conditions are demanded,
emission control may be achieved by use of lean-burn
300 engines (air flow 1.5 to 2.0 times stoichiometric conditions).
CO2 emissions per kW·h heat / (g / kW·h)
250 Selective catalytic reduction systems can be employed and

200 are designed to reduce NOx by 95% or more. Oxidation
catalysts may be designed to reduce CO and non-methane
150
hydrocarbons (nmhcs). Reductions of 90% in CO and
100 50–70% in nmhcs may be achieved.
50
Selection of catalytic reduction systems is an area where
0 specialist advice should be sought.
-50
Catalysts will have a finite life and it is necessary to factor
-100
in the cost of their replacement over the life of the scheme.
-150
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
CO2 emissions per kW·h electricity / (g / kW·h) 6.4.1 Particulate emissions
Tri-generation at 25% Tri-generation at 42%
Tri-generation at 35% Chiller (CoP = 4)
Where natural gas, or clean synthesis gas (‘syngas’) from
advanced gasification, is used as the fuel, particulate
Figure 6.3 Comparison of tri-generation with electrically driven chillers emissions are not a concern. However the range of fuels for
(Note: tri-generation efficiencies refer to the chp electrical efficiency; chp is expanding and particulate emissions need to be
overall chp efficiency is taken as 80% in all cases) considered when using biomass or any liquid fuels.
6.4 Other emissions to air 6.4.2 Relevant legislation and guidance
Although CO2 emissions are the main concern with regard The third edition of Chimney Heights: 1956 Clean Air Act
to climate change, N2O is also a greenhouse gas. In addition, Memorandum (DoE, 1981) was produced specifically for
NOx emissions are associated with poor air quality in cities dealing with emissions from conventional boilers in use at
leading to public health concerns. Whilst chp units will the time and can continue to be used for boiler emissions
displace electricity generated at remote power stations and unless other criteria apply to the site, e.g. under the
provide global environmental benefits, the local emissions European Directive on Integrated Pollution Prevention
Part
and Control (‘the IPPC Directive’). However, it should not (measured at ground level, not at chimney discharge) for
be used in the calculation of chimney heights for chp gas seven substances, including nitrogen dioxide, carbon
engine emissions. monoxide and sulphur dioxide, which are relevant to chp
gas engines and fired boilers. This was supplemented in
In some larger schemes dispersion modelling may be 2007 by DEFRA’s Air Quality Strategy for England, Scotland,
required to demonstrate the levels of NOx concentration at Wales and Northern Ireland (DEFRA, 2007).
ground level as part of a planning application. In other
schemes applying the guidance in HMIP Technical
Guidance Note D1 (HMIP, 1993) should be followed 6.5 Noise
whether using new purpose-built chimneys or re-using
existing. Reciprocating engines and their auxiliaries will generate
noise that must be attenuated to acceptable levels. The
If the site comes under the provisions of the IPPC Directive, degree of attenuation will depend on the target limits of
the Environment Agency will almost certainly require noise to be achieved:
dispersion modelling to be carried out using approved —— in plant room
software, rather than a D1 calculation.
—— in adjacent areas
6.4.3 Flue dispersion modelling —— at air inlets and exhaust outlets
—— at nearby buildings.
Whilst not mandatory, HMIP Technical Guidance Note D1
may be used as the benchmark for determining the
chp suppliers should be able to provide noise data for the

appropriate stack height. However this was not originally
units which are external to the acoustic enclosure and the
written for gas-fired chp systems. A more appropriate
exhaust air terminations. Most small-scale chp units will be
method is to carry out a modelling exercise to establish the
supplied within acoustic enclosures, which in many cases
impact of the emissions on ground concentrations, and
will be adequate to achieve all required noise targets.
from this model determine the optimum height that
balances impact on air quality with cost and visual impact.
This is typically the information that would be needed for Additionally, noise levels from other aspects of an
a planning application for a large installation, especially if installation, in particular the exhaust flues and the venti
the site is located within an Air Quality Management Area. lation and heat rejection systems, will need consideration
It is advisable to discuss the project in advance with the at the feasibility stage.
local Environmental Health Officer to determine the
information that is required to be submitted with a planning Consideration of the noise impacts of the plant relative to
application. existing background noise levels both inside and outside
the building, and within the plant room for health and
The Local Authority, the Environment Agency, the Scottish safety purposes, may affect the design of the development
Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) or the Northern to ensure that potentially adverse effects are minimised.
Ireland Environment Agency who grant approval may The starting point is to determine the background noise
require particular operating parameters to be used in the levels by measurement.
calculation of chimney height. They may also require a
copy of any D1 or dispersion modelling calculations, so Acoustic mitigation is discussed in section 9.12.
early contact with the appropriate authority is recommended
to avoid conflict or disagreement at a later date.
6.6 Other environmental impacts
The installation of a chimney calculated to meet D1 or
chp engines need lubricating oil to maintain efficient
using dispersion modelling is not a guarantee that the site
operation. This needs to be regularly replaced and
will not cause a nuisance. The calculation is based upon the
appropriate storage provided on-site if the chp engine is
98th percentile of meteorological conditions (Guidance
being maintained in-house rather than by external
Note D1, paragraph 2.6 refers) and there remains the risk of
contractors. Oil spills can have an adverse effect on the
a smell being detected during engine operation under
environment and waterways in particular. There is a need
abnormal weather conditions or sudden gusts of winds
to consider the use of bunded stores and oil interceptors
carrying undiluted exhaust down to ground level.
with remote alarms where large volumes of oil are involved.
Special consideration may be necessary for occupied
There may also be a visible water vapour plume from the
buildings that are close to chimneys or are relatively tall
exhaust as a result of condensation on cold days and this
with opening windows at high level. D1 and dispersion
may be of concern to local residents, even though such a
modelling only consider ground level concentrations, so
plume indicates good heat recovery conditions.
taller occupied buildings may be subjected to higher
concentration levels of pollutants than are expected at
ground level. As with the combustion exhaust outlet, consideration must
also be given to the ventilation air exhausted from the
engine enclosure. This should be discharged to a well
6.4.4 Air quality objectives ventilated area that will not cause a nuisance; there is a risk
of odour, even though it is only heated air.
Under the authority of the Environment Act 1995 the
Secretary of State has issued The Air Quality (England) The engine crankcase breather pipe will need to be
Regulations 2000 Statutory Instrument 2000 No. 928. This terminated at a suitable point away from ventilation air
sets short and long term air quality objective levels intakes.
7 Legislation and reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2050, the first

such commitment made by any nation. To support the
regulations that impact achievement of this target, the Act empowers the
on CHP viability Government to set 5-year carbon budgets. The Act also
establishes a Committee on Climate Change to advise the
Government on the emission reduction target for each
Key points: carbon budget and progress towards meeting them.
There are a number of Regulations that impact on CHP The first report of the Committee on Climate Change was
including important financial incentives. published on 1st December 2008.
Regulations are subject to change and although this This confirmed that an 80% reduction by 2050 was an
section summarises the main areas of legislation that
appropriate target to support global efforts to avoid
impact CHP, readers must consult relevant Government
websites or the Combined Heat and Power Association dangerous climate change, and that the emission reduction
(CHPA) for the latest information. target should relate to all greenhouse gases and include
emissions from UK aviation and shipping.
Regulations associated with the generation, distribution
and supply of electricity are also important for CHP systems The main impact of this legislation is that CO2 reduction
and early liaison with the local Distribution Network targets have considerable influence in overall policy
Operator is recommended to establish the interface direction. It also shows that there will need to be a
requirements progressive reduction in CO2 emissions from the electricity
system against which local chp systems will be compared.

This means that over time, the CO2 savings from natural
gas fired chp are likely to decrease leading to pressures to
7.1 Planning either improve chp efficiency or convert to alternative
renewable fuels.
The energy strategy for new buildings is often influenced
by local and regional planning policies. The latest policy
and draft policies and associated supplementary planning 7.4 Carbon trading: CRC Energy
guidance or area development plans should be consulted to Efficiency Scheme and the
establish whether chp is seen as a preferred technology and EU Emissions Trading System
whether there is the potential for a wider district heating
network to be established in the area.
7.4.1 CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme
If chp is to be incorporated there will be a number of
detailed planning considerations. Planning approval will The CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme (previously known as
be required for the building and information will need to the Carbon Reduction Commitment) aims to reduce carbon
be provided on emissions, noise and visual impact. For emissions from large commercial and public sector bodies
biomass chp, planners will also require information on in the UK. ‘Large’ is defined as electricity consumption
expected vehicle movements. For large installations a full greater than 6000 MW·h per annum.
Environmental Impact Assessment may be required.
7.4.2 EU Emissions Trading Scheme
Planning is currently the responsibility of the Department
of Communities and Local Government (DCLG). The European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU
ETS) is a form of market regulation resulting from the EU
Directive 2003/87/EC (the ‘Emissions Trading Directive’).
7.2 Building Regulations Only the larger combustion plants (with a site fuel input
greater than 20 MW) are under a mandatory requirement to
For new buildings in England and Wales, Part L of the
participate in the EU ETS. If chp is introduced, the fuel
Building Regulations* will influence the design of the
use, and hence local CO2 emissions on the site, will increase
building fabric, its services and the heat sources used. The
(but decrease globally) and therefore it is necessary to
ways in which chp, renewable fuels and district heating are
obtain additional ETS allowances for the site.
treated within the Regulations need to be carefully studied
to ensure that the most up to date information is being
used. 7.5 CHP Quality Assurance
In addition to the Building Regulations Approved Programme
Documents there are accompanying Compliance Guides
that contain information relevant to chp and district Three of the fiscal incentives that have historically provided
heating. support for chp schemes (namely, exemption from the
Climate Change Levy, eligibility for Enhanced Capital
Allowances and free allocation of allowances under Phase 2
7.3 Climate Change Act of the EU Emission Trading Scheme) require that the
scheme be certified as ‘good quality chp’. This is a standard
The Climate Change Act 2008 came into force on 26th under the Combined Heat and Power Quality Assurance
November 2008. It is significant as it contains a legally (CHPQA) programme (managed by the Department of
binding commitment for the UK to achieve an 80% Energy and Climate Change (DECC)), for which a detailed
assessment methodology has been developed. This method
* Requirements may differ in Scotland and Northern Ireland. ology is set out in CHPQA Guidance Notes (CHPQA,
29
2012). The CHPQA methodology was amended in January number of MW·h imposed on it under the Renewables
2009. Good quality chp must be certified as such by the Obligation. If insufficient ROCs have been issued to the
award of a certificate from the CHPQA (a ‘CHPQA supplier, the supplier may buy further ROCs on the ROCs
certificate’). CHPQA requires compliant metering and market, or pay a charge into the ‘buy-out’ fund. Proceeds in
annual performance monitoring. the buy-out fund are annually recycled back to suppliers
presenting ROCs. The Government is currently proposing
an alternative to ROCs using a ‘Contract for Difference’
Enhanced Capital Allowances
(CfD) based incentive model.
Enhanced Capital Allowances (ECAs) were introduced in
2001 as part of the UK Government’s commitment under 7.6.2 Feed-in tariffs
the Kyoto Agreement to reduce UK carbon dioxide
emissions. ECAs are a 100% first year allowance (fya), The Government has introduced legislation for feed-in
which can be claimed in the year the expenditure was tariffs for electricity generated from renewable sources
incurred on the provision of the qualifying equipment. below 5 MWe capacity and for gas-fired chp below 50 kWe.
The technologies that currently qualify include micro-chp,
ECAs can only be claimed on a chp installation, if a defined as less than 2 kWe and biomass chp systems less
Certificate of Energy Efficiency has been issued by the than 5 MWe. Feed-in tariffs and their scope are subject to
Secretary of State. This certificate can only be issued if the change to reflect the latest policy aspirations and the latest
chp installation meets the requirements of the Combined position should be checked prior to any economic analysis.
Heat and Power Quality Assurance (CHPQA) standard and
obtains quality-certification.
7.6.3 Renewable heat incentive

The CHPQA Scheme provides a series of guidance notes on
The Government is currently introducing a Renewable
compliance; Guidance Note 42: Use of CHPQA to Obtain
Heat Incentive. This would result in additional income for
Enhanced Capital Allowances deals specifically with ECAs
heat delivered from energy sources classed as renewable,
and can be found on the CHPQA website (CHPQA, 2012).
including biomass boilers and heat pumps. Gas-fired chp
projects will not benefit from this scheme but the heat
The rules relating to the claiming of capital allowances are
produced from renewables-fired chp will qualify.
a complex area of the UK tax system. Professional advice
should be sought at the initial stages of any chp project
where capital allowances are being considered. 7.7 Parallel operation with
DNO system
7.6 Other financial mechanisms
In order to connect the chp in parallel with the public
electricity system (the ‘grid’) a Connection Agreement
7.6.1 Renewables Obligation must be in place with the local distribution network
operator (dno). The dno will need to approve the operation
The Renewables Obligation is the main support mechanism of the plant with tests to demonstrate that the unit will
of large scale renewable energy schemes in the UK. It disconnect from the dno system in the event of a fault to
imposes a requirement on electricity generators to source avoid feeding power onto the dno system under fault
an annual percentage of the electricity they supply from conditions. The detailed requirements are contained in
renewable sources. This percentage rises annually, and will Engineering Recommendations G/59/2 (ENA, 2011a) and
be approximately 15% by 2015. For each MW·h of renewable G/83/1 (ENA, 2011b) obtainable from the Energy Networks
energy supplied, the energy supplier receives a tradable Association (http://2010.energynetworks.org). A generation
Renewables Obligation Certificate (ROC). A supplier must licence is only required for exporting more than 10 MW of
annually surrender sufficient ROCs to cover the required power.
8 Feasibility studies can be considered. At this stage the considerations

are related to matching of heat and power demands
rather than economic analysis.
8.1 Introduction —— Economic options appraisal: once a technically viable
option (or normally more than one option) has been
The object of the feasibility phase of a project is to determine identified, the financial viability may be investigated
whether or not it is worth the investment of time and through an economic appraisal. Again, the aim is to
resources necessary to develop the initial concept of a chp quickly identify projects that are unsuitable and to
scheme into an actual engineering project. One important provide sound arguments for proceeding with those
aim is to identify and reject unsuitable schemes at an early that are.
stage to avoid abortive costs. At this stage, chp schemes
should be compared with other appropriate alternatives, —— Recommendation to proceed to design and tender: the
e.g. installing condensing boilers, biomass boilers etc. For information obtained during the data gathering,
chp projects with potential for further development, the initial technical evaluation and economic appraisal
feasibility phase will ensure that sufficient consideration is stages will form the basis for any recommendation
given to acquiring adequate information upon which sound to proceed to design and tender. If the project is
decisions may be based. The feasibility stage, carried out by identified as currently unsuitable for further
technical personnel, will marshal the arguments necessary consideration the reasons for such rejection should
for obtaining financial approval from the relevant non- be recorded and other information retained for
technical decision makers. reconsideration at a later date, should circum
stances change. Where the project is suitable for
Once the feasibility phase is successfully completed, the further consideration, information should be made
project can be developed to detailed design with confidence available for framing the recommendation to
that the necessary information is to hand and that an decision makers for the further development of the
economically sound project will result. project.
The client can choose to use either a consultant or The following sections amplify aspects of these activities.
equipment supplier for the feasibility study. In either case,
the client’s in-house staff will probably need to do much of
the groundwork of gathering data on current energy use. 8.2 Data gathering of energy
demands and system
chp schemes may be considered as a retrofit measure in an
existing building or included in the plant specification for temperatures
a new building. In each case, the arguments for and against
a chp scheme will be formed by comparison with the The scope of data that may form part of any chp scheme
appropriate conventional plant alternative. investigation can be extensive, from the purely technical
aspects of energy use to the financial aspects of project
Figure 8.1 provides an overview of the feasibility process. appraisal. Some of the data will be readily available, others
may require further investigation. At this stage, approval of
The key steps involved in the feasibility stage are described the project is not assured but the level of data gathered
briefly below: should be sufficient to progress to subsequent phases.
—— Project initiation: project initiation may come from

many quarters but in essence someone will have 8.2.1 Energy consumption
made a decision to consider a chp scheme. The
drivers for this decision may have been financial, A minimum understanding of site energy demands is
environmental or regulatory. There may be no required to make any assessment of the viability of the chp
commitment of funding and only superficial scheme. Some data will be readily available (e.g. quarterly
support for the idea; however, the project is now or monthly fuel bills), whereas other data (e.g. energy
underway. profiles for a week or a day) may require special data
acquisition. The scope of data required should be assessed
—— Data gathering: the first task for the project is to since the project should not proceed from one stage to the
gather together the data that will be used to assess next without sufficient, sound data.
viability. For an accurate feasibility study, the scope
of the required data is extensive. The higher the
quality of data gathered, the greater the accuracy of Energy consumption will need to be understood in
any study. The process of gathering data should not considerable detail for full implementation of a chp scheme.
be regarded as a once-only event, but as an activity Whereas for conventional power and heating systems, the
that will continue throughout the project as more capacity of the plant installed is determined largely by the
information becomes available. maximum demands (which consequently results in the
plant operating at part load most of the time), chp schemes
—— Initial technical evaluation: when sufficient infor require high plant utilisation to achieve the necessary
mation is available, the project may proceed to a economic viability. Consequently, for selecting a chp
stage when the capacity of any potential chp plant scheme, the minimum energy demands in the running
31
Receive client brief
Gather data on
energy use
Obtain details of
site and plantrooms
Process data to produce
Establish energy prices heat and electricity
to be used in model demand profiles
Consider physical
arrangement and
Construct operating interfaces
model
Maintenance cost Capital cost estimates

estimates
Optimise CHP size

Optimise thermal store Update capital cost
estimates for selected
scheme
Finalise operating
model
Finalise energy prices
and incentives
Evironmental appraisal Economic appraisal
Reporting Figure 8.1 Typical feasibility

study flow diagram
period are as important as, and often more important than, monthly average profiles will tend to overestimate the
the maximum demands. potential operating hours from chp during the shoulder
months.
For building applications of chp there are usually significant
differences between winter and summer demands. An Where the scope of data immediately available is not
understanding of these differences will be important in deemed sufficient, particularly with respect to energy
determining the capacity and expected running hours for consumption, specific energy surveys, temporary metering
the selected chp scheme. and audits may be required. If time is available, sample
monitoring of meters on representative days (weekday and
In the ideal case, data that identify heat and power energy weekend, heat and power demand data) in each month
demands at hourly intervals throughout the year will be would be beneficial; otherwise, days in late spring or early
obtained from monitoring of electricity, heat or gas meters. autumn should be selected as it is in the shoulder months
Where this is the case, it will be relatively easy to optimise where greatest accuracy is needed.
the chp size based on a full hour by hour simulation over
the year.
8.2.1.1 Electricity demand data
Data available from monthly energy bills will give a coarser
consumption profile that will identify how consumption For larger sites, electricity half-hourly demand data are
varies with season. However, these monthly profiles will normally available from the electricity supply company at
not give any guidance on how energy consumption profiles the supply meter point. Judgments must be made regarding
vary on a daily or hourly basis. Using monthly data to assess the suitability of this information; i.e. does the information
loads available for a chp scheme can be misleading and from the metering point accurately represent the consump
over-optimistic where there is significant variation in tion of the building under consideration and are there other
demand over 24 hours (e.g. between day and night). Using buildings served from that point?
8.2.1.2 Heat demand data —— distribution layouts
Heat demand information is often available only for fuel —— possible connection points.
supplied on a monthly, or intermittent, basis. In these
circumstances, a dedicated monitoring exercise may be Most chp generators in the size range being considered
required. Ideally, monitoring should be at the point of use (<1 MWe) will generate at 415 V using step-up or step-
and include representative weekdays and weekends. In down transformers to achieve other voltages. For larger
converting from fuel use to heat demand, a pessimistic generators there may be a case for using an hv generator to
boiler efficiency should be assumed. avoid the cost and space for the transformer. The hv
generators are more expensive and a detailed cost
comparison will be needed. There will also be staffing
8.2.1.3 Future changes to demand implications from the need for qualified hv operators.
As well as considering existing energy consumption, Approval from the distribution network operator (dno) to
consideration should also be given to future changes in connect the selected chp capacity and to export if needed
consumption. These may be prompted by: should be sought at the earliest opportunity.
—— implementation of various energy efficiency
measures System fault level information is required in relation to the
incoming supply system (information from the dno) and
—— creating new facilities for the building system. The existing fault levels will
—— discontinuing old processes determine whether or not there is fault capacity to accept a
new generator without requiring enhancements or upgrades

