Chapter 1
Matter, Measurements, and Calculations
Matter
• Anything that has mass and occupies
space
Mass
• Measurement of the amount of matter in
an object
• Independent of the location of an object
• Object on the Earth has the same mass as
it does on the moon
Weight
• Measurement of the gravitational force
acting on an object
• Depends on the location of an object
• Object that weighs 16 pounds on Earth
weighs about 2.7 pounds on the moon
Physical and Chemical Properties
• Physical properties
• Properties of matter that can be observed
or measured
without attempting to change the
composition of the matter
being observed
• Example - Color and size
• Chemical properties
• Properties that matter demonstrates when
attempts are
made to change the matter into new
substances
• Example - Ability of paper to burn
Physical and Chemical Changes
• Physical changes
• Do not change the composition of the
substance
• Examples - Changing the size of a sheet of
paper by cutting off a piece
• Chemical changes
• Change in matter leads to change in
composition
• Examples - Burning of magnesium metal
Molecules and Atoms
• Molecule
• Smallest particle of a pure substance that
has the
properties of that substance and is capable
of a stable
independent existence
• Limit of physical subdivision for a pure
substance
• Atoms: Limit of chemical subdivision for
matter
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• All matter is made up of tiny particles
called atoms
• Substances called elements are made up
of identical atoms
• Substances called compounds are
combinations of atoms of two or more
elements
• Every molecule of a specific compound
always contains the same number of atoms
of each kind of element found in the
compound
• In chemical reactions, atoms are
rearranged, separated, or combined, but are
never created nor destroyed
Classification of Molecules
• Diatomic molecules: Contain two atoms
• Triatomic molecules: Contain three atoms
• Polyatomic molecules: Contain more than
three atoms
• Homoatomic molecules: Contain only one
kind of atom
• Heteroatomic molecules: Contain two or
more kinds of atoms
Symbolic Representations of Molecules
• Polyatomic and heteroatomic (more than
three atoms, and the atoms are not all
identical)
• Polyatomic and homoatomic (more than
three atoms, and the atoms are identical)
• Diatomic and homoatomic (two atoms, and
the atoms are identical)
• Triatomic and heteroatomic (three atoms,
and the atoms are not identical)
• Diatomic and heteroatomic (two atoms,
and the atoms are not identical)
Mixtures and Pure Substances
Homogeneous Matter
• Matter that has the same properties
throughout the sample
• Solutions: Homogeneous mixtures of two
or more pure substances
• Samples taken from any part of a mixture
made up of one spoon of sugar mixed with a
glass of water will have the same properties,
such as the same taste
Heretogeneous Matter
• Matter with properties that are not the
same throughout the sample
• Properties of a sample depend on the
location from which the sample was taken
• Example - Skin, juice, seeds, and pulp of a
tomato are different
Elements
• Pure substances that are made up of
homoatomic molecules
or individual atoms of the same kind
• Example - Oxygen gas made up of
homoatomic molecules
and copper metal made up of individual
copper atoms
Compounds
• Pure substances that are made up of
heteroatomic molecules or individual atoms
of two or more different kinds
• Examples - Pure water is made up of
heteroatomic molecules, and table salt is
made up of sodium atoms (ions) and
chlorine atoms (ions)
A Classification Scheme for Matter

