LIGHTING GUIDE

CIBSE
THE VISUAL ENVIRONMENT IN
LECTURE, TEACHING AND
CONFERENCE ROOMS

This document 1
LIGHTING GUIDE

THE VISUAL ENVIRONMENT IN

LECTURE, TEACHING AND
CONFERENCE ROOMS
LG5: 1991

CIBSE
The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers
Delta House, 222 Balham High Road, London SW12 9BS
I
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THE CHARTEREDINSTITUTION OF
BUILDING SERVICES ENGINEERS
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ISBN 0 900953 47 0

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Foreword

In 1963 the Illuminating EngineeringSociety publishedabecameremarkablemono-

their lighting which a standard
graph entitled Lecture theatres and in 1973. With the
work of reference. An updated edition was published felt that a similar
economic climate, it was
passage of time, and in a different
work was needed. This Guide covers not only lecture theatres, but teaching
rooms, committee rooms, conference
and multi-purposerooms, and rep-
resents a wholly new approach to the subject.
this Guide of Thorn
CIBSE acknowledges the assistance in illustrating of Nottingham,
Lighting Ltd., the University of Cambridge, the University
and the University of Surrey.
Task group
A W S Tarrant Chairman
R I Bell
F Bentham
J A Lynes
A Mitchell
Publications Secretary
K J Butcher
Co-ordinating Editor
V P Rolfe
Contributors
R Anderson
L Bedocs
K Jones
I MacLean
D Poole

it'
 Contents

Introduction
1.1 The classificationofteachingand conference
spaces
2 Lecture theatres and lecture rooms
2
2.1 Basic lighting and visual needs
2.2 2
Lecture theatres
2
2.3 Lecture rooms
2.4 Chalkboards and their 6
lighting 8
2.5 Provision of daylight
10
2.6 What the audiencesees
2.7 Decorationand 12
furnishings 12
2.8 Switches, dimmersand controls
2.9 Audio visual aids considerations 13
2.10 Access and movement 15
2.11 Use for theatrical presentations 16
17
3 Teaching rooms 20
3.1 Lighting and visual needs
3.2 Rooms intended for formal instruction 20
3.3 21
Rooms intended for interactive
3.4 learning 22
Rooms used for practical work
23
4 Large conference rooms
25
4.1 Basic lighting and visual needs
4.2 25
Lighting systems and controls 26
4.3 Simultaneous interpretationbooths
27
5 Committeerooms
28
5.1 Visual and lighting needs
5.2 28
Daylight
5.3 Electric lighting 28
5.4 Surfe finishes 29
29
6 Multi-purpose rooms
30
6.1 LigEtingneeds
6.2 General lighting 30
6.3 Suitable light sources 30
6.4 31
Suspensionpoints and wiring
6.5 Controls 31
31
7 Adjoining spaces corridors, lobbies, ante-rooms etc. 32
7.1 Lighting objectives
7.2 Circulation 32
7.3 33
Waitingareas and lobbies 33
8 Emergencylighting
34
8.1 Escape route signs
8.2 Escape route illumination 35
8.3 Hazard areas 35
8.4 36
Operatingconditions
8.5 Choice of systems 36
8.6 Classification of systems 36
8.7 Planning schemes 37
8.8 38
Planning sequence
8.9 38
Inspectionand servicing
38
9 Maintenance 40
9.1 Lighting maintenance 40
9.2 Cleanliness and tidiness 40

10 The managementof lecture and conference spaces 41

10.1 Visual clutter 41
10.2 Lecture attendants 42
10.3 Communication betweenlecturer and projectionist 44
or projector
10.4 Projection rooms and booths 45
10.5 Equipmentrooms 45
10.6 Preparation rooms 45
10.7 Problems of visiting lecturers 45

Appendix 1 The preparationand use of slides and overhead 47

projector transparencies

Appendix2 Dimming systems and equipment 49

Appendix3 Theatrical presentations in lecture theatres and 51

conference rooms

References 51

Glossary 52

Index 55
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F
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 LECTURE,TEACHING AND CONFERENCEROOMS

52 Overheadprojectors 15, 47
Diffused lighting
Index Dimmers 13, 49
Referencesto pages 52 to 54 indicate terms in Direct glare 52 Phototropic effect 33
the Glossary. 52 Pilotlights 14
Direct lighting
Directional lighting 52 Preparation rooms 45
53 45
Disability glare Projectionrooms
Access 17 7, 31, 53
Discharge lamp
Acetate 48 52
Discomfortglare Raked lecture theatres 5, 40
Ante-rooms 33 31 7
Displaylighting Raked room
Art rooms 21 26, 17
Downlighters References 51
Attendants 42 54
Reflectance
Audience area 2, 12 Emergencylighting 34, 52 Reflected glare 53
Audio-visual aids 15, k'?' Energy 3, 4, 31 Reflectionfactor 54
45 54
Equipment rooms Reflector
Ballast 52 36, 54
Escape lighting Responsetime
Blinds 10 Exit signs 17, 35 54
Room index
Rooms for practical work 23
Chalkboard 8, 22 Fixed lecture bench 6
Chandeliers 30, 32 Flicker 31, 49, 53 54
Scalar illuminance
Checklist—adjoining spaces Fluorescent lamps 5, 7
—committee rooms 29 12 Sightline
Furnishings 35, 40
—emergency lighting 39 Signs
11
Skylights
largeconference rooms
—lecture theatres and lecture
rooms
28

19
General lighting
Glare
Glossary
, 52
Slides
Smoking
47
40
26
—maintenance 41 Socket outlets
54
46 31 Spacing/height ratio
management High pressuresodium lamps 51
—multi-purpose rooms 32 Stage lighting
Standby lighting 37, 54
— teaching rooms 25 Illuminance
12 Stroboscopiceffect 24, 31, 54
Choice of colours Illumination vector 29
33 Surface finishes
Circulation Incandescentlamp 31
40 Indirect lighting Suspensionpoints
Cleanliness 13, 31, 44, 49
Switches
Colour appearance 52 Intensity
Colour rendering 2, 52
28, 52 15, 53 Teaching rooms 21, 54
Committeerooms Keystone effect
44 Teaching space 22
Communication 44
Conference rooms 25 Laboratories 21, 44 Telephones
Contrast 52 53 Theatrical presentations 17, 51
Lamps 40
Contrast rendering factor 52 Large conference rooms 53 Tidiness
47
Controls 13, 31, 44, 49 Lecture rooms 2, 6, 53 TransparencieS
Correlatedcolour temperature 52 Lecture theatre 2, 53
32, 33 54
Corridors Light trap Uniformity ratio
Craft rooms 21 Lobbies 33
Cross-ventilation 22 Local lighting 53 22, 54
23 Vector/scalarratio
Curtains Localisedlighting 11
6 Veiling reflections
Curved rows Low voltage tungsten Visual field 54
Luminaire 54
Luminance 54
Daylight 10, 21, 22, 28 33
21 Waiting areas
Daylight factor 40 Wallpaper 12
12, 23, 26 Maintenance
-

Decoration Whiteboard 8
4 Management 41
Demonstrationarea Windows 10, 21
45 Markers 48
Demonstrations 31
54 Wiring
DESguidelines 22 Mounting height 23
30, 54 Workshops
Desks 22 Multi-purposerooms

55
1 introduction

When people come together for the purposes of teaching or discussion, it is

necessary for them to be able to see each other properly. Whether it be a
formal lecture in some great professional institution, a class in a primary
school, a conference or perhaps even a commercialpresentation in a hotel,
it is necessary for all the individuals present to be able to see each other
clearly, and to see what is going on. That may sound obvious but we have
all experiencedclassrooms in which some of the children cannot see what is
written on the chalkboard, or lectureroomsin which a distinguishedspeaker
has been made to appear grotesque by bad lighting, or multi-purposerooms
in which an elaborately prepared demonstration has been ruined by an
unwantedingress of daylight.

The function of this Guide is to offer advice on the lighting of lecture

theatres,teachingrooms, conference roomsandmulti-purposeroomsand on
the visual problems that may arise. It is therefore necessary to discuss
other matters than simply the lighting equipment and its positioning. The
decoration and finishes of such rooms, the sightlines, the positioning of
lighting controls and access doors all need to be taken into account. The
lighting is a vital element in such rooms and requirementsof lighting should
be taken into account from the first stages of the planning.
This point cannot be too strongly emphasised. Lighting is so important to
the functioning of all the premises covered by this guide that it must be
considered from the very outset ofthe planningprocess. By lighting we mean
both natural and artificial lighting; experience shows that whilst much
thought is given to natural lighting, i.e.windowdesign, planningfor artificial
lighting is often left until far too late in the design process.

However, lightingproblemsdo not only occur in the designofnew buildings;

equally important questions are those of re-lightingor redecoratingexisting
rooms, andthisGuidehas been written with this in mind. Questions of safety
mustbe considered, and so a section on emergency lightinghasbeen included.
Consideration has also been given to the lighting of spaces immediately
adjoining teaching rooms; and sections have been included on the vital
questions of the managementand maintenance of such rooms as far as the
visual problems are involved.

Each chapter has a list of points that the lighting designer should check
before finalising any design. The check lists are to be used in this way:-

First, read the questions on the checklist, and=compare your answers with
the checklist answers. (Y = Yes, N = No, ? You need to consider this
item).

Second, if your answers agree with the checklist, then carry on; if they
disagree, then check the chapter for advice; if the answer given is '?' then
you will need to understand what the effect of your answer will be. Make
sure that you understand the reasons behind the answers, and check the
chapter for more information.

1 1 . The classification of For the purposes of this Guide, teaching and conference spaces are classified
teaching and in the way indicated below, and this terminologyis used throughout.
conference spaces

.1 .1 Lecture theatres Rooms used for the delivery of formal lectures with raked floors and/or
balconies or galleries and with fixed seating.

1

1 .1 .2 lecture rooms
1 .1 .3 Teaching rooms
1 .1 .4 Rooms used for
practical work
1.1.5 Large conference
rooms
1 .1 .6 Committee rooms
1 .1 .7 Multi-purpose rooms
1 .1 .8 Adjoining spaces
2 Lecture theatres and lecture rooms
2. 1 Basic lighting and
visual needs
2.2 Lecture theatres
2.2.1 Lighting the audience
area
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CIBSE IJHTING GUIDE
Rooms used mainly for the delivery of formal lectures, with basically flat
floors and fixed seating. This category includes rooms with a raised step or
podium for the lecturer, and rooms with one or two raised steps towards the
rear of the seating.
Rooms used mainly for class teaching purposes, with flat floors and no fixed
furniture except possibly chalkboards and projection screens. Such rooms
will usually have a seating capacity of less than 60.
Rooms used regularly for class teaching purposes, without large permanent
pieces of apparatusset up. Such rooms will usually have a seating capacity
of less than 60. This category will include many teaching laboratories.
Rooms used mainly for conferences and meetings at which people
may
address the audience from almost any point in the room. Such rooms will
usuallyhave a capacity of more than 60.
Rooms used for meetings capable of seating up to roughly 30 persons.
Rooms used for a wide variety of purposes, such as school halls, assembly
rooms, function rooms, church halls.
Foyers, ante-rooms, lobbies and corridors immediately adjoining those spaces
listed above.
The choicebetween a lecture room (basically flat) and a lecture theatre
(raked) will be determinedby the audience size. If it is less than 60 there is
little point in providing a raked room. If it is more than 80, raked seating is
essential, unless the lecturer is raised on a stage or podium.
The lightingin a lecturespace must reveal the lecturer to the audienceand
the audience to the lecturer and also provide for the other visual tasks
involved. These include observing demonstrations, reading what is written
on the chalkboard, and the takingof notes. Note-takinghas to continue when
slides, films or video presentations are used.
The lighting in a lecture theatre may convenientlybe thought of in terms
of that for the audience area and that for the demonstration area,
this distinction should not be pushed too far; in many lecture though
theatres,
especially smaller ones, the audience area lighting may well function as
general lighting and providemuch of the illuminationin the demonstration
area as well.
For the audience area the basic choice is between incandescentand fluor-
escent lighting. Incandescent light is readily controllable in intensity and
direction,and is oftenpreferredon aestheticgrounds. However itis inefficient
in terms of energy usage, doubly so in the case of lecture theatres, since the
heat which it introducesto the buildinghas to be removed(at great
expense)
by the air conditioning system. Fluorescent lamps of modern types, with
good colour rendering, are very much more energy-efficient and in those
theatres whichare heavily used e.g. in schools andcolleges, energyeconomics
willusuallydictate theiruse. Other types ofdischargelamp (e.g. high pressure
sodium) are not suitable, since if they inadvertently get switched off it may
be several minutes before they can be relit.
 LECTURE,TEACHING AND CONFERENCEROOMS

Whatever type of lighting is used the luminaires must be positioned so as

notto createglare problemseither for the audienceor the speaker,as shown
in Figure 2.1. This means that, unless the ceiling is exceptionally high, the
luminaires must be mounted on, or recessed into the ceiling. Figure 2.2

Figure 2.1 Luminairesat positionssuch asA,B

are close to eye level in the back row seats and
may cause intolerable glare.

Figure2.2 Ribs in a ceiling used to act as glare shields.

shows that when the ceiling is not a flat horizontal surfaceit may be possible
to make use of its shape to concealthe luminairesfrom the direct sight line
of the audience,providedthat they do not becomebad glare sources for the
lecturer.The glareindex at any point ofthe audiencearea should not exceed
16.

When incandescent lighting is used, luminaires of the downlighter type

should be avoided. Although these are often used in legitimatetheatres and
concert halls,they producea poor modellingofpeople'sfaces, with the result
that the lecturer cannot see the reactions of the audience. When surface
mountedluminairesare used, they should not be of the type which produce
a distracting halo on the ceiling around them. Careshould also be taken with
luminairesmounted close to the walls to avoid the scalloped effect on the
wall, which can also be distracting.

Whenfluorescentlightingisused, ceiling mounted luminaires ofthe recessed

or semi-recessed type may be used. The latter are preferred to prevent the
ceiling appearing too dark. In order to avoid note-taking shadows, the
luminaires should be mounted with their long axis parallel to the rows of
seats; it is not usuallypracticable to correlatethe rows of luminaireswith the
rows of seats beneath. The average illuminanceon the workingplane (usually
0.85 m above the floor) should be above 200 lux. Bare fluorescent tubes
should not be used if they are visible either to the audience or lecturer.

If the ceilingis whiteor of a light colourandis ofuncluttereddesign,indirect

lighting may be used for the audience area, but the energy costs will be
higher. This method producesilluminationwhich is quite free of glare, but
is felt by some to produce a soporific effect. In practice the light sources
usually have to be concealed in the cornices.Traditional uplighter fittings
cause obstruction to some of the sight lines and psychologically provide a
barrier between the lecturer and some parts of the audience and are best
avoided.

Lamps used should be of colour rendering group 1B, i.e. their GTE general
colourrendering index (Ra) shouldbe greater than 80. Thecommon 'white'

3
 CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

and 'warm white' fluorescent tubes do not meet thisrequirement.An efficient

solution is offered by triphosphor fluorescentlamps.
2.2.2 Lighting the In small lecture theatres and any theatres that have an unbroken horizontal
demonstration area ceiling it is a good plan to carry the general lighting forward to serve the
wholearea, and to add additional lighting as described below. This technique
does not emphasise any division between the demonstrationand audience
areas. In very large lecture theatres, e.g. Figure 2.3, and
especially those
where the ceiling height is reduced at the front it is advisable to use quite
separate lighting systems for the demonstration and audience areas. Since
the demonstration area lighting needsto be carefullydirectionally
controlled,
only incandescentlighting is suitable.

In small lecture theatres, internal reflector spot lamps may be used, or

miniature low voltage luminairesdesignedfor display use. In larger theatres
luminairesdesigned for stage lighting may be used. The lamps or luminaires
should preferably be recessed or otherwise concealed from the view of the
audience. They may otherwise become very obtrusive and give the theatre a
theatricallook, or even the aspect of an operating theatre.

The positionand angling of luminairesin the demonstrationarea is critical.

The best alignment for ceiling mounted luminaires is about 450 to the
vertical, and between30° and 450 to theside. If the angle is near the vertical
it may produce grotesque shadows on the lecturer's face, and if it is near the
horizontal the lecturer may be dazzled when attempting to address the
audience. Similar considerations apply to lurninaires mounted on the side
walls. Illuminance at table top height in the demonstration area should be

Figure2.3 Example of a large lecture theatre.

higher, but not more than double those of the audience area. The rec-
ommended values are 500 lux for the demonstration area and 300 lux for
the audience area.

Lighting provided specifically for the lecturer to read notes when the theatre
is darkenedfor the purpose of slide projection needs careful attention. The
problems are that either light direct from the source, or light reflectedfrom
the notes and desk, may fall on the screen and spoil the
appearance of the
projection; it takes very little stray light of this kind to ruin the effect of a
good colour slide. The best solutionis to incorporatecarefullyshielded low
4
 LECTURE,TEACHING AND CONFERENCEROOMS

power light sources in the lectern itself, whether it be of the pulpit variety,
shown in Figure 2.4, or of the movable table-top kind. The illuminance of
the notes should be kept as low as possible, 5 lux is quite enough. Linear
incandescentlamps can readily be used for this job, andtheirbrightnesscan
be simply controlled with a dimmer mounted within the lectern itself.
Adjustable table lamps are not suitable for lighting the lecturer's notes. The

0
Figure2.4 Lectern embodyingshielded lighting.

beamangles are so wide that a great deal of light goes where it is not wanted,
and addsto the stray light. It is also very easy for such lampsto be positioned
wrongly, so that light shines directly onto the screen or onto the audience.

2.2.3 Sightllnes The first requirementsof a lecture space are that the audienceshall see the
lecturer easily and that the lecturer shall see the audienceeasily.

Lecture theatres should not be rakedtoo steeply, as shown in Figure 2.5, this
makes the audience feel uncomfortableand can present problems with slide
if
projection. The seating layoutis important in raked theatres; straight
rows
are used the seats at the ends of the front rows offer a very oblique view.

Screen
A

Screen
B

Chalk
board

Figure 2.5 Problems of a steeply raked theatre; if the screen is placed at A it will be very
uncomfortablefor those in the front rows;if at B severe distortion may occur when slides/filmsare
projected.

5
 CIBSE1IGHTING GUIDE

Therecan be little social contactbetweendifferentmembersof the audience,

and this is disadvantageous from two points of view: (a) it discourages
audienceparticipationand (b) it does not facilitateor encourage discussion
and questions after a lecture.
For these reasons, the curved rows in Figure 2.6 are to be preferred
fan shaped plan. This arrangement has the disadvantage that if the room using a
is
Demonstrationarea only two-thirds filled all the audience may be in the back half. Figure 2.7
/.L shows a good design compromise with at least half the
length of the side
Chalkboard, screenabove walls parallel so as to limit the length of rows at the back. If a
projection
Figure 2.6 Fan shapedlecturetheatre. room or booth is provided it must not jut out into the back
rows, as this
creates an unhappy sense of division in the area. It is most
important in any
F— lecture theatre that there is an adequatespace in the demonstration area. In
practicalterms,thismeansthat thereshould be at least 3 m (10 feet) between
the front wall and the feet of people sitting in the front row. This not
F
only allows an adequate area for demonstration purposesand improves the
sightlines, but it gives the theatre a spacious quality as in Figure 2.3. If the
front wall is too close to the seats the theatre will look
F- cramped, and have a
claustrophobic atmosphere.