—— changes in operation, organisation or occupancy to system wiring or switchgear. Where system fault levels
patterns. are inadequate, the necessary alterations to switchgear and
wiring may make the project uneconomic.
The impact of any projected changes must be considered
very carefully to assess whether the changes would enhance
The electrical distribution system and switchgear should
or detract from the chp scheme viability, and to what extent.
be examined to identify likely points into which the
These aspects may be evaluated by sensitivity analysis of
generated supply may be fed and the extent of any additional
any calculations, i.e. by reviewing changes to calculated
switchgear required. Likely points may be spare switchgear
outputs from the selective alteration of key input
or extendible boards.
parameters.
If the anticipated site loads are such that the chp will need
8.2.1.4 Demands in new buildings to export electricity at certain times an export agreement
and a power purchase agreement will be required.
In the case of new buildings, the heat and power demand
profiles must be estimated. Such estimates may be based on
a combination of: 8.2.2.2 Heat systems
—— building design data For the heat distribution systems the following should be
—— dynamic simulation model of the building identified:
—— projected occupancy patterns —— heating systems in use, e.g. lthw, mthw, hthw,
hws, steam, warm air
—— benchmark data from similar buildings
—— operating temperatures, especially return tempera
—— empirical data from energy models or consumption
tures
codes for different buildings by type of use, floor
area, volume, etc. —— users, peak loads and load profiles
The confidence level attached to the demand profiles —— existing plant performance, age and condition.
derived must be recognised when selecting a suitable chp
plant rating. Heat from chp is most effectively absorbed in systems with
an operating temperature of 80 ºC or below, and with a near
constant demand through the year.
8.2.2 Energy systems
Control and instrumentation systems also need consider
Knowledge is required not only of the raw energy ation to identify the extent to which any new plant could or
consumption data, but also of how the energy is transferred should be integrated into existing systems. At the simplest
around the building. level, a chp unit would be self-monitored by its own stand-
alone controls, while at the most sophisticated level the chp
8.2.2.1 Electrical systems scheme will be remotely monitored by a physically distant
service organisation and be fully integrated with the
For electricity, the following information is required: building’s own building energy management system
(bems).
—— supply voltage, e.g. 11 kV/415 V
—— system voltages used in building, e.g. 415 V The initial task is to identify the state of current control
systems and to determine in broad terms what the control
—— system fault levels
and operating strategies will be for the prospective new chp
—— switchgear arrangements scheme.
33
8.2.3 Fuel Exhaust Heat loss from

gas loss engine and generator
Fuel options for most chp plant are natural gas, lpg, gas oil, 19% 5%
biogas and liquid biofuels. For the majority of installations,
natural gas will be the fuel of first choice as it can be
supplied virtually on demand and requires no on-site Electricity
storage facility. Fuel 34% generated
100%
At this stage it is necessary to establish the condition of any
Useful
existing gas supply arrangement, in respect of: 36% heat
recovery
—— pipe size, pressure, capacity
—— metering capacity 6%
—— supply agreement details Intercooler
heat rejection
—— users of gas on site. Figure 8.2 Energy flows in a typical gas engine chp unit (turbocharged)
Where gas is not immediately available, it is necessary to

establish:
can be used to provide low temperature heating (see also
—— availability and cost of providing supply Table 9.2).
—— where gas could be used on site (apart from chp

plant).
8.4 Optimum sizing of CHP
The likely capacity of gas supply required to support the
Once the heat and power demands have been established
chp plant and other users should be estimated. Where the
the optimum chp size can be determined following the
supply pressure available is not adequate, a gas pressure
approach outlined in section 4.4.
booster may be required. This will impact upon energy
consumption, space and cost.
An operating model will be set up to enable the annual
energy flows arising from chp operation to be determined,
Contracts for the supply of gas should be investigated. from which operating costs and savings can be evaluated.
Contracts may be for firm or, for the larger units, interrup This operating model needs to be subjected to sensitivity
tible supplies. Interruptible gas is cheaper than a firm gas runs on energy prices and also on variations in site energy
supply but the likely chance of a gas interruption should be demands.
considered and taken into account; unless a standby fuel is
available, the use of interruptible gas may result in consider As it is not possible to continuously match heat and power
able expenditure in importing electricity during peak tariff demands, the planned operating strategy will often require
periods. one or more of the following:
Dual-fuel options, which will necessitate some liquid fuel —— additional heat from conventional boilers or heat
storage on site, may be considered for engines over 500 kWe. rejection
These engines benefit from higher electrical efficiency but —— power importing or exporting
still require some pilot oil use when running on gas. They
can be run only on oil to take advantage of an interruptible —— modulation of chp output.
gas supply.
The costs for a number of different operating strategies
may need to be tested prior to carrying out final optimisation
8.3 CHP performance, heat runs, for example:
recovery options —— Is exporting power more worthwhile than part-load
operation?
An early decision will be the operating temperatures and
the impact on the chp design. Consideration should be —— Is heat rejection more worthwhile than part-load
given to whether heat recovery from the intercooler is operation?
feasible and the amount of heat recovery possible from the —— Is operating at night beneficial?
exhaust gases. Figure 8.2 shows the energy flows from a chp
unit and the potential for heat recovery. —— What is the best way to utilise a thermal store?
Particular attention should be paid to exhaust gas

temperature if high grade heat is required on site, e.g. to
8.5 Thermal storage
raise steam. chp gas engines are fitted with increasingly
The feasibility study should consider the benefits of
larger turbochargers in order to maximise the chp electrical
thermal storage and assess the optimum size and the
efficiency. This removes more energy from the exhaust
practical issues associated with installing the storage vessel.
gases and hence lowers the exhaust gas temperature. Lower
The size of the store will be influenced by the selection of
temperature exhaust reduces the potential for high
operating temperatures. The potential benefits of a thermal
temperature heat generation, especially steam raising.
store are as follows:
In some cases the surplus heat from the engine that is —— It enables peaks in demand to be met by the chp by
normally ventilated out of the chp enclosure or plant room smoothing the demand profile.
—— Night-time heat demands may be met with surplus interaction with the chp system should be quantified to
chp heat produced during the day (as the electricity ensure that two technologies are not competing to supply
value at night is normally insufficient to justify chp the same demand.
operation at night).
—— At times of low heat demand (in summer) the chp 8.8 Typical capital and
can be operated for fewer hours but at higher
output. (Without a store the demand may be below maintenance costs and
the chp unit’s acceptable turndown limit) efficiencies for gas-engine CHP
Capital costs for gas-engine chp will generally fall in
8.6 Tri-generation (CCHP) specific terms (£/kWe) with the capacity of chp as shown in
Figure 8.3. These costs include the supply and installation
The use of heat driven chillers is normally a second stage of of the chp assuming the minimum amount of interfacing
a feasibility study, once the case for a chp supplying heat with or alteration of existing systems which will need to be
has been established. It is rare for the cooling demand to assessed on a site specific basis. Costs are at 2010 price
determine the chp capacity so the usual approach is to levels.
assess how much surplus heat is available from the chp in
summer and how well this matches the cooling demand. Maintenance costs are provided in Figure 8.4. Although
The cooling demand profiles also need to be estimated to these are expressed in p/kW·h of electricity generated for
enable the tri-generation system to be optimised. comparison purposes it is more typical for maintenance
Absorption chillers have a relatively high capital cost so contracts to be written in terms of a fixed cost per hour of
their operating hours need to be maximised, i.e. the operation, so operating at part load will effectively incur
absorption chiller needs to be sized to meet a base load additional maintenance costs per unit of energy produced.
cooling demand. Generally, specific maintenance costs reduce with the chp
capacity. Costs are provided at 2010 price levels.
8.7 Integration with other low Typical chp unit electrical efficiencies are shown in Figure
carbon technologies 8.5. Efficiencies generally rise with the size of unit but there
are significant variations for any given size. Efficiencies are
Other technologies to supply heat and power may need to given on gcv basis.
be considered especially for new-build projects and the
2500 8.9 Economic appraisal
2000 8.9.1 Simple payback period

Capital cost / (£/kWe)
This is the simplest of appraisal techniques and calculates

1500 how many years will elapse before the project capital costs
have been recovered by the operational cost savings.
1000
A typical economic calculation is shown in Table 8.1 for a
300 kWe plant sized to run for 5000 hours a year. The
500 formulae that can be used in a spreadsheet are given.
0 The basis of the calculation is first to compute the saving in

0
1000 500
1500 2000 2500 any hour of operation from the difference between the
CHP electrical capacity / kWe conventional cost for producing the same amount of heat
Figure 8.3 Typical capital costs for gas engine chp units (2010 price and electricity that would be produced by the chp and the
levels) allowing for minimum interfaces with electrical and heating chp operating cost (chp fuel + chp maintenance). When
systems the hourly saving has been calculated the annual saving is
2·5 45
40
Maintenance cost / (p/kWe·h)
2·0
35
Electrical efficiency / %
30
1·5
25
20
1·0
15
0·5 10
5
0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
CHP electrical capacity / kWe CHP electrical capacity / kWe
Figure 8.4 Typical maintenance costs for gas-engine chp units (2010 Figure 8.5 Typical electrical efficiencies for gas engine chp units with
price levels) capacity
35
Table 8.1 Example of estimation of chp savings and simple payback period using a spreadsheet
Item Units Manual calculation Spreadsheet formula Example
reference
Average electrical output kWe A B2 300
Average heat output kWt B B3 450
Overall chp efficiency % C B4 80%
Fuel input (gross cv basis) kW D=(A+B)/C B5=(B2+B3)/B4 938
Average electricity price p/kW·h E B6 7
Gas/oil price p/kW·h F B7 2
Conventional boiler efficiency % G B8 80%
chp maintenance costs p/kW·h H B9 1.1
chp hours run per year hours J B10 5000
chpsystem costs:
— capital and installation £ K B12 300 000
Conventional operating costs:
— electricity costs £/h L=AÍE/100 B14=B2*B6/100 21.00
— boiler fuel costs £/h M=B/GÍF/100 B15=(B3/B8)*B7/100 11.25
— total conventional operating costs £/h N=L+M B16=B14+B15 32.25

operating costs:
chp
— fuel £/h P=DÍF/100 B18=B5*B7/100 18.75
— maintenance £/h Q=AÍH/100 B19=B2*B9/100 3.3
— total chp operating costs £/h R=P+Q B20=B18+B19 22.05
chpbenefit:
— operating cost savings £/h S=N–R B22=B16-B20 10.2
— annual operating cost savings £/year T=SÍJ B23=B22*B10 51 000
Simple payback period years U=K/T B24=B12/B23 5.9
simply obtained by multiplying by the operating hours (in 8.9.2 Discounted cashflow analysis
this case 5000). The payback period is the capital cost
divided by the annual operating saving. An alternative to the simple payback approach is the use of
discounted cashflow analysis. The underlying principle is
that the value of money is time dependent. For example,
The electricity and gas prices used for these calculations is
the buying power of £1 today is greater than the buying
an average price experienced by the user for the operating
power of £1 in five years’ time. This is not as a result of
period. For a more rigorous analysis, it may be necessary to
inflation but because the £1 today can be invested to provide
differentiate between energy consumption and costs in
additional value in the future. The reduction in future
winter and summer seasons or by month as a result of
value is calculated by the use of a discount rate:
different electricity or fuel prices.
Discount factor in each year = 1 / (1 + r)n
This example shows a payback period of 5.9 years, which
typically would make the project worth investigating
further. where r is the discount rate (%) and n is the number of years
after initial investment.
The accuracy of the final result depends upon the reliability
For example, at a discount rate of 8%, an income of £1 in
of input information. However, by setting up a spreadsheet
five years’ time will be worth £0.68.
model it is a straightforward process to test the sensitivity
of the result to fluctuations in input parameters such as the
In comparing a range of options such as several different
gas or electricity price.
sizes of chp and other low carbon heat source investments
there are two measures that can be used:
Each organisation will have its own project evaluation
—— net present value (npv)
criteria. It should be noted that simple payback approach
assumes constant operational savings and ignores the —— internal rate of return (irr)
project benefits beyond the payback period (which may be
higher if energy prices rise). Where multiple investment The npv can be seen as the total value of the project
options are being compared a simple payback period is also expressed in terms of a sum of money at today’s value,
of limited value as the capital investments may vary equivalent to a capital cost. If the npv is positive then the
significantly. For a project that could generate variable project is viable.
revenues over a period in excess of 10 years, or where there
are many options to evaluate, a discounted cashflow analysis The npv calculation requires the discount rate and the term
is more appropriate. of the analysis to be defined.
Table 8.2 Illustration of calculation of net present value (npv) and internal rate of return (irr)
Item Year
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Capital cost 300 000
Operating saving — 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000
Cashflow –300 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000 51 000
Discount rate 8%
Discount factor — 0.926 0.857 0.794 0.735 0.681 0.630 0.583 0.540 0.500 0.463 0.429 0.397 0.368 0.340 0.315
Discounted –300 000 47 222 43 724 40 485 37 487 34 710 32 139 29 758 27 554 25 513 23 623 21 873 20 253 18 753 17 364 16 077
cashflow
Net present value 136 533
Internal rate 14.9%
of return
The irr is the discount rate that would result in a zero npv The aim of any sensitivity analysis is to give confidence in
and also requires the term of the analysis to be defined. the project viability under variations in key project
parameters including:
Both of these functions are available within Microsoft®
Excel; the ‘Help’ function will provide further guidance. —— heat and power demands
—— gas and electricity prices
Each organisation will have a view on what discount rate
should be employed, depending on their cost of capital and —— capital expenditure.
attitude to the perceived project risks.
As discussed in section 7 there may be incentive schemes
The starting point of npv calculations is the identification available that need to be included in the economic appraisal.
of the cash inflows and outflows for each year under The availability of such schemes should be checked prior to
consideration. carrying out each analysis.
The npv calculations shown in Table 8.2 analyse the same

300 kWe chp plant over a projected life of 15 years. In this 8.10 Financing options
example, operating savings have been assumed to be
constant over the period but these could be changed 8.10.1 Capital purchase
depending on the particular installation. For example,
maintenance costs may be predicted to rise over the 15 year
period as the chp ages or electricity and gas prices may be Under capital purchase the user of the chp scheme finances
predicted to rise. the installation. By so doing the user gains all the financial
benefits and the greatest return on investment, but also
The final value of npv represents the cash benefit at today’s takes on all the risks. The decision on whether to pursue
value of implementing the chp scheme as opposed to the capital purchase route will depend on the availability of
retaining conventional arrangements. In this example, the capital or directly financed borrowing, other demands for
benefit is £136 553. capital, and the company view on the management and
risks associated with the chp scheme.
When a number of projects or schemes are being considered,
the one with the highest npv would be preferred. Any bid for funds for capital purchase will undoubtedly
need a well presented financial case to demonstrate that the
The irr value for the project identifies the return that project meets the necessary internal funding criteria. There
money invested elsewhere would have to earn to give a may also be a lead time between bidding and funds being
better return than the chosen project. Many companies and made available.
organisations will set a ‘hurdle’ rate of return that must be
achieved for a project to receive funding. The threshold A risk assessment should be carried out. Some risks can be
rate may vary depending on the type of project being mitigated through contracts, e.g. a guaranteed fixed price
considered. construction contract, a long-term maintenance contract
and longer-term gas or electricity contracts.
Table 8.2 also shows the results of calculating the irr, which
in this case is 14.9%. 8.10.2 Equipment supplier finance (ESF)
8.9.3 Sensitivity of results Under esf schemes, the equipment supplier finances the
purchase and installation of the chp plant, at no initial cost
For any appraisal technique, care must be taken regarding to the user, and retains ownership of the plant. The user
the reliability of input data and the sensitivity of results to normally pays for the fuel used by the chp plant, buys
changes. When using computer based spreadsheets, the electricity from the supplier, and receives the chp heat for
recalculation of results for various inputs is a simple matter. no additional charge.
Part
37 2: Project implementation
The equipment supplier recovers the cost of the chp unit by —— implementation of other energy saving measures
charging for the generated electricity over a fixed contract
—— facilities being taken out of use for major renovation,
period of up to 15 years. No charge is levied for heat
e.g. swimming pool repairs.
recovered from the chp plant. The electricity price may be
at an agreed tariff, or at a set discount to imported electricity.
In these circumstances, the liability for non-performance of
esf contracts will normally be long term, 10 to 15 years, and
the chp plant will rest with the user, not the esf provider.
so will need agreed review mechanisms to keep the benefits
of the project equitable to both user and supplier. Electricity Some chp users have started with an esf arrangement but
price charges may be varied based on an agreed indexing upon seeing the reliability and financial benefit of the chp
formula. plant have purchased the plant outright from the esf
provider. In order that this option is available, the original
chp equipment suppliers often have esf schemes under
contract should include mechanisms for making such a
their own brand name, which include design, installation, change. To assist this process, a schedule of plant values for
monitoring and maintenance. The availability of a number each year of the contract may be included.
of such schemes opens the opportunity for competitive
tendering for esf. Ultimately, an esf arrangement should represent a
partnership between supplier and user wherein the supplier
Whichever esf scheme is chosen, the following factors is able to recover the capital outlay in a reasonable period
should be carefully considered: and the user achieves acceptable savings.
—— what is included: equipment, modifications, fuels

8.10.3 Contract energy management (CEM)

—— what is excluded: equipment, modifications, fuels
—— performance guarantees Contract energy management (cem) is an extension of esf
schemes to a point where the cem company takes much
—— payments for non-availability from supplier greater responsibility for the system, including purchase of
—— payments for poor efficiency fuels and, in many cases, operation and maintenance of the
entire building energy systems, with the user buying the
—— payments if the user cannot take the outputs energy provided. cem schemes will often form part of a total
—— monitoring and maintenance arrangements energy supply service, part of which is chp. The company
(including breakdown repairs and planned may not be an equipment supplier but a service company
overhauls) specialising in the installation and operation of energy
plant.
—— length of contract (normally >10 years)
—— price, including standing and unit charges The cem company, which is funding the capital elements of
the project, has to recover its investments through the term
—— basis of price calculation: of the contract and make an appropriate profit. cem
• price review mechanism arrangements may be one of the following options:
• responsibility for licences, approvals, —— fixed fee: services are supplied for a fixed charge
CHPQA returns irrespective of usage
—— energy supply: the user agrees to buy a certain
— technical and financial soundness of the supplier quantity of energy at an agreed unit price
— termination of contract, at full term or before —— shared savings: cem company and user share the chp
savings benefits.
— ownership of plant at termination
The essence of a cem scheme is for a partnership between
— condition of plant at termination the cem provider and user as with esf. Normally, on
termination of the cem contract, ownership of the plant
— options to buy chp plant before contract end. transfers to the user. This may be when the plant is 10 to 15
years old. The user needs to ensure, during original contract
The esf contract may contain some statement of guaranteed negotiations, that at contract termination the plant will be
performance, i.e. guaranteed number of hours running per in a fit state for continued useful life and not in immediate
year and guaranteed power output, backed up by an agreed need of major refurbishment or replacement.
scale of charges if performance targets are not achieved, but
the principle is that payments are only made for the energy 8.10.4 Energy service companies (ESCOs)
supplied.
An esco is a further stage in contracting out energy
Achievement of performance targets, and hence liability facilities. Under esco agreements the end user will define
for non-performance, is not solely the responsibility of the the energy needs in terms of delivered result, e.g:
esf provider. For instance, the contract may commit the
user to accepting all the heat energy from the engine. If the —— specified internal room temperatures
user cannot utilise the heat, and heat rejection equipment
—— specified levels of illumination.
has not been installed, the plant will shut down on over-
temperature. This situation may be caused by:
The esco then undertakes to provide the service in a cost-
—— reductions in building demand following changes effective manner. Under these arrangements the esco may
in usage patterns undertake:
—— installation of energy efficient plant, which may (h) financing options.