Measurements Units
• Consist of a number and an identifying unit
• Examples - Gallons, Celsius, and
Fahrenheit
• Based on units agreed on by those making
and using the measurements
Metric System
• Decimal system in which larger and
smaller units are related by factors of 10
• Basic unit of measurement: Specific unit
from which other units for the same quantity
are obtained by multiplication or division
• Derived unit of measurement: Unit
obtained by multiplication or division of one
or more basic units
Metric and English Units of Length
Common Prefixes of the Metric System
Calculating Areas
• Calculate the area of a rectangle that has
sides of 1.5 and 2.0 m
• Express the answer in units of square
meters and square centimeters
Solution
• Area = (length)(length)
• In terms of meters, area = (1.5 m)(2.0 m) =
3.0 m2
• Note that m2 represents meter squared, or
square meters
• In terms of centimeters, area = (150 cm)
(200 cm) = 30,000 cm2
• The lengths expressed in centimeters were
obtained by remembering that 1 m = 100 cm
Calculating Liquid Volumes
• A circular petri dish with vertical sides has
a radius of 7.50 cm
• You want to fill the dish with a liquid
medium to a depth of 2.50 cm
• What volume of medium in milliliters and
liters will be required?
Solution
• Volume of medium required will equal the
area of the circular dish (in square
centimeters, cm2) multiplied by the
liquid depth (in centimeters, cm)
• Note that the unit of this product will
be cubic centimeters (cm3)
• Area of a circle is equal to π r 2,
where π = 3.14
• Liquid volume will be:
• V = (3.14) (7.50 cm)2 (2.50 cm) = 442 cm3
• Because 1 cm3 = 1 mL, the volume equals
442 mL
• Also, because 1 L = 1000 mL, the volume
can be converted to liters
• Notice that the milliliter units canceled in
the calculation
• This conversion to liters is an example of
the factor-unit method of problem solving
Expressing Measurements in Metric Units
• All measurements in international track
and field events are made using the metric
system
• Javelins thrown by female competitors
must have a mass of no less than 600 g
• Express this mass in kilograms and
milligrams
Solution
• Because 1 kg = 1000 g, 600 g can be
converted to kilograms as follows:
• Also, because 1 g = 1000 mg
• Once again, the units of the original
quantity (600 g) were canceled, and the
desired units were generated by this
application of the factor-unit method
Temperature Scales
• Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin scales
• Celsius and Kelvin scales are used in
scientific work
Temperature Conversions
• Readings on one temperature scale can
be converted to other scales using
mathematical equations
• Converting Fahrenheit to Celsius
• Converting Celsius to Fahrenheit
• Converting Kelvin to Celsius
• Converting Celsius to Kelvin
Converting Fahrenheit Temperature to
Celsius
• A temperature reading of 77°F is
measured with a Fahrenheit thermometer
• What reading would this temperature give
if a Celsius thermometer were used
Solution
• Fahrenheit reading is converted to Celsius
reading
• Thus, the reading on a Celsius
thermometer would be 25°C
Temperature Conversion Practice
• Covert 22°C and 54°C to Fahrenheit and
Kelvin
Commonly Used Metric Units

Scientific Notation
• Provides a convenient way to express very
large or very small numbers
• Numbers are represented in the form of M
×10n
• Nonexponential term M is a
number between 1 to 10 (but
not equal to 10) written with a
decimal
• Exponential term is a 10 raised to
a whole number exponent n
• n may be positive or negative
each number to give a sum represented by
n'
• Write the final product as M' × 10n'
• Move decimal in M' to the standard
position and adjust n' as necessary
Scientific Notation: Division
• Divide the M values (a and b) of each
number to give a quotient represented by M'
• Subtract the denominator (bottom) n value
(z) from the numerator (top) n value (y) to
give a difference represented by n'
• Write the final quotient as M' × 10n'
• Move decimal in M' to the standard
position and adjust n' as necessary

• Standard position for a decimal: Position to

the right of the first nonzero digit in the
nonexponential number
• Significance of the exponent n
• If value of n is positive, the original
Using a Calculator for Scientific Notation
decimal position is to the right of the
Calculations
standard position
• If value of n is negative, the
original decimal position is to
the left of the standard position

