Introduction — definitions of religion 1. ‘ln the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God" The god of Christianity is a supreme being, his word is the ultimate truth, his power is omnipotent. His followers worship. and live by his commandments. 2, The Dugum Dani live in the Highlands of New Guinea. They have no god, but their world is inhabited by a host and praise him of supernatural beings known as mogat. The mogat are the ghosts of the dead. They cause illness and death and control the wind and the rain, The Dugum Dani are not pious ~ they do not pray. Their rituals are not to honour or worship the mogat but to placate and appease them. 3. Scientology originated in the writings of a US science fiction writer, L. Ron Hubbard. t started as a type of therapy called Dianeties in which a therapist (or auditor) questions a subject (known as a preclear) wired to a machine similar to a lie detector (called an e-meter).The aim is to clear the mind of the preclear of negative blockages, known as engrams. But Scientology also contains spiritual beliefs. Alan Aldridge describes these beliefs in the following way:'Scientology built a complex cosmological and metaphysical system on the basis of Dianetics. Human beings are in essence spiritual entities, thetans. Immortal, omniscient and omnipotent, thetans created the universe ... but foolishly became trapped in their own creation ... eventually forgetting their own origins and status as thetans' (Aldridge, 2007). In this belief system, humans are in effect gods, but gods who have lost their way. Religious beliefs of one sort or another are present in every known societybut their variety seems to be endless. Any definition of religion must encompass this variety. However, itis difficule ro produce a definion broad enough to do so without incorporating phenomena that are not normally thought of as religions. Two main approaches have been adopted in tackling this issue: those that rely upon functional definitions and those that use substantive definitions. |. One way of defining religion is to see it in terms of the functions it performs for society or individuals. An ‘example of this approach is provided by Yinger, who defined religion as'a system of beliefs and practices by ‘means of which a group of people struggles with the ultimate problems of human life’ (quoted in Hamilton, 1995), However, Hamilton notes two main problems with such a definition. First, it allows the inclusion of a wide variety of bel For example, by this definition communism could be regarded as a religion even though it explicitly rejects religious beliefs. Second, ts based upon assumptions about the roles and purposes of religion. However, these roles and purposes might vary between soci and it should be the job of sociology to uncover ‘them by empirical investigation, not to assume what they are from the outset. Third, phrases such asthe ultimate problems of human life’ are open to varied interpretations. Hamilton points out that for some people the ultimate problems of life might be’simply Chapter 7 Religion cad how to enjoy it as much as possible, how to avoid pain and ensure pleasure’. It is clear that many other aspects of social life, apart from religion, address such issues ~ for example, medicine and leisure. . Other approaches are based upon substantive definitions; that is, they are concerned with the content of religion rather than its function or purpose. Substantive definitions can take a number of forms. Durkheim (1961, first published 1912) defined religion in terms of a distinction between the sacred and the profane. Sacred objects - for example, the cross in Christianity ~ produce a sense of awe, veneration and respect, whereas profane objects do not. However, as critics have pointed out, in some cases explicitly religious objects are not always treated with respect. ‘A common approach to a substantive definition of religion is to define it in terms of supernatural beliefs. Thus Roland Robertson (1970) states that religion ‘refers to the existence of supernatural beings that have a governing effect on life’. supernatural element is combined with institutional aspects of religion in Melford Spiro’s (1965) definition of religion as‘an institution consisting of culturally patterned interaction with culturally postulated superhuman beings’. However, as Hamilton points out, such definitions run into problems because certain belief systems which are ‘commonly regarded as religions, such as Buddhism, do not contain a belief in supernatural beings. Al definitions emphasise certain aspects of religion and exclude others.Alan Aldridge (2007) distinguishes berween more inclusive definitions (in which itis relatively easy to qualify asa religion), and more exclusive ones, where the criteria are more restrictive. Generally, functional definitions tend to be more inclusive while substantive ones tend to be more exclusive. We will look at a variety of definitions throughout the chapter. It should be borne in mind that these definitions tend to reflect the theoretical assumptions and the specific arguments being advanced by individual sociologists. This is particularly evident in the debate on secularisation (the question of whether religion has dectined) Varying definitions allow the advocates and crities of the theory to include evidence that supports their case and exclude evidence that contradicts it. The problems of definition should not, however, be exaggerated. The cisputes tend to occur over phenomena that can be considered to be on the fringes of religion (such as New Age movements), and there is general agreement that such belief systems as Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism and Judaism are religions. Religion — a functionalist perspective ‘The functionalist perspective examines religion in terms of society's needs. Functionalist analysis is primarily concerned ‘with the contribution religion makes to meeting those needs. From this perspective, society requires a certain degree of social solidarity value consensus, and harmony and integration between its parts. The function of religion is the contribution ic makes to meeting such functional prerequisites ~ for example, its contribution to social solidarity.432 Emile Durkheim rhe sacred and the profane p The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life first published Un 1912, Emile Durkheim presented what is probably ‘most influential interpretation of religion from a functionalist perspective. Durkheim argued that all societies divide the world into two categories: the sacred and the profane (the non-sacred). Religion is based upon this don [sa une system of belies and practices related to sacred things, that is to say things set apar and forbidden’ ear apse Icis important to realise that: By sacred things one must not understand simply those personal things which are called gods or spirits; © rock, a tree, a spring, a pebble, a piece of wood, a house, in a word anything, can be sacred. Durkheim, 1961, first published 1912 There is nothing about the particular qualities of a pebble or a tree that makes them sacred. Sacred things must be symbols, must represent something. To understand the role of religion in society, the relationship between sacred symbols and what they represent must be established. Totemism Durkheim used the religion of various groups of Australian Aborigines to develop his argument. He saw their religion, which he called totemism, as the simplest and most basic, form of religion. Aborigine society is divided into several clans.A clan is like a large extended family, with its members sharing certain duties and obligations. For example, clans have a rule of exogamy — that is, members are not allowed to marry within the clan. Clan members have a duty to aid and assist ‘each other: they join together to mourn the death of one of their number and to revenge a member who has been wronged by someone from another clan Each clan has a totem, usually an animal or a plant. This totem is then represented by drawings made on wood or stone. These drawings are called churingas. Usually churingas are at least as sacred as the species which they represent and sometimes more so. The totem is a symbol. It is the emblem of the clan.