Screen

Figure 2.7 Modified fan shape with angled

straight rows.

2.3 Lecture rooms

2.3.1 Lighting Because of the smaller dimensions, the audience area in lecture
rooms will usuallyserve the demonstration area as well. lighting
It is desirable that
the lecturer arid the immediatesurroundingsbe a little brighter than the rest
of the room, and this can usuallybe effected by the use of a few incandescent
lamps of the reflectorspot type directed towards the lecturer. However they
must be carefully positionedso as to avoid severe glare to the
this will mean that they have to be mounted either on the side lecturer;usually
or on
the ceiling adjacent to the side walls, the positions are shown inwalls, 2.8.
Figure
If a fixed lecture bench is installed(which is nota very happy arrangement)
luminairesshouldnot be mounteddirectlyover it for demonstration purposes.
I —

-
I I
In this positionthey maywell cause specularreflections from demonstration
equipment which makes it very difficult to see what is going on. Lighting
from the side is equally effective and spotlights may be mounted in the same
position as those to light the lecturer.
-i1
-- -- —1
The general lighting should be arranged to produce an illuminance above
200 lux at desk level in the audience area. It should be
reasonably uniform
and if fixed seats are installedright up to the walls the illuminance at desk
level at the wall should not be below 70% of the
Lecturingarea average illuminance. If
there is an aisle next to the wall this does not apply. The lamps used should
be ofcolourrendering group 1B. In order that membersofthe audience
take notes whilst slides or overhead projector transparencies are may
Chalkboard shown, a
much lower level of general illuminance — in the range of 15—30 lux is
Figure 2.8 X markspossiblepositionsfor spot- needed. Ideally this may be achieved with the use of dimming
lights in a small lecture room on ceiling or side but economics in most cases dictate a plain switching equipment,
walls. arrangement, as
discussed in Section 2.8. Either a few incandescentpearl in a
lamps separate
circuit can be used for slide viewing lighting or a few lamps of the general
lighting system can be wired in a separate circuit for this purpose.
6
 LECTURE,TEACHINGAND CONFERENCEROOMS

2.3.2 Sightfines and glare Lecture roomsare usually rectangularin plan and experienceshows that the
best seating plan is that with the lecturing area at one end of the room with
Chalkboard rows of seating parallel to the short dimensionas shown in Figure 2.9.

Lecturin9 area Figures 2.10, 2.11, and 2.12 show typical layouts of lecture rooms. In the
case of a lecture room which is basically flat the sight lines may be greatly
I I

I I

I I

I I

I I

Figure 2.10 Sightlinesin a lecture room with a flat floor.

Figure 2.9 Good lecture room layout.

Figure 2.11 The sightlines may be improved by raising the lecturer on a step.

Figure 2.12 Sightlines can be furtherimproved by raising the rear seats on one or two steps.

Figure 2.13 Back row glare in a lecture room; luminairesat A and B are very close to the students
sightlines,and will cause intolerable glare.

improvedby raising the latter half of the audienceon one or two steps and
raising the lecturer on a step. Lecture rooms in general have a much lower
ceiling than lecture theatres, and in the absence of raked seating the sightlines
become critical. The lighting equipment should be arranged so that the
luminaires do not cause serious glare to the occupants of the rear row of
seats, as shown in Figure 2.13, or to lecturer as shown in Figure 2.14. When

7
 CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

1
r—----
Figure 2.14 Glare to the lecturer causcd by inappropriate luminaires.

fluorescentlighting is usedthe luminairesshould be of the recessed or semi-

recessed types; if this is not possible they may be provided with the glare
shieldsillustratedin Figure 2.15. It may sometimes be possible to use ceiling
ribs as glare shields. On no account should bare fluorescent tubes be visible
to the audience.
The glare index at any seat should be less than 16. It should also be
remembered that avoiding glare for the audience may create glare for the
lecturer; in particular, the lecturer must not be subjected to disability glare.
Glareshields
A
1° ro 1°
Cutoff V
angie,,"

.... "..
Figure 2.15 Glareshieldsplaced behind luminairesto overcome the problem of back row glare.

2.4 Chalkboards and Figure 2.16 shows a chalkboardmade difficultto read by veiling glare, This
their lighting is usually caused by the internal light sources or windows. It is therefore
essential that all chalkboards should have a matt surface; the term chalkboard
includesboth the traditionalblackboard used with chalk, or whiteboards used
with marker pens.

If a blackboard is used it need not actually be black— a Munsell value not

exceeding 4 (reflectance less than 0.12) is satisfactory. Suitable surfacecolours
are given in DES BuildingBulletin No. 9(2), Note that whiteboards cannot
satisfactorily be used as projection screens.
To keep reflections to a minimum chalkboards should be mounted vertically
on the front wall. They are best lit by ceiling mounted luminaires, similar
to that in Figure 2.17, shielded so that the lamps are not visible to the
audience. The best position for a chalkboard luminaire is shown in Figure
2.18; a luminaire placed close to the board cannot light the foot of the board
adequately. The illuminance on the chalkboardsurface should average 500
lux, with a uniformityof 0.25; this can be halved in the case ofwhite boards.
8
LECTURE,TEACHING AND CONFERENCEROOMS

Figure2.16 Reflection of a light source in a chalkboard.

Figure 2.17 Ceiling mounted fluorescentluminaire suitable for chalkboardlighting.

Avoid bright patch above board

by use ofsharp cut-off to fitting
Keep lighting fitting within or dark wall surfaceabove board
shaded triangle to ovoid
reflections in board to
nearest viewer

Aim ateven distribution of

light on board without steep
fall-off toward bottom

Figure 2.18 Choosing positionfor a chalkboardluminaire.

9
 CIBSEIFGHTING GUIDE

2.5 Provision of daylight Almost all lecture presentations require controlled lighting at some stage.
For that readn, lecture theatres and rooms are often built with no access to
daylight. Equally, people do not like to feel shut in, especially when lectures
are given during daylight hours, and there are many who have a preference
for working under natural light. In rooms the size of lecture theatres the
provision ofnatural light in sufficient quantities for workingpurposes requires
very large areas ofglazing. That is not only expensive from the point of view
of heat loss, but it is difficult to achieve a good blackout, and unless the
windows are nDrth facing there may be severe problems with solar heat gain
in summer.
The only way in which an adequateblackout can be achievedin such rooms
is by the use ofthe completely opaqueblinds, running in grooves at the sides
to provide a completelight trap. An example of this type of blind is shown
in Figure 2.19. Curtains or Venetian blinds are not adequate. Blinds should
be of light colour on the inside so as not to present a large black area when
down, and in View of the area of window involved and the need for frequent
opening and closing they should be motor operated. Blindsshould also be of
a light colour on the outside,to prevent excessive solar heat gain.

10
LECTURE,TEACHING AND CONFERENCEROOMS

h is oftenfelt thatwindows in lecture theatresandroomshave to be provided

to givethe occupantssome view ofthe outsideworld andto overcome feelings
of claustrophobia, i.e. to provide some visual escape rather than to provide
lighting. Figure 2.20 shows that very much smaller areas of window can be
used, and the problems associated with them much reduced. However, the
need for a perfect blackout remains and again groove enclosed blinds are
needed, though they may be hand-operated.

r
I

Figure 2.20 Windows of limited area in a lecture room, provided to offer 'visual escape' to the
occupantsratherthan to admit daylight.

Windows should not be provided in either the front wall or back wall of a
lecture theatre or lecture room. The formerwould produceintolerableglare
to the audienceand the latter would cause serious veiling reflections on the
chalkboard.

Skylights should not be provided; they require elaborate blackout arrange-

mentsand are very difficultto keep clean. In the few lecture theatres where
they have been installedthey are usually kept permanentlyblacked out.
From the point of view of lighting, it is much better for lecture theatres and
roomsto be windowless. Since the occupantsrarely have to remain in them
for more than an hour without a break, problems of claustrophobia do not
arise, although they may well do so in small teaching rooms. Some newer
institutions make extensive use of windowless lecture rooms with entire
success. Windowless lecture theatres and rooms require forced ventilation
which may in turn lead to noise problems, but it should be pointed out that
large theatres with extensive glazing have an equal requirement for forced
ventilation.

Light traps (e.g. two sets of doors or other effective means for excluding
daylight) should be provided in all lecture theatres and rooms to prevent
daylight getting in when the theatre is darkenedfor the presentationofcolour
slides. This is particularly so in the case ofentrancesat the rear ofthe theatre,
which when openedsuddenly by a latecomermay allow full daylight to fall
on the projection screen. These light traps should also function as sound
traps.

Such doors should not be provided with windows if it is not possible to

provideproper light traps. If automatic door closers are installedthey should
be of a design which allows the door to be closed quickly andsilently.
11
 CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

2.6 What the audience The audience should be able to concentrate on the lecturer, screen or
sees chalkboard, and the decoration, furnishings and equipment should not be
competingwith the lecturer for attention. The lecturer's desk, chalkboard
and screen must be so placed that they do not obstruct the view of the
audience. If an overhead projector is used, great care must be taken to see
that it does not obstruct either the audience's view of the lecturer or the
lecturer's view of the audience. Overhead projectors often lead to distracting
shadows appearing on the projection screen when slide or film projection is
used. Overhead projectors are best mounted on trolleys so that they can be
wheeledout of the way when not required.

Specular reflections of light sources and windows on the chalkboards,

sounding boards and glazed portraits should be avoided. Also avoid back-
grounds, such as those in Figure 2.21 with disturbing patterns, and back-
groundsfull of fussy details. The audience's view of the front of the lecture
room or lecture theatre should be clear and free from visual clutter; in
particular the front wall should be kept clear of pipework, conduits, and
ventilationtrunking. In some cases the lurninaires themselves may provide
visual clutter, and ventilating diffusers are particularly apt to do so. A wall
full of chalkboards which cannot easily be cleaned results in a dirty-looking
grey area. See also Section 10.1.

Figure 2.21 Disturbing pattern on the front wall ofa lecture theatre.

2.7 Decoration and It is the decoration and furnishings within a lecture theatre or room which,
furnishings in combination with the lighting determineits appearanceand contributeto
that indefinable quality that we usually call atmosphereor character.

There is a great variety of styles available in a number of colours and finishes

and a choice from these shouldbe made at an earlystage in conjunctionwith
other decorative finishes andfurniture. The use of darker colourson the side
walls oftheatres will help concentration.The surfaces of the side walls should
havesome degreeoftexture, suchas that provided by timberpanelling,textile
covered panels, slightly textured plastics or recessed-pointing brickwork.
Shuttered concreteis not recommendedas it soon gets dirty and is not easy
to clean. In a lecture room without fixed seating it may not be desirable to
treat the side walls as a feature, but darker-toned colour can be used behind
the lecturer. Ceilings should be just off-white. Whether white or a tint will
12
Walls

18 E 49

04 B 7 14 C 31 08 C 31

'Front' walls
*
(i.e. behind
lecturerl

18 C 35

Colours
foraccenl
and for
furniture

* These colourscan also be used as floorcolours

are specifiedby their British Standard Colour Numbers (given

Figure 2.22 Suitable colours for decorationand furnishings. The colours recommended not match the BS
below each sample) according to BS 4800 (1984). Owing to the difficultiesof colour reproduction, these samples may accurately
colours.Designersand specifiersshould quotethe BS numbers and not attempt to matchthese samplesvisually.
 /
F

it
/
/
 LECTURE,TEACHINGAND CONFERENCEROOMS

depend on the style of lighting. The colour should always be light but if
luminairesare recessed and no light is reflected off the ceiling it will look
grey by comparison. Walls should be of a different colour from the ceiling
in order to define the boundaries of the interior space and avoid a feeling of
claustrophobia.

The co-ordination of the colour and texture of finishes with the lighting is
will greatly
all-important. The colour rendering properties of the lighting
affect the choice of colours and in some cases daylight will have to be
considered also. When replacement lamps are fitted they should always be
the same as the originals, unless a positive decision is made to re-lamp the
whole theatre with lamps of a more moderntype. Dark coloursin decoration
and furnishings should be avoided and matt or semi-matt surfaces are
desirable as high gloss areas will cause specularreflectionand be distracting.
Cold blues, dark greys and dull yellows must be avoided, and also colours
which are very clear and strong in blue and yellow; they are particularly
distortedby some forms of fluorescentlighting.

Colour contrasts of a modest nature are desirable since a bland interior

the
scheme, combinedwith dim lighting, tends to cause drowsiness amongst
audience. These contrasts can usually be obtained by careful choice of the
coloursofthe seatingasthispresentsa largearea ofcolour; mid-toned colours
are best in a definite but not too strong hue. The flooring colour does not
contributea great deal to the scheme in a lecture theatre. Whether carpet or
hard finish a colouredneutral is the most practicalchoice. Suggested colours
are given in Figure 2.22 with their British Standardreferences.

2.8 Switches, dimmers In any lecturespacethe lightingcontrolsneedto be as simpleand comprehen-

sible as possible — lecturers are more concerned with their subject matter
and controls than light switches. In the main, the only lightingsettingsneeded in a lecture
theatre are:

(a) full normal lighting

area
(b) audience area lighting reduced to a low level and demonstration
lightingoff; for the purpose of line slide projection, but allowing enough
light for the audience to take notes
for
(c) all lighting off; for the projection of tone slides, colour slides, and
the purposes of visual demonstrations.

Abrupt changes in the lighting are disturbing to the audience, and for that
reason dimmers which enable gradual changesto be made are preferable to
plain switches. Manually operateddimmersare not satisfactory as it is
difficult
to get a smooth transaction from one lighting state to another.

A good system is that in which the only controls are three push buttons,
the appropriate
corresponding to the states (a), (b), (c) above. On pushing
buttons the dimmers move accordingly. In such installations the time taken
too
to go from full-on (a) to full-off(c) shouldnotbe long; about four seconds
is sufficient. The very slow dimming speeds used in the professional cinema
and theatre (usually about twenty seconds from full-on to full-off) are
inappropriatein lecture theatres; it is frustrating to audience and lecturer
alike to have to keep waiting while the lights go down before a slide can be
shown. A further advantage of the pre-set push button dimming system is
that several sets of out-station controls may be used and this may save the
lecturer a great deal of walkingabout; an out-station control should also be
provided for the lecture attendant e.g. in the projection room.

If it is notpossible to use dimmerson groundsof cost, a less satisfactory, but

acceptable system using plain switches may be used in lecture theatres
and

13
 CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

rooms seating up to 120; dimmers are essential in large theatres. In this

arrangementall of the lighting for the audiencearea and the demonstration
area (except the lectern light) is switched by a single switch at the lecturer's
position which should have a large and clearly marked handle.

A miniature neon or LED indicator, permanentlylit, should be

provided to
enable the lecturer to find it in the dark. In lecture rooms that do not have
fixed seating this switch should be on the front wall and a little to one side
of the screen so that the lecturer doesnot have to walk in front of the screen
to operate it. The needs of slide projection and
note-takingmay be met by
use of a few plain pearl lamps in the ceiling (referred to as
pilots) under the
control of a separate switch. Pilot lights of this kind should an
illuminance of about 15 lux in the audience area, and should beprovidewell
kept
away from the demonstration area and projection area; an example of
pilot
lights is shown in Figure 2.23.

Figure2.23 The small incandescent lamps in this theatre are used alone as
shown. 'pilots' when slides are

All lecture theatres should be arranged for one person

operation as circum-
stancesinevitably arise where a lecturer has to speak without the services of
an attendant.
Points to particularly avoid in the switching are:
• A plethora ofswitches
operatingdifferentsectionsofthe general lighting
system.
• Positioning the switches so that they become inaccessible when the
projection screen is in use as in Figure 2.24.
• Arranging for some sections of the
lighting to be on two-way circuits
with switches at the rear entrance doors. (This
to get all the lights off the unfortunate lecturerarrangement means that
has to rememberwhich
switches to push up and which to push down, and the
pattern will be
different every time the room is used.)
• Arrangements whereby any of the lighting can be controlled from
switches outside the room.
14
 LECTURE,TEACHING AND CONFERENCEROOMS

Figure 2.24 Light switches rendered inaccessible by a projection screen.

2.9 Audio-visual aids It is vital that the various pieces of audio-visual equipment do not obstruct
considerations the audience's view ofthe lecturer,the projection screen,and the chalkboard.
Overhead projectors and television monitorsare particularly apt to do this.
One solution is to mount the two last mentioneditems on wheeledtrollies,
so that they can easily be moved out of the way (or out of the room) when
not wanted. A common problem is that a single screen will not be suitable
for both slideand overheadprojector (0HP) use. To avoid the keystone effect
shown in Figure 2.25, the screen needs to be angled in different directions.

Figure2.25 Example ofthe keystone effect.

15
 CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

Figure 2.26 shows movable screens but these are both costly and bulky, and
can cause unwanted shadows on the chalkboard as shown in Figure 2.27.
The simplest solutionis to use two separate screens. Many lecturers like to
use both systems at the same time, and count upon being able to do so.

Figure 2.26 Movable screens in a large lecture theatre: that on the left is set for an overhead
projector,whilst that on the right is set for slide projection from the projection room.

Figure 2.27 Shadowson the chalkboardcaused by a bulky projection screen.

It is advantageous for control cables from the projector to the lecturer's

positionto be permanentlywiredin — thissaves havingcables trailingacross
the floor. It is also helpful to have a lockable cupboard at the projector
position, in which it can be kept when not in use.