Scientific Notation: Multiplication

• Multiply the M values (a and b) of each
number to give a product represented by M'
• Add together the n values (y and z) of
Converting Scientific Notation to Non-
Scientific
• The following numbers are written using
scientific notation
• Write them without using scientific
notation
• 3.72 ×1055
• 8.513 ×10–7
Solution
• Exponent 5 indicates that the original
position of the decimal is located 5 places to
the right of the standard position
• Zeros are added to accommodate this
change:
3.72 ×105 = 372,000. = 372,000
Standard Position Original Position
• Exponent –7 indicates that the original
position of the decimal is 7 places to the left
of the standard position
• Zeros are added as needed:
• 8.513 ×10–7 = 0.0000008513
Original position Standard position
Converting Non-Scientific Notation to
Scientific
• Write the following numbers using
scientific notation:
• 8725.6
• 0.000729
Solution
• Standard decimal position is between the 8
and 7: 8.7256
• However, the original position of the
decimal is 3 places to the right of the
standard position
• Therefore, the exponent must be +3
8725.6 = 8.7256 ×103
• Standard decimal position is between the 7
and 2: 7.29
• However, the original position of the
decimal is 4 places to the left of the
standard position
• Therefore, the exponent must be –4
0.000729 = 7.29 ×10–4
• Zeros to the left of 7 are dropped because
they are not scientific figures
Recognizing Scientific Notation
• Determine which of the following numbers
are written correctly using scientific notation
• For those that are not, rewrite them
correctly
• 001.5 ×10–3
• 28.0 ×102
• 0.35 ×104
Solution
• Incorrect; the zeros to the left are not
needed
• The correct answer is 1.5×10–3
• Incorrect; the decimal is not in the
standard position
• Move the decimal one position to
the left and increase the exponent by
1 to give the correct answer 2.80×103
• Incorrect; the decimal is not in the
standard position
• Move the decimal one position to the right
and decrease the exponent by 1 to give the
correct answer of 3.5×103
Significant Figures
• Numbers in a measurement that represent
the certainty of the measurement, plus one
number representing an estimate
• Rules for determining the significance of
zeros
• Zeros not preceded by nonzero numbers
are not significant figures
• Called leading zeros
• Zeros located between nonzero numbers
are significant figures
• Called buried or confined zeros
• Zeros located at the end of a number are
significant figures if there is a decimal point
present in the number
• Called trailing zeros

Significant Figures (continued 2)
• Answer obtained by multiplication or
division must contain the same number of
significant figures (SF) as the quantity with
the fewest number of significant figures
used in the calculation
4.325 x 4.5 = 19.4625→19
(4 SF) x (2 SF) = 2 SF

4.325 ÷ 4.5 = 0.961→ 0.96
(4 SF) ÷ (2 SF) = 2 SF
Significant Figures (continued 3)
• Answer obtained by addition or subtraction
must contain the same number of places to
the right of the decimal (prd) as the quantity
in the calculation with the fewest number of
places to the right of the decimal
5.325 + 5.5 = 10.825→10.8
(3 prd) + (1 prd) = 1 prd

5.325 - 5.5= -0.175→ -0.2
(3 prd) - (1 prd) = 1 prd
Rules for Rounding Numbers
• If the first of the nonsignificant figures to be
dropped from an answer is 5 or greater, all
the nonsignificant figures are dropped and
the last significant figure is increased by 1
• If the first of the nonsignificant figures to be
dropped from an answer is less than 5, all
nonsignificant figures are dropped and the
last remaining significant figure is left
unchanged
Round 10.825 to 1 place to the right of the
decimal⇒10.8
Round −0.175 to 1 place to the right of the
decimal⇒ −0.2
Exact Numbers
• Numbers that have no uncertainty and do
not limit the number of significant figures in
calculated answers
• Used as part of a defined relationship
between quantities (e.g., 100 cm = 1 m)
• Counting numbers obtained by counting
individual objects (e.g., 1 dozen eggs = 12
eggs)
• Numbers that are part of simple fractions
(e.g., 5/9 in equation to convert °F to °C)
Significant Figures and Scientific Notation
• Determine the number of significant figures
in each of the following measurements, and
use scientific notation to express each
measurement using the correct number of
significant figures
• 0.036 g
• 15.0 mL
Solution
• Leading zeros are not significant: two
significant figures, 3.6 ×10–2 g
• Trailing zeros is significant: three
significant figures, 1.50 × 101 mL
Significant Figures in Multiplication and
Division
• Calculate and round the answer to the
correct number of significant figures
• (4.95)(12.10)
Solution
• Calculation is done with a calculator, and
the calculator answer is written first
• Appropriate rounding is done to get the
final answer
• Calculator answer: 59.895
• The number 4.95 has three significant
figures and 12.10 has four
• Thus, the answer must have three
significant figures
• After both nonsignificant figures are
dropped, the last significant figure is
increased by 1
• Final answer is 59.9
Significant Figures in Addition and
Subtraction
• Do the following additions and
subtractions, and write the answers with the
correct number of significant figures:
• 1500 + 10.9 + 0.005
• 5.1196 – 5.02
Solution