‘Ie is its flag; it is the sign by which each clan distinguishes itself from all others? However the totem is more than the churinga which represents it~ it is the most sacred object in Aborigine ritual. he totem is the outward and visible form of the totemic principle or god’. Durlheim argued that if the totem ‘is at once the symbol of god and of the society is that not because the god and the society are only one!’ Thus, he suggested, in worshipping god, people are in fact worshipping society. Society is the real object of religious veneration. How does humanity come to worship society? Sacred things are ‘considered superior in dignity and power to profane things and particularly to man’. In relation to the sacred, humans are inferior and dependent. This relationship between humanity and sacred things is exactly the relationship between humanity and society. Society is more important and powerful than the individual. Durkheim argued:'Primitive man comes to view society as something sacred because he is utterly dependent on it! _ SOCIOLOGY THEMES AND PERSPECTIVES Buc why does humanity not simply worship society itself Why does it invent a sacred symbol like a totem? Because, Durkheim argued, it is easier for a person to ‘visualize and direct his feelings of awe toward a symbol than towards so ‘complex a thing as clan’ Religion and the ‘collective conscience? Durkheim believed that social life was impossible without the shared values and moral beliefs that form the collective conscience. in their absence, there would be no social order, social control, social solidarity or cooperation. In short. there would be no society. Religion reinforces the collective conscience. The worship of society strengthens the values and moral beliefs that form the basis of social life. By defining them as sacred, religion provides them with greater power to direct human action. This attitude of respect towards the sacred is the same attitude applied to social duties and obligations. In ‘worshipping society, people are, in effect, recognising the importance of the social group and their dependence upon ic In this way. religion strengthens the unity of the group: promotes social solidarity Durkheim emphasised the importance of collective worship. The social group comes together in religious rituals full of drama and reverence. Together, its members ‘express their faith in common values and beliefs. In this highly charged atmosphere of collective worship, the integration of society is strengthened. Members of society express, communicate and understand the moral bonds ‘which unite them. According to Durkheim, the belief in gods or spirits, which usually provide the focus for religious ceremonies, originated from belief in the ancestral spirits of dead relatives. The worship of gods is really the worship of ancestors’ souls. Since Durkheim also believed that souls represent the presence of social values. the collective conscience is present in individuals. It is through individual souls that the collective conscience is realised. Since religious worship involves the worship of souls, Durkheim again concludes that religious worship is really the worship Of the social group or society. Evaluation of Durkheim Durkheim's ideas are still influential today, although they have been criticised: |. Critics have argued that Durkheim studied only a small number of Aboriginal groups, which were somewhat untypical of other Aboriginal tribes. It may therefore be misleading to generalise about Aboriginal beliefs from this sample, never mind generalising about religion as @ whole. Andrew Dawson (2011) points out that some of, the fieldwork data which Durkheim relied upon was of doubtful validity. 2. Most sociologists believe that Durkheim overstated his case. While agreeing that religion can be important for promoting social solidarity and reinforcing social values, they would not support his view that religion is the worship of society. Durkheim’s views on religion are more relevant to small, non-literate societies, where there is a close integration of culture and institutions, where work, leisure, education and family life tend to merge,and where members share a common belief and value system.less relevant to modern societies, which have many subcultures, social and ethnic groups, specialised organisations, and a range of religious b 3. Durkheim may also overstate the degree to whi the collective conscience permeates and shapes the behaviour of individuals. Hamilton (1995) argues that sometimes religious beliefs can be at odds with societal values.As discussed later in the chapter (see pp. 451-2), religion can sometimes be a force for change and a cause of conflict and divi Despite the extensive criticism of Durkheim, many sociologists recognise that he has made an important contribution to understanding religion. For example, Wiliam E.Paden (2009) argues that Durkheim's observations about the importance of religion for social solidarity remain valid in many circumstances today. The symbolic importance of the Western (or Walling) Wallin Jerusalem for Jews is an ‘example of the continuing symbolic importance of sacred objects.Another example is how the different ways in which Sunni and Shiite Muslims hold their arms when praying demonstrates the importance of markers of identity in collective worship in holding communities together and producing social solidarity Dawson concludes that Durkheim's: theoretical approach is criticised for both attributing society an overly autonomous status from its human ‘occupants and over-emphasising social order and continuity to the detriment of societal dynamism ‘and transformation. Despite its limitations, however, Durkheim's work continues as an important reference point for contemporary sociological reflection. 2011, p.47 Bronislaw Malinowski Like Durkheim, Malinowski (1954) uses daca from small scale non-literate societies to develop his thesis on religion. Many of his examples are drawn from his fieldwork in the Trobriand Islands off the coast of New Guinea Like Durkheim, Malinowski sees religion as reinforcing social norms and values and promoting social solidarity. Unlike Durkheim, however, he does not see religion as reflecting society as a whole, nor does he see religious ritual as the ‘worship of society itself, Malinowski sees religion as being Particularly concerned with situations of emotional stress that threaten social solidarity. Religion and life crises ‘Anxiety and tension tend to disrupt social life. Situations that produce these emotions include crises of life such as birth, puberty, marriage and death. Malinowski notes that in all societies these lfe crises are surrounded with religious ritual, He sees death as the most disruptive of these events: The existence of strong personal attachments ‘and the fact of death, which of all human events is the most upsetting and disorganizing to man's calculations, are perhaps the main sources of religious beliefs. Malinowski, 1954 Religion deals with the problem of death in the following anner.A funeral ceremony expresses the belief in immortality, which denies the fact of death,and so comforts the bereaved, Other mourners support the bereaved by jion Chapter 7 Rel their presence at the ceremony. This comfort and support check the emotions that death produces, and control the stress and anxiety that might disrupt society. Death is socially destructive, since it removes a member from society.At a funeral ceremony the social group unites to support the bereaved. This expression of social solidarity reintegrates society Religion, prediction and control second category of events ~ those that cannot be fully controlled or predicted ~ also produces tension and anxiety From his observations in