2.10 Access and In both lecturetheatres androomsthe questionofaccess is important.Ideally

movement the normal means of access for members of the audience should be through
doors at the back, with a separate entrance for the lecturer at the front. Rear

16
 LECTURE,TEACHINGAND CONFERENCEROOMS
2. 11 Use for theatrical
presentations
access for latecomers is essential; it is discourteous and annoying to the
lecturer and audiencewhen latecomers attempt to pick theirway across the
demonstration area. In largertheatres both front andrear access usually have
to be provided. Provided that latecomers are firmly directedtowards the rear
doors by a suitably worded illuminatedsign when lectures are in progress,
front access is quite acceptable; if it leads to a social area it may encourage
members of the audienceto come and converse with the lecturer when the
performanceis over.
For the purposeofmounting demonstrations it is importantthat there should
be direct access through which a sizeable trolley may be wheeled to the
demonstration area. However, access doors should not be in the front wall
of the lecture theatre or room, where they add to the visual clutter, and
distract attention. The same applies to the doors of preparations rooms,
lecturers' rooms and stores.
All lecture theatres and lecture rooms sooner or later become used for
purposes other than that to which they were originally dedicated. Conse-
quentlyall itemsin the demonstrationareashouldbe movable and removable.
Lecterns are obtainable which are readily movable, even those embodying
controls for the lighting and projectors. Figure 2.28 shows a removable
lectern.Massive permanentbenchesare to be avoided; they form an effective
barrier betweenlecturer and audience,anddemonstrationsmay equallywell
be mounted on a set of tables which can be carried out when not wanted.
Experience shows that when demonstrations are mounted, services other
than electricity are rarely, if ever, called for and there is little point in
installinga fixed bench simply to provideterminal points for water, gas, and
other outlets. If such services are needed, they are much better installedin
wall cupboardswhere they can be kept both locked and out of sight until
they are wanted.
Figure 2.28 Lectern embodying controlsfor lighting and projection which is movableand remov-
able.
In some cases, local authority bye-laws require that all exits to a lecture
theatre/roombe markedwith permanentlyilluminatedexit signs. Light from
such signs falling on a projection screen can ruin the effect of colour slides
or demonstrations. They should therefore be aligned so as to be visible to
the audience,but not to throw light on the projection screen.
Possibly because they resemble legitimate theatres in shape and possibly
because they often constitutethe largest auditoriumin aparticularinstitution,
lecture theatres are sometimes chosen as the venue for theatrical present-
ations. Such presentations can be greatly helped by the provision of further
special facilities, which are set out in Appendix 3. Howeversome of these
are expensive, andconsiderationwill have to be given to the extent to which
17
 CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

a particular lecture theatre may be used in thisway. The general experience

is that the larger the lecture theatre, the more likely it is to be used for
theatricalpurposes.

Table 2.1 Checklist - Lecture theatresand lecture rooms

1) Compare your answerswith the checklist answers. (Y Yes, N No, ? You need to consider
this item)
2) If your answers agree with the checklist, then carry on; if they disagree,then check the section
for advice; ifthe answergiven is '?' then you will needto understand what the effect ofyour answer
will be. Makesure that you understand the reasons behind the answers, and check the section for
more information.

Can the audience see the lecturer easily? Y Is the position and anglingofluminaires in the
Can the lecturer see the audience easily? Y
Will it be a lecture room or a lecture theatre? ?
Is the audience lighting incandescentor fluor-
escent? ?
Is the audience lighting readily controllable?Y
Arethe luminaires positioned not tocreate glare
problemseither forthe audienceorthe speaker?
Y by dedicated lighting, or by carefully shielded
Ifthe ceiling isnot a flat horizontal surface,can
itsshapebeused to conceal the luminaires from
the direct sightline of the audience without
causing glarefor the lecturer? V
Are totally recessed luminaires of the down-
lighter type used? N
Is themodelling ofhumanfeaturesgoodenough
for the lecturer to see clearly the reactions of
the audience?Y
Do any surface-mountedluminaires produce a
distracting halo on the ceiling? N
Do luminaires mounted close to the walls
produce a scallopedeffect on the wall or any
other patterns whichcan be distracting?N
Where there is note taking, does the lighting
createmultipleshadows ofthe pen/pencil point
on the paper? N
Are luminaires of the semi-recessed type to
prevent the ceiling appearing too dark?Y
Are fluorescent luminajres mounted with their
longaxis parallel to the rows ofseatsto prevent
note-taking shadows? V
Is theaverage illuminance on theworkingplane
(normally 0.85 m abovethe floor) above 200 lux
and adjustable? Y
Do the lamps have adequate colour rendering
properties (CIE Class IB)? V
Is the lighting systemdesignedso that it can be
properly maintained? V
Have arrangementsbeen made to ensure that
maintenanceis carried out? Y
In small lecture theatres does the general
lighting extend forward toservethe whole area?
V Are smallwindows provided to give the occu-
In large lecture theatres is there a separate
lighting systemfor the demonstration area? Y
Is the demonstration area lighting incandescent
with directional control? V
Are demonstration area luminaires recessed or
otherwise concealedfrom the view of the audi-
ence? V
demonstration area correct (about 450 to the
vertical)? V
Are luminaircs arranged to produce general
illuminationover thedemonstration area rather
than angled at definitepoints?V
The lecturer must be able to read notes when
the theatre is darkened for the purpose ofslide
projection. Isthisprovided bythe room lighting,
low-power light sources provided in the lectern
itself (preferred)? ?
In this situation, does light (direct from the
source, or reflected from notes or desk) fall
on the screen and spoil the appearanceof the
projection? N
In this situation, is the luminance of the notes
low and can it be controlled easily? V
In a lecture room does the general lighting
produce an illuminance above 200 lux at desk
level in the audience area? Y
In a lecture room, isthe lightinginthe audience
area reasonablyuniform? V
if
In a lecture room, fixed seats are installed
right up to the wallsis the illuminance at desk
level atthe wall not less than 70% oftheaverage
if
illuminance? V n.b. there is an aisle next to
the wall this does not apply.
Can a general illuminance of 15-30 lux(on the
desks) beset sothat theaudience may take notes
whilst slides or overhead projector trans-
parencies are shown?Y
Are chalkboards lighted by suitably designed
ceiling mounted luminaires, carefully shielded
so that they do not cause glareto the audience?
Y
Is the room windowless?V
Ifwindows are provided, has adequateblackout
been achievedby the use of completely opaque
blinds, runningingroovesat thesidesto provide
a complete light trap? V
Are the blinds oflight colour on the inside and
motoror handle operated?Y
pants some view of the outside world and to
overcome feelings ofclaustrophobia?Y
Is the ventilation adequate? V
Is noise from the ventilation systema problem?
V
Are light traps provided to prevent the ingress
of daylight when the theatre is darkened for
projection (particularly in the caseofentrances

18
LECTURE,TEACHING AND CONFERENCEROOMS
Table2.1 Continued
1) Compare your answers with the checklistanswers.(V = Yes, N No, ? You needto consider
this item)
2) If your answers agree with the checklist,then carry on; if they disagree, then checkthe section
for advice;iftheanswer given is '?' then you will needto understand what the effect ofyour answer
will be. Make sure that you understand the reasons behind the answers,and check the section for
more information.
at the rear ofthe theatre whichcan illuminate
the screen)? Y
Do the light traps also function as sound traps?
V and can they be achieved easily? Y
Will doorsclose quicklyand silently?V
[Lecture room only] Could sight lines be
improved by raising the latter half of the audi-
ence on one or two steps and/or raising the
lecturer on a step? V
ILecture room only]Isthelecturing area at one
endof theroomwith rows ofseating parallel to
the shortdimension?V
[Lecture theatre only] Is the rake too steep,
making the audience feel uncomfortable or
causing problems withslide projection? N
[Lecture theatre onlyl Is the seating plan fan-
shapedwithcurvedrows andlimited row lengths
at the rear? Y
If a projection room or booth is provided,does
it jut out into the back rows? N
Is thereanything whichcompeteswith the lec-
turer for attention? N
Do the lecturer's desk, chalkboard and screen
obstruct the view ofeach other? N
Ifan overheadprojectoris used,does it obstruct
either the audience's viewofthe lecturer or the
lecturer's view ofthe audience; does it obstruct
the projection path and cause shadows? N
If an overheadprojector is used, is it mounted
on a trolley so that they can be wheeled out of
the way when not required?N
Is the audience's view free ofvisual clutter? Y
Is the atmosphere too strong nor too bland? N
Have darker coloursbeenused on the side walls
to aid concentrationon the focal point? V
Is the ceiling finish light and off-white? V
Are the luminaires recessed? ?
Are the ceilings and wallspainted in the same
colour all-over? N
Have the colour rendering properties of the
lighting and daylight been allowed for in the
choice ofsurface colours?N
If replacement lamps are fitted, are they the
same as the originals or has a positive decision
beenmade to re-lamp the whole theatre? V
Has full advantage been taken of modern lamp
types? Y
Havedarkcolours indecorationandfurnishings
been avoided? V
Have matt or semi-matt surfaces been used
throughout? Y
Have colour contrasts of a modest nature been
used? Y
Has adequate consideration been given to the
type of carpet(or other flooring) used and the
patterns ofwear that will exist?Y
= =
Are thelighting controls assimple and compre-
hensible as possible? Y
Have the following3 conditionsbeenprovided
(a) full normal lighting
(b) audience area lighting reduced to a low
level and demonstrationarea lighting off;
for the purpose of slide projection but
allowingenough light for the audience to
take notes
(c) all lighting off for the projection of tone
slides, colour slides, and for the purposes
ofvisual demonstrations
Have abrupt changes between lighting condit-
ions beenavoided?V
Are dimmers with automaticfade controlsused,
preferably with three push buttons, corre-
spondingto the threecontrol conditions(a), (b)
and (c) above? Y
Are the transition times (fade up and down)
acceptable(about four seconds)? Y
Has a suitable number of out-station controls
been used to provide flexibility and ease of
use, and has one beenprovided for the lecture
attendant e.g. in the projection room?V
If dimmers are not used because of cost, does
the lecture room seat less than 120,and is the
control system flexible and easy to use.V
Ifdimmable fluorescent lighting is required, is
it correctly designed, installed and maintained
to ensure satisfactorydimming from full bright-
ness to a level of about 15% of full brightness.
V
Canthetype oflamps selectedbe dimmed with
the circuit proposed?Y
Does the fluorescent lighting use high fre-
quency control gear (20 - 40 kHz) to minimise
acoustic noise andprovide simple, reliable dim-
ming? V
If fluorescent lighting is switched rather than
dimmed, will it start cleanly without noise or
flickering?Y
Iffull dimming ofthefluorescentlighting is not
provided,then arefluorescentand incandescent
lightingmixed withthelatter ondimmer control
for slide projection?Y
- Is thedimmingequipment andassociatedwiring
designed to keep radio frequency emission to
the minimum and is other electronic apparatus
carefullyscreenedto prevent interferencebeing
picked up? V
Is the lecture theatre arranged so that it can be
used for one person operation?Y
Are switchesor controlspositioned so that they
becomeinaccessiblewhen theprojection screen
is in use? N
19
 CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

Table2.1 Continued

1) Compare youfinswerswith the checklist answers. (Y Yes, N No, ? You need to consider
this item)
2) If your answersagree with the checklist, then carry on; if they disagree, then checkthe section
for advice;if the answer given is '?' then you will need to understand what the effect ofyour answer
will be. Make sure that you understand the reasons behind the answers, and checkthe section for
more informati6ñ

Ifswitchesor controlsare provided in more than
one position (suTiis two way switching), then
does the status of the switches change (e.g.
up sometimes means on, sometimes means off
accordingtothestatus ofanother control panel)?
N towards the rear entrance doors?Y
Are control panels clearly marked?Y
Can control panels be located in the lowest
lighting conditions?Y
Ifcontrol panels or other devices have indicator
lights are these distracting or glaring to the
audience?N
Ifa single screen is provided,can it be adjusted
in angle (to avoid the keystoneeffect) and pos-
ition for both slide andoitpuse?YOtherwiseare
twoseparate screensprovided?Y Manylecturers
like to use both systemsat the same time, and
count upon beingable to do so.
Are control cables provided from the projector
to the lecturer's position or is a wire-less link
(e.g. infra-red) provided?Y
Isa lockablecupboard providedat the projector
position so that it can be safely kept when not
in use? Y Can other equipment be made secure
in a similar manner?Y
Is the normal means of access for members of
the audience through doors at the back, witha
separate entrance for the lecturer at the front?
Y
Can and will latecomers be firmly directed
Are direct accessdoors providedto the demon-
strationarea and are they large enough to allow
a sizeable trolley to enter? Y
Are there any doors in the front wall of the
lecture theatre or room, wherethey add to the
visual clutter and distract attention? N
Are all items in the demonstrationareamovable
and removable?Y
Is the lectern readily movable (even if
embodyingcontrols for the lighting and projec-
tors)? Y
Ifwater, gas, or other such servicesare needed,
are they installed in wall cupboardswhere they
can be kept bothlocked and out of sight until
they are wanted? Y
If exits are marked withilluminated exit signs,
then are they aligned so as to be visible to the
audience yetminimise theeffect oflightfalling
on a projectionscreen or demonstrations?Y

3 Teaching rooms

3.1 Lighting and visual The activities which take place in teaching rooms fall into three categories,
needs which require different styles of lighting, and these are discussed separately
in this chapter. One category covers the traditional type of teaching where
students sittingat prescribedplaces are addressed by a teacher speaking from
another prescribed place — a processdescribedby Joad as ".... the transfer
of informationfrom the notebook of the teacher to the notes of the student
without passing through the minds of either." This style of teaching is
referred to here as formal instruction.

The second category includes that styleof teachingwhich takes the form of
a group discussion, where teachers and studentsmay sit anywhere, a process
sometimes irreverently termed the brainstormingsession or circle dance;
This style of teaching is referred to here as interactive learning.

The third category is that which covers the teaching of practical work such
as metalwork, craft design and technology.

In the case of rooms intended for formal instruction the lighting needs are
similar to those of lecture rooms, except that the students must be able to
read from text books at their desks. The students may have to work at the
same point in the room for several hours at a stretch.

20
 LECTURE,TEACHINGAND CONFERENCEROOMS

In the case of rooms intended for interactive learning, a sympathetic style of

overall lighting is needed, so that faces are revealed without grotesque
shadows in any part of the room. Problems such as glare are less important
because students are free to move their seats, and normally will not occupy
the same positions for prolongedperiods.

Rooms used for practical work — laboratories, workshops, art rooms, craft
rooms and the like, involve visual needs and tasks which are the same as
those found in industry; this is particularly so if the room contains much
fixed equipment e.g. a workshop with lathes and other machine tools.
The reader should consult the Code for Interior Lighting(') for advice on
laboratories, workshops and sewing rooms. However many rooms used for
needs
practical work have to serve a wide variety of purposes and the visual
of these are discussed in Section 3.4.
Whichever style of teaching is envisaged, it is essential for the lighting
designers to understand the users' intentions and their design implications.

3.2 Rooms intended for In a room planned specifically for 'chalk and talk' the role of the windows
formal instruction is as much to provide visual contact with the outside world as to provide
workingdaylight with a specific daylightfactor. Table 3.1 shows the Depart-
ment of Educationand Science requirementsfor windows in the UK.
Table3.1 Department of Education and Science guidelines(3)

Max. perpendicular depthof the teaching

space from an external wall (m)
<8 8—11 11—14 >14
/ Elevation
Minimum percentage of internal elevationof the

//I/' external wall 20 25 35

If daylight is to be the principal illuminant the uniformity of the natural

Noskypoint / lighting is likely to be as important as the average daylight factor. The
Figure 3.1 The no-sky line, which is the locus
of points beyond which it is impossible for an
occupant to see any part of the sky.
uniformityshould be acceptable so long as two conditionsare fulfilled:
• No substantial part of the working plane shall be beyond the no-sky
line, shown in Figure 3.1.
• In a room daylit from one side, the sum of ratios (l/w + i/h) shall not
exceed 2/(l-p).
where:
1 = depth of room, normal to window wall, as shown in Figure 3.2.
w = width of room, parallel to window wall.
h = height of windowhead above floor.
p = area-weighted average of surface reflectances in half of room
remote from windows.

On no account should the chalkboard be placed on a wall containing a

window and it is advisable that it should not be placed on a wall opposite•
windows (see Section 2.4).

Figure3.2 Limiting room proportions.
Windows will need blackout facilities. These can be checked by standing in
front of the projection screen. No sky should be directly visible from any
point on the screen. Curtains should be able to meet this criterion, assisted
ifnecessary by 'Velcro'fasteners; the materialshouldbe suitable for blackouts.
Blinds in vertical rebates would be more effective, but mechanicallyless
reliable. Theblinds themselves need not be dark in colour. If oneside of the
blind is dark that side should face away from the window, as an absorbent
surfaceimmediately inside a windowexacerbates summertime over-heating
problems.
21
 CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

3.2.1 Electric lighting The electriclightinghasthreeprincipalroles; to light the desks, the teacher,
and the chalkboard.
3.2. 1. 1 Desks For secondary schools, colleges and buildings used extensively after dark the
DES Guidelines(3) recommend a general illuminanceofat least 300 lux. This
is best achieved by tubular fluorescent luminaires chosen to limit the glare
indexto 16. The contrast rendering factor(cRF), which shouldbe 0.8, should
be maximised by positioning of the luminaires.The classical precept
'light
over the left shoulder' meets both these requirements, at least for
right-
handed students.
3.2. 1.2 Teaching space Lighting for the teacher'sspace should always be switchedseparately from
the rest ofthe room. It maybe worthconsidering a differenttypeofluminaire
for thisarea.The teacher's faceshouldbe sympathetically revealed. A vector/
scalar ratio between 1.5 and 1.8 would be suitable, The vector direction
shouldbe such as to facilitatelip-reading. The backgroundluminance should
preferably be slightly lower than the luminance of the teacher's face. This
maybe difficultin the case of teachers with dark skin tones, but in that case
a lightbackgroundwouldbe particularlyinappropriate. Light switches should
be handy to the teacher and not local to each luniinaire.
3.2. 1.3 Chalkboard Chalkboards need not be black, butshouldhave a Munsellvaluenot
4 (or reflectance notexceeding 0.12): DESBuilding Bulletin No. 9(2)exceeding
illustrates
a range of suitable surface colours. Shiny finishes are unsuitable for chalk-
boards, as shown in Figure 2.16, The position of a chalkboardluminaire is
more important than its optical design. Figure 2.18 illustrates the
principles
involved. The luminaire should be as far from the chalkboard as
whilstremainingabove the dashedline. A luminaireclose to the boardpossible
cannot
illuminate the foot of the board satisfactorily, see also Section 2,4.

Purpose-designed fluorescent luminairesare available for chalkboards. A pair

of PAR 38 (internally silvered incandescentreflectorflood lamps) positioned
to lightacross the boardfrom opposite sides havethe disadvantage ofshorter
lamp life. However, they can be used for other display purposes.
3.2.2 Decoration The wall behind the teacher should be as simple and uncluttered as possible
and preferablybe of a low chroma colour,so that the teacher may be easily
seen. If there is a very light wall behind the
teacher, the result can be
dazzling, and so be tiring to the students. This doesnot mean that all surfaces
should be sombreor dark; on the contrarya desirable freshness ofatmosphere
can be achieved by usingavariety ofcolours. Asa general ruleit iscomfortable
to have the window walls a light colour, though not white. A light off-white
can be used for the ceiling,rather than dead white, particularlyif the room
has a cornice to divide the ceiling from tl1e walls. If wallpaper is
should either be plain or have only a very restrainedpattern. used, it

3.3 Rooms intended for

interactive learning
3.3.1 Daylight Good window designcan make an important contribution to a room used
for interactive learning both by providing a variety of views and by natural
lighting. In the UK it is a requirement of DES that all teaching spaces in
schools should be daylit. The daylight factor distribution is not of
major
importance;activities whichneedplentyofdaylight can gravitateto a window.
Generally an average daylight factor of 5 per cent or more will ensure that
the room is cheerfully lit during daylight hours. An average below about 2
per cent will require continuouselectriclightingunlessphotoelectriccontrols
are installed. Where possible, opening windows should be placed in more
than one wall, to soften shadows and to permit cross-ventilation on sunny
days.
22
 CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

The DES heat wave temperatures can be checked using the admittance
procedure(4). See also the BRE EnvironmentalDesign Manual(5). The DES
Guidelines3) recommend that the resultant temperature should not exceed
27°C during the school year. This can normally be achieved with cross-
ventilation and a simple curtain drawn across sunlit windows. If cross-
ventilation is impossible the curtains may need a reflective lining facing
outwards; the admittancecalculation will show if more radical design modifi-
cations are needed in a given instance, to reduce the resultant temperature.