include chp plant
—— operation and maintenance of energy producing The aim is to secure funding approval to proceed to full
plant system specification, at which point, with more accurate
information to hand, the economic appraisal may be re-run
—— maintenance of energy consuming plant for confirmation of funding approval before going to
—— implementation of energy efficiency measures to contract.
the building fabric, e.g. thermal insulation.
At any stage in the foregoing process, the scheme may be
‘Energy performance contracting’ is a further type of determined to be unsuitable for development. In such
contract in which chp can be integrated. circumstances, the evidence for rejection should be re-
viewed to assess whether there are other conditions which
would make the scheme viable, for example:
8.10.5 Leasing
—— changes in operating profile
Leasing arrangements will provide financing for a chp
scheme, but will not confer any of the operating advantages —— inclusion or exclusion of other buildings
of esf or cem. Forms of lease commonly available include:
—— reassessment of financial criteria.
—— lease purchase, in which the client owns the plant
on expiry of the lease If the project is to be rejected, the reasons for that decision
—— operating lease, where the client is only effectively should be recorded and retained with sufficient information
renting the chp plant with no prospect of ownership. to allow a review after a period of time, or when other
factors alter.
In all cases options for leasing would need careful scrutiny
by suitably qualified people.
8.11.2 Statement of requirements
8.10.6 Joint ventures The final task at the feasibility stage is to write the outline
statement of requirements that will identify the key features
A joint venture is where potential chp users and possibly of the proposed chp scheme, e.g:
suppliers enter a funding partnership to install a chp
scheme. Such arrangements may beneficially introduce an —— heat and power rating (acceptable range)
appropriate range of expertise. Where more than one
potential chp user is involved, it may bring a complementary —— operating hours per day
pattern of heat and power demand that no single user could
provide. A potential disadvantage is that is that they can be —— requirement for modulation of output, following
costly, complex and time consuming to arrange. heat or power demands
—— requirement for heat rejection
8.11 Feasibility report —— fuel supply
8.11.1 Recommendation —— requirement for operation on mains failure

—— uses of heat
With the benefit of the economic appraisal and with
knowledge of the organisation’s requirements for —— whether heat driven chillers are included
consideration of funding, all necessary information should
now be available to present to management a report that —— location of chp plant and auxiliaries
should outline:
—— route of exhaust, pipework and cabling systems
(a) the technical solution:
—— provision of thermal storage
• chp capacity
—— compatibility with existing heating systems and
• operating pattern controls or modifications required
• how it will be installed
—— noise and vibration requirements
• modifications needed to existing systems
—— arrangement for connection to electrical system
• how it will be maintained
—— outline control requirements
(b) project capital costs
—— outline maintenance strategy, in-house or contract
(c) project operating savings
—— heat or power export
(d) energy consumption savings
(e) CO2 savings —— design and procurement strategies.
(f) other relevant issues, e.g. environmental impacts
This statement forms the essential detail upon which the
(g) economic appraisal results subsequent design will be based.
39
9 Design consultants. A hotel chain considering chp schemes for

several sites may benefit from a consultant’s input and from
a broader choice of equipment suppliers. It is often the case
9.1 Allocation of responsibilities that the main contractor route is followed for more complex
installations and in some cases the main contractor may
The design process ultimately leads to the detailed also be appointed as an energy services company (esco) to
specification of all aspects of the chp scheme, during the operate the scheme under a long-term contract. In the latter
course of which various choices and decisions will be made. case there is clearly an advantage in placing the design
responsibility with the esco.
Before the specification is written, the division of
responsibilities not only for the design but also for the 9.2 Health and safety aspects
installation, operation and maintenance of the plant needs
to be decided. Only when these decisions have been made The building services engineer, or others within the
can the specification cover all aspects in a consistent organisation, must ensure compliance with all current
manner. It is possible to keep some options open until health and safety legislation. Items listed have particular
further information on the costs of the options is available, relevance to small-scale chp installations:
since the selection will depend on a consideration of the
benefits, as well as the risks, associated with each option. —— Construction (Design and Management) Regulations
2007
The responsibility for the design and specification may be —— Electricity at Work Regulations 1989
divided among:
—— Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations 1998

—— client’s engineer
—— Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005
—— consulting engineer
—— main contractor The following outlines some of the relevant points of each
of the above regulations; the reader must consult the
—— chp supplier. regulations and comply fully with them.
The client needs to nominate at least one responsible

organisation to the following activities: 9.2.1 Construction (Design and
Management) Regulations 2007
—— Initial design: this may be carried out by the client’s
engineer or the consulting engineer. The output The ‘CDM Regulations’ require the appointment by the
would be a concept design or performance client of a planning co-ordinator, whose role is to ensure
specification. that health and safety risks associated with the construction,
—— Detailed design: this may be carried out by the operation and demolition have been identified and
client’s engineer or consulting engineer if using a mitigated initially through the design phase. Any risks that
standard construction contract or the main cannot be mitigated need to be documented and passed
contractor or chp supplier if using a ‘design and through to the contractor and ultimately to the owner and
build’ type of contract. The chp supplier will design occupier. Designers will be appointed to carry out design
the chp package. A main contractor is more risk assessments. The use of chp will bring some additional
frequently used when the project involves more potential risks, especially in the area of operation, as regular
extended scope of work including for example a specialist maintenance will be required. Storage and
building or district heating. In some cases the handling of materials and safe access will be important
consulting engineer may be novated to the main issues.
contractor to maintain design continuity.
—— Tender action: this would be carried out by the client 9.2.2 Electricity at Work Regulations 1989
supported by the consulting engineer. Life cycle
costs should be compared, including chp main There is no mandatory scheme for the registration of
tenance. electrical contractors but there are several recognised
bodies to which electrical contractors may belong. These
—— Installation and construction: the main contractor or include:
chp supplier would be responsible for the instal
—— National Inspection Council for Electrical
lation of the chp. The chp supplier would normally
Installation
be appointed for commissioning even if they were
not directly involved in the installation. Where —— Electrical Contractors Association
there is a complex controls interface the main
contractor will also need to be closely involved at —— Electrical Contractors Association (Scotland)
the commissioning stage. —— National Association of Professional Inspectors
and Testers.
—— Operation and maintenance: a suitable division of
responsibility would need to be agreed between the
client and the chp supplier (see also section 12.3.3). 9.2.3 Gas Safety (Installation and Use)
Regulations 1998
The choice of who undertakes each element of the project
may be biased by organisational preferences and by the The Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations 1998
scale of the project. A single small chp plant (<100 kWe) in require anyone installing and connecting gas fired plant in
a local swimming pool may not warrant the involvement of domestic and commercial premises (e.g. schools, hospitals,
offices) to be registered with the Gas Safe Register for the Table 9.2 Typical heat energy for two gas-engines
relevant equipment. Item Percentage of input energy available
for heat recovery (gcv basis)
Gas fired chp engines implicitly have a risk of explosion Turbocharged Naturally aspirated
from gas leakage. This risk may be small, but it cannot be engine (500 kWe) engine (90 kWe)
ignored. Protective measures must be included from
inception and may include the following: Exhaust gases (c. 450–120 °C) 21% 17%
Jacket and oil cooling (80–95 °C) 15% 33%
—— Dilution ventilation: even where there is adequate
ventilation to cool the engine, care must be taken to After-coolers (45 °C) 6% n/a
ensure that there are no areas with little or no air Alternator and engine block 5% 5%
movement where gas may build up to dangerous radiation (30 °C)
levels. Heat remaining in flue 19% 15%
—— Gas leakage detection equipment: this will be linked gases (<120 °C)
to audible and visible alarm systems and to the (Electrical generation 34% 30%)
engine control system. At a predetermined low
level, alarms and warnings should be activated. At
higher levels, the plant should shut down
automatically. —— heat rejection from aftercooler is available at all
times
9.2.4 Control of Noise at Work Regulations —— heat rejection from the main chp-side heat recovery
circuit can be included as an option, frost protection

chp plant generates high levels of noise but, by the provision
must be considered.
of acoustic enclosures, the noise hazard may be minimised.
Chapter 5 of CIBSE Guide B (CIBSE, 2001–2) provides More complex circuits are available when it is necessary to
details on the Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005. supply heat at two different temperatures, for example low
pressure steam could be supplied from the exhaust heat
exchanger and low temperature hot water from the engine
9.3 Energy balance for CHP and jacket circuit.
heat recovery systems
On larger engines there may be two or three stages of turbo-
chp engines liberate heat as the result of the combustion of charging and some of the aftercooler heat can be usefully
fuel. The heat that is not converted to electrical output may recovered. Even on smaller engines, if a sufficiently low
be recovered at various temperatures as shown in Table 9.2 return temperature is maintained under all demand
(typical figures, data will vary between chp units). conditions, the intercooler heat can be included in the heat
recovery circuits.
Heat recovery, normally by heat exchanger to the
appropriate building services circuits, is dependent on For exhaust gas heat recovery, a shell-and-tube heat
being able to match the building services and engine exchanger is placed in the exhaust stream close to the
parameters. The overall thermal efficiency of the chp engine. For jacket water heat recovery, a plate heat
scheme may be as high as 90% where suitable applications exchanger or similar is placed between the engine cooling
exist with low temperature heat demands. In many circuit and the building service being heated, usually the
applications, however, it is not possible to utilise all the main lthw circuit.
available heat, and a lower overall efficiency will be
achieved. Figure 9.1 shows a typical arrangement of a heat The rating of heat rejection equipment will depend on
recovery circuit from a gas engine chp unit. whether it is required to reject all of the engine heat, (i.e. so
the chp can run at full output in electricity only mode) or
Figure 9.1 illustrates the following features: only a specified proportion of the heat is rejected (i.e. to
enable some flexibility of operation). This in turn will be
—— exhaust heat exchanger is in series with jacket determined from assessments of the minimum heat loads
cooler that may be expected from the building in planned
Combustion Exhaust
air gases
Heat
Exhaust heat rejection
Heat Turbo- (optional)
exchanger
rejection charger
Gas-
engine To
jacket building
heating
system
Oil
cooler
Start-up
valve Typical limit of Figure 9.1 Typical heat recovery
CHP unit supply schematic for gas-engine chp
Part
operating periods. If the chp plant is to be used as a standby

generator, full heat rejection capacity is required.
As an alternative to heat rejection from an air cooler,

exhaust gases can be diverted from the exhaust heat Heat
Boiler Boiler
exchanger by means of a bypass stack. This is more load
commonly used for gas turbines where all of the heat is
recovered from the exhaust gases.
X
9.4 System design: interfaces with Thermal store

heating circuit T
Hot
CHP T
layer
As discussed in section 4.5, there are a number of key T
objectives for the integration of chp into a heating system: Position A T
Cold
—— that the chp unit should operate in preference to layer T
T
the boilers (when it is economic to do so)
—— that when boilers also need to be used to meet the Note: If thermal store used CHP
heat demand the chp unit output remains at its then a non-return valve is
maximum heat output
required at point X Position B
—— that the heat recovery from the chp unit is optimised Figure 9.2 chp located in series with boilers
—— that the chp unit is always able to generate useful

heat even at part load If the heating system uses variable flow control then the
return temperature will be approximately constant. When
—— that the heating system is designed so that return the flow rate drops below that of the chp flow rate some
temperatures do not result in the chp unit shutting recirculation of chp flow will occur leading to higher
down unnecessarily temperatures onto the chp and part load operation. If the
heating system is a constant flow system then the return
—— that the efficiency of the boilers is not significantly temperature will increase under part-load, unless weather
worsened by the addition of the chp. compensation is used, again resulting in part load operation
of the chp to match the load.
It is important to understand how the building heating
system has been designed. For example, heating systems The benefit of this system is that the chp unit is always
might comprise a variable volume system using two-port used in preference to the boilers (meeting objective 1, see
control valves and variable speed pumps or a constant section 4.5). If the required flow temperature is achieved by
volume system using three-port control valves and fixed the chp the boilers will not fire as they are controlled by the
speed pumps. Either of these systems may be constant boiler thermostats. The boiler thermostat should be set a
temperature or variable temperature (weather compensated). few degrees lower than the chp supply temperature.
The boiler circuit may have a common primary pump or
each boiler may be separately pumped. There may be a A disadvantage of this circuit is that, as the return
common ‘low loss header’ with multiple flows and returns. temperature will be increased by the injection of heat from
There may be a mix of systems installed on larger sites/ the chp, any benefit from the use of condensing boilers to
buildings. meet the remaining heat demand is likely to be significantly
reduced. The addition of chp in series with condensing
Part of the analysis of the heating system should involve a boilers could lead to a loss of efficiency of the boilers.
consideration of operating temperatures to understand how
flow temperatures can be varied and, more importantly, the The chp will remain at maximum output at times of high
likely variation of return temperatures which are solely a heat demand as it will continue to receive a constant flow of
function of the building heating systems and controls. water and will be unaffected by the boiler operation, thus
meeting objective 2.
There are two principal ways of integrating the chp unit
into a heating circuit: To optimise the heat recovery from the chp unit (objective
3) the selection of operating temperatures for the heating
—— in series with the boilers circuit need to be considered. If heat recovery from the
—— in parallel with the boilers. intercooler is to be achieved, consistently low return
temperatures will be needed (typically 40 ºC to 45 ºC). Low
flow and return temperatures will also enable maximum
9.4.1 Series arrangement heat recovery from the exhaust gases. If the chp unit is to
continue to operate with maximum heat recovery under
In this design (see Figure 9.2), the chp unit is connected to part-load, the return temperature must not rise above the
either the common return supplying the boilers (position manufacturer’s set point at which part load operation
A) or the common return from the heating system (position commences (typically 75–80 ºC). This operating limit
B). The chp pump ensures a constant flow to the chp unit. should be checked with the chp supplier.
As this connection involves minimal impact on the boiler
circuit and its controls it is commonly used when Although the chp unit is connected to the lowest
retrofitting chp into an existing building. temperature part of the heating circuit, it is still possible
that the chp will modulate down or turn off if the return Flow
temperature is allowed to rise under part-load (objective 4). header
With constant volume circuits and three-port valves this
could easily occur. The result would be that the chp
modulates down and ultimately turns off even though there
is sufficient load to maintain it in operation. This situation
should be avoided by changing at least part of the system to CHP Boiler Boiler DPS
Heat
two-port controls to limit recirculation and to check that load
there are no fixed bypasses in the system. If weather
Variable
compensation is used then the flow and return temperatures speed
will be lower under part-load and the risk of the chp turning pumps
off unnecessarily is reduced.
Pumps are controlled in Return
sequence to ensure maximum header
It will generally be better to install the chp in a common heat from CHP and to control
return before the low loss header (position B in Figure 9.2) flow from flow header to return DPS = differential
to avoid recirculation via the header. This may involve header to near zero pressure sensor
significant changes to pipework in order to combine the Figure 9.3 chp connected in parallel with boilers
returns from several circuits.
T
A thermal store can be added to this circuit as shown in
Figure 9.2 with an additional pump in the circuit. The
store discharge pump can then be sized to deliver more flow T Thermal
than the chp plant potentially meeting peak demands from store Hot layer
T
the site. CHP Boiler Boiler T
Heat
load
T Cool layer
9.4.2 Parallel arrangement
T
In this design, the chp unit is connected between flow and

return in parallel with the boilers. Objective 1 can be
Figure 9.4 chp connected in parallel with thermal store
achieved by designating the chp unit as the lead boiler in
the boiler sequencer controls.
affecting the running of the chp (see Figure 9.4). Further
details on the control of a thermal store with chp are given
Objective 2 requires the chp heat output to be maintained
below.
when the boilers are operating, which is more complex to
achieve with this circuit especially where the capacity of
Optimising the heat recovery (objective 3) can be achieved
the first boiler to be enabled is similar to or greater than
with this circuit provided the system temperatures are
that of the chp.
selected appropriately and preferably a variable volume
system is used so that return temperatures are maintained
If there is a low loss header in the circuit, the chp flow rate
at low levels. The system can incorporate condensing
and boiler flow rate would be maintained but the return
boilers as the chp will not raise the return temperature onto
water temperature would rise as a result of recirculation of
the boilers.
flow water into the return via the header. As a result, the
chp would modulate down and the load would be shared
If a common primary pump is used there will need to be
between the chp and the boilers. To avoid this problem and
motorised valves on the chp unit and boilers to control the
maintain the chp heat output at maximum output the flow
flow to each heating unit but separate pumps for each heat
rate through the boiler would need to be controlled, either
source would normally be a more efficient pumping
with a modulating valve or a variable speed pump so as to
arrangement.
prevent the recirculation flow in the header and thus
maintain the return temperature onto the chp unit. A
In both of these circuits, if there is a heat rejection circuit
suitable control signal could be provided from the difference
incorporated this should be interlocked with the boiler
in temperature between the return water from the load and
controls to prevent boiler firing if the chp heat is not being
the return water from the header. However, this would be
fully utilised.
difficult to achieve if there are multiple zone circuits that
may be designed with different return temperatures. A
better solution would be to split the header into two parts 9.4.3 Operation of CHP with a
(flow and return) and arrange for a bypass to be installed thermal store
with a flow sensor so that the recirculation flow can be
measured directly, e.g. with an orifice plate or regulating A thermal store will only be successful with a variable flow
valve. The controls will also need to be set such that any building heating system that can maintain low and constant
minimum flow rate required through the boiler (as defined return temperatures so that the stored energy is maximised.
by the manufacturer) is always achieved once the boiler is
enabled. This circuit is shown in Figure 9.3. The simplest form of a thermal store operates automatically
as it is inherently self balancing. When the demand for heat
The above controls issues are more easily resolved when is less than the heat output of the chp there will be surplus
there is a thermal store in the circuit. In this case the excess flow from the chp into the store and the store will fill with
flow when the boiler operates can be accommodated by the the flow water. When the demand is greater than the chp
thermal store and the boiler can be turned on and off to output there will be insufficient flow from the chp and
maintain the top of the store at a set temperature without some water will flow out of the store to meet the demand.
Part
The chp controls will be set so as to fill the store and turn highest temperature part of the circuit upstream of
the chp off when it is nearly fully charged with water at the any mixing valves.
flow temperature. The chp will turn on again when the
—— The temperature drop across the absorption chiller
temperature at or near the top of the store is below a set
on the hot water side can be small and the return
point and the store is nearly fully discharged, giving ‘room’
temperatures at both full and part load need to be
for the chp to generate again. There is no benefit in storing
checked against the maximum chp return tempera
boiler heat so the boilers should be controlled to maintain
ture.
the top of the store at the required flow temperature with
this control set-point a few degrees below that of the chp —— The absorption chiller needs to operate against a
set-point. baseload cooling demand to maximise its running
hours. The simplest way to achieve this is to use the
The store is always full of water and relies on the absorption chiller to pre-cool the chilled water
stratification between the hotter flow layer and the cooler return to the main electric chillers.
return layer. If there is a large difference between these
—— In analysing the economic case for an absorption
temperatures the degree of mixing between the layers will
chiller in a new-build scheme, a decision needs to
be reduced. Operation of the store over a period of time will
be made as to whether the capacity of the main
lead to a gradual increase in the depth of the mixing layer.
electric chillers will be reduced such that the
At intervals the store will need to be ‘refreshed’ by filling it
additional cost for the absorption chiller is the
completely with water at the flow temperature. This may
extra-over cost compared to an electric chiller. If
happen anyway as a result of a normal daily cycle, e.g. at the
the capacity of the electric chillers is reduced then
end of the day the store may be completely full of flow water
the availability of the chp and absorption chiller in
at high temperature ready for the night period; however at