the Trobriand Islands, Malinowski noted that such events were surrounded by ritual, which he sees as 2 form of religous practice Fishing i an important subsistence activity in the ‘Trobriands. Malinowski observed that inthe calm waters ofthe lagoon, fishing is done nan ensy and absolutely reliable manner by the method of poisoning yielding abundant results withoue danger and uncertainty’ However, beyond the barrier reef in the open sea there is danger and uncertainty:a storm may result in los of life and the catch is dependent on the presence of a shoal of fish, which cannot be predicted. In the lagoon,'where man can rely completely on his knowledge and ski’ there are no rituals associated with ishing, whereas fishing inthe open sea is preceded by rituals to ensure a good catch and protect. the fishermen Aan, we see ritual used for specific situations that produce anxiety. Rituals reduce anxiety by providing confidence and a feeling of control. As with funeral ceremonies fishing rituals are socal evens. The group unites to deal with situations of stress, and so the unity of che aroup is strengthened, Therefore, we can summarise by saying that Malinowski distinctive contribution to the sociology of religion is his argument that religion promotes social solidarity by dealing with situations of emotional stress that threaten the stability of society. Criticisms of Malinowski Malinowski has been criticised for exaggerating the importance of religious rituals in helping people to cope with situations of stress and uncertainty. Tambiah (1990, A Trobriand Islands canoediscussed in Hamilton, 1995) points out, for example, that magic and elaborate rituals are associated with the cultivation of taro and yams on the Trobriand Islands. This is elated to dhe fc that taro and ys are importa ecause men must use them to make payments ¢o their Sisters’ husbands Men wh favo do so show Wat they are unable to full significant social obligations. These rituals are therefore simply related to the maintenance of prestige in that society and have little to do with cementing solidaricy ‘or dealing with uncertainey and danger: particular function or effect that religion sometimes has, has been mistaken for a feature of religion in general Talcott Parsons Religion and value consensus Talcott Parsons (1937, 1964, 1965a) argued that human action is directed and controlled by norms provided by the social system. The cultural system provides more general guidelines for action in the form of belie’, values and systems of meaning. The norms which direct action are not merely isolated standards for behaviour: they are integrated and patterned by the cultural system's values and beliefs. For example, many norms in Western society are expressions of the value of materialism. Religion is pare of the culeural system, and religious beliefs provide guidelines for human action and standards against which people's conduct can be evaluated. Ina Christian society the Ten Commandments operate in this way.They demonstrate how many of the norms of the social system can be integrated by religious beliefs. For example, the commandment Thou shale not kil” integraces such diverse norms as the way to drive a car how to settle an argument and how to deal with the suffering of the aged. ‘The norms that direct these areas of behaviour prohibit manslaughter, murder and euthanasia, but they are all based con the same religious commandment. In this way, religion provides general guidelines for conduct, which are expressed in a variety of norms. By establishing general principles and moral beliefs, religion helps to provide the consensus that Parsons believes is necessary for order and stability in society Religion and social order Parsons, ike Malinowski, sees religion as being addressed to particular problems that occur in all societies and disrupt social life. These problems fll into two categories.The first “consists in the fact that individuals are “hit” by events which they cannot foresee and prepare for, or control, or both’. ‘One such event is death, particularly premature death. Like Malinowski, and for similar reasons, Parsons sees religion as ‘a mechanism for adjustment to such events and as a means of restoring the normal pattern of life. ‘The second problem area is that of uncertainty’. This refers to endeavours in which a great deal of effort and skill has been invested, but where unknown or uncontrollable factors can threaten a successful outcome. One example is humanity's inability to predict or control the effect of ‘weather upon agriculture. Again following Malinowski, Parsons argues that religion provides a means of adjusting ‘and coming to terms with such situations through rieuals which act as'a tonic to self-confidence’. In this way, religion maintains social stability by relieving the tension and frustration that could disrupt social order. SOCIOLOGY THEMES AND PERSPECTIVES Religion and meaning ‘As a part of the cultural system, religious beliefs give meaning to life; chey answer, in Parsons's rather sexist words, ‘man’s questions about himself and the world he lve Social life is full of contradictions that threaten the meanings people piace on lfe. Parsons argues that one of the major fanetions of religion is to"'make sense’ of all experiences,no matter how meaningless or contradictory they appear. 'A good example ofthis is the question of suffering" Why ust men endure deprivation and pain and so unequally and haphazardly, if indeed at all?” Religion provides a range of answers: suffering is imposed by God to test a person’ faith; itis a punishment for sins:and suffering with fortitude will bring its reward in heaven. Suffering thus becomes meaningful Similarly the problem of evil is common to all societies. t is particularly disconcerting when people proftt through evil actions. Religion solves this contradiction by stating that evil ‘will receive its just deserts in the afterlife. Parsons (1965a) therefore sees a major function of religion as the provision of meaning to events that people do not expect, or feel ought not to happen. This allows intellectual and emotional adjustment. On a more general level, this adjustment promotes order and stability in society Criticisms of the functionalist approach ‘The functionalist perspective emphasises the positive contributions of religion to society and tends to ignore its dysfunctional aspects. With its preoccupation with harmony, integration and solidarity, functionalism neglects the many instances where religion can be seen as a divisive and disruptive force. Ie bypasses the frequent examples cof internal divisions within a community over questions of religious dogma and worship ~ divisions that can lead 0 open conflict. It gives litle consideration to hostility berween different religious groups within the same society, such as Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland, Shia, and Sunni Muslims in rag, or Hindus and Muslims in India. In ‘such cases religion can be seen as a direct threat to social order.As Charles Glock and Rodney Stark (1965) state in their criticism of functionalist views on religion: We find it difficult to reconcile the general theory with considerable evidence of religious conflict. On every side it would seem that religion threatens social integration as readily as it contributes to it. The history of Christianity, with its many schisms, manifests the great power of religion not merely to bind but to divide. ‘The Marxist perspective on religion, which we consider below, provides a contrast to functionalist views. Religion — a Marxist perspective From Marx's point of view, religion isa form of mystification ~ a distortion of the real relationships between people and inanimate objects (Dawson, 20!!). Through religion, humans project personal characteristics ‘onto the impersonal forces of nature — they create gods whom they believe to have control over nature. This renders nature potentially open to manipulation by humans, for ‘example through prayer or