• Use the factor-unit method and numerical

relationships from Table 1.3 to calculate the
number of yards in 10.0 m
Using Units in Calculations
• Factor-unit method - Systematic approach
Factor-Unit Method Example
to solving numerical problems
• A length of rope is measured to be
• Step 1 - Write down the known or given
1834cm
quantity
• How many meters is this?
• Include both the numerical value and
units of the quantity
Solution
• Step 2 - Leave some working space
• Write down the known quantity (1834 cm)
and set the known quantity equal to the
• Set the known quantity equal to the units
units of the unknown quantity
of the unknown quantity (meters)
• Step 3 - Multiply the known quantity by
• Use the relationship between cm and m to
one or more factors, such that the units of
write a factor (100 cm = 1 m), such that the
the factor cancel the units of the known
units of the factor cancel the units of the
quantity and generate the units of the
known quantity (cm) and generate the units
unknown quantity
of the unknown quantity (m)
• Step 4 - After the desired units of the
• Do the arithmetic to produce the final
unknown quantity is generated, do the
numerical answer
necessary arithmetic to produce the final
numerical answer

Sources of Factors
• Factors used in the factor-unit method:
Obtained from numerical relationships
between quantities
• These relationships can be definitions
or experimentally measured quantities
Percentage
• Example - Defined relationship 1m =
• Number of specific items in a group of 100
100cm provides the following two factors:
such items
• Calculated using the equation:

Factor-Unit Calculations

• In the equation, part represents the
number of specific items included in the total
number of items
Example of Percentage Calculation
• A student counts the money she has left
until payday and finds she has $36.48
• Before payday, she has to pay an
outstanding bill of $15.67
• What percentage of her money must be
used to pay the bill?
• A 20.00 mL sample of liquid is put into an
empty beaker that has a mass of 31.447 g
• Mass of the beaker and the contained
liquid is 55.891 g
• Calculate the density of the liquid in g/mL
Using Density in Calculations
• Density of iron metal has been determined
to be 7.2 g/cm3
• Use the density value to calculate the
mass of an iron sample that has a volume of
35.0 cm3
• Use the density value to calculate the
volume occupied by 138 g of iron

Example of Percentage Calculation:Solution Solution

• Her total amount of money is $36.48, and
the part is what she has to pay, or $15.67
• The percentage of her total is calculated
as follows:

Percentage Calculations
• A college has 4517 female and 3227 male
students enrolled
• What percentage of the student body is
female?

Solution
• Total student body consists of 7744
people, of which 4517 are female

Density
• Number given when the mass of a sample
of a substance is divided by the volume of
the same sample

Density Calculation Example Atoms and Molecules

Symbols and Formulas
• A unique name and symbol is used to
represent each element
• Based on elemental properties or are
derived from names of famous scientists,
places, astronomical bodies, or mythological
characters
• Elemental symbols: Based on the name of
Atomic Structure
the element and consist of one capital letter
• Atoms are made up of three
or a capital letter followed by a lowercase
subatomic particles
letter
• Protons, neutrons, and electrons
• Protons and neutrons
• Tightly bound together to form the central
portion of an atom called the nucleus
Elements in the Human Body
• Electrons
• Located outside the nucleus