the summer needs to be considered taking account
other times it may be necessary to temporarily arrange for
of chp maintenance downtime.
the standby boilers or chp to operate in order to completely
fill the store.
9.6 System design: electrical
9.4.4 Control of flow temperature interface
off CHP unit
Power from the generator (normally at 415 V, 50 Hz,
When the chp unit is operating at full output, there will be 3-phase) will be connected to the building’s electrical
a nearly constant rise in temperature across the connected distribution system at a convenient location. This may be
heating circuit. The designer will need to consider if this at a spare breaker cubicle on an existing busbar or at a new
raises issues for the other parts of the circuit. For example, bus-section within the associated switchgear.
if the return temperature is low under part-load the flow
temperature off the chp will also be lower than the design In all cases, the building power distribution system must be
set-point. This could lead to unnecessary boiler firing, less checked to ensure that system fault levels are not exceeded.
heat being stored in a thermal store or more pumping If fault levels are likely to be exceeded, additional reinforce
energy on the distribution system. Normally a fixed flow ment of the distribution system may be required.
temperature is required from the chp unit and a mixing
circuit should be used to control the flow temperature off Where power distribution systems operate at 11 kV then
the unit by injecting flow water into the return as required. 415 V generators and step-up transformers may be used as
an alternative to generation at 11 kV. Low voltage generators
A more detailed discussion of the issues of interfacing chp and transformers are likely to be the preferred option below
with boiler systems is given in the BSRIA Guide BG 2/2007 2 MWe.
(BSRIA, 2007) and the HVCA Good Practice Guide TR37
(HVCA, 2008). chp suppliers will also be able to provide In most cases the chp generator will be connected to the
guidance. public electricity supply and will be operated in parallel. It
is necessary to obtain a Connection Agreement with the
9.4.5 Small-scale CHP systems (<50 kWe) local distribution network operator (dno). Contact should
be made with the dno as early as possible. The Electricity
Small-scale chp system suppliers produce a range of Networks Association publishes the following guides,
packages that incorporate all the necessary controls and which show how the Connection Agreement can be
often include a thermal store. However, the common issues obtained. These guides also refer to the other documents
outlined above still apply, i.e. the need to design heating that may be relevant.
circuits with lower return temperatures of 50 °C or below, —— Distributed Generation Connection Guide: A Guide for
and to avoid recirculation of flow water into the return. connecting generation that falls under G59/2 to the
distribution network (ENA, 2011a)
9.5 System design: absorption —— Distributed Generation Connection Guide: A Guide for
connecting generation that falls under G83/1 (Stages 1
chillers and 2) to the distribution network (ENA, 2011b).
Absorption chillers can be incorporated as simply another
The G83/1 is for chp units below 11.04 kWe 3-phase and
heating demand in the main circuit; however, the following
3.68 kWe for single phase.
points need to be considered:
—— With single effect absorption chillers the capital Where a standby power facility is required, special care
cost is dependent on the temperature of hot water must be taken to ensure that loads seen by the generator
supplied so the connection should be made to the under standby power conditions are within the generator’s
Generator Load Supply

protection protection protection
Heat
output Synchronisation
Building PES
Alternator
Prime mover M
Generator Mains PES
contactor switch Metering supply
Building PES
Figure 9.5 Typical electrical

connection arrangement
Supply LV loads (pes = public electricity supply)
capacity. If there is a shutdown and a need for the gas engine —— IGEM/UP/6: Application of compressors to natural gas
to take on load immediately after starting, the rate at which fuel systems (IGEM, 2009b)
load is imposed on the unit needs to be carefully controlled.

—— IGEM/UP/9: Application of natural gas and fuel oil
A chp unit must not be specified as a standby generator for systems to gas turbines and supplementary and auxiliary-
safety critical systems as there will be periods when the chp fired burners (IGEM, 2004)
will be on outage for maintenance.
A typical connection schematic is shown in Figure 9.5 9.8 Combustion exhaust system
above. The chp control panel will also provide power to the
chp auxiliary equipment. The primary function of the exhaust system is to carry the
products of combustion away from the engine safely. As
engines are often located in basements, and exhaust outlets
9.7 Fuel system are typically at roof level, careful consideration must be
given to exhaust duct routing and insulation to contain
Natural gas is available in most areas of the UK and to most
heat, vibration and noise. Catalytic converters may be
sites where a chp scheme is likely to be considered. The
included in the exhaust system either separately or
pressure of the gas may be suitable for smaller spark ignition
combined with silencers. A typical system is shown in
engines but gas boosters may be required for larger higher
Figure 9.6. Care must be taken to ensure that exhaust gases
efficiency engines. The building services engineer should
are not re-circulated into the building or engine intake
ensure that the pressure and capacity of the current system
systems. Guidance on the avoidance of recirculation may
are adequate to satisfy the needs of the proposed chp system
be found in CIBSE TM21: Minimising pollution at air intakes
and other usage on site. If long distances are involved
(CIBSE 1999).
between the gas supply and the chp installation, adequate
allowances must be made for pressure drop.
The design of the exhaust system must consider the effects
If the site supply pressure is marginal or low, it may be of over-pressure and vacuum which can occur during back-
possible to negotiate for gas to be supplied at a higher fires.
supply pressure instead of installing a pressure booster at
site. The capital and operating costs (i.e. electricity use) for
gas compressors can be significant, especially for gas 9.9 Combustion and ventilation
turbines where higher pressure gas is required. air systems
The minimum equipment configuration and testing
necessary for the safe installation of a gas fuelled engine are An air supply system is required at the engine for
described in the following publications issued by the combustion, general cooling and ventilation.
Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers:
The two functions, i.e. cooling air supply and combustion
—— IGEM/UP/1: Soundness testing and purging of
air supply, may be satisfied by common or separate systems.
industrial and commercial gas installations (IGEM,
For very small installations (<100 kWe) it may be perfectly
2005a)
satisfactory to draw cooling and combustion air directly
—— IGEM/UP/2: Gas installation pipework, boosters and from the surrounding plant room without recourse to
compressors on industrial and commercial premises special ducting, provided the plant room is naturally
(IGEM, 2005b) ventilated. For larger engines, separate fresh air supply
ducting is normally used in order to obtain sufficiently cool
—— IGEM/UP/3: Gas fuelled spark ignition and dual
combustion air and to obtain a cleaner air supply. Since
fuel engines (IGEM, undated)
engine power output reduces as charge air temperature
—— IGEM/UP/4: Commissioning of gas fired plant on increases, care must be taken with the location of
industrial and commercial premises (IGEM, 2009a) combustion air intakes to avoid recirculation.
45
Features of exhaust system:

• Long radius bends in exhaust to minimise back pressure
• Flexible connections to allow for expansion and vibration Absorptive
stainless
• Vibration/noise attenuation measures in pipe supports
steel
• Condensate drain traps at appropriate positions silencer
• Horizontal sections slope towards drains
• All welded construction recommended
Rigid support
Sliding support
Reactive
stainless steel
Condensate
silencer
CHP trap and drain
unit
Condensate trap
and drain Figure 9.6 Typical exhaust
Exhaust heat exchanger system
Although the majority of the available heat from the engine —— modulate output when running to match the heat
is recovered, a significant amount of heat radiated from the or power demand, or the electricity tariff
engine surfaces and rejected from an air-cooled alternator
—— adjust alternator excitation to achieve a desired
needs to be dissipated. Typically this heat is about 5% of the
power factor
fuel input (see Table 9.2). This is most easily achieved by
providing a once-through ventilation system to the unit —— monitor performance of the engine and shed load
enclosure or plant room. Air may be drawn from the plant or shut down if required
room; however, this is likely to be at an elevated temperature
and may have some contaminants and so an external air —— revert to predetermined safe conditions on any
supply is preferable. To minimise the electricity use of the failure or parameter excursion
ventilation fans low pressure ducts are used and the space —— connect and disconnect the generator from the
for this ductwork and the location of the air inlet and outlet building electrical distribution system
terminations are often critical in determining the location
and feasibility of the chp installation. —— provide power supplies to chp auxiliary equipment.
In some cases this heat rejection can be used for low grade These functions will be achieved by the chp unit controls
process use such as air heating of greenhouses. It would also however the local bems may be configured to interface with
be possible to reduce the volumes of air, and hence fan the chp system so that the building owner can have visibility
power, by using a chiller to cool the air with heat recovery of the chp operation. The key interfaces with the bems are
from the chiller condensers, i.e. acting as a heat pump. likely to include:
—— start/stop signal based on time control to suit the
site and the electricity supply contract prices
9.10 Control systems
—— status of the chp unit (e.g. started/running/
Control, instrumentation and monitoring of chp systems is synchronised/stopped/tripped)
concerned with: —— output of the chp unit (e.g. kW generated)
—— ensuring that the chp engine runs safely and —— monitoring of energy meters and circuit
efficiently temperatures (although these may be directly
—— integrating the heat produced with the building monitored rather than through an interface with
heat systems the chp controls).
—— synchronising, paralleling and disconnecting the An overview of the structure of a typical controls system is
generator safely given in Figure 9.7 below.
—— monitoring the chp plant for performance,
maintenance and accounting purposes.
9.11 Maintenance facilities
Systems are typically designed around microprocessor
controllers communicating with remote pc-based control In designing the chp system provision needs to be made for
and monitoring stations, often at the chp plant supplier’s any facilities required for the maintenance of the equipment.
offices. Access to the chp prime mover will be required on a regular
basis with sufficient space provided to carry out the work in
a safe manner. Where there are multiple chp units it is
The control system will be required to:
desirable to be able to maintain one unit whilst the other is
—— stop and start the engine at predetermined times in operation, which implies the use of separate acoustic
and/or match building loads or electrical tariffs enclosures.
Figure 9.7 Overview of control

Distribution switchboard systems for chp
Synchronisation
Mains monitoring and protection Mains
Generator Metering electricity
Generator control, supply
monitoring and protection
Engine
Engine control, monitoring
and protection
Fuel Fuel system

system monitoring and
protection
Heat Heat recovering Building

recovery control, monitoring heat
system and protection systems
CHP CHP controls
Modem link to remote

Plant room
monitoring and control
monitoring and BEMS
positions, e.g.
control position
maintenance contractor
There may be a requirement to provide storage facilities for Figure 9.8 opposite illustrates the following measures,
tools and consumables and an early discussion with the chp which may be required to achieve appropriate noise and
supplier, who may also be appointed to carry out the vibration attenuation:
maintenance, is recommended.
—— A: a concrete plinth or inertia base isolated from
the plant room floor with suitable resilient material
The storage and handling of lubricating oil requires
particular attention to minimise health and safety risks —— B: anti-vibration mounts between the plinth and
during delivery of new and removal of used oil. Larger module frame
systems will typically use on-site storage of ‘clean’ and
‘dirty’ oil. —— C: anti-vibration mounts between the module
frame and engine/generator base plate
—— D: flexible connections on all pipe systems to and
9.12 Control of noise and vibration from the engine and generator
Prime movers used for chp will always require some form of —— E: generous bends in electrical cables
enclosure and mounting to provide attenuation of: —— F: noise attenuating ducts on the ventilation supply
—— airborne noise and exhaust to plant room and module
—— structure-borne noise —— G: appropriate penetration details to maintain the
construction’s sound insulation performance where
—— exhaust and ventilation systems noise ducts, pipes, cables, exhaust flues pass through
—— vibration from engine feet and pipe systems. module and plant room boundaries
—— H: flexible connection(s) in exhaust flues to
In all cases, it is the responsibility of the owner to specify accommodate expansion and attenuate vibration
the noise and vibration requirements for the installation. In
many cases, packaged solutions that include an acoustic —— I: noise/vibration attenuating pipe supports
enclosure may be all that is required. However, in other —— J: silencer(s) in exhaust system
circumstances, such as where very stringent noise limits are
required or where transmitted vibration could be a cause —— K: acoustic cladding of module
for complaint, detailed monitoring and evaluation of the
—— L: acoustic cladding of plant room walls and ceiling
building may be required, together with special attention to
use of acoustic treatment and anti-vibration mounts. This —— M: acoustic cladding of doors with acoustic seals to
is a complex area that will often require specialist advice. module and plant room
47
Figure 9.8 Potential approaches

(L) to noise and vibration control
(I)
(G)
(N) (J) (N) (H)
(K) (G)
(F) (F)
(J)
(F) (F)
(H)
(E) (E)
(M) Engine Engine and

(M) Generator generator
bed plate
Plant
room (D) (C) Module bed
floor plate
(N)
(B)
Concrete plinth
(A) Noise-absorbent
layer between
frame and plinth
—— N: vibration-absorbent packing between pipes and heat recovery circuit or the intercooler, can often be
pipe clamps. overlooked. As the heat rejection equipment needs to be in
free air it is difficult to provide further attenuation after the
Not all the measures shown will be necessary in every coils and fans have been sized.
installation. However, if required, a very high degree of
noise and vibration attenuation may be achieved. For Detailed guidance on noise and vibration criteria and their
example a chp unit installed in an office block, directly control is set down in chapter 5 of CIBSE Guide B (CIBSE,
adjacent to executive facilities, may require a very high 2001–2).
degree of attenuation, whereas a chp unit installed in a
detached boiler house may require a much lower degree of
attenuation. 9.13 Fire and gas detection
Most small chp units, up to about 500 kWe, will normally and protection
be supplied with a dedicated acoustic enclosure. Larger
machines may be installed in plant rooms without an Whilst fire and gas detection systems are not a mandatory
acoustic enclosure where the plant room itself is designed requirement, many buildings’ insurance companies will
for acoustic control. Alternatively a larger engine may have require some form of protection/detection. At the lowest
an acoustic enclosure installed on site around the unit. A level, this will be a simple detector linked into the normal
key issue to consider the provision of a suitable environment building fire alarm/warning system. At the other extreme,
for maintenance of the engine with sufficient space and for fire/gas detectors will be linked to the engine control and
noise levels to be low enough for a working environment gas supply system, as well as the building alarm system.
including for the case where multiple units are installed Automatic gas supply shut-off valves will be required where
and other chp units may be in operation. chp units are installed alongside conventional boilers.
Where required, automatic module fire suppression systems
Weatherproof acoustic enclosures may also be specified may also be installed. The necessary level of detection,
allowing the unit to be installed outside the building on a protection and suppression must be determined for each
suitable hardstand. installation.
Exhaust noise attenuation can be achieved by the careful

selection of silencers. Depending on the location and route 9.14 Regulatory compliance
of the exhaust, noise may need to be minimised along its and approvals
route as well as at the outlet. In situations where there are
buildings nearby, the problems of minimising transmitted
or reflected noise must also be considered. Specialist advice The main regulatory system at present is the Climate
may be required in this area. Change Levy exemption available for ‘good quality’ chp. To
achieve this exemption, annual fuel use, useful heat
Flexible connections in pipe systems should be fitted in produced and electricity generated need to be measured
strict accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations. using meters that comply with an accuracy standard.
The function of the flexible connection is to provide
vibration isolation, not to correct for pipe misalignment. If Approvals in the form of a connection agreement will need
it is used in that manner, it may fail prematurely. to be obtained from the local district network operator
(dno) to connect the chp unit and to export power if this is
In addition to the main chp installation the noise impact envisaged. The dno will need to witness the testing of the
from auxiliary equipment will need to be assessed. In G59-compliant (ENA, 2011a) controller before permitting
particular heat rejection equipment, whether for the main operation.
9.15 Specification: typical contents Space available, internal or external siting

for CHP package specification
A ground floor location is recommended. Restrictions on
siting the unit and requirements if it is to be installed
Demarcations between CHP contract and others externally. Consideration needs to be given to the space
required for routine maintenance and for the subsequent
The most fundamental part of the specification is to define removal of the chp for major overhauls/repairs.
the scope of supply. This is partly achieved by clearly
defining demarcation points for:
—— heating circuits Fuel supply
—— electrical connections The type of fuel available and its supply pressure.
—— fuel supply
—— flue termination Exhaust termination
—— ventilation inlet and outlet
A complete exhaust system may be specified including the
—— whether interconnecting pipework to heat rejection height at which the exhaust should terminate. Alternatively
equipment is included the limit to the exhaust system from which others will
—— bems interfaces connect will be defined, together with an initial deter
mination of the acceptable backpressure.
—— telephone connection for external communication

—— make-up water to engine cooling circuit
Acoustic constraints
—— lubricating oil storage and delivery system
—— drain points The acoustic constraints on the design need to be provided,
normally following either the planning conditions or
—— civil works recommendations of an acoustic report.
—— floor finish.
NOx limits
CHP capacity
Allowable NOx limits should be given.
The required capacity of the chp unit(s) will need to be
defined. This may be expressed in terms of its electrical or
heat output, although the heat capacity is more logical as it Other planning conditions
is the heat demand that determines the chp size. However,
it is important not to be too restrictive about the required There may be specific planning conditions that need to be
capacity as a range can be specified to allow suppliers to met.
offer standard units from which the preferred option can be
selected.
Fire detection/suppression and interface with main fire
detection system
Voltage generated
Specific requirements for fire detection and suppression
The generator voltage will need to be specified and, if low including the need for interfacing with main plant room
voltage is preferred, whether a transformer is to be included systems.
as part of the package
Heating circuit temperatures Controls and mode of operation
The flow and return temperatures under design conditions Description of how the plant is expected to be operated to
(maximum heat output) need to be given together with the meet heat or electricity demands, to modulate in output
likely range of these under part load conditions. and any restrictions on time of operation; anticipated
number of starts.
Heat rejection requirements
Monitoring and BEMS interface
The requirements for heat rejection from the unit need to
be defined, e.g. whether all of the heat from the unit needs
Requirement to provide an interface to a bems for
to be capable of being rejected to maintain electricity
monitoring purposes, e.g. ‘run’, ‘trip’ and meter outputs.
output.
Ambient temperatures Metering
The maximum and minimum ambient air temperatures at The meters to be installed should be specified, together
which the heat rejection equipment needs to be designed to with accuracy standards commensurate with CHPQA
should be specified. requirements.
Part
Lubricating oil system 9.16 Design of district heating

The requirements for handling lubricating oil during District heating (dh) is increasingly recognised as an
changes, and the need for clean and dirty oil storage on site important option to deliver low carbon heating supply. In
if required. many cases, chp systems are the preferred heat source for
dh, although biomass boilers are also used. A full treatment
of the design of district heating is not provided here and
Delivery reference should be made to other guidance, in particular:
Specific constraints to be provided, e.g. availability of —— Technical Guide to District Heating (BRE, 2012)
lifting equipment, times at which delivery can be made,
responsibility for off-loading and positioning. —— Research reports and guides published by the
International Energy Agency District Heating and
Cooling Annex (IEA, 2011)
Commissioning
—— Guidelines for District Heating Substations (Euroheat,
2008).
Scope of commissioning activities, requirements to provide
information on commissioning including commissioning
procedures, any impact on site activities, recording of In developing a district heating system design there are a
commissioning results, witnessing by client representative. number of key issues to be considered.
Off-site testing The operating temperatures to be used
Requirements for testing and acceptance criteria. dh systems will be more cost-effective if the temperature
Arrangement for test including notice to be given to client difference between flow and return is maximised so that
for witnessing of tests. Whether tests are on-load or flow rates are reduced. The flow temperature is normally
functional. limited to a maximum of 130 °C so that a long life is
achieved for the pre-insulated pipe systems. Lower flow
temperatures would be more appropriate for gas engine chp
On-site testing systems. Return temperatures should be reduced as far as
possible, although an economic balance is reached where
The requirements for performance tests and reliability tests low return temperatures would result in higher costs for
to be given including acceptance criteria. Procedure to be larger radiators or air handling unit coils than the cost
followed if performance test does not pass and any savings on the dh network. It is recommended that, for new
compensation (liquidated damages payments). systems, radiator circuit temperatures of 70 ºC (flow) and
40 °C (return) are used with a maximum return temperature
of 25 °C from instantaneous domestic hot water heat
Documentation exchangers. Lower temperatures will help ensure that dh
systems are compatible with other low carbon heat sources
Specific requirements for documentation and format of in the future including extraction of heat from steam
documentation, drawings, manuals, test certificates. turbine power stations and large-scale heat pumps.
Whether there is hydraulic separation at the