sacrifice.However: to Marx this sa form of alienation. People create imaginary beings or forces which stand above thera and control their behaviour. Marx says, in religion people rake ther empirical world into an ey dnc ena conceived, imagined, that confronts them as foreign’ (Marx, cited in McLelland, 1987) However, Marx did not believe that religion would last for ever Rather religion was rooted in societies that alienated and exploited their members, and when such societies were superseded, religion would no longer be necessary Utimatetheprleart would sence the need for religion by replacing capealis society Marx argued that'The social principles of Christianity are sneaking ane hypocritical and the proletariat is revolution in MeLelland, 1987). In Marx’ vision of the ideal, communist society, exploitation and alienation are things of the past,The means of production are communally owned, which results in the dlsappearance of socal classes, Members of society are fuffiled as human beings: they control their own destinies and work together for the common good, Religion does not ‘exis in this communist utopia because the social conditions that produce it have disappeared ‘To Marx religion is therefore an illusion that eases the pain produced by exploitation and oppression. It isa series cof myths that justify and legitimate the subordination of the subject class and the domination and privilege of the ruling class It isa distortion of reality which provides many of the deceptions that form the basis of ruling-class ideology and false class consciousness. Religion as ‘the opium of the people’ In Marx's words, "Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the sentiment of a heartless world and the soul ‘of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people’ (Marx, in Bottomore and Rubel, 1963). Religion acts as an opiate to dull the pain produced by oppression. Its both‘an expression of real suffering and a protest against suffering’ but it does little to solve the problem because it helps to make life more bearable and therefore dilutes demands for change.As such, religion merely stupefies its adherents ‘ather than bringing them true happiness and fulfilment. Similarly Lenin argued that ‘religion isa kind of spiritual Bin in which the slaves of capital drown their human shape and their claims to any decent life’ (cited in Lane, 1970). From a Marxist perspective, religion can dull the pain of oppression in the following ways: something. ary’ (Marx, cited |. Itpromises a paradise of eternal bliss in life after death, Engels argued thatthe appeal of Christianity to ‘oppressed classes les ints promise of salvation from bondage and misery inthe afterife.The Christian ctheaven can make life on earth more bearable by tring people something to look forward to. 2 Some religions either make a virtue of the suffering Produced by oppression or see it as justified Punishment. As Marx put If"The socal principles of ‘Christianity declare all the vile acts of the oppressors Atains the oppressed tobe ether a just punishment for original sins, or trials which the Lord, in his infinite wisdom, ordains fr the redeemed (cited in MeLelland, 1987).When suffering is seen as a trial, it promises reward for those who bear the deprivations of poverty Chapter 7 Religion with dignity and humility.As the well-known quotation says,'Ic is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter the Kingdom of Heaven! Religion thus makes poverty ‘more tolerable by offering a reward for suffering and promising compensation for injustice in the afterlife. 3. Religion can offer the hope of supernatural intervention to solve problems on earth. Members of religious groups such as the Jehovah's Witnesses live in anticipation of the day when the supernatural powers will descend, from on high and create heaven on earth. Anticipation of this future can make the present more acceptable. 4. Religion often justifies the social order and a person's position within it. God can be seen as creating and. ‘ordaining the social structure, as in the following verse from the Victorian hymn ‘All things bright and beautiful’ The rich man in his castle, The poor man at hi gate, God made them high and lowly, And ordered their estate. In this way, social arrangements appear inevitable. ‘This can help those at the bottom of the stratification system to accept and come to terms with th situation. It can make life more bearable by encouraging People to accept their situation philosophically, Religion and social control From a Marxist viewpoint, religion does not simply cushion the effects of oppression: is also an instrument ofthat ‘oppression. tacts as a mechanism of social control, ‘maintaining the existing system of exploitation and reinforcing las relationships. Marx says that Christianity preaches ‘cowardice, selcontempt, submissiveness and hhumbleness' to the proletariat In doing soi keeps them in their place. Furthermore, by making unsatisfactory lives bearable, religion tends to discourage people from atcempting to change their situation. By offering an illusion cof hope ina hopeless situation, it prevents thoughts of overthrowing the system. By providing explanations and justifications for socal situations, religion distorts realty. It helps to produce a false class consciousness which blinds members of the subject class to their true siuation and their real interests. In this way it diverts people's attention from the real source of their oppression and so helps to maintain ruling-lass power Religion is not, however, solely the province of oppressed groups. In the Marxist view, ruling classes adopt religious beliefs to justify their position both to themselves and to ‘others. The lines ‘God made them high and lowly / And ordered their estate’ show how religion can be used to iustfy social inequality to the rich as well a the poor The ruling classes often directly support religion to further thei interests. In the words of Marx and Engels'the parson has ever gone hand in hand with the landlord. In feudal England the lord ofthe manor's power was frequently legitimated by pronouncements from the pulpit. In return for this support, landlords would often richly endow the established church, Because religion was an instrument of oppression, i followed that if oppression came to an end then religion ‘would no longer be necessary. Marx stated"Religion is only the illusory sun which revolves around man as long as he does not revolve around himself (Marx and Engels,1957). In a truly socialist society, individuals revolve around ‘themselves, and religion ~ along with all other illions and distortions of realty ~ disappears. Evidence to support Marxism There is considerable evidence to support the Marxist view of the role of religion in society. The caste system of traditional India was justifed by Hindu religious beliefs. In ‘medieval Europe, kings and queens ruled by divine right. The Egyptian Pharaohs combined both god and king in the same person, Slave-owners in the southern states of America fofeen approved of the conversion of slaves to Christianity believing ic to be a controlling and gentling influence. It hhas been argued that in the early days of the industrial revolution in England, employers used religion as a means of controlling the masses and encouraging them to remain sober and to work hard. ‘Steve Bruce (1988) discusses another example that «an be used to support Marxism. He points out that in the USA, conservative Protestants ~ the ‘New Christian Righe'~ consistently support right-wing political candidates in the Republican Party.and ateack more liberal candidates in the Democratic Party. The New Christian Right supported Ronald Reagan in his successful campaign for the presidency in 1984. In the 1988 presidential campaign, however, a ‘member of the New Christian Right, Pat Robertson, ‘unsuccessfully challenged Reagan for the Republican nomination for president. Robertson was one of a number Cf television evangelists who tried to