Curtains serve both to provide a degree of blackout sufficient for most

portable visual aids, and to provide acoustic absorption which is essential for
informallearningwithoutdistraction. In general,sunlightis not an overriding
problem for informal teaching. A student who feels dazzledor overheated
has only to move away from the window or to draw a curtain.

3.3.2 Electric lighting The electriclighting in an informal teaching room should be gentle and
unassertive. The DES Guidelines3) require a minimum illuminance of 150
lux at any point on the workingplane.

Luminaires should be carefully chosen to provide a relaxed atmosphere.

Compact fluorescent luminairesmay be particularlysuitable. Lightswitching
should be accessible and flexible; block switching is not suitable.

As face-to-face communicationis important it is worth checking the vector/

scalar ratio, which from all viewing angles should be between 1.5 and 1.8.
The lamps chosen should be of colour rendering group lB. The glare index
will be relatively unimportant since students experiencingdiscomfort could
simply move their seat.

Visual aids such as overhead projectors, slide projectors and video or TV

monitorsshould be portable, and suitable for use under conditions of imper-
fect blackout. Switched socket outlets should be available in pairs, not more
than 3 m apart, at skirting height of 0.3 m around the walls. Overhead
supplies are also desirable, and preferable to floor sockets.

3.3.3 Decoration By its nature, interactive learning needs a relaxed, informal, and quiet
environment.All furniture should be movable; wall-to-wall carpeting and
preferably, curtains should be provided.

A fixed blackboard would be unhelpful. Instead each wall might contain a

white steel marker board with magnetsto support newsprintor drawings, or
a cork pinboardto hold 'Velcro' or sandpaper-backed cut-outs. All surfaces
should be capable of accepting temporary adhesives without peeling or
leaving a mark.

3.4 Rooms used for Reference has been made in Section 3.1 above to the visual needs in rooms
used for practicalwork. In recent years there have been great changes in the
practical work way traditional subjects have been taught. Teaching spaces are increasingly
becoming more flexible in use with functions ranging from industrial to
office environments. The computer is no longer confined to special rooms,
butcomputer terminalsor personalcomputersmaybe used almost anywhere.
If computers with visual display units are to be frequentlyused then Lighting
Guide LG3: Areas for visual display terminals(6)should be consulted. It is
particularly important to avoid specular reflections of light sources in VDU
screens.

A very large range of activities are to be found in secondary school craft,

design and technology departments and they may change throughout the
course of a year. The illuminanceover the working plane (0.85 m above the
floor) should be above 300 lux, and the glare index below 16. If work
involving accurate judgement of colour (e.g. art, dyeing etc.) is to be done,

23
 CIBSELIGHTING GUIDE

the lamps should be of colour rendering group 1B. Visual tasks such as
sewing will require temporarylocal lighting.

In all casethe teacher occupiesno fixed position, but spends time at the
benches, machines and tables as needed. Themain requirement is that good
supervision is necessary. In most rooms there will be a teaching wall from
where more formal instruction will be carried out with the students sitting
or standingby their machines,benchesor tables. Detailedinstruction,formal
or informalwill be carried outin another room, classroom, seminar room or
small group room, and the design of these spaces should follow the advice
in the previous chapter.
Laboratories can take on similar informal arrangementswith movable tables
and service pillars so that a variety of layoutscan be provided. More formal
arrangemerrts exist in tertiary education. In both cases, as with craft, design
and technology, there is usually a teaching wall. As with other teaching
rooms in schools, it is a DES requirementt3) that they are largely daylit, but
it is more importantthat sunlightis excluded because of disability glare and
the danger of renderingbunsenflamesinvisible. Discharge lamps (other than
fluorescent tubes) shouldnot be usedto avoid stroboscopic effects on rotating
machinery.

Table 3.2 Checklist - Teaching rooms

1) Compare yoir answers with the checklistanswers, (Y Yes, N No,? You needto consider
this item)
2) If your answers agree with the checklist, then carry on; if they disagree, then check the section
for advice;ifthe answer given is '?' then you will needto understand what the effect of your answer
will be. Make sure that you understand the reasons behind the
answers,and check the section for
more information.

Environmentsfor formal instruction meet this requirement, at least for right-hand

Is the layout designed to be formal with static
seating, axial planning? Y
Is the environment designed to create a clear
separation (spafiI and psychological) between
teacher and taught? Y
Are light switcheshandy to the teacher?Y
Are windowsable to be blackedout? Y
Do the window areas meet DESGuidelines>)?
Y (See Table 5.1)
Is any substantial part of the working plane
beyond the no-sky line in Figure 3.1? N
In a room daylit from one side, does the sum of
ratios (l/w + 1/h) exceed 2/(l-p)? N
Isanywindowinthewall either aboveorbesides
the lecturer or the chalkboard? N
Does the electric_lightingprovide?Y
• Task lighting fordesks
• Y
Illumination ofteacher
• Illumination for chalkboard
If the room is in a secondaryschool, collegeor
building used extensively after dark, does the
lighting satisfy the DESGuide1ines3)? Y
Is the general illuminance at least 300 lux? Y
Is the glare indexless than 16? Y
Has the lighting layout beendesignedto maxi-
mise the contrast rendering factor (cRr)? YThe
classical precept 'Light overthe left shoulder'
students,
Has the use ofa different type ofluminaire for
the teacher's space been considered?Y
Does the lighting provide a vectorfscalar ratio
between 1.5 and 1.8? Y Doesthevectordirection
facilitate lip-reading? Y Is the teacher's face
sympatheticallyrevealed? Y
Is thebackgroundluminance slightlylowerthan
the luminance of the teacher's face?Y
Are chalkboardsand projection screens placed
so that a right.handed teacher can use a pointer
without turning her back to students? Y
Chalkboardsneednotbe black,but do they have
a Munsell value of less than 4 (or reflectance
less than 0.12)? Y DESBuildingBulletinNo. 9(2>
illustrates a range of suitablesurface colours.
Ilave chalkboardsgot shiny finishes? N
Are chalkboardluminaircs correctlypositioned?
Is the wall behind the teacher as simple and
uncluttered as possible and of a low chroma
colour, so that the teacher may be easilyseen?
Y
Interactive learning
Is the environment designedtocreate a relaxed,
informal, mutually responsive approach? Y Is
the space designed to be an introverted, rather
than axial, space withmovable furniture, wall-
to-wall carpets, curtains and cushions?Y

24
 LECTURE,TEACHING AND CONFERENCEROOMS

Table 3.2 Checklist -Teachingrooms

=
1) Compare your answers with the checklist answers. (Y = Yes, N = No, ? You needto consider
this item)
2) If your answersagree with the checklist, then carry on; ifthey disagree, then checkthe chapter
for advice;if the answer given is '?' thenyou will needto understand what the effect ofyour answer
will be. Make sure that you understand the reasons behind the answers, and check the chapter
for
more information.

Does each wall provide suitable means to fix
newsprint,drawings,flipchart paper, etc. (e.g.
white steel marker boards with magnets, cork
pinboards,or felt-boardand are surfacescapable
of accepting temporary adhesives without
peeling or leaving a mark)? Y
Do well-designedwindows provide a variety of
views and and natural lighting? Y n.b. In the
UK itisa requirement oftheDESthatteaching
spaces in schoolsshould be daylit.
Isthe average daylightfactor5 per centormore?
Y Are visual aids such as overheadprojectors, slide
Are opening windowsplaced in more than one
wall? Y
Do the heat wave temperatures (see the DES
Guidelines)(3) exceed 27°C during the school
year? N
Is cross-ventilation provided?Y
Are curtains providedfor sunlitwindows? Y
Are curtains able to provide blackoutsufficient
for most portable visual aids? Y
Are curtains able to provideacoustic absorption
which isessentialfor informal learning without
distraction?Y
Is the electric lighting gentle and unassertive?
Y flexibilityneeded in modern teaching methods?
butless relaxed environment)or compactfluor-
escent (best compromise)? ?
Is the lighting incandescent (good atmosphere
but highenergy costs),fluorescent(economical
butless relaxed environment)or compact fluor-
escent (best compromise)??
Are switchingarrangementsaccessibleand flex-
ible with no block switching?Y
Is the modelling suitable for face-to-face com-
munication (vector/scalarratio 1.5 to 1.8)? Y
Is the glare indexless than 19? Y
projectors and video or TV monitors portable
and suitable for use under conditions ofimper-
fect blackout?Y
Have sufficient switched socket outlets been
provided in suitable positions? Y
Rooms for practical work
Ifthework is similar to that in industrial prem-
ises,has the lighting beenbased on the require-
ments for thoseindustrialpremises?Y(SeeCode
for Interior Lighting(1) for advice on lighting
laboratories,workshops, rooms and art rooms
which come in this category)
Hasthe lighting been designedto cope with the
Y

Is the minimum illuminance at any point on
theworkingplane greater than 150 lux?Y (DES
Guide1ines)3)
Is the standard service illuminance 300 lux? Y
(Code for InteriorLighting)(')
Is the lighting incandescent (good atmosphere
but high energy costs),fluorescent(economical
Do the lighting requirements match those for
other teaching rooms in schools? Y
Although itis a DES requirement that they are
largely daylit, has sunlight been excluded? Y
(because of disability glare and the danger of
rendering bunsen flamesinvisible)
Are anydischarge lamps,other than fluorescent
tubes used? N

4 Large conference rooms

4.1 Basic lighting and The basic visual needs in a large conferenceroom are that all members of
visual needs the audiencecan see the chairman and central officersclearly, and that all
persons present should be able to see each other reasonably well in order
that a proper dialogue may take place. Many presentations in conference
rooms, e.g. the readingofscientificpapers, are tantamountto formallectures,
and the lighting needs are similar to those of lecture theatres. However
conferencerooms are also often used as cinemasor theatres and the lighting
must be capableof meeting those purposesalso.

Specifically the lighting must provide adequate illumination for reading or

taking notes at any point, good but not excessive modellingand good colour
rendering.

25
 CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

It must also be flexible andcontrollable from a single point, must be absolutely

silent and produce no thermal discomfort. Careful co-ordination of the
lighting design with the interior decoration and with the heating and
ventilating system is essential. Absolute blackout facilities will be needed,
and if the room is to be used for lecture demonstrations adequate power
supplies should be available.

Large conference rooms have a good deal in common with large lecture
theatres, and much of the informationin Sections2, 7, 9, and 10 applies to
them. Conferenceroomsusuallyhavea clearly defined area where the major
part of the action takes place, corresponding to the demonstration area of a
lecture theatre, and a clearly defined audience area. But the activities in a
conference room differ from those in a lecture theatre in these ways:

(a) The audience may be present for long periods, often on several suc-
cessive days.
(b) The proceedings although of a formal nature involve interaction
between membersof the audience and they must be able to see each
other clearly.
(c) Conference participants must be able to move easily between the
demonstration area and the audience area.
(d) Simultaneous interpretation facilities may be required.

Item (a) above requiresthat participantsshould be able to move in and out

of the room whilst proceedings are in progress with the minimum of
disturbance, and the seating should be arranged accordingly, with a greater
ratio of gangway space to seating space than is the case in lecture theatres.
It is important that participants can both get in and out without disturbing
the projector beam if one is in use.
In the UK ii has always been the custom that those who contribute to a
discussion should do so from their seats, but in many countries of the world
this is not so. A person wishing to speak must seek the chairman's approval
and then get up from his seat and go to a central podium to speak.
The points made in Section 2.2 relating to the layout of the seating apply
equally here. Cloakrooms, toilets, refreshment facilities and spaces where
participants may relax should be provided immediately adjacent to large
conference rooms.

4.2 Lighting systems The lightingrequirements of the demonstrationarea of a large conference

and controls room will be similar to those of a lecture theatre, but all lamps should be
controlled by dimmer. Large conference rooms are likely to be used for
theatrical performances; consequently provision should be made for easily
rigging additional lighting equipment. The particular requirement is that
appropriatewiringis provided in the shape of numerous circuitsterminating
in socket outlets at the points where additional spotlights are likely to be
wanted.These circuitsmaybe controlledfrom a stagelighting controlsystem
operated from the projection room; in a very large conference room the
lighting is likelyto be so complex that a system ofthiskind, under permanent
control of an attendant is advisable in any case. If it is known that a large
conference room will be used for theatrical presentations further special
facilities may be advisable. These are described in Appendix3.

The lighting of the audience area, and the appearance of the whole are
crucial in a conference room. The audience must not only be able to
see each other clearly, but should not appear grotesque. For that reason
downlighters are not recommended;they produce shadows under the eyes
26
 LECTURE,TEACHINGAND CONFERENCEROOMS

which are not acceptable, this is shown in Figure 4.1. If the ceiling is plain
white, then recessed or cornice lighting may be used, provided that there is
sufficient direct lightingin the demonstration area toprovidea modestdegree
of 'sparkle'. If this is not the case, it is worthwhileintroducing a few small
incandescent luminaires for this purpose. The furnishing and decoration
should not be too dark, as light reflected from the floor and furniture will
significantly improvethe modellingof participants' faces. The points made
about visual clutter in Section 2 and 10 apply equally to conference rooms.

Figure4.1 Grotesque modelling produced by downlighters.

43 Simultaneous Strict specifications are laid down for the lighting of interpretationbooths.
See ISO Standard26O3(. Care must be taken that lightfrom them doesnot
interpretation
booths spill onto the projection screen.

27
 CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

Table4.1 Checklist — Large conference rooms

1) Compare your answers with the checklistanswers,(Y = Yes, N No, ? = You needto consider
this item)
2) Ifyour answers agree with the checklist, then carry on; ifthey disagree, then check the section
for advice;ifthe answer given is'?' then you will needto understand what the effect of your answer
will be. Make sure that you understand the reasons behind the answers, and check the section for
more information,

Inaddition to therequirementsfor lecture thea-
tres, has carefulconsiderationbeen given to the
following points?Y
• The
audience may be present for long
periods, often on several successive days.
• The proceedings, although of a formal
nature, involive interaction between mem-
bers of the audience and they must be able
to see each other clearly.
• Conference participants must be able to
move easilybetweenthe demonstrationarea
and the audience area.
Can participanBfnove in and out of the room
with the minimum of disturbance? Y Is the
seating arranged with a greater ratio ofgangway
space to seating spacethan is the case in lecture
theatres?Y
Can participaiiiget in and out without dis-
turbing the projector beam if one is in use? Y
Are cloakrooms, toilets, refreshment facilities
and spaces where participants may relax,
adjacentto the conference room?Y
Are the lighting requirements of the demon-
stration area of a large conference room the
same as those of a lecture theatre? Y
Will the conference room be used at sometime
for theatrical performances? Y The larger the
room, the more likely this is to happen.
If it will be used for theatrical purposes, has
adequate provisionbeenmade for easilyrigging
additional lighting equipment?Y
If it will be used for theatrical purposes, has
appropriate wiring been provided (numerous
circuits terminating in socket outlets at the
points where additional spotlightsare likely to
be wanted)? Y
Can such circuits be controlled from a stage
lighting control system operated from the pro-
jection base? Y
Does the lighting enable members ofthe audi-
ence to see each other clearly and not appear
grotesque?Y For this reason downlighters are
not recommended.
If the ceiling is plain white, then can indirect
lighting be used, withsufficient direct lighting
in the demonstration area to provide a modest
degree of 'sparkle'? Y
Are the furnishing and decoration too dark? N
(light reflected from the floor and furniture will
significantlyimprove the modelling of partici-
pants' faces)
Are there any doors in the front wall of the
conference room, where they add to the visual
clutter and distract attention? N
Ilow will members of the audience contribute
to the discussion: from their seats (UKcustom)
or from a central podium (common custom in
many countries)??

5 Committee rooms
5.1 Visual and lighting The basic functionsof the lighting, be it daylight or artificial are:
needs to enable the committee members to see each other clearly and without
glare.
• to enable membersto read their papers and make notes.
• to enable committee membersto see wall mounted
displays.
It should be remembered that committees sometimes have to work under
some stress, especially when unpleasant or unpopular decisions have to be
made. The luminaires should be unobtrusive, and glare kept to a minimum.

5.2 Daylight Committee rooms should always have some natural lighting; windowless
rooms are unacceptable for committee purposes. The essential problem of
natural lighting in a side—lit committee room lies in the fact that occupants
on different sides of a table are likely to be exposed to different forms of
inconvenience. Those facing a window may suffer glare, and see their
colleagues opposite with features in shadow silhouetted against a bright sky.
Those with their backs to a window maycast a shadowon their own
papers.
One possible approach is to ensure that the chairman faces the window and
can control both the curtains and the electric lighting. This arrangement
28
 LECTURE,TEACHINGAND CONFERENCEROOMS

ensures that the chairman's face is clearly revealed, that there is no visual
discomfort, and that the faces of other participants can be seen comfortably.
If this can be achieved, it is unlikelythat others will havedifficulty in seeing
one or another.
Pinboards andflipcharts should not be seen next to a window: disability glare
will make them harder to read even when discomfort glareis quite acceptable.
They should also not be placed where they may reflect a shiny image of the
window. The prescriptionabove, with the chairman facingthe window, takes
care of these problemstoo.

5.3 Electric lighting The geometry oflightingshouldcorrespondto the geometry ofthe conference
not
table, defining it as the focus of activity within the room. This does
necessarily mean that the table should be the brightest surface; downlights
are particularly unsuitableas they cast harsh shadows, generateshiny reflec-
tions in a polishedtable-top and tend to leave walls and ceilings in relative
darkness. The illuminance on the table should be about 300 lux, and the
glare index at any point of the room shouldbe below 16.
The light distribution should produce a vector/scalar ratio within the limits
recommendedin the Codefor InteriorLighting(').
Supplementary display lighting willbe required for wall-mounted charts etc.
This is governed by the same geometricalconstraints as chalkboardlighting,
see Section 2.4. The display lightingshouldpreferablybe dimmer-controlled.
Careful design of a committee room will remove the need for easels and
portable projection screens, and for ad-hoc arrangementsof slide projectors,
overheadprojectors andblackout facilities.