Maintenance contract connections to buildings or dwellings
It is recommended that a maintenance contract is offered at The dh system water can be used directly in the building or
the same time as the tender is submitted for the supply of dwelling heating system, or indirectly by installing a plate
the unit. Key requirements for this contract are to be given heat exchanger. If a heat exchanger is used the dh system is
including: period of contract, guarantees on availability, protected from contamination by the building heating
principles of compensation and indexing of costs. system and there is more flexibility in the choice of dh
operating temperatures and pressures. However, the
additional cost and complexity mean that direct connection
Training is often used, especially for connecting individual dwellings.
A direct connection will minimise the return temperature
Training to be provided to client’s personnel to be specified. as there is no temperature difference required at the
interface, resulting in a small improvement in dh efficiency.
In addition, the dh system pressure difference will provide
Requirements to liaise with DNO the circulation pressure for the dwelling avoiding the
energy use of a secondary pump.
Any requirements to liaise with the dno to arrange witness
tests and provide ‘G59’-compliant equipment.
The way in which domestic hot water is produced
Requirements to liaise with others Domestic hot water can be produced using an indirect coil
in a cylinder or through an instantaneous plate heat
There may be requirements to liaise with other organisations exchanger. The latter will result in much lower return
to carry out tests, e.g. Fire Officer. temperatures, which will be of benefit to the dh system.
The control of design (maximum) flow rates The design of internal pipe distribution in housing
An essential requirement of a dh system is to maintain Where there are significant lengths of distribution pipework
balanced flows, i.e. the flow rate taken by any building or within a block of flats care must be taken to prevent heat
dwelling should be limited to the maximum design value. losses from the pipes and hydraulic interface units causing
This is achieved by using differential pressure control overheating in summer. Horizontal runs in long unventi
valves at each supply point. lated corridors are to be avoided. It is often preferable to
use more risers than to rely on horizontal distribution. The
aim should be to minimise the lengths of distribution. If
The use of variable flow control principles risers are located within the dwelling, provision should be
made for the risers to be ventilated at high level to ensure
unwanted heat can be dissipated in summer. Such
It is preferable to adopt a variable volume control system ventilation paths can be shut off in winter to enable pipe
for the dh system and all of the building heating systems heat losses to provide useful heat to the building.
connected. This will ensure that pumping energy is
minimised through reducing the volume of water to be
pumped and the pressure drops to be met, and also reduces The sizing of distribution pipework
heat losses through ensuring that return temperatures
remain low under part load conditions. Peak design flow rates will be determined from the required
space heating and hot water demands. Diversity of demand
for space heating will be limited unless the scheme is very
The control of pumps large and contains a mix of types of buildings when a
diversity factor of 0.7 to 0.8 can be applied. Where domestic

Pumping energy will be more significant in dh systems hot water is provided by instantaneous heat exchangers a
than small-scale heating circuits and so it is important to diversity factor can be used for sizing of the local
design an efficient pumping arrangement. The energy can distribution pipework as shown in Figure 9.9. Experience
be minimised by selecting multiple pumps with a range of from continental schemes indicates that the BS 6700 (BSI,
duties — both flow rate and head, to suit the requirements 2009a) factors are too conservative and Danish Standard
for the variation in heat demands on the network. Variable DS 439: 2009 (Dansk Standard, 2009) diversity factors are
speed drives should be used to take full advantage of the recommended for sizing supplies to multiple dwellings.
variable flow systems. This standard contains the following equation, which was
used to generate Figure 9.9:
The location of peak and standby boilers Pmax = 1.19 N + 18.8 N 0.5 + 17.6
where Pmax is the total heat rate required for dhw production
As the chp plant will require regular maintenance, it is
for the group of dwellings (kW) and N is the number of
normal practice to install peak and standby boilers. It is
dwellings.
simplest to locate these at the central energy centre.
However, if boilers are installed or retained within buildings
From this equation it can be seen that the heat rate for a
there would be additional benefits of security of supply and
single dwelling has been taken as 37.5 kW, which is typical.
lower dh network costs. The dh network need only be sized
However, the diversity factors will be similar for larger
to deliver the chp heat, not the peak heat demand in this
dhw heat exchangers for dwellings.
case. In these cases it may be appropriate for the dh
company to offer an interruptible heat supply contract.
Pre-insulated pipe systems
The design of a building’s heating systems There are a number of types of pre-insulated district
heating pipework systems:
The design of a building’s heating system and controls has —— steel carrier pipe, rigid polyurethane insulation,
a significant impact on the efficiency and cost-effectiveness high density polyethylene casing (BS EN 253) (BSI,
of the dh network. A variable volume control approach 2009b)
should be used so that the return temperature on the dh
system remains low under part-load. This reduces pumping —— cross-linked polyethylene carrier pipe, flexible
energy and ensures heat recovery is maximised from chp. It insulation and outer casing
also means that a thermal store will be more feasible. If
bypasses are required within the heating system these 1·0
0·9
should be temperature controlled. With an indirect 0·8
connection system, it is important to ensure that the
Diversity factor
0·7
primary (dh side) flow is also controlled otherwise 0·6
unnecessary primary circulation will occur leading to 0·5
higher return temperatures. 0·4
0·3
0·2
There is a need to define clear demarcation points between 0·1
the dh system and the building system, both for construction 0
1
5
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
and operation; normally this is defined at the flange of an

isolating valve. The building owner would normally own Number of dwellings
the heat exchanger substation except for the heat meter, Figure 9.9 Diversity factor for instantaneous domestic hot water heat
which would be owned by the dh company. exchangers
Part
—— polybutylene carrier pipe, flexible insulation and —— a statement of deliverables

outer casing.
—— guarantees
The plastic carrier pipe systems have a degree of flexibility, —— a statement of liquidated damages
which means that the smaller diameters can be supplied in
—— quality and acceptance tests
rolls of 50 m length, thus reducing the number of joints to
be used and enabling ground obstructions to be easily —— health and safety
avoided. Generally the heat losses are likely to be higher
—— insurance requirements.
than for the equivalent steel system. The main benefit is
resistance to corrosion.
10.1.3 Selection of tenderers
A surveillance system is normally incorporated in the steel-
in-plastic system, which enables ground water ingress into The procedures for selecting tenderers will vary between
the insulation to be detected and located prior to the onset organisations but may involve:
of external corrosion. This is recommended as it can result
—— advertising for potential tenderers through trade or
in significant savings in dh repair costs.
EU journals
—— selecting tenderers from known suppliers or
approved vendor lists.
10 Procurement
Certain public sector and utilities contracts must be
advertised, under EU rules, normally through the Official

10.1 Tendering Journal of the European Union (OJEU). This will impose
time restrictions on the process.
Tenders sent out to prospective bidders should contain:
—— a technical performance specification Assessment criteria for the selection of potential tenderers
may include seeking evidence of:
—— conditions of contract.
—— relevant experience
The purchase of the chp unit is frequently accompanied by —— financial status
the procurement of a maintenance contract. Indeed this is
recommended both to ensure that the best expertise is used —— insurance status
to maintain the plant and to pass on the risks for poor —— quality system accreditation
reliability to the supplier of the unit. The total cost of the
maintenance of the unit over 15 years is significant and can —— capacity to carry out work in desired time-scale
be as much as the initial cost of the purchase. So it is —— health and safety record.
important to tender the maintenance contract at the same
time as for the supply and installation, and to compare The objective is to have sufficient tenderers to achieve a
tenders on both aspects of the offer as part of a single life realistic level of competition for the works, i.e. where the
cycle evaluation. companies tendering are in genuine competition but where
the purchasing organisation’s building services engineer is
10.1.1 Technical performance specification not overwhelmed by bids.
The technical performance specification is developed from 10.1.4 Tender assessment criteria
the preceding design stage information. To the greatest
extent possible, the specification should identify the Tender assessment criteria should be developed in parallel
outcome or output of any particular feature, not what has to with the invitation to tender (itt). Criteria may include:
be done to achieve it. The aim of this approach is to clarify
the responsibility between purchaser and supplier for the —— compliance with the itt:
provision of supply and adequacy for purpose. • technical, including schedules of exclusions
where required
If the purchaser gives a prescriptive description of how a
feature is to be achieved and that subsequently fails, then • commercial
the purchaser, not the supplier, may be liable for the failure. • presentational
If the purchaser identifies what is required from the system
and the supplied system does not meet that requirement, —— price and life cycle costs
the supplier may be held liable for such failures. —— proposed installation programmes
—— proposed payment schedule
10.1.2 Conditions of contract
—— maintenance capability
Conditions of contract may be adopted from any appropriate —— guarantees and after sales service.
standard form in accordance with an organisation’s normal
practice. MF/1: Model form of general conditions of contract
(IMechE, 2010) is suitable for use with chp projects. 10.1.5 Invitation to tender
Whatever form of contract is used the following may be
included: The itt should be sent to each potential tenderer with a
clear statement of the response time, and the presentation
—— model conditions required.
10.2 Assessment of tenders —— operating benefits based on guaranteed performance

efficiencies
10.2.1 Initial review of tenders —— availability based on guaranteed levels in main
tenance contracts
When tenders are received, they should be examined and
assessed against the agreed format. Responses from —— maintenance costs over life of the economic
manufacturers or suppliers should be considered for analysis.
compliance with such items as:
Subject to the maintenance contract terms being similar
—— generator voltage and an assessment of other qualitative matters, e.g. level of
—— gross and net power output in kW back-up, experience of similar projects, financial stability
etc., the tender offering the lowest npv can be recommended.
—— heat output by kWt and temperature A weighting system may be employed to score the
—— dimensions qualitative criteria in a consistent manner.
—— weight
The review should include revisiting the operating pattern
—— specific fuel consumption for the machines that are offered so as to optimise the
returns for each proposed scheme and hence to be able to
—— on-engine monitoring and control select a preferred scheme.
—— performance guarantees, e.g. reliability, availability
and utilisation over the proposed duty cycle
This review should follow the same format as the earlier

—— manufacturers’ experience with similar machines appraisals. It will be useful at this time to include a
in similar usage sensitivity analysis to assess the effect on the payback
period of changes to fuel and energy prices. The building
—— maintenance requirements services engineer will then have a better idea of the factors
—— capital cost affecting the future financial viability of the project.
—— installation cost
10.2.4 Financing
—— maintenance cost.
The result of the invitation to tender may have an influence
Records of the tender review should be maintained, on the means of financing the project. For instance:
particularly in formal or statutory tendering processes,
when records of the assessment procedure can later be —— Project costs may have reached a pre-determined
requested for inspection. level that requires a different approach.
—— None of the tenderers may be able to offer the
10.2.2 Rationalisation of tenders required or preferred finance package.
With all returned tender responses available, the building —— The payback period may be short enough to permit
services engineer should check for completeness of capital purchase rather than leasing.
technical or commercial information and ask tenderers to
forward any information that is outstanding. The objective In any event, the building services engineer should review
is to ensure that sufficient information is available to the means of financing the chp scheme to ensure compliance
recommend a preferred tenderer and avoid the potential for with management guidelines and to obtain best value for
additional costs during the contract due to unforeseen money, commensurate with acceptable risk.
items.
The assessment of tenders should continue to the agreed 10.2.5 Report

format to a point where a preferred tenderer can be selected.
It is always possible that in the early stages, two tenderers As a conclusion to the tender phase, the building services
may be effectively equal and further negotiations will be engineer should prepare a report formally summarising:
necessary before a decision can be made.
—— the result of the invitation to tender
10.2.3 Economic reviews —— a recommendation on the preferred tenderer
Once tenders have been assessed and specific information is —— the project costs associated with the preferred
available on the cost of the project and potential savings, tenderer
the building services engineer should carry out a further —— the result of the economic appraisal
economic appraisal to demonstrate that the scheme still
meets the management’s financial criteria. —— recommendation for future action:
The basis for the tender appraisal should be to reassess the • proceed with project, or
project economics in accordance with the client’s financial • stop at the present time
parameters for each tender, taking account of:
—— the need for any further work before contract
—— chp units cost
placement, e.g. finalise contract terms, programme
—— installation costs etc.
53
11 Installation, • Who is taking responsibility once the

becomes live?
hv
commissioning • Does the chp and ancillary equipment have

and testing a fire or gas system?
• How is this going to be connected into the
11.1 Installation end user system?
—— Testing, flushing and filling:
The installation must be installed by a competent contractor
and comply with the latest legislation and in accordance • Has the local planning inspector accepted
with other guidance published by CIBSE, IET, IGEM etc the installation?
• Has the electrical installation been tested to
Whilst the following list is not exhaustive, careful IET Regulations, witnessed and signed off?
consideration should be given to the following points:
• Has the mechanical installation been
—— Pre-installation and construction: pressure tested and witnessed?
• Does the contract fall under CDM • Have water samples been carried out on
Regulations? new and existing system?
• Who is the principal contractor? • Has flushing been carried out satisfactorily?
• Who is the cdm coordinator? • Is dosing required on the water systems?
• Who is responsible for informing the • Is pipe work exposed to external conditions,
Health and Safety Executive? is glycol required in system?
• Who is responsible for arranging ‘G59’ • Has the system been commissioned and
protection? witnessed?
• Is planning permission required? • Is the system ready to ‘go live’?
• Is there a construction plan in place? —— ‘Go live’ stage:
• Has a health and safety risk assessment • Has the installation been signed off?
been carried out?
• Has the commissioning been completed?
• Has a detailed site survey been completed?
• Is there a permit to work in place to allow
• Has a detailed client review discussion ‘go live’?
taken place?
• Has the ‘G59’ test been completed?
—— Installation:
• Who is taking responsibility for the system
• Has planning approval been obtained prior when operational?
to commencing on site?
• What period is allowed and required for
• Is there a construction programme in place? initial proving of the chp controls under
• Have site inductions taken place? actual site demand conditions?
• Have competent contractors been engaged? Specialist systems, such as tri-generation, or systems with
• Do all personnel have the correct island mode operation will require additional checks.
qualifications and Construction Skills
Certificate Scheme (CSCS) cards in place? 11.2 Component testing,
• Are Risk Assessments and Method off-site testing
Statements in place prior to commencing
works? The chp unit must be CE-marked, to ensure that it conforms
• Have permits been issued to allow works to with the essential requirements of applicable EC directives
commence?
The chp unit is made up of a number of components that
• Have regular site progress meetings been are individually tested and designed to allow them to fit
arranged? within the general arrangement of the chp system. A
• Are toolbox talks in place? thorough test of all equipment (where possible) is
conducted. However, unless a thermal and electrical load is
—— Final connections: available, the unit performance cannot be checked. This is
normally done when on site and fully connected to the
• Have the tie-in points been identified?
client’s system.
• Have the risks been identified when tying
into existing system? Where the system has ‘island’ mode or ‘no-break’ facility,
additional hardware and design is required to enable the
• Is a high voltage (hv) study required prior
system to support the facility. A ‘soft’ test will be carried out
to connecting to hv?
by the manufacturer to ensure the correct interlocks and
• Have the tappings on the new hv trans transfer operates when required. However, it is important
former been set correctly? that a number of ‘live’ tests are carried out on the client’s
premises when fully commissioned and connected to the The sequence for on-site stw should be agreed in advance.
client’s system to check compatibility and correct operation. The stw programme should include:
—— What is to be tested or trialled?
A typical regime for testing of a chp unit off-site will
comprise: —— How is the test or trial to be conducted?
—— Initial works: —— Who will carry out the test?
• design approved for manufacture —— Are any special approvals required e.g. dno
verification of G59 compliance prior to permitting
• general arrangement drawing completed. generation?
—— chp build: —— When is the test or trial to be conducted?
• COSSH Assessment • during the day
• machine risk assessment • at night
• assemble chp • at week-end
• complete build checklist prior to offering to —— Will the test have an impact on the normal operation
test. of the building?
—— Prior to energising: —— Who is to witness the test?
• gas test, purging and certification
The stages of site stw will commonly follow the pattern:

• IET testing and certification
—— installation checks to ensure that all equipment is
• system pressure tested and filled with water fitted as required by drawings
• system lubrication added. —— static testing of systems:
—— System testing: • pressure testing of pipe systems
• assign test engineer • line checks and earth resistance checks of
• complete pre-commission test sheets electrical systems
• energise system —— dynamic running checks of individual equipment
• load software —— functional checks of all safety devices
• run and tune engine —— generator and switchboard performance and safety
trials
• complete commissioning test sheets
—— operational running checks of complete systems
• collate performance data and sign off as
commissioned —— proving of all normal and reversionary operating
modes.
• glycol added once fully satisfied and prior
to dispatch (when required)
11.3.2 Documentation
• system identification added
• system made safe and secure for dispatch The contractor must present a full dossier with all relevant
information, e.g. test methods and results, at the end of the
• transport to client location. test.
During the course of the testing programme the client is Any defects identified during the stw, whether in the
normally invited to witness the tests. factory or on site, should be recorded and assessed for
impact. Some may prevent further testing without
rectification; others may be acknowledged for rectification
11.3 Commissioning later. Whatever decision is reached, it should be logged for
future reference.
11.3.1 Co-ordination
11.3.3 Handover
Commissioning a new chp plant should be a planned,
progressive and sequential process of setting to work (stw). Finally, stw will culminate in an acceptance trial and report
which, if successful, will lead to handover. At handover all
A considerable degree of test and trial may be carried out at relevant parties should sign a certificate. The ‘taking-over
the supplier’s factory, particularly for smaller engines or certificate’ in MF/1* or similar form may be used. The
packaged units. Where factory testing is possible, the certificate should include reference to all outstanding
maximum advantage should be taken of this opportunity to defects (‘snagging list’) with the agreed responsibility and
carry out all possible tests. On completion of factory testing, action for rectification, and any agreed retention against
testing on site will be reduced to: the contract price.
—— items that could not be tested in the factory
* MF/1 (Revision 5): Model Form of General Conditions of Contract
—— checking that factory test results are still valid. (London: Institution of Engineering and Technology) (2010)
Part
11.4 Client acceptance testing —— conditions of heat or power to initiate a shut-down

to a standby mode
Typically there will be three sets of acceptance testing: —— conditions of heat or power to initiate a re-start
—— proving of the functionality of all equipment, from standby
controls, interlocks etc. —— operation of other plant during periods when the
chp plant is on, including plant sequencing
—— performance testing to confirm that the unit is
operating as the supplier’s proposals —— plant response to engine parameters entering
warning levels, e.g. rising lubrication oil temper
—— reliability testing: operating under normal
ature
conditions for a limited period of, say, 1 week to
prove that the engine and systems are reliable. —— plant response to partial failure of control and
monitoring system, e.g. failure of remote modem
Consideration needs to be given during the tender link
preparation stage to the availability of suitable site demands —— plant response to failure of local electricity supply
for heating, electricity and, in the case of tri-generation,
cooling to enable testing and commissioning to be —— level of plant operation and control that is possible
completed. This is particularly an issue for new buildings without the normal automatic systems
or when the commissioning is planned for the summer.
Electrical demand is less critical if export is permitted but —— location and authority of normal plant control:
in some cases an electrical load bank can be provided from where and by whom.
temporarily. If full heat rejection facility is included in the