gain new converts to their brand of Christianity and who spread their political and moral messages through preaching on television. Another president who drew support from the New Christian Right was George W. Bush. When he was re- elected in 2004, an exit poll found that two-thirds of voters who attended church more than once a week voted for him (Schifferes, 2004). Bush consistently supported morally conservative views during his presidency. ‘According to Bruce, the New Christian Right support'a more aggressive anti-communist foreign policy, more military spending, less central government interference, less welfare spending, and fewer restraints on free enterprise’ Although Bruce emphasises that they have had a limited influence on ‘American politics, it is clear that they have tended to defend the interests of the rich and powerful atthe expense of other groups in the population. Evaluation of Marxism Conflicting evidence suggests that religion does not always legitimate power; it is not simply a justification of alienation or a justification of privilege, and it can sometimes provide an impetus for change.Although this is not reflected in Marx's own writing, nor in much of Engels’ earlier work, it is reflected in Engels’ later work and in the perspectives cn religion advanced by more recent neo-Marxists.We will examine these views in the next section. Marxism does not explain the existence of religion where it does not appear to contribute to the oppression of a particular class. Nor does it explain why religion might theory at least, oppression has continue to exist when, come to an end, In the USSR under communism after the 1917 revolution the state actively discouraged religion and many places of worship were closed. The communist state placed limits on religious activity, and the religious instruction of children was SOCIOLOGY THEMES AND PERSPECTIVES banned, Steve Bruce (2011) comments that,‘in all communist states churches found it dificule to reproduce and socialize younger generations: Nevertheless, religion did not die out ‘under communism as Marx predicted, Drawing on a variety of statistical sources, including the European Values Study and the World Values Survey, (Olaf Miller (2008) found that in the early 1990s, shortly after the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, religious beliefs remained ‘widespread. For example, in 1990, 97 per cent of people in Poland claimed to believe in God. In Russia, the figure was much lower, at 35 per cent, but by 1999, when religious organisations had had time to reassert their influence, this had risen to 61 per cent. Church attendance in Russia was very low in the early 1990s, at just 6 per cent, but had increased substantially, co 10 per cent, by 1999/2000. Thus, although communism had some success in suppressing religion in certain countries, it did not eradicate it or prevent religious belief, and activity increased again once ‘communism had ended. This evidence suggests that Marx was wrong to believe that religion would disappear under communism, and that there must be other reasons for the existence of religion apart from those put forward by Marx. Engels and neo-Marxists - religion as a radical force Engels - Christianity and social change Roger O'Toole (1984), commenting on the Marxist sociology of religion, argues:‘Beginning with the work of Engels, Marxists have undoubtedly recognised the active role that may be played by religion in effecting revolutionary social change’ Thus, in On the History of Early Christianity, Engels compared some of the early Christian sects that ‘opposed Roman rule to communist and socialist political movements (Marx and Engels, 1957). He said, Christianity got hold of the masses exactly as modern socialism does, tunder the shape of a variety of sects While Christianity originated as a way of coping with exploitation among ‘oppressed groups. it could become a source of resistance to the oppressors and thus a force for change. Otto Maduro - the relative autonomy of religion Maduro is a neo-Marxist. While accepting many aspects of Marx’s analysis of religion, he places greater emphasis ‘on the idea that religion has some independence, or ‘relative autonomy’, from the economic system of the bourgeoisie (Maduro, 1982). He denies that religion is always a conservative force and, indeed, claims that it can be revolutionary. He says, "Religion is not necessarily a functional, reproductive or conservative factor in societyit ‘often is one of the main (and sometimes the only) available channel to bring about a social revolution! Maduro claims that, Catholicism in Latin America has tended to support the bourgeoisie and the right-wing rilitary dictatorships, which represented its interests. The Catholic Church has tended to deny the existence of social conflicts between oppressive and oppressed classes. It has recognised some injustices, such as poverty and illiteracy, but has suggested that the solution lies with those who already have power: The Catholic Church has also supported members of the clergy who assis private enterprise and government projects; it has celebrated military victoriesbut has not supported unions, strikes or opposition political parties. ‘On the other hand, Catholic priests have increasingly demonstrated their autonomy from the bourgeoisie by criticising them and acting against their incerests, Madero believes members ofthe clergy can develop revolutionary potential where oppressed members of the population have no outlet for their grievances. They can pressurise prieste to take up their cause, and theological disagreements within a church can provide interpretations of a religion that are critical ofthe rich and powerful Al of these conditions have been met in Latin America and have led to the development of liberation theology (for further details of liberation theology, se p. 431). Conclusion In concluding her discussion of Marxist theories of religion, Meredith B. McGuire (2002) argues that the relationship between religion and social and political actions is more complex and unpredictable than Marx claimed. She says, Religion does relieve the tension of economic deprivation by substituting the value of religious ‘achievement for economic achievement, and this substitution may indeed have an opiate effect because pressure for change is defused, At the same time, however, religion offers greater self-esteem by persuading believers that they are superior, according to these alternative values. Such a sense of superiority has transformative power, as exemplified by the zeal of the Puritans. McGuire, 2002, pp.239-40 Gender, feminism and religion Feminist theories of religion often follow Marxist theories in arguing that region can be an instrument of domination and oppression. However, unlike Marxism, they tend to see religion as a product of patriarchy (see p. 113 for a discussion of patriarchy) rather than as a product of ‘capitalism. They see religion as serving the interests of men rather than those of a capitalist class. Indeed, such a view of religion is not confined to female and feminist sociologists. For example,Anthony Giddens (1997) argues The Christian religion is a resolutely mole affair in its symbolism as well as its hierarchy. While Mary, the ‘mother of Jesus, may sometimes be treated as if she had divine qualities, God is the father, a male figure, and Jesus took the human shape of a man. Woman is portrayed as created from a rib taken from a man. The secondary and often subordinate role of women in Christian doctrine is also typical of most other religions Karen Armstrong (1993) argues: None of the major religions has been particulary good to women. They have ‘usually become male affairs and women have been relegated 0 a marginal position’ Although women may have made Significant advances in many areas of life, their gains in most Feligions have been very limited. ‘Women continue to be excluded from key roles in many Feligions (although the Church of Englan finally