5.4 Surface finishes Thebackgroundluminance should ideally be slightly lower than the lumin-
ance of the occupants' faces.
Dark walls are more suitable for formal boardrooms. Very light coloured
walls can give a clinical feel.A few smallpicturesor ornamentscan do much
to improvea committee room, but large and complicated features which may
distract the attention shouldbe avoided. The floor carpet should not be very
dark.
Table5.1 Checklist— Committee rooms

1) Compare your answerswith the checklist answers. (Y = Yes, N = No, ? = You needto consider
this item)
2) If your answersagree withthe checklist, then carry on; if they disagree, then checkthe section
for advice;if the answer given is '?' then you will needto understand what the effect ofyour answer
will be. Make sure that you understand the reasons behind the answers,and check the section for
more information.

Does the room have some natural lighting? Y
Windowless rooms are unacceptable for com-
mittee purposes.
Although there is no rightanswer for all cases,
has consideration been given to the position of
windowsin relation to seating arrangements?Y
Will pinboards and flipchartsbe seennext to a
windowwheredisability glare will make them
hardto read even if discomfortglare is accept-
able?N
Will pinboards and flipcharts be placed where
they may reflect a shiny image of a window? N
Does the geometry of lighting reflect the
geometryof the conference table, defining it as
the focus of activity? Y
Does the light distribution produce a vector!
scalar ratio within the limits recommended in
the CIBSE Code for Interior Lighting(1) (1.2 -
1.8)? Y
Has supplementary display lighting been pro-
vided for wall-mountedcharts etc? Y
Does the design of the room remove the need
for easels and portable projection screens,and
for ad-hoc arrangements of slide projectors,
overhead projectorsand blackout facilities? Y
Is thebackgroundluminance slightlylower than
the luminance of the occupant's faces? Y
If the room is a formal boardroom, have dark
walls been considered? Y
Have small pictures or ornaments beenused to
improve the committee room, but have large
and complicated features which distract the
attention beenavoided? Y

29
 CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

6 MuIli-purpose rooms
6. 1 Visual and lighting The lighting designer should be involved with the architect and interior
needs designer from the start of the planning process. In attempting to design a
suitable installation for a multi-purposeroom the first requirement is for the
designer, in consultation with the client, to draw up a list of the purposes
envisaged for the room and an order of priorities of use. The prime lighting
needs in terms of illuminances and the controls needed for each separate
activity can thus be tabulated and if any common pattern exists it will be
evident;in that case the lighting can be designedaccordingly. However, in
many cases no common pattern will emerge and the designer will have to
produce a compromise design.
There are a few basic points, discussed below, which should be considered
at the start of the design process. These are excludingdaylight, stage
lighting,
and accommodating large chandeliers.

The next requirement is for the lighting designer to determine what

maximum value of illuminance is required and for how long. This will
determine the nature of the main light sources. The designerwill also have
to considerwhether a direct or indirect lighting system is used.
6.1 .1 Excluding daylight Daylight shouldpreferably be excluded. Multi-purpose roomsrequirelighting
that is flexible and controllable to a high degree and daylight is not so. If
windows, rooflights or skylights are to be provided they should be fitted with
light tightblackout blindsof the type described for lecturetheatres in Section
2.5. This is particularlyso in the case of skylights.

6.1 .2 Stage lighting If the room has a definable stage area, then the lighting for it should be
regarded as stage lighting and designedaccordingly.
6.1 .3 Chandeliers If large chandeliersare to be used, they should be thought of as decorative
features rather than the main source of illumination.They can very easily
obstruct both sightlines and the beams of spotlights and their use is not
recommended. If they are used they shouldbe dimmer controlledalong with
the rest of the installation.

6.2 General lighting The functionof the generallighting in a multi-purposeroom is to provide

an overall uniform illuminanceof acceptable colour rendering which is free
from glare, and which may be dimmed.The design surveymentionedabove
will indicate the illuminance needed at working plane height e.g. 0.85 m
above the floor. If no such survey can be made the designer should aim for
a value of about 150 lux. If it is known that the room will be used regularly
for examinations then the provision should be for 300 lux. The colour
rendering should be of group JBC').
Withthe varietyofactivities that may take place,sightlinesmaybe anywhere,
and it is importantto avoid glare. This point is very well met if the general
lighting is indirect. If a direct system has to be used the luminairesshould
preferably be recessed. If surface mounted fittings are used they should have
opaqueor diffusing side surfaces, andin no circumstancesshould bare lamps
be visible. Suspended luminaires should not be used to provide general
lighting. Care should be taken in avoiding glare not to overdo it; recessed
downlighters in particular give no glare at all but produce both a modelling
effect on faces which is quite the reverse of what is wanted for a social
occasion anda gloomy atmosphere. The illuminanceproducedby the general
lighting shouldhave a uniformityratio of a least 0.5 at workingplane height,
and if the ceiling is low this may be difficultto achievewith downlighters.
30
 LECTURE,TEACHINGAND CONFERENCEROOMS

o.3 Suitable light The mainlighting may be either incandescentor fluorescent; in a few cases
sources high pressuresodiummay be used.Incandescentlightingis extremely flexible
and controllable, though is inefficientin terms of energy usage. Althoughits
colour rendering is not of the best it is often thought of as the appropriate
lighting for social functions. Energy efficiency is not of prime importance
unlesscertainpurposesrequire the use ofthe room for extended periods, but
the heat which it generates may have to be removed (at some expense) by
the air-conditioningsystem.

Fluorescentlighting may readily be dimmedbut by the nature of the source

is less flexible. The term fluorescent lighting includes compact source
fluorescent lamps which can be used in relatively small luminaires.Fluor-
escent lamps can be used to advantage in an indirect lighting system,
especially where the tubes can be concealed in cornices, coves, or in the
structure of a ribbed ceiling.

High pressuresodium lighting has a very long warm up time and is thus of
restricted value in multi-purposerooms. However, for some functions, e.g.
exhibitions, it may be useful, especially if used to provide indirect lighting.
If used for direct lighting the mounting height should be at least 3.5 m.
In those rooms which may be used for sports — especially badminton —
care should be taken to see that light sources that will not cause flicker or
stroboscopic effects are used. Lighting Guide LG4: Sports(8) should be
consultedon this point.

6.4 Suspension points It may be necessary to mount temporaryspotlights for many functionsand
and wiring appropriate suspension points should be provided; a space frame ceiling is
ideal for this purpose. If the room has a definable stage area then provision
should be made for mounting front-of-house spotlights in the shape of wall
brackets or spot bars mounted below the ceiling and in smaller rooms that
may suffice for all spotlight mounting. Since wall lighting is often needed
for exhibition and display purposes a ceiling track round the entire room
1.2 m in from the wall is a wise provision if ceiling height is less than 4 m.

Where provision is made for spotlightmounting for stage purposes, appro-

priate wiring runs back to the control point/switchboard must be provided
with separate circuits for each outlet point. Outlet points of this kind are
normally out of reach from floor level and should be provided with sockets
to BS 546(o) (15A round pin type).
The wiring should also provide a plentiful number of normal 13A outlet
sockets at wainscot level all roundthe room.These are necessary forexhibition
purposes. Flush fitting floor traps should also be provided where projectors
are likely to be used, and these should contain not only power outlets but
wiring and sockets of appropriatetype for projector remote control systems.

6.5 Controls Multi-purposeroomswill generally be regardedas placesofpublic resort and

thus be subject to localbye-laws. These oftenrequirethat the lighting controls
be placed in a separate room not accessible to the public, which is awkward
if the room is used for, say, a lecture involving slides and demonstrations.
All of the lighting controlsshouldbe groupedtogether so that one individual
can have charge of all of them; the controls are best placed in an adjacent
room with a window into the multi-purposeroom. If the room is used as a
cinema the lighting controls can well be placed in the projection room,
provided that a full-depthwindowis installed andnot just projector loopholes.

A microprocessor control system should be used if possible. This allows

completeflexibility of control, but also enables pre-setlighting arrangements
to be set up at the push of a button so that it can be used by unskilled
operators.
31
 CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

Table6.1 Checklist — Multi-purpose rooms

1) Compare yoiifanswers with the checklistanswers. (Y Yes, N No, ? You need to consider
this item)
2) If your answers agree with the checklist,then carry on; if they disagree, then checkthe section
for advice;ifthe answer given is'?' then you will need to understand what the effect ofyour answer
will be. Make sure that you understand the reasonsbehind the answers, and checkthe section for
more information.

Has the total range of activities likely to be
carried out been consideredand analysed? Y
Has there been a discussion with the client or
the architect to establishthe priorities ofuse? Y
This will establish the prime lighting needs in
terms of illuminances and controls needed to
each separate task. A listing of these needs in
tabular form will quicklyidentify any common
pattern.
What will be the maximum illuminance likely
to be required aniffor what likely period?
Havelampsofsimilarsizeandwattagebeenused
topreventproblemsofdifferent light output and
colours being evident during dimming?Y
Will it be better toarrange luminairesin regular
patterns? ?
If no false ceiling exists and surface mounted
luminaireshave to be used, has carebeentaken
to shield bare lamps form the eyes ofthe audi-
ence?YThismay bedifficult ifthe direction of
view likely to rotate through a full 36O within
the space.
If the space is to be used for games such as
badminton, will stroboscopic effects or the
brightness of the luminaires be a problem?Y
Does the lighting provide adequate overall
illumination for the widest rangeof activities?
Y positioned so as not to interfere withthe sight
Can the luminiiid be easily repositioned and
adjusted, if necessary by unskilledstaff?Y
Does the basic design include adequate pro-
visionfor both mechanicalsuspensionand elec-
trical connectkan of additional luminaires
needed for special applications? Y
Couldsome ofthe needs be met by the use of
a lighting tracksystemofeither single or multi-
circuit type? Y
If track systems are installed to provide flexi-
bility, is the amount of track adequate for the
possibleset of needs and uses? Y
ILas the maximum ofcontrol beenprovidedbut
withthe minimum ofcomplication?Y
I-las microprocessorcontrol beenconsidered?Y
Are the light sourcesa sensiblebalance between
efficiencyand appropriateness?Y
Extra facilities could increase the use of the
space and its flexibility; have these been con-
sidered?Y For example, lighting track near the
wallstogether with a selection ofspotlightsand
floodlightswillmeettheneeds ofexhibition and
static display.
Havesuspensionpointsandstandard 15Around
pin sockets connected back to a theatre type
lighting control systembeenconsidered?Y
Ilavepower outlets been providedat floor and
ceiling level for exhibitions?Y
If, for example, in hotels, large decorative
chandeliersareused, is someotherprimesource
of illumination provided?Y
Ifchandeliersareused, have they beencarefully
lines ofpeople, spotlights,projectorsand soon?
Y
If chandeliers arc used, are they dimmer con-
trolled along with the restof the installation?Y
I-las daylightbeen excludedorcan itbeexcluded
easilyand effectively? Y

7 Adjoining spaces — corridors, lobbies, ante-rooms etc.

7.1 Lighting objectives The functionsof the lighting in spaces adjoining teaching and conference
spaces are:
• To providefor the entrance and exit of the
users, bearing in mind that
manypeople may need to get in and out in a short time.
• To put users, as they approach,in an appropriateframe ofmind for the
activity in which they are about to take part.
• In some cases, especially ante-rooms, to provide a social
atmosphere
(such spaces are often used as tea and coffee spaces).
• In some cases, to indicate to visitors the route
they should take to reach
their destination, e.g. the lecture theatre in a museum. In other cases,
e.g. a suite of teaching rooms in a college, this may not be appropriate.

The lighting of an adjoining space should therefore be designed in parallel

32
 LECTURE,TEACHINGAND CONFERENCEROOMS

with that of the lecture, teaching or conference space which it serves.

However, this does not necessarily mean that it should be in the same style,
or have the same illuminancevalues.

7.2 Circulation If the lighting is to provide guidance for the visitor from entrance to
destination, that may be done in two ways. Firstly the geometry of the
luminaires can imply a direction. Secondly by the phototropiceffect; people
are attracted to bright lights. A lighting designercan exploit this tendency
by leading visitors towards brightly-lit areas.
A"
Lighting in corridors must provide for safe movement,and should provide
an illuminanceof at least 100 lux at floor level, with a glare index of below
19. There must be appropriatelighting for hazardsto be visible. A particular
hazard in corridors with shiny floors is that of water on the floor which may
c have got there by spillage, roof leakage, or from melted snow carried in on
shoes.

Figure 7.1 Staircase lighting. Position A is
recommended; B and C are to be avoided; and
D can be used for wall-mountedluminaireson
very longstaircases.
The rule for staircase illumination is to light the treads and not the risers.
Figure 7.1 shows luminairesat B and C reduce the contrast betweentreads
andrisers. In additionthey can cause accidents by distractingattention. The
luminaire at A is well placed, illuminating each tread by putting the risers
into shadow. On a long staircase it might be supplementedby a wall-mounted
luminaire at D at a height which permits easy access for re-lamping.In the
latter respecttoo positionB shouldbe avoided; stepsor laddersare hazardous
over a staircase.

7.3 Waiting areas and Waiting areas and lobbies immediately adjoining teaching or conference
lobbies spaces should be kept tidy and free of visual clutter (see Section 10.1). As
they may well be used as social or tea and coffee areas, the illuminance
should be about 200 lux and lamps of colour rendering index group lB
should be used. Unless the height is greater than 4 m above the floor,
downlighters should not be used.

Because activities of this kind may well go on at the same time as lectures
or conference proceedings, there should be two sets of doors at the entrance
to the teaching or conference space, to act as both light and sound traps.
There must be a rear entrance for latecomers to lecture theatres/roomsand
it should be clearly signposted from the main entrance— preferablywith a
sign illuminated when lectures are in progress. The main doorway should
be able to accommodate a large trolley.

If an ante-room for the lecturer is provided its lighting should be of a high

standard, comparable with a laboratory or workshop as appropriate. It can
usefully incorporate a light table and slide viewer for last-minute sorting of
slides or transfer to multiple carousels. -

33
 CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

Table7.1 Checklist- Adjoining spaces

1) Compare your answerswith the checklist answers. (Y = Yes, N No, ? You need to consider
this item)
2) If your answersagree withthe checklist, then carry on; ifthey disagree, then checkthe section
for advice; ifthe answer given is '?' then you will needto understand what the effect ofyour answer
will be. Make sure that you understand the reasons behind the answers, and checkthe section for
more information.

Unless there is a good reason to the contrary,
are the important spaces the most brightly lit?
Y Y
Does the lighting provide guidance, from
entrance to destination? ?
Does the geometry of the luminaires imply a
direction? ?
Is the phototropic effect, where people are
attracted to bright lights, exploited to lead visi-
tors in the desired direction??
Have the visual cues been planned hand-in-
hand with the other resources ofinterior design
which can serve the same end? Y
Does the lightitijiake account of the surface
properties of the illuminated object - relief,
texture, sheen, translucency,solidity,etc? Y
Does thelighting incorridorsprovide guidance?
Y
Are intersections, notice-boards, posters and
incidents along the wayeffectivelyilluminated?
Is there appropriate lighting for hazards to be
visible? Y
In the case of staircases,have the treads been
illuminated ratherthan the risers? Y
Does the lighting help to clarify and define
spaces for gathering, for circulating, for cloak-
rooms,ctc? Y
If an ante-room for the lecturer is provided,
then is the lighting here of a high standard,
comparablewith a laboratoryor workshop? Y
If an ante-room for the lecturer is desirable,
then does it have a light table and slide viewer
for last-minute sorting of slides or transfer to
multiple carousels? Y

8 Emergency lighting

In all of the premises covered by this Guide, large numbers of people will
gather together. It is therefore necessary to provide emergency lighting,
which is defined as lighting that will enable people to see their way out of a
building in the event of the normal lighting failing. It must be stressed that
it is not the function of emergency lighting to enable normal activities to
continuewithina buildingifthe main power supplyshouldfail; such lighting
is referred to as standby lighting and is not normallyprovidedin educational
and conference premises.
In many buildings these may be an actual legal obligation to provide
emergency lighting. The Fire Precautions ActU0) and the Health and Safety
at Work etc. Act(' 1) require adequatemeans of escape in all places of work
andpublic resort. Emergencylighting is an essential part of thisrequirement
andshouldbe providedin all areas where there is insufficientnatural lighting
at all times that personsare on the premises. BS5266 Code ofpractice for the
emergency lighting of premises('2) lays down minimum standards for the
indicationandilluminationofescape routes in the event offailure ofnormal
supply. The role of this emergency lighting is to reveal a safe passageway,
firealarmcall points,firefightingequipment,escape signs and any permanent
hazardsalong the escape route.

Advice on the design of emergency lighting installation is given in Technical

Memoranda TMJ2: Emergency lighting1'3). When new buildingsare
planned,
consideration should be given to the needs of emergency lighting in the early
stages of design. If any alteration is planned in the lighting of existing
buildings, care should be taken to see that emergency lighting requirements
continue to be met. In the caseofother buildings it is advisable to check that
the requirement of the 1971 and 1974 Acts(tO,It) are in fact met.
34
 LECTURE,TEACHING AND CONFERENCEROOMS

are not
Although BS 5266(12) provides detailed requirements as yet these
accepted uniformly throughout the UK. Before the finalisation of specifi-
cation is completedit is essential to consult the local enforcing authority.

In general, teaching rooms andlaboratoriesare used by personswho will be

reasonably familiar with the layout and safety provisions for an orderly
evacuation in the event of emergency. However, in laboratories some pro-
cesses may need terminating before evacuation and in conference roomsthe
with the layouts. It is
majority of persons present are likely to be unfamiliar
therefore necessary to provide strategically placed signs permanently indi-
cating the ways out of the areas and that adequate illuminance is provided
in special locations where a visual task must be performedprior to evacuation.

8.1 Escape route signs Much anxiety and confusion can be alleviated by strategically placed signs
permanently indicating the ways out of the premises. It isandvery important
that exits and emergency exits are quite clearly sign posted are visible at
all times with normal emergency lighting systems. The signs should use the
be
shouldsigns used
preferredterms EXIT or EMERGENCY EXIT. On no account
indicating NO EXIT. Where direct sight of an exit is not possible and doubts
may exist as to its position, then direction signs with an appropriate arrow
or words should be added. The sign must direct someone who is unfamiliar
with the building to the nearest exit.

The signs must comply with the requirementsofBS 5499(14)Parts 1, 2 or 3

andin one building shouldbe uniform in colour,formatandstyle. Examples
of two types of exit sign are given in Figure 8.1.
Emergency exit
The signs should be mounted above exit doorways or escape routes at a
height of 2 m to 2.5 m above floor. Thesignsmay be externallyor internally
illuminated.The use of self luminous signs is not recommended.

EMERGENCY Externallyilluminatedsignswith lettering of 50 mm or 75 mm high should

be illuminatedby an emergency source to at least 5 luxwith a uniformityof
EXIT 0.7. Internally illuminatedsigns may have letters 75 mm or 125 mm high
with opaque or translucent green lettering. The luminance of the white
Figure 8.1 Examplesofexit signs conforming lettering (with green filter removed) or translucent white surround should
to BS 5499. be 30 cd/rn2.