scope, the chp operation can normally be fully tested. Each of the items above needs to be addressed to ensure
However, some aspects of the controls may need to be that the operator (as distinct from the building services
carried out later (such as how boilers are sequenced with engineer) understands what to expect or demand of the chp
the chp as the site heat demand varies). Where a thermal plant.
store is incorporated this may be sufficient to provide a
heating load. It may be necessary to carry out some of the The pattern of operation should remain within the building
final proving at a later date, say during the heating season, services engineer’s overall control. It may be set up and
and this can be allowed for within the contract. adjusted by the remote monitoring contractor in agreement
with the building services engineer for plant that is under
performance based maintenance contracts. Otherwise,
alterations to the operating pattern may be made through
12 Operation and the building bems, by adjustable timers or by other semi-
automatic means within the chp plant control system.
maintenance
The interaction of other plant in particular requires careful
consideration.
12.1 Operation
It is usual that, when running, the chp unit becomes the
12.1.1 Strategy for using the CHP plant lead boiler. However, to achieve this with other boilers, or
even other chp plant, requires careful selection of the chp
plant and boiler on/off set temperatures, and of the sensing
In the feasibility study, consideration was given to the way
positions, to ensure that the plants operate in the correct
in which the chp plant might be operated. This was
sequence. Different temperature schedules may be required
developed further in the tender stage in order to assess
when the chp plant is running and when it is shut down.
accurately the annual savings from and economic
justification for the project. If an operation and maintenance
agreement has been signed with a contractor, this may If heat raising plant is not co-ordinated in this manner, the
reference operating periods and annual energy production boilers may suppress the chp plant at times when all
as key performance factors. conditions would otherwise be favourable for chp operation.
The building services engineer will already have planned 12.1.2 Monitoring benefits
and set into the control system such features as:
The chp plant will be installed, in most cases, because of
—— the normal start and stop time each day: determined the financial benefit achieved by displacing the more
by electricity tariff times and/or building usage expensive combination of imported power and boiler-
—— conditions for heat and power demand before the generated heat. It is therefore incumbent upon the building
plant can start owner’s or operator’s services engineer to maintain and
monitor records to ensure that the plant delivers the benefit.
—— number of attempts and maximum time to start,
run and parallel before declaring failed start and As a minimum, records should show:
shutting down
—— running hours: from the chp plant hours-run meter
—— protection of starter motors
—— fuel consumption: from the chp plant’s meter
—— protection of circuit breakers
—— usable electrical power generated: from chp plant
—— conditions of heat or power to initiate a modulation kW·h meter, minus any parasitic loads for each
of plant output tariff period
—— usable heat generated: estimated, if not directly Should any changes to the operation of the chp plant be
metered contemplated? Re-running the financial appraisal, or
monthly reports, should provide the answer as to whether
—— the duration and cause of any plant stoppages. the proposed change should proceed.
These minimum records may be taken directly from the The building services engineer may also wish to initiate
automatically monitored records provided by the o&m changes that improve the overall building operation and
company or by other local means. In most instances, the economics. Any changes to the chp plant operating pattern
building services engineer will wish to see a fuller record of should take into account the cost implications for existing
performance than the bare minimum. A balance needs to operation and maintenance agreements.
be struck regarding the frequency and detail of information
presented to the building services engineer to ensure that it
is sufficient for purpose without being overwhelming. 12.1.4 Provision of operating services
On modern pc-based data logging systems, it is possible to The provision of services to operate the plant on a day-to-
retain considerable volumes of data for later analysis. day basis and to attend to breakdowns may be the subject of
Normally a hierarchy of data retention will be established, a service agreement with a specialist contractor. The
e.g.: building services engineer will be able to forecast the
operating periods and generating profiles of the chp plant
—— last hour: all data recorded to assist in negotiating the service agreement.
—— last day: one data set per hour plus all start/stop
signals, alarms and warnings

12.2 Operation and maintenance
—— last three months: one data set per week, plus all start/ manuals
stop signals, alarms and warnings.
Records of plant performance should be converted 12.2.1 Manuals

periodically into a costed record of benefit that will compare
the actual cost of running the chp plant with the cost of The provision of operation and maintenance manuals will
providing the equivalent heat and power by conventional have been specified in the contract specification. These
means, in effect validating the financial appraisal. manuals are required by the building services engineer,
irrespective of whether the supplying contractor is
The information required to achieve the necessary results providing maintenance services. Holding the manuals will
is: allow, should circumstances dictate, the operation and
maintenance of the plant using in-house resources or the
—— cost of fuel for the chp plant: from gas bills placement of an alternative operation and maintenance
contract.
—— cost of chp generated electricity: from the chp contract
—— cost of chp plant maintenance: from the chp contract The manuals must be clear and comprehensive. The
building services engineer should ensure that manuals are
—— equivalent cost of importing chp generated power: from received from the supplying contractor before plant hand-
electricity bills over.
—— equivalent cost of boiler firing: from boiler records.
The manuals should cover:
The data may be entered into the spreadsheet used in the —— health and safety warnings
feasibility study, formatted to suit the analysis required, or
presented in any other suitable form. —— plant data sheets
—— general and detailed descriptions of engines and all
Performance records should be updated and reviewed as
equipment
often as required. Many organisations keep records monthly
and find them a useful way of keeping senior management —— installation guidance notes
informed of the chp scheme and its continuing financial
benefit to the organisation. —— general arrangement drawings
—— circuit and schematic diagrams
Information about plant stoppages is particularly important
in relation to payments in performance based contracts. —— commissioning procedures, records and test sheets
Liability for non-performance of the plant will be dependent
on the reason for non-performance. —— operating instructions
—— detailed maintenance instructions and schedules
12.1.3 Changes in operation for all equipment
—— diagnostic fault finding information
If fuel tariffs change, the monthly reports should identify
the change in benefit. Such a change may be the prompt —— passwords to access control system
that is required to re-examine the way in which the chp —— listing and descriptions of special tools
plant is being operated; for example, should a new running
pattern be adopted (e.g. continuous operation rather than —— recommended spares holdings and ordering infor
17 hours per day)? mation.
Part
12.3 Maintenance and servicing Maintenance schedules for chp plant will vary depending
on the exact machine. The following schedule is an example
chp plant requires maintenance as a necessity. The of the items that may be included for a typical gas-engine:
purchaser should understand the need for, and degree of, —— daily or weekly checks:
maintenance required and set in motion the means of
delivering a suitable service. • performance monitoring checks
• visual inspection of plant for leaks and
12.3.1 Delivery of maintenance unusual noises
• visual check on oil level in oil make-up tank
Maintenance may be carried out by:
—— routine service (typically every 1000 hours):
—— in-house staff
• check running records for plant performance
—— equipment suppliers trends
—— specialist contractors. • check starter battery condition.
• change engine oil
The costs and benefits, or risks, associated with each option
will determine the choice of who should carry out • change oil filter
maintenance.
• send oil sample for analysis
Many organisations choose some form of contract • check spark plugs and renew as required
maintenance with equipment suppliers or specialist
• check air filter and clean or change as
contractors (see section 12.3.3 below).
required
• check oil tank level and top up as required
12.3.2 Schedules of maintenance
• check ht leads for wear and corrosion
Maintenance of a gas-fired spark-ignition chp installation • check and reset valve clearances as required;
will include activities that will be scheduled on an hours- record high recession
run basis, as well as activities that will depend on inspections
or condition monitoring. • change rocker box gaskets
• check engine coolant level; top up antifreeze
Individual engine and equipment suppliers will provide as required
detailed statements on the scope of maintenance for their
equipment. These statements should be observed carefully • check battery terminals for tightness
in order to:
• clean out engine catchment area; wipe clean
—— ensure the enduring life of equipment
• visually inspect all engine and control panel
—— maintain the performance guarantees and wiring
warranties
• visually inspect all water flexible connection
—— co-ordinate scheduling of major services. hoses and expansion joints for deterioration
• check and clean in-line water filters, if fitted
The maintenance requirements of machines are now more
frequently being determined by condition monitoring of • check condensate pot level
the plant. Particularly where fully automatic monitoring • visually inspect close coupled engine/
and data logging is used, deviations in plant performance generator connection
can be identified early and appropriate remedial steps
taken. Not every slight deviation in condition will evoke an • visually inspect anti-vibration mounts
immediate maintenance response. supporting engine/generator monoblock
• restart engine; visually inspect for fluid
Condition monitoring of bearings is a valuable tool for leaks, unusual noises, loose fittings
making an early diagnosis of incipient bearing failure.
• check engine performance; set up using gas
Oil sample monitoring may also be used. Laboratory analyser
analysis of the oil would look for: • check and record exhaust back pressure
—— water or glycol contamination: indicating leakage • check operation/control of dry air cooler
of engine coolant into the oil circuits and 3-port valve
—— changes in viscosity, acidity, oxidation, nitration • check unit controls, metering, monitoring
and other conditions: indicating that the oil needs and communications.
to be changed
—— metal particulate contamination: indicating engine Further servicing requirements will depend on the
bearing or component wear equipment selected and the feedback from condition
monitoring. The requirements will be influenced by the
—— non-metallic particulate contamination. hours run, the frequency of starts and the type of fuel.
It is important that full records of maintenance activities As a guide, planned downtime for a plant running 8000
carried out are kept and that these are provided to the hours per year should not exceed 400 hours, and unplanned
owner. downtime a further 400 hours in an average year without a
major overhaul. The best systems should achieve a total
downtime of less than 600 hours per year, most of this being
12.3.3 Contracted-out maintenance for planned maintenance and therefore carried out at times
of least inconvenience.
The level of maintenance contracted out may cover a very
wide range of options. The following are examples of For plants running only 4000 hours per year, most planned
typical cover: downtime could be programmed outside the duty hours.
Where maintenance is scheduled at weekends, premium
—— Service only: The maintenance contractor will carry
payments may be incurred.
out a pre-set list of maintenance tasks to a
predetermined time schedule only. All tasks in
Where performance guarantees are involved, clear and
excess of the standard predefined tasks will be
careful agreement of the performance criteria are required.
extras. Spares and consumables quoted in the stated
Issues to be clarified include:
tasks will be included in the price but all other
spares will be extras. The user is responsible for —— Output performance: Is power used by chp plant
calling in the maintenance contractor for any defect auxiliaries, fuel systems and heat rejection systems
rectification at additional cost. included or excluded? These parasitic loads may be
significant but they should be excluded from any
—— Service only with remote monitoring: The same as calculation of chp scheme benefit to the user, since
‘service only’ with the addition that the contractor without the chp scheme these loads would not exist.
is also monitoring the chp plant performance and
should therefore identify plant failures (or the need —— Hours available; hours run: how will downtime be
for early attention) and can discuss with the user logged and attributed to cause, e.g. planned
whether the attendance of a service engineer is maintenance, defect or unplanned maintenance,
required. building heat or power demand too low etc.? On
remotely monitored systems, the data logger may
—— Comprehensive service with remote monitoring: The record the fact that a chp plant has been manually
maintenance contractor will carry out pre-defined tripped locally and interpret this as the user
maintenance tasks and will respond to defect call- deciding not to run the plant. Such an event would
outs. The range of spares included in the price will therefore not count against the maintainer, whereas
be greater than for ‘service only’. the user may have been responding to a request to
shut down from the maintainer.
—— Comprehensive service with performance guarantee:
The maintenance contractor takes on almost total
responsibility for ensuring that the plant achieves 12.3.4 In-house maintenance
specified performance levels. Performance may be
determined in terms of guaranteed availability of If the purchaser takes on any part of the operating service
hours run and in terms of heat and power generated. or maintenance of the chp plant, the division of respon
The contractor carries out all planned maintenance sibility with any specialist contractor must be clearly
activities and is responsible for addressing all identified.
unplanned defects. The contractor provides a near
immediate call-out response to breakdowns. A normal chp plant requires daily observation, either
locally or via a remote terminal, to check for good operation
—— Monitoring service only: The monitoring contractor and to identify trends that may indicate future problems.
takes no responsibility for ensuring that the plant Other functions may require weekly or monthly checks,
achieves any particular level of service but provides with main services being needed every six months. Oil
the client with reports of plant monthly perfor changes may be required every 6 to 8 weeks (1000 to 1500
mance, operation outside of normal limits and hours running). To ensure that appropriate maintenance is
trips, with the time and type of fault. Other services carried out, the building services engineer should establish
may be included such as monthly savings reports, maintenance schedules following the manufacturer’s
diagnostic assistance from data analysis, prediction recommendations.
of service interval. This level of service provision is
relatively rare and, if adopted, needs careful
consideration to ensure that all parties are aware of 12.3.5 Consumable spare parts
the scope and limits of their responsibilities.
The contract specification should allow for the immediate
The client must also select which elements of the provision on handover of an appropriate range of
maintenance will be contracted out. consumable spares recommended by the supplier. When
selecting spares holdings, judgment must be exercised in
relation to:
For all maintenance arrangements, it is important to
establish agreed or contracted response times, and defect —— the convenience of immediate availability
call-outs, since all lost running time detracts from the chp
—— space required for storage
scheme’s financial benefit. It is possible for an otherwise
well designed and installed chp plant to be out of action for —— anticipated draw-off rates
1000 hours in a year if faults are not promptly attended to.
—— the shelf-life of spares
This may include downtime at times of highest electricity
price and greatest heat demand. —— the cost of cash tied up in stock
59
—— the likelihood of the need and the impact of non- also include all relevant references, sources of supply and
availability ordering information.
—— the ability to source spares when required.
The precise level of spares holdings may ultimately be
All spares should be detailed in a spares listing within the determined by the arrangements made for maintenance
operating and maintenance manuals. This listing should and service.

13 Lessons learned —— Ensure that efficiencies and gas consumption rates
are defined using gross calorific value and always
check this with the chp supplier.
The following checklist of do’s and don’ts summarises
some of the guidance provided within the body of the —— Discuss with the local authority the local Air
guide. It is divided into the following headings following Quality Objectives and assess the impact of chp;
the stages of a project development: this may involve dispersion modelling.

—— Feasibility studies —— Consider adequacy of gas supply (noting that
normally gas consumption increases significantly
—— Economic appraisals
with the installation of chp). Gas suppliers will
—— Integration of chp into heating circuits need to know the ‘supply hourly quantity’ (shq)
(i.e. the maximum hourly gas consumption), the
—— District heating ‘supply offtake quantity’ (soq) (i.e. the maximum
—— Environmental impact daily consumption) , and the ‘annual quantity’ (aq)
of gas required.
—— Procurement
—— Check the gas pressure available at maximum
—— Installation demand and compare this with the engine
requirements to assess whether gas boosters will be
—— Commissioning required.
—— Operation —— Establish how supplies of heat and power are
—— Tri-generation and absorption chillers maintained during chp maintenance periods.
—— Confirm suitable space exists for chp with good
access.
13.1 Feasibility studies
—— Establish how adequate ventilation is provided to
—— Establish heat and power demands in as much
the chp enclosure and plant room.
detail as possible, which could involve installing
temporary metering or monitoring equipment. —— Consider location for heat rejection equipment
taking account of potential issue of noise generation.
—— Consider opportunity for connection to nearby
buildings with different heat demand profiles.
—— If steam or mthw is to be generated by exhaust 13.2 Economic appraisals
gases then consider uses for lthw, or consider
—— Define the criteria for assessment with the client
options for converting system to lthw.
and agree period of analysis and discount rates to be
—— Discuss the proposed project with the distribution used.
network operator at the earliest stage to identify
any issues concerning fault level contribution and —— Ensure all maintenance and operating costs are
reinforcement works, and make an early application included: routine and non-routine, consumables
for connection using the appropriate G59/2 or including lubricating oil.
G83/1 application forms. —— Try to establish true market levels for gas and
—— Consider the extent of on-site electrical infra electricity prices: simply taking current contract
structure works. prices may be misleading if these are for different
contract periods ending at different dates. Refer to
—— Evaluate whether for larger schemes hv generators statistics and forecasts published by the Department
would be preferred to using step-up transformers of Energy and Climate Change (DECC).
—— In most cases limit the maximum size of the chp to —— Consider other economic benefits that may accrue
the electrical base load to avoid significant export through regulatory incentives, e.g. CRC Energy
which attracts much lower value. Boilers can be Efficiency Scheme, Climate Change Levy
used to meet peak heat demands. exemption.
—— Make sure that the maintenance regime and the Prevention and Control (IPPC) regulations or only
cost implications are understood. under the Clean Air Act 1993.
—— Carry out sensitivity analysis on energy prices and —— Use HMIP Technical Guidance Note (Dispersion)
availability, reflecting any compensation terms D1: Guidelines on Discharge Stack Heights for
within the proposed maintenance contract. Polluting Emissions (June 1993) (HMIP, 1993) for the
calculation of chimney height.
13.3 Integration of CHP into —— If the site comes under the IPPC Regulations carry
out dispersion modelling using EA-approved
heating systems software.
—— For new-build schemes, select flow and return —— Obtain accurate emissions data from the chp engine
temperatures of heating circuits to optimise chp manufacturer. NO2 is 6 or 7 times more toxic than
operation and prevent chp tripping on high return NO, so the chimney height calculation will be
temperatures. sensitive to their relative proportions as well as
—— Ensure chp acts as the lead heat source at all times. total NOx content in exhaust gas.
—— Consider whether the chp is connected to the —— If local Air Quality Objectives are to be met,
common return to the boilers or connected in background levels of common pollutants are
parallel and, if in parallel, the control approach to available in Table 2 in HMIP Technical Guidance
give priority to chp. Note D1 or from the UK Air Quality Archive
(http://www.airquality.co.uk/index.php).
—— Evaluate the benefits of thermal storage and locate