allowed the ‘ordination of women priests in 1992).This is despite the fact that women often participate more in organised religion Chapter 7 Religion PRY A (when they are allowed to) than men. (For a discussion of gender and religious participation and belief, see pp.466-8.) Fang-Long Shih (2010) distinguishes two main feminist perspectives on religion: the radical feminist perspective and the liberal feminist perspective. Shih describes these as two loose but distinctive positions’. It should be noted that chere are differences between writers operating within these broad positions. Furthermore, as we shal see later, a variety of other feminist-inspired viewpoints have also developed which challenge the view that religion always tends towards being patriarchal. Radical feminist perspectives on religion Like radical feminist perspectives generally, these feminist approaches argue thae gender inequality i the central type of inequality in society Furthermore, they argue that a radical transformation of society is necessary to remove this inequality Unie liberal feminism (see below), hey believe that piecemeal reform will not be enough, Simone de Beauvoir - religion and The Second Sex ‘The French feminist Simone de Beauvoir in her pioneering feminist book The Second Sex (1953, first published 1949) provided a radical feminist explanation for the existence of religion. To de Beauvoir religion acts for women in very similar ways to those in which Marx suggested religion could act for oppressed classes. De Beauvoir says,’There must be a religion for women as there must be one for the common people, and for exactly the same reasons’ Oppressors (men) ‘an use religion to control the oppressed group (women), and religion also serves as a way of compensating women for their second-class status. De Beauvoir notes that men have generally exercised control over religious beliefs. She says,"Man enjoys the great advantage of having a God endorse the code he writes! ‘That code uses divine authority to support male dominance, ‘As de Beauvoir says,'For the Jews, Mohammedans, and Christians, among others, man is master by divine right; the fear of God wil therefore repress any impulse towards revolt in the downtrodden femal However, in modern societies, ‘religion seems much, less an instrument of constraint than an instrument of deception’. Women are deceived by religion into thinking of themselves as equal to men, despite their evident inequality. In some ways, religion portrays women as being closer to God than men, even if they are unlikely to hold positions of power within religions.As mothers, women hhave a key religious role:'a mother not only engenders the flesh, she produces a soul for God’. Women are taught ‘0 be passive, but in some ways this makes them appear more godly than the men, whose ‘agitation for this and that is more than absurd, i is blameworchy: why remodel, this world which God himself created” Like Marx's proletariat religion gives women the false belief that chey will be compensated for their sufferings on earth by equality in heaven, In this way the subjugation of ‘women through religion helps to maintain a status quo in ‘which women are unequal. Women are also vital to religion, because it is they who do much of the work for religious organisations and introduce children to religious belies. ‘Thus, de Beauvoir concludes:SOCIOLOGY THEMES AND PERSPECTIVES Religion sanctions woman's zelf-love;it gives her the guide, father, lover, divine guardian she longs for nnostalgicaly:it feeds her day-dreams; i fils her empty hhours. But, above all it confirms the social order it justifies her resignation, by giving hope of a better future in @ sexless heaven. This is why women today are still o powerful trump in the hand of the Church; itis why the Church is notably hostie to all measures likely to help in women’s emancipation. There must be religion for women; and there must be women, ‘rue women’, to perpetuate religion. de Beauvoir, 1953 Goddess religions and feminist spirituality ‘Some feminists argue that the subordination of women has not always been typical of che majority of religions. Karen Armstrong (1993), for example, argues that in early history ‘women were considered central to the spiritual quest’. In the Middle East,Asia and Europe, archaeologists have uncovered numerous symbols of the Great Mother Goddess. She was pictured as a naked Pregnant woman and seems to represent the mysteries of fertility and life.As Armstrong puts I The Earth produced plants and nourished them in rather the same way as a woman gave birth to 4 child and fed it from her own body. The mogical power of the earth seemed vitally interconnected with the mysterious creativity of the female sex. Armstrong, 1993 There were very few early effigies of gods as men. AS societies developed religious beliefs in which there were held to be many different gods and goddesses, the Mother Goddess still played a crucial role. However the final death knell for goddesses came with the acceptance of monotheism ~ belief in a single god rather than many This originated with Yahweh, the god of Abraham. Furthermore, this ‘God of Israel would later become the God of the Christians and the Muslims, who all regard themselves as the spiritual offspring of Abraham, the father of all believers’. ‘Some radical feminists have used the idea of Goddess religions as a way of developing and extending the insights provided by writers such as de Beauvoir. De Beauvoir’s radical feminist approach owes a good deal to Marxism. It also assumes that religion is inevitably patriarchal and must be abolished. The alternative approach accepts that religion is patriarchal but does not believe that religion itself needs to be abolished. Instead, it argues that the dominance of patriarchal religions needs to be overthrown by replacing them with feminist religions. In particular, they need to be replaced with Goddess religions. Mary Daly ~ rebirth of the Goddess Mary Daly (1973) was one of the earliest advocates of this approach, Daly was strongly influenced by de Beauvoir and agreed that religion was oppressive to women. Daly believes that all women are part of a‘planetary sexual caste system’. This system is patriarchal and exploitative of women. It is maintained in a variety of ways. For example, sex role segregation plays a part, with men and women often separated into different roles within society. The system is also supported by the existence of derivative status ~ a situation in which women get part of their status not from their own position in society but from that of their husband. This system could not be maintained without sex role socialisation ~ the different socialisation (of men and women into distinct gender roles within society, ‘This helps to create ‘the consent of the victims',in which women agree that their own subordinate role is right and proper Patriarchal religious ideology plays a crucial role in this by justifying patriarchal institutions which benefic men at the expense of women, making them seem natural, and “bestowing .. supernatural blessings upon them’ Daly argues that the existing religions are based on an ‘inadequate God’ and oppress women in several ways: |. Religions such as Christianity have often proclaimed that the subordination of women is Goe's will. God is portrayed as a man and as Father.