8.2 Escape route There are three types of areas to be considered for the purpose of escape
illumination lighting requirement;clearly defined routes, large open areasand areas with
fixed seating.

8.2.1 Clearly defined route
8.2.2 Large open areas
Normally corridors or gangways. The horizontal illurninanceat floor onlitthe
centre line of a clearly defined route width up to 2 m wide should be to
a minimum of 0.1 lux. Wider routes should be treated as several 2 m bands.
Examples are dining halls, laboratories, and multipurpose rooms. These
placeswillnot havedefined routes andthe layout offurnishingsmaychange
from time to time.

The average horizontalilluminanceover the whole area on an unobstructed

floor should be not less than 1 lux with a uniformity of 0.025.

8.2.3 Fixed seating areas
Examples are auditoriums, lecture theatres and rooms. These places will
have fixed seating layout on horizontal or sloping planes but divided by
gangways which are designed as clear escape route and should be treated so.
For any part of the area having fixed seating layout the average horizontal
illuininancemeasuredon a plane 1 m above floor/pitch line, should be not
less than 0.1 lux with a uniformity of 0.025.
35
 CIBSETLIGHTING GUIDE

8.3 Hazard areas In laboratories and certain control rooms or workshops the activity may
involve hazardous tasksnot dependenton electricity supply or which present
a hazard if left in operation. These need to be made safe before evacuating
the area. In these situationsthe immediate area containing the task should
be illuminated to a minimum illuminance of 2 lux or such higher level,
normally 1% ofthe main lighting levels that the visual task demandsit. This
illuminance may be of shorter duration than that used for escape lighting.
Often a strategically placed escape luminaire will suffice.

8.4 Operating The emergency lighting must reach the required illuminance within 15
conditions seconds after failure ofthe supply to the normal
lighting and should maintain
theselevels for a periodof not less than 1 hour. Certain local authoritiesmay
demand a faster responseof 5 seconds. The emergencylighting luminaires
should be chosen with care and be installedin locations where they will not
cause disability glare (dazzle).

8.5 Choice of systems Basically two systems can be considered for use; central power or self
contained. Block diagramsfor the two systems are shown in Figures 8.2 and
8.3. The advantages and disadvantages of the systems are shown in Table
8.1.

Mains supply Mains supply

Figure 8.2 Block diagram for central power Figure 8.3 Block diagram for self contained
system. system.

8.5.1 Central power system In a central power system the energy is provided by batteriesor
generators
and is distributed through sub-circuits to feed a number of luminaires.
Typically with a central battery system the battery room or cubicle will
contain the charger, batteries, controls and indicators, and the automatic
change over switches. With central systems care should be taken on the
location ofthe fault detectionequipment for the supplyofthe normal
so that sub zone detectionbecomes effective. Also the lighting
wiringbetweenpower
source and luminaires must be routed and protected by special means to
ensure operation integrity for the full working duration even under fire
conditions. Central systems tend to be cheaper to purchase and maintain but

36
 LECTURE,TEACHING AND CONFERENCEROOMS

Table8.1 Advantages and disadvantagesofcentral and selfcontained power sources

Centra1 power source Self contained

Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages

Advantages

No routine battery Lamppower may be limited

Larger batteries are Separate wiring.
cheaper per unit of maintenance, by available battery capacity.
power. Regular battery
maintenance. No separate sub-circuit Operating temperature may be
limited to battery working
Longlife of batteries monitoring,
is possibleifwell Battery roommay temperature.
maintained, be required. No special wiring unless
control switching Batteriesmay have a shorter
Limited flexibility, circuits are required. life.
Luminairesmay be less
Can be easily installed Luminaires may be more
expensive.
and extended. expensive.
Luminaires less limited by Cost ofperiodic tests may be
temperature. greater where large numbers of
luminairesare involved.

complex to install and extend. The luminaires may use incandescent or

fluorescent lamps.

8.5.2 Self contained system In a self contained system the emergency luminaires are self powered and
operate the luminaire independentlyin an emergency. Each luminaire is
fullyequippedwith battery, charger, chargeindicatorand changeover device.
The batteriesare continuouslycharged via the normal unswitchedlighting.
Containedluminairestend to be expensive with limited operatingtempera-
ture but are easy to installandextendandrequirerelatively littlemaintenance.

8.6 Classification of Systems are classified accordingto categories andmodes of operation:

systems
8.6.1 Categories The emergency lighting system can be designed to supplythe required load
for any desired time or duration. However, for application in the premises
covered by this guide a duration of one hour is adequate. The duration is
usuallydesignated by X/l, X/2, X/3 for 1 hour, 2 hour and 3 hour rated units
respectively.

8.6.2 Mode of operation The modeof operation is a description of the lamp working status in a
luminaire. Broadly speakingthere are two modes of operation, maintained
and non-maintained. Maintained systems are identified by marking of M
whilstthe non-maintainedare markedNM. For the premises discussed in this
guidethe use ofsystems having designations of MI1 or NM/i are recommended.

8.6.2. 1 Maintained In thissystem the lamp is on all the time the premises are occupied. The
lamps may be powered by normal supply directly or indirectly and underAt
emergency conditions automatically switched to the emergency power.
all times the output of the luminaire must meet the emergency lighting
requirements.

8.6.2.2 Non-maintained In thissystem the emergency lamp is off when mains power is available to
charge the batteries. When the supply fails the lamp is energisedfrom the
emergency power source. A variantofthissystem calledsustainedisoften used
where maintained lightingis required,particularlyfor internallyilluminated
signs. The sustained system uses two lamps. One operatesoff the mains and
the other when required from the emergency power.
37
 CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

8.7 Planning schemes Thelightingcalculations involved in emergency lighting are straightforward.

The detailed methodsare described in Technical Memoranda TM12: Emerg-
ency lighting('3).It is important to base all calculations on real photometric
data for the specific lamp andluminaire with the output at worst (minimum)
condition. These conditions can be a combination of end of maintenance
cycle, end of lamp life, end ofdischargeat end ofbattery life, lowest ambient
temperature, andlongestsupplywire to name just a few. It is importantthat
the designer discusses these parameterswith the likely supplierand installer
of the equipment.

8.8 Planning sequence There is no defined sequence to be followed but these few points indicate
one approach. It is most important that consultationwith relevant bodies
over the specific plans are carried out early in the design process.
• Establish licensing requirements.
• Examinebuilding plans.
• Mark exits and final exits.
• Mark escape routes.
• Identify open areas, special locations.
• Mark locationof hazards,fire fighting appliances, alarm call points.
• Identify toilets of 8 m2 floor cover or over, control rooms, special plant
rooms.
• Note illuminancerequirements.
• Select signs and escape luminaires.
• Position luminaries at essential places.
• Add extra luminaires to completescheme.
• Check uniformityand glare.
• Prepare installation instruction.
• Prepare commissioning procedure including illuminance checks.
• Prepare operation and service instructions.

8.9 Inspection and Regularinspectionand servicing of emergency lighting schemes is essential.

servicing BS 5266(12) provides the framework for certification of
completion if instal-
lation andcertificationfor periodictesting andservicing. The onus for these
activities falls on the owner/userof premises.

To verify that adequateemergency lighting is available at all material times

the system needs inspection/tests daily, monthly, six-monthly and three-
yearly. These may require only to charge or that the lamp in the maintained
exit sign is on. Testing maybe by automatic devices provided these give
warning if action is required.

Servicing is straightforward. The batteries or fuel tank for generator may

need topping up. The luminairesneed cleaning,failed lamps
changingand
the batteriesin the self contained luminairesreplacedat the manufacturers
recommendedinterval. Regular servicing will keep the system effective and
reliable for operation at all material times.

38
LECTURE,TEACHING AND CONFERENCEROOMS
Table 8.2 Checklist-Emergency lighting
1) Compare your answerswiththe checklistanswers. (Y
this item)
2) Ifyour answers agree with the checklist,then carry on; if they disagree,
for advice; ifthe answer givenis '?' then you will needto understand what the effect ofyour answer
will be. Make sure that you understand the reasons behind the answers, and check the section for
more information.
Are the legal obligationsto provide emergency
lighting understoodfor the type and locationof
the premises?Y
Will escape lighting be provided in all areas
wherethereisinsufficientnatural lighting at all
times that persons are on the premises?Y
Does the escape lighting comply with the
requirementsofBS 526602), Code ofPracticefor
theEmergency Lighting ofPremises (which lays
down minimumstandardsforthe indicationand
illumination of escape routes in the event of
failure of normal supply)? Y
In essence,does the escapelighting revealasafe
passageway, fire alarm call points, fire fighting
equipment, escape signs and any permanent
hazards along the escaperoute? Y
Does the design of emergency lighting instal-
lation conformto the advicegiven in TM 12(13)?
Y fixed seating, does the averagehorizontal illu-
Hasthelocal enforcingauthority been consulted
about the escape lighting?Y
In laboratorieswill safety considerationsdictate
thatsomeprocessesneedtobeterminated before
evacuationcan be completed? ? Ifthis isso then
standby lighting will be needed.
Are exits and emergency exits clearly sign-
posted and are these signs visibleat all times? Y
Where direct sight ofan exit is notpossibleand
doubtsmay existasto itsposition,havedirection
signs with an appropriate arrow or words been
used to eliminate doubt about the route? Y
Would someone who is unfamiliar with the
building be directed to the nearest exit? V
Do the signs complywith the requirements of
BS5499(14)Parts 1,2and 3and arethey uniform
in colour, format and style? Y
Are the signs mounted over exit doorways or
along escaperoutesat a height of2 m to 2.5 m
above floor? V
Where thereis a clearly defined route — corri-
dors and gangways— does the horizontal illu-
minance on the floor on the centre line of the
route exceed 0.2 lux at all points?V
Where thereis a clearly defined route—corri-
dors and gangways—whichis2 mwide or less,
does the horizontal illuminance on the floor
exceed 0.1 lux at all points in the central area
(central band) which forms 50% ofthewidth of
the escape route? Y
Where thereis a clearly defined route which is
more than 2 m wide it must be divided into
2 m strips. For each strip, does the horizontal
illuminance on floor on the centreline of the
strip exceed 0.2 lux at all points??
= Yes, N = No, ? = You needto consider
then check the section
Where there is a clearly defined route which is
more than 2 m wide it must be divided into
2 m strips. For each strip, does the horizontal
illuminance on the floor exceed 0.1 lux at all
points in the central area (central band) which
forms 50% of the width ofthe strip?V
In large open areas — dining halls,conference
—
rooms, laboratories, multipurpose rooms
which do not have defined routes and the layout
of furnishings may change from time to time,
is the average horizontal illuminance over the
whole area on an unobstructed floor greater
than 1 lux withauniformity of0.025 or better?
Y
In areas withfixed seating — auditoriums, lec-
ture halls - which have seatinghorizontalor
sloping planes divided by gangwayswhichare
designedasclear escaperoutes, are thefollowing
conditions met? Y In the part of the area with
minance (measuredon a plane 1 m above floor!
pitch line) exceed 0.1 lux witha uniformity of
betterthan 0.025? Y In the gangwaysand other
parts of the route does the horizontal illumin-
ance on the floor on the centre line exceed
0.2 lux at all points and does the horizontal
illuminance on the the floor exceed 0.1 lux at
all points in the central area (central band)
which forms 50% of the width of the escape
route? Y
In the case of laboratories and certain control
rooms or workshops,the activity may involve
hazardoustaskswhich must bemade safebefore
evacuating the area. In these situations is the
immediate area containingthe task illuminated
to the level that the visual task demands?Y Is
the minimum illuminance 2 lux or higher?Y
Will the emergency lighting reach the required
illuminance within 15 seconds after failure of
the supply to the normal lighting? Y Certain
local authorities may demand a faster response
of 5 seconds.
Will the lighting conditions be maintained for
a period ofnot less than 1 hour and in certain
cases 3 hours? Y
Will the luminaires and their location cause
disabilityglare (dazzle)? Y
Have installation instructions, commissioning
procedures and operation and service instruc-
tions beenprepared? Y
Will appropriatetests and inspectionsbecarried
out to verify that adequate emergency lighting
isavailable at all material times? Y (Inspection!
tests: daily, monthly, six-monthly and three-
yearly).
39
 CIBSEILIGHTING GUIDE

9 Maintenance
9. 1 Lighting In both lectureand conferencespaces it is essential for the lighting
maintenance to beproperlymaintained.Lamps which have failed, or which areequipment
flickering
not only fail in their function, but conveythe impression to audience and
lecturer alike that nobody cares. It is importantthat lamps which have failed
be replaced promptly, and with lamps of precisely the same type. There is a
natural reluctanceon the part of maintenancedepartmentsto maintain stocks
of special lamps, and thus there is a tendency to simply put in any lamp that
will fit the holders. It is necessary therefore to see that adequate stocks of
the correct lamps are held.

In raked lecture theatres, access to the luminaires is often difficult from

below. This is a point that the designer must bear in mind. It is
strongly
advisable for a group replacement scheme to be used, in which all of the
lamps are replaced at set intervals. The reader is referred to the Code for
InteriorLighting') on the maintenanceof lighting systems.

Other items such as blackout blinds, projection screens and lighting controls
suffer damage relatively frequently, often as a result of misuse by lecturers
unfamiliar with the particular theatre. Any damage of this kind should be
madegoodpromptly. It can largely be avoided by mountingclear instructions
on an engravedplate adjacentto the item concerned and using equipment
of sufficiently robustconstructionto withstandthe onslaughtsof a frustrated
lecturer.

9.2 Cleanliness and Lecturers and audience alike expect lecture rooms and theatres to be clean.
tidiness Fixed seatingpresentsparticular difficulties to cleaning staff, especially in
steeply raked theatres — it is difficult to both see and to reach under the
seats. In very large lecture theatresor conferenceroomsit may be worthwhile
to provide special overhead lighting for the purposesof the cleaners, but if
this is done it should be arranged so that it cannot be switched on during
the normal use of the theatre,as it will usuallyruin the effects of the normal
lighting.

Because many lecture theatres are heavily used they are often cleaned at
night. Troublesthen arise ifthey are used for specialevening functions. On
such occasions arrangements should be made for at least rubbish to be
removedbeforehand.

In many lecture theatres a nonsmoking rule is made, and NOSMOKING signs

displayed. If this is done they should not be so large or obtrusive as to mar
an otherwise pleasant place; large signs intended for use in large
factory
buildingsare not suitable.
When such a rule is made it shouldbe a permanentone. If it is relaxedwhen
the room is used for non-teachingpurposes, e.g. evening film shows, it may
be difficult to enforce it at other times.

40
 LECTURE,TEACHING AND CONFERENCEROOMS

Table9.1 Checklist - Maintenance

1) Compare your answerswith the checklist answers. (Y

= Yes, N = No, ? You needto consider
this item)
if then checkthe section
2) If your answersagree with the checklist, then carry on; they disagree, effect of answer
'?'
for advice; ifthe answer given is then you will needto understand what thechecktheyour for
behind the and section
will be. Make sure that you understand the reasons answers,
more information.

Willlamps whichhave failedoraregivennotice- been provided inaconvenient place adjacentto

ably poor performance be replaced promptly,
and withlamps of preciselythe same type? Y
Will adequate stocks of the correct lamps be
held to ensure standards can be maintained?Y
In raked lecture theatres, access to the lumi-
naires is often difficult from below. Has this
beencatered for in the design?Y
Is a group replacementscheme used? Y
Will other items such asblackoutblinds, projec-
tion screens and lighting controls be checked
regularly and any damage be made good
promptly?Y
In order to prevent misuse and accidental
damage to equipment, have clear instructions
the item concerned?Y
Is the equipment sufficientlyrobust? Y
Has adequate provisionbeen made for cleaners
to see clearly (fixed seating presents particular
difficulties); would special lighting for cleaning
be worthwhile?Y
Are the cleaning times correctly chosen to
ensure that, for example, a lecture theatre is
cleanwhen used forevening functions?Y Ifnot,
then are the cleaning arrangementssufficiently
flexibleto deal with this problem?Y
If there is no-smokingand No Smoking signs
are displayed,are these sufficientlyunobtrusive
so as not to mar an otherwisepleasant place?Y

10 The management of lecture and conference spaces

For the purposes of managinglecture theatres there are three categories.

(a) Those supposedly devoted to a single subject or single department of

an educationalinstitution e.g. the 'nuclear physics' theatre.
(b) Those in commonuse bya widevarietyof departments
in an educational
institution, often very heavilyused.

(c) Those in research institutes, professional institutions, museums, gal-

leries and so on, usuallyrelatively lightly used.

In practice,all lecture theatres are on occasions used for purposes other than
their intended ones, sometimes on a hire basis.

10.1 Visual clutter Mention has already been made in Section 2.7 of the need to keep lecture
rooms free of visual clutter, which means keeping them free of unwanted
paraphernalia which serves only to distract the attention of the audience
from the speaker. This is illustratedin Figure 10.1. It is an essential part of
the managing of a lecture theatre or conference room to see that unwanted
paraphernaliais kept out.
Lecture theatres of category (a) are particularlyprone to this trouble; wall
charts, glass cased specimens, glazed portraitsof the great men of the subject
serve to distract rather than inspire. Such items should only be permanently
the periodic
displayed if there is a real need to refer to them frequently,e.g.
table in a chemistry lecture theatre.

The absence of visual clutter is also welcome in lecture rooms as shown in

Figure 10.2.
41
 CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

Figure10.1 Visual clutter in a lecture room.

Figure10.2 A lecture room used by all departments of a university. Note the absence ofvisual
clutter.

10.2 Lecture attendants Theterm 'lecture attendant' refers to those individuals who actually assist in
the running of lectures, often called projectionists, The job of such lecture
attendants is to see that the lecturer's wishes are fulfilled exactly as the
lecturer wants them, e.g. that slides appear at precisely the right
that the projection is immaculate, that the lights are raised or loweredmoment,
at the
right time and at the right speed. To do this, it is necessary for the attendant
to give undivided attention to assisting the lecturer andto avoid distraction.
This is particularly so when the projection room has a large windowbetween
it andthe lecturetheatre/room.Whilst this maybe a convenient
in allowingprojectors to be operated from several positions, itarrangement
raises visual
problems. First, if the lights are left on in the projectionroom whilsta lecture
is in progress, spill light willfall on the projection screenandruin the quality
ofany colour slides that maybe shown. Second, the projectionist is extremely
visible to the lecturer, and may cause distraction to him.
42
LECTURE,TEACHING AND CONFERENCEROOMS

In rooms of this type the internal lights must be kept off whilst lectures are
in progress, andonly the designated projectionist should be there. A carefully
shieldeddesk light shouldbe providedto enable the projectionist to read the
script or cue sheets.Figure 10.3 illustrates the typical lightingin a projection
room.