Compound Formula • Move rapidly throughout a relatively large

• Consists of the symbols of the atoms
found in the molecule
• Each elemental symbol represents one
atom of the element
• If more than one atom is present in the
compound, then a subscript follows the
elemental symbol
volume of space surrounding the nucleus
Electrons move rapidly around a massive
nucleus. This figureis not drawn to scale.
For a nucleus of the size shown, the closest
electrons would be at least 80 m away
Characteristics of the Fundamental
Subatomic Particles

Atomic and Mass Numbers

• Atomic number of an atom
• Equal to the number of protons in the
nucleus and the number of electrons in an
atom
• Symbolically represented by Z
• Mass number of an atom
• Equal to the sum of the number of
protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom
• Symbolically represented by A
Isotopes
• Atoms that have the same number of
protons in the nucleus but different numbers
of neutrons
• Same atomic number but different
mass numbers
• All isotopes of the same element have the:
• Same number of electrons outside
the nucleus
• Same number of protons in the
nucleus
Ways to Represent Isotopes
• Represented by the following symbol:
• Z is the atomic number
• A is the mass number
• E is the elemental symbol
• Example -
• This symbol represents an isotope of
hydrogen that contains 11 protons in the
nucleus
• Represented by the elemental name,
which is followed by the mass number
• Example - Hydrogen-2 is an isotope of
hydrogen
Relative Masses
• Numbers that are given beneath the
symbol and name for each element in the
periodic table
• Provide simple means of comparing the
masses of atoms
Atomic Mass Unit (u)
• Used to express the relative masses of
atoms
• 1 u = 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom
• One carbon-12 atom has a relative
mass of 12 u
• Atom with a mass equal to 1/12
the mass of a carbon-12 atom
would have a relative mass of 1 u
• Atom with a mass equal to twice
the mass of a carbon-12 atom
would have a relative mass of 24 u
Atomic Weight
• Relative mass of an average atom of an
element expressed in atomic mass units
• Example - According to the periodic table,
the atomic weight of N is 14.0 u and Si is
28.1 u
• It also means that two N atoms have a
total mass very close to the mass of a single
Si atom
Molecular Weight
• Relative mass of a molecule expressed in
atomic mass units
• Calculated by adding together the
atomic weights of the atoms in the
molecule
• Example - The formula for a molecule of
water is H2O
• This means one molecule of water
contains two atoms of hydrogen, H,
and one atom of oxygen, O
• Molecular weight of water is then
the sum of two atomic weights of H
and one atomic weight of O
 Isotopes and Atomic Weights
• Atomic weight of elements that occur as
mixtures of isotopes is the average relative
mass of the atoms in the isotope mixture
• Average mass of each particle in a group
of atoms is obtained by dividing the total
mass of the group by the number of
particles in the group
• Practical way of determining the
average mass of a group of
isotopes is to use an imaginary
sample of an element containing
100 atoms
• Use the percentage of each
isotope to represent the number of
atoms of each isotope in the group
• Total mass equals the sum of masses
contributed by each isotope
Factor-Unit Calculations for Sulfur
• Determine the following using the factor-
unit method of calculation and factors
obtained from the preceding three
relationships given for sulfur (S):
a. The mass in grams of 1.35 mol of
S
b. The number of moles of S atoms
in 98.6 g of S
c. The number of S atoms in 98.6 g
of S
d. The mass in grams of one atom
of S

The Mole and Chemical Calculations

• Mole concept can be used to obtain factors
that are useful in chemical calculations
involving both elements and compounds
Mole Calculations: Steps
Mass Percentage Calculations
• Ammonia (NH3) and ammonium nitrate
(NH4NO3) are commonly used agricultural
fertilizers
• Which one of the two contains the higher
mass percentage of nitrogen (N)?