‘One-sex symbolism’ of this sort alienates women and places them in an inferior position to men. 3. Even without sexist assumptions builtin, reli ‘encourages detachment from the reality of human struggle against oppression in its concrete manifestations’. Religion tells believers that redemption comes through prayer, not through actively trying to change the situation and abolish exploitation. For this reason it tends to support the continuation of patriarchy, Daly ateaches particular importance to the language and imagery of religion. To move beyond this language needs to be changed. She says,"The method of liberation then, involves 2 castration of language and images that reflect and perpetuate the structures of the sexist world. It castrates precisely in the name of cutting away the phallocentrie value system imposed by patriarchy’ (Daly 1973).This involves abolishing the language ‘of male gods and replacing it with a different language. However, Daly does not simply wish to replace the image of a single divine male being with the image of a single divine female being, Instead she argues for a new feminist spirituality This sense of spirituality can come from within women and can lead to the revolutionary overthrow of dominant, male gods. Together women can‘struggle towards self-transcendence’ so that religious and spiritual insight comes from within and not from the teachings of male preachers imposing a male god on women. Carol P. Christ - feminist spirituality Daly’s ideas have influenced a range of other feminists, including Carol P.Christ. In Rebirth of the Goddess: Finding ‘Meaning in Feminist Spirituality (1997), Christ discusses her ‘own path towards discovering the Goddess, and the wider significance of this approach to spirituality. Like Daly, Christ rejects traditional, patriarchal versions of religion, However, she goes beyond this and questions ‘the ethos of objectivity’ as well. According to Christ, since the Enlightenment men have succeeded in making the idea of abjective and rational knowledge dominant in society (for a discussion of the Enlightenment, see p. 988). This view ‘of knowledge holds that knowledge must be independent of the individual and involves the ‘masking of the interests, feelings and passions that inspire thinking’ Furthermore, itis based upon the idea of rational man’, which excludes ‘women and non-elite men, both of whom are deemed less than rational. However, Christ believes that objective knowledge is not possible and knowledge is always influenced by the values, beliefs and experiences of the person who createsthe knowledge.An alternative to this male-dominated perspective on knowledge is the idea of embodied thinking. Christ says When we think through the body, we reflect upon the standpoints embedded in our life experiences, histories, values, judgements and interests .. Embodied thinking enlarges experience through empathy .. Empathy reaches out to others, desiring to understand the world from different points of view. Christ, 1997, p35 She therefore believes that valid knowledge can be created through working with other feminists, but that personal experience has to be the starting point for knowledge, Crise argues that, through such knowledge traditional theology (raitional studies of religion) can be replaced with anew thea-logy.The word thea-logy is from thea, Goddess", and logs,"meaning’ so that thea-logy is a‘reflecion on the meaning ofthe Goddess. Christ believes that thea-logy can move beyond the dualism — oF pairs of opposites ~ in traditional theology and thought-Thus it rejects the opposition bbeeween concepts such as‘spirt and nature, mind and body. rational and irrational, male and fernale’‘This is because the idea of the Goddess is not seen asa separate being in the same way 25 the God of traditional religions. Rather the Goddess is found all around in love and nature. Through rituals and symbols related to the Goddess you can’bring to consciousness (reminders of) our sense of deep connection (or binding) to all people, al beings in the web of if’ Symbols and statues of the Goddess have been found in 2 whole variety of civilisations dating back as far as 25,000 BCE (BCE is a secular alternative to BC).All are different, but they all tend to associate the Goddess with life and nature. Figure 7.1 shows one example, the Goddess of Malla in Crete, with Christ's accompanying commentary. Christ goes on to discuss a number of examples of how individuals come to find the Goddess. One of those individuals is Christ herself. Christ was a studene of theology but she became increasingly disillusioned with the conventional image of God. In particular she fel chat the ‘image of God as Father,and Spirit’ was the major problem She fet that this God did not accept her female self, and Unless she could see God as Mother as well as Father she ‘would never feel valued by religion. Increasingly frustrated, ‘one night she shouted out,'l want you to know how much Ihave suffered because you let yourself be named in man's image as God of the fathers, as the man-of-war.as king of the universe’ After crying she heard a voice through the silence that said,In God is a woman like yourselfShe shares your suffering” Her ideas on the Goddess were further developed by attending a workshop led by a woman called Starhalk who saw the Goddess as Mother Earth, who was found in nature and in the spirit, emotions, mind and body of each individual Her understanding and spiritual awareness developed further in a women’s spirituality group called Rising Moon. Another significant event in her spiritual life was the death of her mother: At that point, Christ: began to understand that o great matrix of love always surrounded and sustained my life. Since then, have come to experience love as the gift of the abundant Earth. It truly is the power of all being, the ower I know as a Goddess. 1997, p.4 Chapter 7 Religion Figure 7.1 Water of if. Nourishing Mother, Goddess of Mallia, Crete, ¢ 2000 BCE, She sa vessel shaped lke o mountain. Uke living rack, her body i ‘marked with zigzags, combs, meanders, and flowing lines. Her foe s Dbeoked,her arms Bare indcoted of wings. Her eyes stare of us, quid pours from her breasts. Filing up ond sping over Source: Carol R Christ (1997) Rebirth ofthe Goddess Finding Meaning ln Feminist Spiritual, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA Her personal journey to discovering the Goddess and learning about her nature was individual, However, although every woman in this feminist spiritual movement has her ‘own story to tell and her own spiritual journey, each finds a similar spiritual power through discovering the Goddess. Evaluation ef Goddess religion and feminist spirituality Radical feminist approaches that advocate Goddess religion have been influential in demonstrating that a belief in God can help to maintain patriarchy and that non-patriarchal religions are possible. However, these approaches are not without their problems. > Daly's work is rather generalised and in places lacks detailed evidence to show that a belief in God really does have the effects that she claims. > The work of Christ is even more problematic.As Fang-Long Shih (2010) says, i¢ is difficult to evaluate lan approach which rejects empirical research. Shi argues that evidence-based research is not necessarily gendered. For example, itis perfectly possible to use this type of research to find evidence of religion being patriarchal, and therefore it does not necessarily support the interests of men. Research such as Ci which is based so much upon personal experience may provide insights but itis difficult to assess its reliability ity in any conventional sense. and viSOCIOLOGY THEMES AND PERSPECTIVES - ‘egalitarian. According to Alexandra Wright (1994), some Christian religions, particularly Quakerism, have never been oppressive to women. Kanwaljie KaurSingh (1994) points out that ‘Sith Gurus pleaded the cause of the ‘emancipation of Indian womanhood and did their best {0 ameliorate the sordid condition of women’ 3. Aspects of some religions are changing, partly as a result of the campaigns and actions of fiberal feminists, and patriarchal aspects of them have been challenged and reformed. Holm (1994) sees’signs of hope’ in the religious situation of women, Rita Gross (1994) detects signs of a‘post- Patriarchal’ Buddhism that might be developing in Western countries Wright (1994) notes that Reform judsism has allowed women to become rabbis since 1972. Holm notes that after the Church of England permitted the ordination of women 1992, rapid progress was made in the position of women in the organisation. In 1994 