Figure10.3 The projection room of a large university lecture theatre. Note the carefully shielded
desk lights and that the room is strictly reserved for projection purposes.

Care should be taken to see that bright light from nearby lights in the
audience area does not fall on the projectionwindow. The scattered light
which this causes can in some circumstances make it difficult for the
projectionist to see the screen.

In view of the pressureon the use of space in educationalestablishments, it

often turns out that the projectionroom attached to a large lecture theatre
is used as the permanent workplace for one or more audio visual aids
technicians.This is an appallingarrangementwhich shouldneverbe allowed;
a projection room is an integral part of a lecture theatre or lecture room.

a a
a a
a a

Figure 10.4 Lighting controls mounted on a lectern in a large lecture theatre.

43
 CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

10.3 Communication In the majority of lectures in which slidesare shown, an automaticprojector

between 'ecturer under the direct control of the lecturer is used. Figures 10.4 and 10.5 show
and projectionist the complementary controls of the lecturer and projection room staff. The
or projector controls available to the lecturer should be clearly marked in words, suf-
ficientlydistinct to be visible in near-darkness. The controlsavailable to the
lecturer should also include an on/off switch as it often happens that there
are long periods when slides are not required. Some automatic projectors
have an arrangementin which the light is physically obscured ifa gap is left
in the train of slides, or an opaque slide inserted, but the fan noise will
continue to distract and annoy the audience; it is much better to be able to
actually switch the projector off from the lecturer's position.

Figure 10.5 Projectionist'scontrols for a large lecture theatre.

Lighting controlsare similar;it is best if they can be operated directlyby the

lecturer,but again the controls must be clearly marked. Ifthis system is used
it is importantthat all the lights should be under the lecturer's control. It is
commonly found that some of the lights in a lecture theatre/room are
switchable from a rear entrance door. This arrangementis not advisable, but
if it has to be adopted the switching should be such that the lecturer (or
lecture attendant)has complete control whilst lectures are in progress.

However advisable direct control of the projection andlighting may be, there
are occasions when they have to be in the hands of an attendant — for
examplewhena large array of demonstrations is presented. When it has to
be so, it is best to use direct verbal communication,unless dozens of slides
are to be presented.

Where large numbers of slides are used the arrangement of a push button
on the lecturer's desk which produces a distinctive visual signal in the
projection room may be used to indicate the next slide but a second signal
indicating'slide off' should also be available.
Verbal communicationbetween lecturer and attendant is usually perfectly
acceptable, provided that both parties can hear each other. In the case where
the attendant is in a projection room, the lecturer can usually be heard
perfectly, but the lecturer cannot hear the attendant at all. Trouble then
occurs when a slide jams or when the lecturer makes an impossible request
ofthe attendáEt. To preventthissituation a talk-back linkshould be provided.
44
 LECTURE,TEACHING AND CONFERENCEROOMS

For this purpose, telephones between lecturer and attendant are useless.
In very large lecture theatres they may have some value when lecture
demonstrations are being set up, but they are of no value when a lecture is
actually in progress. Telephones connected to either the internal or
national
networks should not be installedin lecture theatres/rooms.

1 0.4 Projection rooms The traditionalprojection room adjacent to a lecture room is nowadays used
and booths more often as a control room than a projection room, as shown in Figure
10.3. A separate projection room is strictly only required if full scale 35 mm
cinema films are to be projected, but experience shows that such a room is
essential in any lecture theatre seating more than 150. Besides housing the
projection equipment and its operator,it may also be neededto house
sound
amplifying equipment, lighting controls, video recording
and projection
equipment, and possibly controlsfor the air conditioning system. Aprojection
booth i.e. some sort of shack erected within a lecture theatre is not rec-
of
ommended because difficulty of access once an audience is seated in the
of
theatre. Considerations safety (often as local authority bye-laws) preclude
the use of booths of this type for 35 mm film projection.

The multiplicity of audiovisualaid techniquesnowin use requirethat much

1 0.5 Equipment rooms and readily available
equipment needs to be kept where it is both secure be
when it is wanted. Projection rooms should not also expected to act as
equipment stores. Separate lockable equipment rooms should be provided.
In large lecture theatres there should ideally be a large equipment room
adjacent to and on the same floor as the demonstration area, which can be
used to house itemssuch as television monitorsandoverheadprojectors when
not in use, and a small equipmentroom adjacentto the projection room.

1 0.6 Preparation The valueof a preparation room immediately connecting with a lecture
rooms theatre or lecture room is dubious, especially when the communicationis
via a door in the front wall of the lecture theatre/room. Such a door
serves only to distract the audience, and unless elaborate demonstrations are
mounted frequently, preparation rooms of this kind are unnecessary; such
rooms often become junk rooms.

The use of lecture demonstrations is today relatively uncommon and is

usually confined to visiting lecturers who bring their equipment by car or
van. A serviceable trolley, kept under the care of a responsible lecture
attendant, with wheels of sufficient diameter to negotiate water bars and
doormatsis much more useful than a preparationroom.

10.7 Problems of
visiting lecturers
1 0.7.1 Lectures involving The problemherefacingthe visiting lecturer is familiarity with the lighting
work
audio visual aids but controls, and seeing that the audio visual aids chosen will actually
not demonstrations satisfactorily in the apparatus provided. The visitor should arrive in plenty
of time before the lecture to try things out and a lecture attendant must be
there.

Reference has already been made to the necessity for lighting and projector
controlsto be clearly marked. They shouldbe few in number and should be
groupedseparately from other controls. A control panel resembling the flight
deck of a large aircraft does nothing to ease the lecturer's task.
45
 CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

10.7.2 Lectures involving Adequate access to the theatre/room from cars or vans is required. Demon-
demonstrations stration equipment intended to be seen by large numbers of people must
itself be large, and may well obstruct the view of some members of the
audienceof either the projection screen or the lecturer. This is particularly
the case in lectureroomsandconference rooms as distinctfrom raked lecture
theatres. To avoid this problem the presentation area should be devoid of
any fixed furniture; the use of loose tables or benches of varying heights
usuallyenables this problem to be overcome.
Lecture demonstrations should always be tried out in the circumstances of
the actual lecture theatre in which they are to be presented. Often they will
need special lighting for theireffect. They thus require a high degree ofco-
operation betweenthe lecturer andthe lecture attendant. For this reason the
lecture attendant must be in attendance throughout the setting-upperiod.

The difficulties caused by problemsof thiskind can be greatlyreduced ifthe

visiting lecturer makes the requirementsknown to the host well beforehand.
A printed list of requirementsis useful here.

Table10.1 Checklist - Management

1) Compare your answerswiththe checklist answers. (Y = Yes, N No, ? You need to consider
this item)
2) If your answersagree with the checklist, then carry on; if they disagree, then checkthe section
for advice; ifthe answer given is '?' then you will needto understand whatthe effect ofyour answer
will be. Make sure that you understand the reasons behind the answers, and check the section for
more informatidñ

Isa namedindividual in charge ofa givenroom
or set ofrooms? Y
Is the room devoted to a single subject or single
department ofan educational institution?Y
Is the room in common use by a wide varietyof
departments in an educational institution??
Is the room in a research institute, professional
institution,rnu, gallery and so on, and
relativelylightly used? ?
Is a system in operation to ensure that visual
clutter and other rubbish are removedto main-
tain the quality of the environment?Y
Is the projection booth used as the permanent
workplacefor one or more techniques?N
Are the controlsavailableto thelecturer clearly
marked in words, and sufficientlydistinct to be
visiblein near-darkness?Y
Does the lecturer haveaprojector on/offswitch
for use when slides are not required?Y
Can the lightinj controls be operated directly
by the lecturer,and are they clearly marked? Y
Isallofthelightingunderthe lecturer's control?
Y sented?Y
Is verbal communication between the lecturer
and the projectionistacceptable in both direc-
tions? ? (n.b. usuilly the projectionistcan hear
the lecturer, but not vice-versa) If not, then
a talk-back link (not a telephone) should be
provided.
Is a telephone connected to either the internal
or national networks installed in the lecture
theatre/room? N
Unless 35 mm or 16 mm cine.films must be
shown or the seating capacity is over 150, is a
projection room really needed? ?
Is a preparation room immediately connecting
with a lecture theatre or lecture room really
needed? ?
Isa serviceable trolleyreadilyavailabletopermit
visiting lecturers to transport their equipment
to and from cars/vans ? Y
Does the trolley have wheelsofsufficientdiam-
eter to negotiate water bars and doormats? Y
Is adequate provision made to ensure that lec-
turers can test their slides, demonstrationsand
equipment before the lecture? Y
Ifdemonstrationsare to be used, will adequate
time and facilities be allowed for them to be
tried out in the circumstances of the actual
lecture theatre in which they are to be pre-
Isthereamechanism to ensure thatthe lecturer
can make the requirements known to the host?
Y A printed list of requirements is helpful.

46
 LECTURE,TEACHING AND CONFERENCEROOMS

Appendix 1 The preparation and use of slides and OHP transparencies

Slide projectors and overhead projectors have the power to Artwork should be prepared on a sheet framed to the shape
rescue or wrecka lecture. They must be carefullypositioned of the slide aperture (normally width = 1.5 x height). On a
and maintained. Remote controls should be properly drawing 150mmwide, outlines, axes and graduationsshould
labelled. be 0.75 mm thick. Trend lines on a graph should be 1.5
mm thick.
Lamp failure must be provided for. Some projectors have
Conventional architectural and engineering drawings make
arrangements whereby a replacement lamp can be brought
into use at the push of a single lever. If these cannot be very bad slides. Non-essentials such as centre-lines and
used, it is better to provide a spare projector than a spare construction lines must be rigorously suppressed. Captions
lamp — it is not easy to replace a red-hot lamp in the should be related to components by a line, not an arrow. A
middle of a lecture. separate key should be only a last resort. Captions should
be horizontal where possible.Vertical captions should read
TableA1.1 shows the most common lenses for front projec- upwards.
tion, and correspondingrelations ofpicture width to projec-
tion distance for 35 mm slides in landscape format. For Sanseriftype faces are sometimespreferred for lettering, as
these are usuallyobtainablewith a wide range ofweights and
practical purposes the magnification is given sufficiently
sizes within one family. Heavily condensed or attenuated
accurately by the expression:
versions of these faces should be avoided. Capitals should
xf = yd be used only as initial letters. A typewritten caption looks
where: messy when enlarged. Rub-down lettering is ideal. Sten-
cilled lettering is suitable if carefully spaced: spacing
x= Screened dimension (m) between individual characters should be slightly greater
f == Focal length of lens (mm) than in printed letter spacing.
y= Dimension on slide (mm)
d Screen distance (m) If the master is on A4paper, titles should be approximately
20 point, captions approximately 14 point. Point sizes refer
TableA1.1 Slide projection distances(m) for various focal lengths and to the space occupied by successive lines of close-spaced
picture widths lettering. There are 72 points to one inch, or about 2.8 to
a millimetre. An 18-point type face implies a quarter-inch
Focal length Picture width (m) distance between the bottom of one horizontal line and the
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 bottom of the next. This distance includes some white space
-between the lines; the height of a capital letter might be
90 mm 2.6 3.9 5.1 6.4 7.7 9.0 about three quarters of its point size, depending on its
150mm 4.3 6.4 8.6 10.7 12.9 15.0 typographic character.
180mm 5.1 7.7 10.3 12.9 15.4 18.0
21.4 25.0
250 mm 7.1 10.7 14.3 17.9
For a formal lecture slides should be in identical double
glass mounts to avert the need for repeated re-focusing.
For a formal presentation the landscape slide format is They should be marked, and if necessarynumbered, as in
Figure A1.1. Slides should be marked in the followingway:
preferred to the portrait format; a mixture of formats is
frowned upon. Slidesshould not merely reiterate the spoken
presentation. They may provide a sequence of headings,
• Position slide, so that whenviewed by eye, the picture
but some pictorial content is always preferable. Captions appears right way up and right way round.
should be kept to a minimum. Titles, if used, should be • Check by observing any lettering or numbering that
concise. Abbreviations should be avoided unless they are
your position is correct.
very familiar. Diagrams should be kept simple. Outline
shapes may be best. Only essential dimensions should be • Markthe bottom left hand corner with a red dot at least
marked. A human figure or other recognisable object can 4 mm in diameter.
be included to indicate scale. • When put in the projector the dot should be in the top
Consider the sequence in which a group of slides is to right hand corner on the side nearest the lamp.
be shown. The obvious succession from environment to
component may be less effectivethan the reverse. Start with Where a blank period is required between two slidesa blank
the door-knob, then the door, then the room, the building slide should be inserted. This should be in a rigid material.
and its setting in the landscape. Squares of card will curl and eventually jam the slide-
change mechanism. For the same reason, card mounts
Columns of figures are hard to take in on a slide. When should be avoided.
possible they should be presented as graphs, histograms,
pie-charts or block diagrams, making full use of colour. Projected colour is most effective againsta dark background.
Both axes of a graph should be graduated, but the number For this reason book illustrations should be framed by black
of graduations should be kept to a minimum. False origins card before theyare photographed for slide-making.Hand-
are best avoided. If used they must be clearly shown by a drawn graphs and diagrams should be prepared as black-
break in the axes. Estimated values should appear as broken and-white negative slides, so that lines and letteringare in
extrapolated lines: they need no caption. white on a black background. Lines can be selectively