the thermal store between the flow and return, —— Check the calculation for each fuel and at part load
maximising the temperature difference in the store. to find the most onerous condition, taking account
of emissions from both chp and fuel for all realistic
—— Avoid the use of a low loss header if this risks high operating scenarios.
return temperatures onto the chp at part-load.
—— Design entire flue gas system and stack for
—— Ensure suitable access is provided for maintenance minimum internal volume (to minimise residence
and subsequent removal and replacement of chp. time between engine and top of stack) consistent
with meeting the chp engine manufacturer’s
maximum backpressure limitation (allow a design
13.4 District heating margin for fouling etc).
—— For new schemes select low return temperatures to —— Ensure stack discharge velocity is within specified
reduce flow rates on dh network. limits (typically between 10 and 15 m/s depending
upon heat content).
—— For existing schemes consider potential for
reducing return temperatures by investigating —— If using dispersion modelling, the following design
degree of oversizing and rebalancing heat emitters. guidance is suggested in the absence of other
criteria set by the regulatory authorities:
—— Consider benefits of investing in new heat emitters
to reduce return temperatures. • the maximum plant contribution should be
less than 10% of the 1-hour mean target
—— Ensure all controls operate as variable volume (2- value
port valves) not constant volume (3-port valves).
• the annual mean of the plant emissions plus
—— Limit the scope for bypasses in the network whilst existing background concentrations should
maintaining minimum circuit flow temperatures. be less than the annual mean target value.
—— Use variable speed pumps to reduce electrical —— Consider the impact of particulates for some types
energy use. of chp/fuels.
—— Evaluate whether and where heat meters are to be —— Carry out background noise measurements in
installed and how these will be read. accordance with BS 7445: Description and
—— Establish where hydraulic breaks in the system are measurement of environmental noise (BSI, 2003).
needed and select hydraulic interface units and —— Agree design basis with local authority for noise
heating substations as appropriate. control taking account of possible restrictions in
—— Check that pressure constraints for all equipment operating hours.
are not violated in terms of static pressure, peak
pressure, minimum pressure to avoid cavitation 13.6 Procurement
and differential pressures.
—— Choose form of contract and the allocation of design
responsibility.
13.5 Environmental impacts —— Define demarcation and interface points.
—— Liaise with local authority or Environment Agency
—— Consider whether chp supplier is to be the main
(EA)/ Scottish Environment Protection Agency
contractor or a sub-contractor depending on the
(SEPA)/ Northern Ireland Environment Agency
scope of work.
(EHSNI) (as appropriate) at an early stage to agree
design basis and reporting standards and whether —— Establish how the project opportunity will be
the scheme falls under the Integrated Pollution advertised.
61
—— Assess tenders on a whole life cost basis, not just on 13.8 Commissioning
a capital cost basis.
—— Agree a commissioning/proving trial scope and
—— Electrical efficiency is probably the biggest single programme.
factor contributing to overall cost effectiveness.
—— Establish who pays for fuel used for commissioning
—— To carry out the tender analysis, produce a spread and who owns the electricity generated.
sheet that enables sensitivity of variables such as
gas price, electricity value etc to be tested. —— Ensure metering is calibrated and operational prior
to commissioning and that it complies with
—— Negotiate maintenance contract with chp supplier CHPQA standards (CHPQA, 2009).
at the same time as the construction contract and
—— Consider what load will be available for heating,
incorporate in the tender analysis:
cooling and electricity at the time that commission
• ensure availability calculation method and ing is planned and whether a load bank (for
compensation terms is agreed example) is needed.
• check for total limits of liability —— Obtain a connection agreement from the dno and
negotiate an import/export agreement with an
• check for exclusions, e.g. for major failures electricity supplier (if export is contemplated).
Ensure a Meter Operator (mo) is appointed if
• check for provision of standard reports exporting.
• check for use of subcontractors —— Ensure CHPQA form F1 is completed in good time
• check for supply of materials and removal and nominate the Responsible Person.
of waste. —— Complete CHPQA form F3 (forecast of chp
performance) in good time.
—— Ensure requirements of the Construction Design
and Management Regulations 2007 (‘CDM —— Apply to Secretary of State for Climate Change
Regulations’) have been considered: appointment Levy (CCL) exemption certificate in good time.
of principal contractor, cdm co-ordinator etc.
—— Submit CCL forms PP10/PP11 to fuel suppliers in
—— Evaluate risks and transfer operational risk to chp good time prior to commissioning.
supplier as far as is practicable.
—— Validate engine power and heat outputs and effi
ciencies against supplier performance guarantees.
13.7 Detailed design and installation —— Carry out a reliability run over several days.
—— Develop detailed control strategy to deliver the
optimum economic and environmental perfor 13.9 Operation
mance.
—— Agree response time to attend chp breakdowns.
—— Is the existing bems control to be extended to
control the chp or will the chp supplier provide a —— Agree how remote monitoring is carried out.
standalone control system?
—— Supplier to have responsibility for all chp-integrated
—— Ensure local authority planning approvals are in components.
place for all aspects of the project (if necessary write —— Agree availability guarantee covers all chp-
into contract). integrated components.
—— Ensure all service input and output requirements —— Ensure chp running regime and decision factors
are known and designed-in. (e.g. tariffs) are documented and understood.
—— Ensure design is robust in all aspects before contract —— Track the chp performance and availability and
is signed. manage the maintenance provider.
—— Anticipate any site heating, dhw and steam —— Submit CHPQA form F4 to CHPQA before 31st
downtimes and detail these in the installation March each year to obtain CCL exemption.
programme.
—— Agree all demarcation/take-over points in the 13.10 Tri-generation and
design phase.
absorption chillers
—— Supplier/installer to keep the project timing plan
—— If an absorption chiller is to be included check its
up-to-date throughout the project.
sensitivity to input temperature.
—— Allow enough time for all phases of the commission —— Establish the additional heat rejection requirement
ing period. for the absorption chiller, which is typically double
—— Ensure major items of equipment have mean time the capacity required for conventional vapour
between failures (mtbf) information. compression chillers.
—— Consider impact on power factor of chp generation. —— Identify and resolve any pre-existing problems
with a cooling system, heat rejection system, water
—— Ensure heat rejection circuit has frost protection. treatment etc before installing an absorption chiller.
—— Design the absorption chiller system for full load Carbon Trust (2011) Micro CHP (Combined Heat and Power) Accelerator —
operation (by the incorporation of thermal stores if Final report CTC788 (Carbon Trust). Available at http://www.carbontrust.
necessary) as cop may drop by up to 33% at part- com/resources/reports/technology/micro-chp-accelerator (accessed May
2012).
load.
—— Consider variable speed control of absorbent pump CCC (2010) The Fourth Carbon Budget — Reducing emissions through the
to improve the cop at low load. 2020s (London: Committee on Climate Change). Available at http://www.
theccc.org.uk/reports/fourth-carbon-budget (accessed May 2012).
—— Consider access and floor-loading (a typical 2 MW
double-effect steam chiller weighs 12.5 tonnes
empty and 16.7 tonnes when operating). CCC (2011) Bioenergy Review (London: Committee on Climate Change).
Available at http://www.theccc.org.uk/reports/bioenergy-review (accessed
—— Ensure ambient of >5 °C in chiller room to prevent May 2012).
crystallisation.
—— Crystallisation can be prevented if the following are CHPQA (2009) CHPQA Standard: Quality Assurance for Combined Heat
considered: and Power Issue 3 (London: Department of Energy and Climate Change).
Available at http://chpqa.decc.gov.uk/chpqa-documents (accessed May
• avoid cooling water temperature colder 2012).
than design by the use of mixing valves etc.
• avoid sudden changes in cooling water CHPQA (2012) CHPQA Guidance notes (website) (London: Department
of Energy and Climate Change). http://chpqa.decc.gov.uk/guidance-notes
temperature.
(accessed May 2012).
—— Ensure heat supply is completely shut off when not

required. CIBSE (2001–2) ‘Noise and vibration control for hvca’, ch. 5 in Heating,
ventilating, air conditioning and refrigeration CIBSE Guide B (London:
—— Provide a ups to run the absorbent pump for 20 Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers).
minutes after a power cut.
—— Over-size external heat rejection if possible as CIBSE (1999) Minimising pollution at air intakes CIBSE TM21 (London:
reduced heat rejection capacity will severely restrict Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers).
absorption chiller output.
—— Allow adequate time for commissioning: absorption Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 2007 (SI 320/2007)
chillers require two weeks to establish passivated (London: The Stationery Office). Available at http://www.legislation.gov.
uk/uksi/2007/320 (accessed May 2012).
internal coating after first charging with refrigerant
and chemicals, and after any subsequent opening to
atmosphere. Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005 (SI 2005/1643) (London: The
Stationery Office). Available at http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2005/
—— Remember that a suitable cooling load is needed for 1643 (accessed May 2012).
commissioning.
—— Ensure operators are adequately trained in Dansk Standard (2009) DS 439: 2009: Code of Practice for domestic water
absorption chiller operation and in particular the supply installations (Charlottenlund, Denmark: Dansk Standard).
conditions and transients likely to cause crystal
lisation. DCLG (2010) Approved Document L: Conservation of fuel and power (4 parts)
Building Regulations Part L Approved Documents (London: Department
for Communities and Local Government). Available at http://www.
planningportal.gov.uk/buildingregulations/approveddocuments/partl/
References approved (accessed May 2010).
BRE (2012) Wiltshire R Technical Guide to District Heating (Garston: IHS/ DECC (2010) Chapter 5, Table 5.6 in Digest of UK Energy Statistics
BRE Press). (London: Department of Energy and Climate Change). Available at http://
www.decc.gov.uk/en/content/cms/statistics/publications/dukes/dukes.aspx
BSI (2003) BS 7445: Description and measurement of environmental noise: (accessed May 2012).
Part 1: 2003: Guide to quantities and procedures; Part 2: 1991: Guide to the
acquisition of data pertinent to land use; Part 3: 1991: Guide to application to DEFRA (2007) The Air Quality Strategy for England, Scotland, Wales and
noise limits (London: British Standards Institution). Northern Ireland (London: Department for Environment, Food and Rural
Affairs). Available at http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/quality/air/
BSI (2009a) BS 6700: 2006+A1: 2009: Design, installation, testing and air-quality/approach (accessed May 2012)
maintenance of services supplying water for domestic use within buildings and
their curtilages. Specification (London: British Standards Institution).
DEFRA (2011) 2011 Guidelines to Defra/DECC’s GHG Conversion Factors
for Company Reporting: Methodology Paper for Emission Factors (London:
(BSI (2009b) BS EN 253: 2009: District heating pipes. Preinsulated bonded Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs). Available at
pipe systems for directly buried hot water networks. Pipe assembly of steel service http://www.defra.gov.uk/publications/2011/09/01/ghg-conversion-factors-
pipe, polyurethane thermal insulation and outer casing of polyethylene (London: reporting (accessed May 2012).
British Standards Institution).
BSRIA (2003) Galliers S Fuel Cell Technology: The scope for building services DoE (1981) Chimney Heights: 1956 Clean Air Act Memorandum (London:
applications BSRIA BG 9/2003 (Bracknell: BSRIA). Her Majesty’s Stationery Office)
BSRIA (2007) Teekaram A, Palmer A and Parker J CHP for existing Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 (SI 1989/635) (London: The
buildings. Guidance for design and installation BSRIA BG2/2007 (Bracknell: Stationery Office). Available at http://www.legislation.gov.uk/
BSRIA). uksi/1989/635 (accessed May 2012).
63
References
ENA (2011a) Distributed Generation Connection Guide: A Guide for connecting IGEM (undated) Gas fuelled spark ignition and dual fuel engines IGEM/UP/3
generation that falls under G59/2 to the distribution network Version 3.2 June Edition 2 (Kegworth: Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers).
2011 (London: Energy Network Association). Available at http://www.
energynetworks.org/electricity/engineering/distributed-generation.html IGEM (2005a) Soundness testing and purging of industrial and commercial gas
(accessed May 2012). installations IGEM/UP/1 Edition 2 (Kegworth: Institution of Gas
Engineers and Managers).
ENA (2011b) Distributed Generation Connection Guide: A Guide for connecting
generation that falls under G83/1 (Stages 1 and 2) to the distribution network IGEM (2005b) Gas installation pipework, boosters and compressors on industrial
Version 3.2 June 2011 (London: Energy Network Association). Available and commercial premises IGEM/UP/2 Edition 2 (Kegworth: Institution of
at http://www.energynetworks.org/electricity/engineering/distributed- Gas Engineers and Managers).
generation.html (accessed May 2012).
IGEM (2009a) Commissioning of gas fired plant on industrial and commercial
Euroheat (2008) Guidelines for District Heating Substations (Brussels, premises IGEM/UP/4 Edition 3 (Kegworth: Institution of Gas Engineers
Belgium: Euroheat & Power). Available at http://www.euroheat.org/ and Managers).
Technical-guidelines-28.aspx (accessed May 2012).
IGEM (2009b) Application of compressors to natural gas fuel systems IGEM/
The Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations 1998 (SI 1998/2451) UP/6 Edition 2 (Kegworth: Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers).
(London: The Stationery Office). Available at http://www.legislation.gov.
uk/uksi/1998/2451 (accessed May 2012). IGEM (2004) Application of natural gas and fuel oil systems to gas turbines and
supplementary and auxiliary-fired burners IGEM/UP/9 Edition 2 (Kegworth:
HMIP (1993) Guidelines on Discharge Stack Heights for Polluting Emissions Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers).
HMIP Technical Guidance Note (Dispersion) D1 (London: The
Stationery Office). IMechE (2010) Home or overseas contracts for the supply of electrical, electronic
or mechanical plant — with erection IMechE Model forms of general

HVCA (2008) Installation of Combined Heat and Power HVCA TR37 conditions of contract MF/1 (Revision 5) (London: Institution of
London: Building and Engineering Services Association). Mechanical Engineers).
IEA (2011) District Heating and Cooling (website) IEA Annex X National Grid (2009) The Potential for Renewable Gas in the UK (National
(International Energy Agency). http://www.iea-dhc.org (accessed May Grid). Available at http://www.nationalgrid.com/uk/Media+Centre/
2012). Documents/biogas.htm (accessed May 2012).
Appendices
Appendix A1: Conversion factors
Table A1.1 Energy unit conversion factors Table A1.3 SI multiples

To From Prefix Symbol Factor
Joule kW·h Therm BTU kilo k 103
Joule 1 0.2778 Í 10–6 9.48 Í 10–9 0.948 Í 10–3 mega M 106
kW·h 3.6 Í 106 1 34.12 Í 10–3 3.412 Í 103 giga G 109
Therm 105.5 Í 106 0.2931 Í 10–3 10 Í 10–6 1 tera T 1012
BTU 1.055 Í 103 0.293 Í 10–3 10 Í 10–6 1 peta P 1015
exa E 1018
Table A1.2 Miscellaneous conversions

Multiply by to obtain
ton 1.1016 tonne
tonne 0.984 ton
pound (lb) 0.454 kilogramme Table A1.3 Typical calorific values for fuels
gallon 4.546 litre Fuel Calorific value / MJ·kg–1
litre 0.220 gallon Gross Net
cubic foot 0.028 m3 Fuel oil to BS 2869 Class D 45.0 42.2
m3 35.315 cubic foot Natural gas at 15 °C, 1013.25 mbar 38.6 34.7
Appendix A2: Glossary of terms Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 2007 (CDM2007).
The Construction (Design and Management ) Regulations 2007 came into
force on 6th April 2007; they replace the CDM Regulations 1994 and the
The definitions given here relate specifically to the context Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1996. The key aim
of CDM2007 is to integrate health and safety into the management of a
of chp installations. Terms may have broader or alternative project and to encourage everyone involved, to work together. The
meanings in other contexts. principles of cdm apply to all construction projects; however, notification
applies where work:
Absorption refrigeration. Refrigeration plant that uses heat instead of
electricity as the driving energy source, utilising, for example, lithium — will last more than 30 days, or
bromide and water as the working fluid.
— will involve more than four persons working on site at any time,
or
Adsorption refrigeration. Refrigeration caused by the evaporation of
water at low pressure as it is attracted to an adsorber such as silica-gel. — will involve more than 500 person days.
Alternator. A machine whose shaft is driven by an engine or turbine and CDM Regulations identify task functions of the client, designers, the cdm
converts mechanical energy into alternating current (ac) electricity. Also coordinator, principal contractor and contractors that must be carried out
called a generator. by nominated bodies.
Auxiliary firing. The burning of fuel (with its requisite air supply) in
Contract energy management (cem). A service providing technical,
waste heat boilers when the generator set is not running but the site heat
financial and management resources to implement an energy saving
supply is to be maintained.
project. Remuneration for the service is often by retention of a proportion
of the savings. The cem contractor can also bear a higher proportion of the
Availability charge. The charge made for maintaining an agreed electrical financial risk of any investment.
supply capacity to a consumer’s premises.
Cylindrical rotor generator. A type of electricity generator. As frequency

Building energy management system (bems). A computer-based system depends on the speed multiplied by the number of pole pairs, higher
for remote control and monitoring of building services used for interactive speeds require fewer poles and the excitor winding can be accommodated
energy management. in radial slots machined into the periphery of the rotor.
Calorific value (cv). The heat energy available from a fuel when it is Demand; maximum demand; demand profile. The rate at which energy
completely burnt, expressed as heat energy units per unit of weight or is required, expressed in kW or MW. It is usually related to a time period,
volume of the fuel. The gross or higher calorific value (gcv/hcv) is the typically half an hour, e.g. 1 kW·h used over half an hour is a demand rate
total heat energy available when all the products of combustion are cooled of 2 kW. Maximum demand is the highest half-hourly rate at which
to standard conditions and the heat released from the condensation of electricity is required during a month or year. Peak load or peak demand
water vapour is included. The net or lower calorific value (ncv/lcv) is the are the terms usually used for heat energy. A graph of demand rate over a
total heat energy released from combustion excluding the latent heat of typical day, for example, is the demand profile.
the water vapour from condensation of the products of combustion.
Diesel engine. A generic term for compression ignition reciprocating

Cascade control. A system that automatically starts up or stops units in a
engines, whatever the fuel used.
predetermined sequence to meet variations in the energy demands being
served. The sequence may be changed periodically to ensure that the
running time of each unit is approximately equal. Discount factor. The factor used to convert net annual cash flow to
present value, depending on the interest rate and the number of years from
Catalytic converters. Devices used to convert undesirable components of present. Calculated by a derivation of the compound interest formula:
exhaust gases into other less objectionable forms. There are two catalytic
conversion processes relevant to chp plant: df = 1/ (1 + r /100) n
—
Selective catalytic reduction. Reduction of NOx by injecting where r is the interest rate (%), n is the number of years from present.
ammonia ahead of a vanadium or titanium catalyst to initiate a
chemical reaction to convert NOx and NH3 into N2 and H2O;
>95% reduction of NOx may be achieved. Discounted cash flow (dcf); internal rate of return (irr). The
discounting rate that gives a ‘break even’ result, i.e. zero net present value.
—
Oxidation catalytic conversion. Reduction of CO and non- It can be compared with other investments or the cost of borrowing.
methane hydrocarbons by use of an oxidation catalyst.
Conversion of CH3 through CH8 is highly temperature depend Discounted cash flow (dcf), net present value (npv). The value of cash
ent, requiring temperatures above 415 °C for any significant inflows less the value of cash outflows over the life of a project, with all
reduction. future cash flows discounted back to present day values. Used to compare
optional projects against a common index
cchp. See Tri-generation.
CO, carbon monoxide; CO2, carbon dioxide. Oxides of carbon produced Distribution Network Operator (dno). The companies that own and
by fuel combustion. CO represents incomplete combustion and can be operate the public electricity network under licence.
burnt to CO2 , which is the product of complete combustion.
Dual-fuel. The use of two fuels in a prime mover or boiler. They may be
Coefficient of performance (cop). For a refrigeration system, the ratio of alternatives, e.g. with one as standby if the main fuel supply is interrupted,
useful cooling effect to the total energy input to the system. For a heat or simultaneous, e.g. gas plus a small proportion of diesel used in
pump system the ratio of useful heating effect to the total energy input to compression ignition engines.
the system.
Energy audit. A review of energy use and costs normally performed in
Co-generation. See Combined heat and power. conjunction with a site investigation.
Combined heat and power (chp). Combined generation of heat and Energy manager. A person in an organisation with responsibility for
electricity. Also known as co-generation. energy matters.
Compression ignition. System used in reciprocating engines whereby Energy service companies (escos). Companies offering a total energy
fuel is injected after compression of the air and is ignited by the heat supply service who take responsibility for provision, financing, operation
generated by compression. As pre-ignition is thereby eliminated, higher and maintenance of energy facilities. Energy services contracts may be
compression ratios than with spark ignition engines can be utilised, with worded to define the outcome of the service provided, temperatures and
corresponding higher energy conversion efficiency. light levels, rather than how much energy is to be supplied.
65
Appendices
Energy survey, comprehensive. A detailed site investigation of specified Medium temperature hot water (mthw). Pressurised hot water at 95 ºC
aspects of energy use providing firm recommendations for energy saving to 120 ºC used for space heating and process.
measures.
Energy survey, concise. A short site examination of specified aspects of Monitoring and target setting (m&t). A method of energy management
energy use to identify potential energy saving measures. in which real energy consumption is recorded regularly and related to
specific variables to allow comparison with the standard or target values
calculated. Corrective action is then taken where appropriate.
Excess air. Reciprocating engines and gas turbines have to operate with
far more air than is needed purely for the combustion of the fuel. This
excess over requirements forms the major proportion of the exhaust gases
Montreal Protocol. International agreement signed at Montreal in 1990
and is termed excess air.
to control the use of and ultimately reduce the release of substances into
the atmosphere that contribute to depletion of the ozone layer. Substances
Fault level. The maximum prospective current that can flow under a covered by the protocol include those used as refrigerants and fire-
3-phase short-circuit condition. It should be noted that it may vary suppressants such as:
according to the point in the system at which the fault occurs. The
magnitude of the fault level has a major influence on the choice and design
— cfc: chlorofluorocarbon
of the equipment to be used.
Frequency. The number of times per second that alternating current — hcfc: hydrochlorofluorocarbon
changes direction. Frequency is expressed as hertz (Hz). The public
electricity supply frequency in the UK is 50 Hz. — hfc: hydrofluorocarbon
Gas supply, interruptible. A supply of gas, which may be interrupted — btm: bromotrifluoromethane
within specified limits at the discretion of the supply company allowing
lower contract prices than a firm supply for large users. The allowable
— bcf: bromochlorofluoromethane
interruption period is negotiable.
Gas supply, firm. A supply of gas available continuously. Network. The distribution system which links energy production to
energy usage. Mostly applied to electricity.
Generator. An alternator or dc generator. ‘Generator set’ refers to the
combination of prime mover and generator.
Parasitic load. Electricity used within the chp plant itself and therefore
Heat exchanger. A device in which heat is transferred from one fluid reducing the amount available for beneficial use.
stream to another without mixing. There must obviously be a temperature
difference between the streams for heat exchange to occur. They are
Particulate. Particles of solid matter, usually of very small size, derived
characterised by the method of construction or operation, e.g. shell-and-
from the fuel either directly or as a result of incomplete combustion and
tube, plate, rotary.
considered deleterious emissions.
Heat-to-power ratio. The amounts of heat energy and electricity produced
by a chp unit, expressed as a ratio. Performance guarantees. Performance guarantees may be defined by
reference to absolute measures such as absolute quantity of heat or power
High temperature hot water (hthw). Pressurised hot water at 120 ºC and produced. However, these will depend on uncontrollable factors such as
above used for space and/or process heating. warm or cold winters. Alternative measures attempt to assess the degree to
which the plant was capable of providing its specified output. These
In-duct burner. A burner sited inside the duct of the air or gas stream it is indicators are availability, reliability and utilisation and are defined below,
heating, and thus also adding its combustion products to the stream. A where A is the actual hours plant was run during period (h), P is the
typical method of supplementary firing where direct heat recovery is planned operating hours in period, S is the scheduled plant downtime for
employed. maintenance and U is the unscheduled plant downtime for plant defects.
ippc. Integrated pollution prevention and control

Availability defines what might reasonably be expected of, or is achieved
from, the plant allowing for scheduled and unscheduled downtime:
Load factor. The average intensity of usage of energy producing or
consuming plant expressed as a percentage of its maximum rating. An
annual load factor, for example, would be: P – (S + U)
Availability = —————
P
Annual heat consumption Í 100
Load factor (%) = ——————————————
Peak demand Í 8760 Reliability measures the unscheduled downtime of the plant:
Low temperature hot water (lthw). Hot water at up to 95 ºC used for
space heating and low temperature process. P – (S + U)
Reliability = —————
P–S
Maximum demand (md). Maximum power, measured in kW or kVA,
supplied to a customer by a supply/distribution company, equal to twice
the largest number of kW·h or kVA·h consumed during any half-hour in a Utilisation is a measure that takes into account when the plant was actually
specified period (usually a month). Charges for maximum demand usually running and so includes all occasions when the plant was prevented from
vary seasonally. operating by external factors, e.g. low heat load:
Measures, medium cost. Investment measures that involve a medium

level of capital expenditure. Utilisation = A / P
Measures, good housekeeping. Actions that can be taken to save energy,

Performance indicator (pi). The value of annual energy consumption
requiring no capital expenditure.
related to a building or site characteristic; most commonly kW·h per
square metre of floor area under consideration.
Measures, low cost. Energy saving measures requiring minimal capital
expenditure.
Planning co-ordinator. Function defined under the CDM Regulations.
Measures, high cost. Measures involving major capital expenditure that The planning co-ordinator is responsible for collating information for the
may need further study and authorisation at executive level. health and safety file.
Power factor. The quantification of the time lag between the voltage wave Shell-type boiler. A cylindrical steam, hot water or thermal boiler, usually
and the current wave expressed as the cosine of the angle (f ) between true horizontal but possibly vertical. The shell contains water or oil that is
(active) power (kW) and apparent (reactive) power (kVA). heated by the burner flame and combustion products in a chamber and
tube or annular flueways inside the shell. Sometimes called a fire tube
boiler in contrast to the water tube boiler. A typical shell boiler is in fact a
cos f = [kW] / [kVA] specialised shell-and-tube heat exchanger.
Simple payback period. The time calculated to recover an investment

Supply contracts usually have a direct or indirect penalty charge for poor when the capital cost of implementing a measure is divided by the net
power factor (say below 0.95), which can be avoided by installing power annual saving.
factor correction equipment.
Soft-start. A technique for starting a motor from rest which reduces the
maximum current drawn during start-up.
Premium. A general term to describe the quality of a fuel in terms of
handling/storage combustion, consistency of composition, pollutants etc.,
SOx. A generic term for oxides of sulphur produced by the combustion of
e.g. natural gas high premium, heavy fuel oil low premium. Fuel price
sulphur in the fuel, and considered as deleterious emissions. Their
usually follows premium value.
presence in flue gases can restrict thermal efficiency, because if the flue gas
temperature is reduced below specific levels, highly corrosive sulphurous
and sulphuric acids are deposited on heat exchange surfaces.
Principal contractor. A function defined under the CDM Regulations.
Spark ignition. A reciprocating engine that utilises an electrical spark to
ignite the compressed air/fuel mixture in the cylinders.
Programmable logic control (plc). A programmable device for the
control of a system according to a predetermined logic.
stw. Setting to work, taken to include testing and commissioning
Reciprocating engine. Machine in which the mechanical power is Supplementary firing. The firing of additional fuel in the chp heat
produced by the to-and-fro (‘reciprocating’) movement of a piston within recovery unit, utilising the hot oxygen present in the prime mover exhaust
a cylinder; such machines are so called to distinguish them from purely gases as excess air.
rotating machines such as turbines.
Synchronism. The condition whereby generator frequency, voltage levels
and phase angle match those of the public supply. When operating in
Salient pole generator. A type of electricity generator. As frequency parallel mode, it is obligatory to maintain these levels within closely
depends on speed multiplied by the number of pole pairs, lower speeds specified limits.
require more poles than can be accommodated within the rotor periphery.
The excitor winding is therefore formed with copper strip or coils of wire Total energy plant. See Combined heat and power.
attached to the surface of the rotor.
Transformers (voltage). A device with primary and secondary windings
to convert the voltage of electricity from one value to another. Transformers
Sankey diagram. A diagram demonstrating graphically and in true may be step-up or step-down, i.e. voltage increased or reduced, and there
proportion the energy flows in a system, starting with the energy sources may be more than one secondary tapping to give a choice of output voltage.
and showing losses, heat exchange loops etc. to the degree desired.
Tri-generation. Combination of chp with absorption chilling to give
Shaft efficiency. That percentage of its initial energy supply that a prime simultaneous production of heat, power and cooling; often power and heat
mover delivers as mechanical energy at its output shaft. in winter, power and cooling in summer.
Uninterruptible power supply (ups). Device for maintaining power to a

Shell-and-tube heat exchanger. A unit having a bundle of tubes contained service for a limited period following a supply failure. Used to maintain
in a cylindrical shell. One fluid flows through the tubes, the other through essential service supply and to allow for controlled shut-down of sensitive
the shell. equipment.
67
Index
Index contracts (continued)

procurement 51–52
existing buildings 20–21
Note: page numbers in italics refer to figures. Control of Noise at Work Regulations (2005) fault levels 32, 43, 65
40 feasibility studies 30–38, 59
absorption chillers 8, 34, 43, 61–62, 64 control systems 32, 45, 46 feed-in tariffs 15, 29
acceptance criteria 49 conversion factors 64 financial appraisal 34–36, 52, 59–60
acceptance testing 55 cooling air supply 44 financial incentives 3, 28–29
acoustic enclosures 6, 47 cooling demand 12–13 financing options 36–38, 52
adsorption chillers 8, 64 cooling systems 8, 22 fire detection, protection and suppression
air quality management 26–27 cost appraisal 34–36, 52, 59–60 47, 48
air supply systems 44–45 CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme 28 flow control 41, 42, 50
air turbines 9 cylindrical rotor generator 65 flow rates 18, 20
ambient temperatures 5, 48 flow temperature see operating temperatures
anaerobic digestion (ad) 11 data logging 56 flue dispersion modelling 27
asynchronous generators 6 delivery of equipment 49 flue gases see exhaust gases
auxiliary firing 7, 64 demand loads 12–13, 30–32, 65 flushing and filling 53
availability, plant 58, 66 design 39–51, 61 fuel cells 6–7, 7–8
availability charge 64 diesel engines 7, 65 fuel oil, calorific value 64
differential pressure control valves (dpvc) 18 fuel options 33
bems (building energy management systems) discounted cash flow (dcf) 35–36, 65 fuel supply 48
45, 64 distribution network operators (dno) 65 fuel tariffs 13, 56
biogas chp 9–10, 11 grid connection 29, 32, 43, 47
bioliquids 10 district cooling 22 gas boilers
biomass chp 8–9 district heating 4, 18–22, 49, 60 CO2 emissions 25

biomass gasifiers 9–10, 11 diversity of demand 19, 50 equivalent heat efficiency 23, 24
biomethane injection 11 dno see distribution network operators (dno) gas detection systems 47
building applications 2, 17 documentation 49, 54, 56 gas engine chp units 5–6
building energy management system (bems) domestic chp 6–7 gas leakage detection 40
45, 64 downtime 58 gas safety 39–40, 44
building heating systems, integration with dpcv (differential pressure control valves) 18 Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations
16–17, 20–21, 32, 41–43, 50, 60 dual-fuel options 33, 65 (1998) 39–40
Building Regulations 28 dual-fuel reciprocating engines 7 gas supply 33, 44, 65
bypass flows 19, 20 gas turbine chp 6, 7
economic appraisal 34–36, 52, 59–60 gas-fired power stations
calorific values (cv) 24, 64 electrical demand 12, 31 relative CO2 emissions 3, 25
capacity see sizing electrical efficiency 23, 34 relative efficiencies 23, 24
capital costs 34 electrical generators 6, 32, 65 gasification systems 9–10, 11
carbon emissions 3, 14–15, 24–25, 28, 64 micro-turbines 6 generators see electrical generators
Carbon Reduction Commitment (CRC) 28 standby operation 17–18, 43–44 government policy 3, 28–29
carbon trading 28 voltage generated 48 grid connection 29, 32, 43, 47
cascade control 42, 64 electrical systems 32, 43–44 grid efficiency 22–24
catalytic converters 26, 44, 64 Electricity at Work Regulations (1989) 39 gross calorific value (gvc) 24
CDM Regulations (2007) 39 electricity export 15, 19, 29
cem (contract energy management) 37, 65 electricity tariffs 13 handover 54
chimneys 27 emission control 26 health and safety 39–40, 44
CHPA (Combined Heat and Power emission reduction targets 28 heat demand 12–13, 32
Association) 4 emissions trading 28 heat distribution systems 16–17, 32, 41–42, 50
CHPQA (CHP Quality Assurance Programme) energy audits 31, 65 heat efficiency 22–24
28–29 energy demand 12–13, 30–33 heat exchangers 5, 16, 40, 65
client acceptance testing 55 energy efficiencies 2, 22–24, 28 district heating 19, 49
Climate Change Act (2008) 28 energy flows 33 domestic hot water 19
Climate Change Levy exemption 47 energy from waste 10–11 heat pumps 11–12, 18
CO2 emissions 3, 14–15, 24–25, 28, 64 energy manager 65 CO2 emissions 25
coefficient of performance (cop) 22 energy savings 2, 22–26 equivalent heat efficiency 22, 23, 24
combined cooling, heating and power (cchp) energy service companies (esco) 37–38, 65 heat recovery 16, 41
see tri-generation energy strategy 1, 28 exhaust gases 5, 16, 33, 40, 45
Combined Heat and Power Association energy surveys 31, 65 options 33
(CHPA) 4 energy tariffs 13, 56 ventilation exhaust 33, 45
combustion air supply 44 energy units 64 heat rejection 16, 40, 45, 47, 48
combustion exhaust systems 44, 45 Enhanced Capital Allowances (ECAs) 29 heating systems see building heating systems
combustion gases 26–27 environmental impacts 26–27, 60 heat-to-power ratio 23, 65
commissioning 49, 54, 61 see also CO2 emissions high temperature hot water (hthw) 7, 65
component testing 53–54 equipment supplier finance (esf) 36–37 hot water heating 19
compression ignition 7, 65 equivalent heat efficiency 22–23 demand 12, 16, 17
condition monitoring 57 escos (energy service companies) 37–38, 65 district heating 49, 50
Construction (Design and Management) European Union Emissions Trading Scheme hydrogen fuel 7
Regulations 39 (EU ETS) 28
consultants 39 excess air 26, 65 in-duct burners 65
consumable spare parts 58–59 exhaust gases installation 53, 61
contract energy management (cem) 37, 65 air quality issues 26–27 instrumentation 32, 45
contractors heat recovery 5, 16, 33, 40, 45 insulation, pipe systems 50–51
responsibilities 39 temperature 33 integrated pollution prevention and control
selection 51 exhaust noise 47 (ippc) 26–27, 65
contracts exhaust systems 44 intercooler heat recovery 5, 33, 40, 41
maintenance 58 exhaust termination 48 internal rate of return (irr) 14, 15, 35–36, 65
investment appraisal 13–15, 34–36 operating hours 12, 15 setting to work (stw) 54, 66
invitations to tender (itt) 51 operating manuals 56 shaft efficiency 66
ippc (integrated pollution prevention and operating models 13 shell-and-tube heat exchangers 40, 66
control) 26–27, 65 operating services 56 shell-type boilers 16, 66
operating strategies 33, 48, 55 simple payback period 34–35, 66
joint ventures 38 organic Rankine cycle (orc) 9 siting of plant 48
sizing
landfill gas 10 package specification 48–49 chp plant 13–16, 33, 48
leasing arrangements 38 parasitic loads 58, 66 distribution pipework 50
legislation 28–29 particulate emissions 26, 66 small-scale chp 6–7, 9, 16, 43
health and safety 39 part-load operation 15, 19, 20, 41, 43 soft-start 43–44, 66
plant emissions 26–27 peak boilers 19, 20–21, 50 solar photovoltaic 11
liquid biofuels 10 peak demand 12, 13, 20–21 solar thermal 11
load control 18 performance of plant 33 SOx 66
load factor 65 energy efficiencies 2, 22–24 spare parts 58–59
load profiles 12–13, 30–32 guarantees 58, 66 spark-ignition gas engines 5–6, 66
low temperature hot water (lthw) 16, 65 monitoring 56 specification 48–49
lubricating oil storage and handling 27, 46, 49 performance indicator (pi) 66 standby boilers 50
specification for tendering 51 standby operation 18, 43–44
m&t (monitoring and target setting) 37, 66 targets 37 steam turbines 9, 10
maintenance 45–46, 57–59 pipe systems 22, 47, 50 Stirling engines 6, 9
contracts 49, 58 insulation 50–51 stw (setting to work) 54, 66
costs 34 planning conditions 48 sulphur oxides 66
manuals 56 planning co-ordinator 39, 66 supplementary firing 7, 66

schedules 57 planning legislation 28 synchronism 66
maintenance costs 34 pollution control 26–27 synchronous generators 6
maximum demand (md) 18, 65 power demand 12, 31 syngas 9, 11
measures (energy efficiency) 2, 65–66 power distribution systems 43–44 system testing 53–54
medium temperature hot water (mthw). 66 power factor 66
metering 31, 32, 48 power stations tariffs 13, 56
micro gas turbine chp 6, 9 district heating schemes 22 feed-in 15, 29
mini-chp 6 relative CO2 emissions 3, 25 technical specification 48–49, 51
monitoring relative efficiencies 23, 24 tenders 51–52
energy demand 31, 32 pre-insulated pipework 50–51 testing of plant 49, 53–54
plant 45, 46, 48, 55–56, 57, 58 premium (fuel quality) 66 thermal efficiency 22–23
monitoring and target setting (m&t) 37, 66 principal contractor 66 thermal storage 15, 21–22
Montreal Protocol 66 procurement 51–52, 60–61 feasibility studies 33–34
multiple chp units 15–16 programmable logic control (plc) 66 operational issues 42–43
multiple heat sources 22 pump control 50 thermal treatment of waste 11
pyrolysis 11 training requirements 49
natural gas transformers (voltage) 32, 43, 67
calorific value 24, 64 Quality Assurance (CHPQA) Programme tri-generation 3, 8, 26, 34, 61–62, 67
efficient use of 2 28–29 turbocharged engines 5, 33, 40
supply 33 types of chp 2
net calorific value (ncv) 24 reciprocating engines 2, 6, 7, 66
net present value (npv) 14, 15, 35–36, 65 refurbished buildings 19 UK Building Regulations 28
new buildings 19, 32 regulatory systems 47 UK government policy 3, 28–29
noise control 27, 46–47 reliability of plant 58, 66 uninterruptible power supply (ups) 67
NOx emissions 10, 26, 27, 48 renewable energy and chp 8–12, 11, 25 utilisation of plant 2, 17, 30–31, 66
Renewable Heat Incentive 29
occupancy, building 17 Renewable Obligation Certificates (ROCs) 29 variable flow control 41, 50
off-site testing 49, 53–54 responsibilities 39 ventilation air exhaust
oil sample monitoring 57 retrofit 20–21 air quality issues 27
oil spillage 27 return temperatures see operating temperatures heat recovery 33, 45
operating temperatures 16–17, 41 ROCs (Renewable Obligation Certificates) 29 ventilation of plant 40, 44–45
control of 43 vibration control 46–47
district heating 18, 19, 20, 49 salient pole generators 66 voltage generated 48
specification 48 Sankey diagram 66
thermal stores 21 scope of package 48 waste-to-energy technology 10–11
operation of plant 55–56, 61 security of electricity supply 3, 17–18, 25–26 water quality 22
operating costs 3, 34 servicing of plant 57–59 wind turbines 11

Cibse Am12.2013 CHP

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Cibse Am12.2013 CHP

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A single copy of this document is licensed to

This is an uncontrolled copy. Ensure use of the

CIBSE AM12: 2013

The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

© Second edition January 2013; The Chartered Institution of

This document is based on the best knowledge available at

of or in connection with their use by or on behalf of such

Typesetting and layout by CIBSE Publications

Printed in Great Britain by The Lavenham Press, Lavenham,

Cover illustration: The Energy Centre at the 2012 London

Note from the publisher

—— a new chapter on district heating applications

—— more information on assessing environmental benefits

—— more detail on tri-generation and thermal storage.

Paul Woods (AECOM)

AM12 Steering Group

Phil Jones (chair)

Dr Jonathan Williams (BRE)

Acknowledgements (third edition)

Part 1: Technologies, applications and regulations

3 Renewable energy and CHP 8

4 CHP for individual buildings 12

5 Application of CHP to supply district heating 18

6 Primary energy savings and environmental impact of chp 22

7 Legislation and regulations and impact on CHP viability 28

9.5 System design: absorption chillers 43

Combined heat and power for buildings

Energy use in buildings is a major contributor to CO2

As a result of the second law of thermodynamics, power

Electrical energy is also lost in the transmission and

A comparison between the separate production of heat and

1.3 Why CHP should be considered 1.3.3 Security of electricity supply

chp is typically considered because of the following drivers:

1.4.2 Applications A number of these are covered in other CIBSE publications,

Part 1: Technologies, applications and regulations

In turbocharged engines, air for combustion (commonly Engine

Figure 2.2 illustrates a typical gas engine chp unit with

There are two principal types:

Figure 2.3 Mini-chp system (photo courtesy of SAV Systems and

chp is likely to be preferred on efficiency or cost grounds. dual-fuel engines.

2.5 Larger-scale CHP 2.6 Fuel cells

Fuel cells should be considered for applications where

Fuel cells generate dc electricity and so an inverter is

schemes. Capital costs remain high compared to bio-liquid

3.1.4 Stirling engine

The Stirling engine operates with an external heat source

3.2 Biogas CHP using gasification

3.3 Liquid biofuel CHP —— bioethanol

practice of sustainable agriculture as part of

This process can be applied to general waste streams and

As chp and heat pumps are a higher capital cost than

Key points: In existing buildings, heat and power demands are

level of complexity. must be assumed from design data or other means.

For any application, there may be a broad range of possible 2500

For a detailed discussion of environmental benefits, see 120

300 and DHW demand

The results show that: 150

15 —— Use of a thermal store: A thermal store would enable

If the majority of the heat demand is high temperature or

Buildings that have historically proved suitable for chp

per year. bypasses are temperature controlled to avoid unnecessary

—— fossil fuel boilers