47
 CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE
I or to be left shining inconsequentially and distractingly.
0 thesmallest recommended,thougheven typewritten lecture
Figure Al.! Correct slide markings.
colour-washedby brush-on tints normally sold for tinting
grey photographs. Low-transmittance violet and dark-blue
tintsaretoo dark to show up well. Within one lecture colour
conventions should be consistent.
The advantages of the overhead projector (oHP) over the
slide projector lie in its immediacy, and in the fact that it
can be used in a room which already has reasonable levels
oflight for note-taking. The audience can watch a drawing
or a word taking shape under the lecturer's pen.
Although at first sight the OHP seems to obviate the need
for a separate pointer — the shadowof the lecturer's finger
is projected with the transparency a lecturer should be
encouraged to point at the screen, not at the OHP tray. This
strengthens the rapportbetween lecturer and audience. For
the same reason a stick may be preferable to an optical
pointer. The stick should have a black tip, and needs a
stable parking-place when not in use, to prevent it clattering
to the ground duringthe lecture. Optical pointers are more
used with slidesthan with OHP5. Their image must be bright
enough to claim attention on a well-lit screen even at
oblique incidence; battery-operated pointers often fail in
this respect. Laser beams are very effective. Unless the
lectureris careful the spot is apt to jump all over the screen,
48
Nervousness will amplify the slightest tremble. An optical
pointer should be mounted on trunnions for steadiness; its
surface should not overheat and it should be arranged to
swing away from the screen and switch off automatically
when released.
An overhead projector should be stage-right of the lecturer
(or, ideally,stage-leftof a left-handed lecturer) to minimise
the likelihood of the left shoulder obscuring the projected
image. The risk is reduced by raising the 01w, but this
promotes the projector into an obstruction in its own right.
The well-known keystone effect is averted by the use of a
tilted screen, implying that the out' requires a different
screen from the slide projector.
Photocopying processes now enable printed pages to be
reproduced on transparent sheets. Unfortunately a page of
a textbook is not ideal for projection; 18 point letteringis
notes may be tolerable at a pinch. If a lecturer proposes to
use 0111' transparencies it is best to prepare the artwork on
A4 paper and photocopy it onto an acetate sheet. This is
easier to correct than a drawing or a sentence written
directly on the transparency.
Many fibre-tip pens can draw only a fugitive line on a
transparent sheet. Lecturers should therefore equip them-
selves with appropriate markers. These are availablein two
forms:
•
Water-based markers which can be erased by rubbing
or by a damp cloth.
• Spirit-basedmarkers which can be erased only byspecial
solvents.
The choice will depend on the conflicting demands of
permanence and correctability.
Acetate is available in rolls or in pre-cut sheets, and in
various weights. The thinnest (and therefore cheapest)
sheets are suitable for use on just one occasion.They would
not normally be wiped clean and re-used. Unless it is the
intention to erase and re-use each roll of acetate, it is wise
to order thin rolls. Ifa transparency is designed for repeated
use it should be prepared on thicker material. Card mounts
are availablefor 01w sheets. Theseshould be used only for
formal lectures.They do not fit A4 filing cabinets or normal
briefcases.
 LECTURE,TEACHING AND CONFERENCEROOMS
Appendix 2 Dimming systems and equipment
A2.1 Dimming systems
The usual methodof dimming lamps nowadays is to use
solid state devices such as thyristors or triacs. These are, in
essence, very fast operating electronic switches. Both have
a main current path which becomes conducting on the
applicationofa pulse signal to the control gate. The advan-
tage of the triac over the thyristor is that it will pass current
in both directions. The thyristor passes current in one
direction only andtwo devicesmust be connected in inverse
parallel if they are to operate over the full AC cycle.
By regulating the timing of the gate opening, the amount
of power passed by the device is controlled. This regulation
forms the basis of all modern dimmers.
The power control device used in the smaller domestic
environments, such as switch plate dimmers, is generally a
triac. In larger commercial equipment, it is usual to employ
a pair of thyristors in a back-to-back configuration. Thyri-
storsare inherently more robust than triacs. For all inductive
loads, dimmers incorporating thyristors must be employed
if satisfactoryoperation is to be achieved.
Alldimmers must be fullyprotected byquick actingfuses for
overload protection. Sub-circuit protection can be provided
with either quick acting fuses or circuit breakers (MCBS) to
choice.
Since the power dissipated in thyristors and the control
circuit is very small, the dimmer efficiency can be as high
as 98%.The outputwaveformisheavily distorted producing
mains harmonics and appropriate filter networks must be
incorporated to minimise radio interference and meet the
requirements of BS 8OO(').
It should be noted that any dimming system, incandescent
and fluorescent alike, is apt to produce radio-frequency
interference which may upset other electronic apparatus in
the vicinity, and particularly sound amplifying systems.
Dimming equipment and the wiring associated with this
should be designedto keep radio-frequencyemissionto the
minimum and otherelectronic apparatusshould be carefully
screened to prevent interference being picked up.
TableA2.1 Maximum load ratings for dimmers
Dimmer rating at 240 V 50 Hz Incandescent Fluorescent
5A 1.1kw llxl.2m36W
(1 kW) (220V) 7 x 1.5 m 58W
6 x 1.8 m 70 W
1OA 2.2kW 22x1.2m36W
(2kW)(220V) 14x1.5m58W
12 x 1.8 m 70 W
4.4 kW 44 x 1.2 m 36 W
20A
(4 kW) (220 V) 28 x 1.5 m 58 W
24 x 1.8 m 70W
Great care has to be exercised when specifyinga dimmer
size as the load has to be calculated using circuit watts, not
just tube watts. To avoid confusion, always specify the
quantity of tubes connected to a dimmer together with their
rating and length. The dimmer size should be calculated in
amps, based upon the specified uncorrected current of the
ballast used. In practice, it is sufficient to use the tube
manufacturer's design current for rating purposes. Power
factor correction (PFC) makes no difference to the dimmer
size required. PFC capacitors are connected across the fixed
level output of the dimmer and therefore have no effect on
the current flowing through the thyristors.
A2.2 Lighting equipment
A2.2.1 Tungsten lamps — mains voltage
Mains voltage tungsten lamps including tungsten halogen
may be simply connected in series with the dimmer unit
with no further modification.
A2.2.2 Low voltage tungsten
Due to the inductive nature of the transformers necessary
to operatelow volt tungsten lamps,only dimmers specifically
designedfor inductive loads may be used; these will usually
be described as being universal or suitable for inductive
loads. The term 'hard-firing' is also used to describe the
operation of suchunits; this refersto the mode of operation
of the back-to-back thyristors so that the need for load
resistors is eliminated. Care must be taken when operating
both mains and low voltage halogen lamps dimmed for
extended periods as the operation point may be below the
threshold of the halogen cycle, leading to short life and
premature lamp blackening. The lamps can be cleared by
running them for a period at full power until all of the
depositedtungsten is re-evaporated.Note that,inno circum-
stances, may lamps operating on electronic transformers be
connected to dimmers.
A2.2.3 Fluorescent lamps
Provided that a fluorescent system is properly designed,
installed and maintained, satisfactory dimming from full
brightness to a level of about 10% offull brightness may be
obtained; below that level tubes tend to start flickering.
High frequency systems(20—40 kHz) are a good dealbetter
than mains frequency systems.However, it should be noted
that fluorescent dimming systems are expensive to install
since in some cases extra wiring is required to each lamp.
Nearly all sizes and types of fluorescent tubes below 2.4 m
in length may be dimmed, some more successfullythan
others. The full range of38 mmdiameter argonfilled tubes
up to 1800 mm in length all dim well, especially the
1200 mm size. The latest 26 mm diameter krypton filled
lamps can also be dimmed using the universal dimming
transformer circuit. This device provides a level of con-
tinuous cathode heating together with about 10 mA ofhigh
49
 CIBSFL!GHTING GUIDE
frequency current (35 kHz) superimposed on the 50 Hz
lamp current fed from the dimmer. The result is the ability
to dim smoothlyall sizes up to 1800 mm 70 W.
Note that some compactsingle-endedlamps,speciallydesig-
nated as only suitable for operation on high frequency
electronic ballasts,are not suitable for dimming with con-
ventional circuits. Equally, those miniature fluorescent
tubes with integral starter switches are not suitable for
dimming.
The introduction of high frequency electronic ballasts for
the operation of fluorescent lamps has led to the develop-
mentof controllableballastswhere the output canbe varied
between 25% and full-up. This control is obtained without
the use of external thyristor dimmers, all dimming being
achieved electronically within the ballast, using external
control signals within 0—10 V DC or of a pulse wIdth
modulation coded signal, again on a low voltage supply.
A2.2.4 Controls
Dimming systems are usually available with a range of
control options.
50
A2.2.4. 1 Manual control
At the simplest level, manual control can be either a rotary
or slider fader. Mastering of a numberof channels can be
easily achieved by a specially wired control plate with an
additional master fader.
Take-control facilities can be supplied in a multi-plate
installation. Any number of manual dimmers can be trans-
ferred by one button per plate.
A2.2.4.2 Automatic control
This controlmethodprovidesa numberoflightlevelswhich
are preset by the user.Momentary action ofthe appropriate
preset button on the control plate causes the dimmer to
change (up or down as required) form its existing lightlevel
to the new preset level. Control can be from either a single
plate or any numberof remote plates wired in parallel.
A2.2.5 Luminaires
All fluorescent luminaires must be fitted with the appro-
priate dimming control gear — in no circumstances may
unmodified luminaires be used.
 LECTURE,TEACHING AND CONFERENCEROOMS
Appendix 3 Theatrical presentations in lecture theatres and
conference rooms
Lecturetheatres and conference rooms are sometimesused
asvenues for theatrical presentations.Theparagraphs below
describe the additional provisions that should be made if
the room is to be easily adaptable for these purposes. It is
stressed that these are additional, and it is necessary that
the requirements of Sections 2, 4, 9 and 10 are first met.
When suchrooms are used for theatrical purposes,they will
almost certainly be subject to local authority bye-laws: for
more information on emergency lighting see Section 8.
Publications on the subject and general adviceare available
from the Association of British Theatre Technicians, and
detailed adviceand planning from membersofthe Societyof
Theatre Consultants, both contactable at 4 Great Pulteney
Street, London W1R3DF.
The additional provisionsneeded in the audience area are:
• The lighting must be dimmable smoothly and without
flicker to 1% of its maximum level.
• Exit signs as required by local safety code. Luminance
and spill light should be restricted to avoid glare and
interference with stage lighting effects.
• Light and sound traps on all entrance doors (or at least
those used by latecomers and for access to toilets).
Lighting within a light trap should be primarily from
the dimmed houselight system, but a low power light
from the external system may also be needed, and
possibly a maintained emergency light.
• Provision for theatrical lighting installation using pro-
fessionalspotlights rigged on standard 48 mm OD scaf-
fold tube and connected using industry standard iSA
BS S46() plugs and sockets. Essential locations are
abovethe seating parallel to the front curtain at approxi-
mately 450 elevation from 1.8 m above the front of the
stage. Steeper and shallowerpositionswill alsobe useful
as will positionson the sidewalls at 45° in plan to centre
stage. Safe access for adjustment and re-lamping must
be anticipated.Eachsocketshould be wired individually
to a 1OA theatre dimmer with remote control from the
lighting control room.
The additional provisionsneeded in the stage area are:
• At least 2 m wing space either side of the stage.
• Adequate headroom to allow overhead stage lighting
to
be hidden from sight, i.e. at least 1 m from the upper
sightline.
• Access to both sides of the stage, not through the
auditorium, with sound and lighttraps andsilentclosing
doors.
. Access to dressing rooms.
• Access to the auditorium, not via the stage.
• Access for scenery from deliveryvans.
• Provision for front curtain with winch mechanism.
• Provision for side and rear masking curtains to hide
performers awaiting entrance.
• Over-stage rigging for hanging scenery and top
masking. This can be basic exposed rolled steel joists
(RsJs) and scaffold pipes, with manual or motorised
winches, or fully counterweighted flying systems
requiring two to three times the visible stage height.
•
Work-lightsat both sides, rear and over main stage for
setting and changing scenery with local switching and
master switch at stage manager position. Fluorescent
battens with protectivetroughreflectors andwire guards
are usually used for work-lights. Instant operation is
essential. Dim, shielded lights are also required forused
duringperformance but these can be rigged as required
if full theatrical standards are not specified.
• Provision for theatrical lighting installation using pro-
fessionalspotlights rigged on standard 48 mm OD scaf-
fold tube and connected using industry standard 15A
BS S46() plugs and sockets. Essential locations are
abovethe stage parallelto the front curtain immediately
behind the curtain line, 1 m in front of rear wall and
between at 1 m to 1.5 m intervals. Each socket should
be wired individuallyto a 1OA theatre dimmer remote
control from the lighting control room.
Control of the lighting and sound systemsmay be effected
from the projection room or separate lighting and sound
control rooms. The lighting inthose rooms should be similar
to that for a projection room and the rooms should be
sound-proofed. A good view of the stage is essential in
each case. Loudspeaker reproduction of platform sound is
essential, and if a headset communication system is used
appropriate wiring should be provided.
All systemsshould be arranged so that they can be operated
by a single person if necessary. The control rooms should
be of sufficient size; as many as forty dimmer circuits
may be involved. The sound control room should have
connections to tie-lines for microphones and loudspeakers
both on stage and in the audience area, and also be con-
nected to the headset communication system, the dressing
room sound system and the audience deaf-aid systemifone
is installed.
References
Institution of Building
1 Codefor Interior Lighting(London: Chartered
ServicesEngineers)(1984)
2 Department ofEducation andScienceBuildingBulletinNo.9(London:
HMSO)
3 Department ofEducation and ScienceArchitectsand BuildingBranch
Design Note 17: Guidelines forenvironmentaldesign andfuelconservation
(London: HMSO)(1981)
4 CIBSE Guide Section A3: Thermal properties of building structures
(London: Chartered Institution ofBuilding ServicesEngineers)(1980)
5 Building ResearchEstablishmentEnvironmentalDesign Manual
(BuildingResearch Establishment)(1988)
6 Lighting Guide LG3: Areas for visual display terminals (London:
Chartered Institution ofBuilding ServicesEngineers)(1989)
7 ISO 2603 Booths for simultaneousinterpretation; general characteristics
and equipment (InternationalStandards Organisation)(1983)
51
 CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

8 LightingGuideLG4: Sports(London: Chartered Institution of Building

ServicesEngineers)(1990)
9 BS 546 Specification. Two-poleandearthing-pinplugs,socket-outletsand
socket-outletadaptors (London: British Standards Institution)(1950)
- of high correlated colour temperature as having a cool
appearance.

10 TheFire Precautions Act (London:

HMSO)(1971) colour rendering
11 TheHealth and Safetyat Work etc. Act (London: HMSO)(1974)
12 BS 5266: Part 1: 1975 Code ofPracticefor the emergency
lightingof A general expression for the colour appearance of objects
premises used for entertainment (London: British Standards Insti-
when illuminated by light from a given source
tution)(1975) compared,
13 Technical Memoranda TMI2: Emergency lighting (London: Charterd consciously or unconsciously, with their appearance under
Institution ofBuilding ServicesEngineers)(1986) light from some reference source. 'Good colour rendering'
14 BS5499: Fire safety signs (London: British Standards implies similarityof appearance to that under an acceptable
Institution)(1984)
15 ES 4727: Part 4: 1971/2 Glossary ofterms particular to lightsource, such as daylight.The colour rendering proper-
lighting and
colour(London: British Standards Institution)(1972) tiesof the lamp relate to this effect under specified condit-
16 CIE 17.4: International Lighting Vocabulary : 4th Edition ions.
(VIeiiia:
CommissionInternationale de 1'Eclairage)(1987)
17 BS 800: Specification for limits and methods of measurement radio
of
interference characteristics ofhousehold electrical appliances, portabletools committeerooms
and similar electrical apparatus (London: British Standards Insti-
tution)(1988) Rooms used for meetings capable of seating up to roughly
30 persons.

Glossary of terms used contrast

The definitionsandexplanations given in this glossary are
intended to help readers to understand the Guide. They are
based on British Standard 4727: Part 4: Glossary of terms
particular tolightingand colour('5),and on the fourth edition
of the International Lighting Vocabulary(16) issued jointly
by the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage and the
International Electrotechnical Commission. These docu-
ments should be consulted if more precise definitions-are
needed. The terms are arranged in alphabetical order.
adaptation
The process which takes place as the eye adjusts to the
brightness or the colour of the visual field. The term is also
used, usually qualified, to denote the final state of the
process.For example, 'dark adaptation' denotes the stateof
the eye when it has become adapted to very low brightness.
adjoining spaces
Foyers, ante-rooms, lobbies and corridors immediately
adjoining those spaceslisted above.
A termwhich, when used subjectively,describesthe differ-
ence in appearance of two parts of a visual field seen
simultaneously or successively. The difference may be
brightness or colour orboth. Objectively, the term expresses
numerically the luminance difference by various formulae.
contrast rendering factor
The ratio of the contrast of a task under a given lighting
installation to its contrast under reference lighting con-
ditions.
correlated colour temperature
The temperatureof a full radiator that emits radiation
having a chromaticity (colour quantity defined by an
accepted system) nearest to that of the light source being
considered. The unit is the kelvin, K. As an example, the
colour of a full radiator at 3500 K is the nearest match to
that of a white fluorescent lamp, which is therefore said to
have a correlated colour temperature of 3500 K.
diffused lighting

ballast Lighting in which the flux comes from many directions,

none of which predominates.
Equipment used with discharge lamps for stabilising the
discharge. direct lighting

booth Lighting in which the greater part of the flux reaches a

surface directly, i.e. without reflection from other surfaces.
A small projection room in the centre of a lecture theatre.
Booths are not recommended. directional lighting

colour appearance Lighting designedto illuminate an object or surface pre-

dominately from some preferred direction.
A term used of a light source. Objectivelythe colour of a
trulywhite surface illuminated by the source. Subjectively, emergency lighting
the degree of warmth associated with the source colour.
Lamps of low correlated colour temperature are usually Lighting provided for use when the supply to normal
described as having a warm colour appearance and lamps
lighting fails.
52
 LECTURE,TEACHING AND CONFERENCEROOMS
escapelighting
The part of emergency lighting which is provided to ensure
that the escape route is illuminated at all material times.
flicker
Impression of regular fluctuations of brightness or colour.
Flicker is associatedespeciallywith the lightfrom discharge
lamps and occurs when the frequency of variation lies
between a few hertzand the 'fusion frequency' ofthe images.
The latter is the frequency above which the variations are
too rapid to be registered by the eye.
general lighting
Lighting designed to illuminatethewhole ofanareawithout
provision for special local requirements.
glare
Thediscomfortor impairment of vision experienced when
part of the visual field (e.g. sky or lamps) are excessively
bright in relation to the general surroundings. There are
several forms of glare.
• Disability glare: glare which impairs the ability to see
detail without necessarilycausing visual discomfort.
• of an electric current through it. The filament is
Discomfort glare: glare which causes visual discomfort
without necessarilyimpairing the ability to see detail.
• Directglare: glare causedwhen excessively bright parts
of the visual field are seen directly. e.g. lamps which
are inadequately shielded.
• Reflected glare: a term used to describe various visual
effects,including reduction of contrast, discomfortand
distraction, produced by the reflection of light sources
or other bright areas in glossy or smooth surfaces;gloss
paint and water surfacesare examples of such surfaces.
high pressure lamps
Seelamps.
illuminance
The luminous flux incident on unit area of a surface. The
unit is the lux which is one lumen per square metre.
illumination
The process of lighting an object or surface.
illumination vector
A term used to describe the directional characteristics of
light at a point. Its magnitude is the difference in illumin-
anceon oppositesidesofa flat surface, which is soorientated
that this difference is a maximum. Its direction is normal
to this surface; the positive direction of the vector is from
the higher illuminance to the lower illuminance (lux).
indirect lighting
a
Lighting in which the greater part of the flux reaches
surface only after reflection at other surfaces and particu-
larly at the roofor ceiling.
intensity
See luminous intensity.
keystone effect
The distortion of an image caused by projection onto a
surface not at right angles to the projector beam. It com-
monly occurs when a slide or overhead projector is tilted
upwards to throw an image on a vertical screen, causing
the top ofthe image to become more highly magnified than
the bottom.
lamps
• Discharge lamp: a lamp in which the light is produced
either directly or by the excitation of phosphors by
an electrical discharge through a metal vapour (e.g.
mercury, sodium), gas (e.g. xenon), or a mixture of
several gases and vapours.
• Incandescent lamp: a lamp in which light is produced
by a filament heated to incandescence by the passage
enclosed in a glass bulb which is either evacuated or,
more usually, filled with an inert gas at low pressure.
A tungsten filament is usedin most incandescent lamps
which are consequently known as tungsten lamps.
large conferencerooms
Rooms used mainly for conferences and meetings at which
people may addressthe audience from almost any point in
the room. Such rooms will usually have a seating capacity
of more than 60.
lecture rooms
Rooms used mainly for the deliveryofformal lectures, with
basicallyflatfloors andfixed seating. This categoryincludes
rooms with a raised step or podium for the lecturer, and
rooms with one or two raised steps towards the rear of the
seating.
lecture theatres
Rooms used for the delivery of formal lectures with raked
floors and/or balconies or galleries and with fixed seating.
local lighting
Lightingdesigned to illuminate a particular small area.
localisedlighting
Lighting designedto illuminate a general area, such as a
sports hall,and at the same time provide higher illuminance
53
 CIBSEIIGHTINGGUIDE
over a particular part of the area, e.g. the tables in table
tennis.
luminance
A term which expresses the intensity of the light emitted
in a given direction by unit area ofa luminous or reflecting
surface. It is the physical equivalent of what subjectivelyis
called brightness. The unit most commonly used is the
candela per square metre (cd/m2).
luminaire
Formerly known as a lighting fitting. The apparatus which
controls the distribution of flux from a lamp or lamps, and
whichincludes all the components necessary for fixing and
protecting the lamps and for connecting them to the local
supply circuit. Floodlightsand some other luminaires retain
their individual names.
mountingheight
Thevertical distancebetweenthe luminaire and the ground
or floor, or between the luminaire and some otherspecified
plane such as the top of a table tennis table.
multi-purposerooms
Rooms used for a wide variety of purposes, such as school
halls, assembly rooms, function rooms, church halls.
reflectance (reflection factor)
The ratio of the flux reflected from a surface to the flux
incident on it. Except for matt surfaces the reflectance
depends on how the surface is illuminated, and especially
on the direction of the incident light and its colour. The
value is alwaysless than unity.
reflector
A device for controlling the flux from a lamp by reflection
at suitably shaped surfaces. These may be either specular
(e.g. mirrored glass or polished aluminium) or diffuse (e.g.
vitreous enamel). In the former, the light is reflected in
accordance with the laws of optical reflection. In the latter
the light is diffused, largely without reference to any par-
ticular direction.
response time
Emergency lighting as described in this Guide should be
provided within 5 secondsof failure of the normal lighting
supply.
room index
Anindex related to thedimensionsofa room, and usedwhen
calculating the utilisation factor and other characteristicsof
a lighting installation.
Room index =
h(l + w)
54
Where 1 is the length of the room, w is the width of the
room and h the height of the luminaires above the floor or
other relevant horizontal plane. Consistent units should be
used for the dimensions.
rooms for practical work
Rooms used regularly for class teaching purposes, without
large permanent pieces of apparatus set up. Such rooms
will usually have a seating capacity of less than 60. This
category will include many teaching laboratories.
scalarilluminance
The average illuminance over the whole surface of a very
small sphere located at a given point (lux).
spacing/height ratio
The ratio of the average distance between luminaires to
their average height above the ground or other specified
horizontal surface.
standbylighting
The partof emergency lighting which maybe provided to
enable normal activities to continue.
stroboscopiceffect
The apparentchangeofmotion of an object when illumin-
atedby periodically varying light of appropriate
This periodic motion is especially noticeable infrequency.
the light
from discharge lamps with clear bulbs operating on alter-
nating current. (See Section 3.5.)
teaching rooms
Rooms used mainly for class teaching with flat
floors and no fixed furniture except purposes,
chalkboards
possibly
and projection screens. Such rooms will usually have a
seating capacity of less than 60.
uniformityratio
In thisGuide, the ratio of the minimum illuminance over
a given areato the average illuminance.
vector/scalar ratio
The ratio of the magnitude of the illumination vector to
the scalar illuminance.
visual field
The fullextentofwhat can be seen whenlooking in a given
fixed direction.