there were already three female Anglican bishops. More recently Fang-Long Shih (2010) has discussed further progress towards greater equality. She points ‘out that the proportion of female clergy in the Church ‘of England has continued to increase. Furthermore, the ‘American Episcopal Church started admitting women to the Priesthood as early as 1976. There has also been significant progress within Buddhism. The female Buddhist monastic ‘order (che bhikkhuni sangha) was discontinued for around a thousand years, but thanks to the campaigns of Buddhist feminists throughout the world it has been restored in Southeast Asia.As a result, Sri Lanka had around 500 Dhikkhni by 2006. Evaluation of liberal feminism Although there is evidence of some progress as a result of liberal feminism, che extent of this progress is open to question. Radical feminists tend to believe that patriarchy is so embedded within existing religions that reform will never be enough to significantly improve the position of women ‘within religion and within society in general. Other feminists, while not rejecting liberal feminism altogether, believe it has. had only a limited impact. Fang-Long Shih (2010) refers to research which suggests that, even with increasing numbers, ‘of women ordained within the Church of England, relatively licdle has changed and sexist attitudes within the Church remain strong. In addition to Shih’s point, statistical evidence suggests that there is still a long way to go before women achieve anything like equality within the Church of England. Figures produced by Peter Brierley (201) show that in 2009 women still made up only 6.1 per cent of senior clergy (bishops, assistant bishops, archdeacons and deans) within the Church of England. Patriarchy and women in conservative religions Conservative religions, which tend co supporc traditional values, are often seen as the most oppressive types of religions for women. Fundamentalist and evangelical religions, which advocate traditional morality, the importance of the domestic role for women and modesty for women, all seem to be particularly patriarchal. However, some feminist sociologists have begun to question whether they rreally do always succeed in oppressing women.A number of researchers have found evidence that women find space within such religions in which they can develop their own independence and ideas or actually use aspects of these religions to further their own interests. This can help to ‘explain why many conservative religions are embraced with some enthusiasm by a significant number of women The following studies all exemplify this general theme, This suggests that radical feminism over-generalises about the way women are oppressed within religion fe also suggests that liberal feminism might underestimate the degree to which women can pursue their own interests within religions even if they have not managed to gain significant reforms t emphasises that religion might affect different women in different ways Pioty movements Rachel Rinaldo (2010) argues that cowards the end of the 20th century a number of religious piety movements developed around the world. These movements all had in common a tendency towards theological conservativism ~ supporting the traditional teachings ofa religion — and an emphasis upon the strict observance of a religion and spiritual devotion. Pious practices include prayer and dressing in a way deemed appropriate by a religion Fundamentalist religious movements (see p. 446) can generally be seen as part of the piety movement, but the ‘movement is slightly broader than this, also encompassing some evangelical religions, Hindu revivalism in India and ‘most Pentecostal churches. Rinaldo argues that some, but not all, piety movements have political aims (for example, the New Christian Right in the USA is closely allied to the Republican Party), Women are often prominent among the membership in piety movements, although they are less likely to be in leadership positions. Rinaldo gives examples of the ways in which women have participated in such religious groups: {In the Middle East, women were rejecting the Westernized clothing of their parents and joining Islamic study groups; women in Southeast Asia were beginning to veil for the first time; women in Latin America and Africa were gravitating towards Pentecostalism and charismatic forms of Christiani women in the USA were joining evangelical churches and demanding a return to Christian values, or conversely, discarding secular lifestyles in order to take on the strict disciplines of Orthodox Judaism; women in South Asia were joining revivalist organizations; and women in Buddhist. countries were increasingly interested in Buddhist practices and beginning to press for ordination as nuns, Rinaldo, 2010, p. 3 Since, according to feminists, the religions and religious practices associated with the piety movements are often deemed to be oppressive to women, this raises questions about why women are such active participants. Rinaldo identifies three types of explanations for the active and apparently enthusiastic participation of women in these movements: 1, Macro-structural explanations argue that the causes lie in major shifts in society such as the development of,modernity and globalisation, Rinaldo notes that studies of both Islam and Christianity have highlighted the importance of concern about increasing inequality and changing gender roles and family structures, A number of studies suggest that Muslim women ‘choose to wear the veil because they reject Westernised models of modernity. However, they still ong to be ‘modlern; but they wish to define modernity in a different way. For example, Rinaldo quotes a study of Shia women Beirut (Deeb, 2006, cited in Rinaldo, 2010) where the Practice of the Islamic faith emphasised the importance of education, debate and participation in the public sphere.A study in South Korea (Chong, 2006, cited in Rinaldo, 2010) found that evangelical Christianity was a response to the country’s‘astounding economic development and rapid modernization [which] have produced great tensions between patriarchal norms and new ideals of modern family relations that are more egalitarian’. In these types of studies, piety movements are seen as playing a positive role for women as they ‘allow women to both take refuge from dislocating changes id to formulate their own versions of modernity’ ro explanations emphasise agency and identity, They stress that piety involves active choices made by ‘women as they seek to construct positive identities for themselves. For example, Mahmood (2008) studied Islamic women in Egypt. She argued that in Egyptian society in general there was little opportunity for women to develop a distinct identity or sense of self. Within the piety movement, women have more freedom to do this.Thus their religious beliefs were not primarily a matter of liberating themselves from patriarchal oppression, or of submitting to such oppression, but more about finding a space in which they could develop a distinctive identity of their own. Rinaldo also discusses Pentecostalism, a form of Christianity which has been growing rapidly, particularly among women, in Africa and Latin ‘America. She says that Pentecostalists ‘espoused an ideology of male domination’ but ‘scholars note that Pentecostal churches foster female services and prayer groups, allowing women to develop social relationships outside their kin networks'.Women may also find the emphasis upon moral behaviour useful in restraining their husbands from excessive drinking and gambling. Peneecostalsts at prayer in Brazil Chapter 7 Religion 3. The third type of explanation for these movements ‘emphasises the importance of community identity. For ‘example, Chen (2006, cited in Rinaldo, 2010) claims that ‘evangelical Christianity among Taiwanese immigrants. to the USA helps to create a sense of community while adapting to a new society, and women take the lead in this process. Women can feel empowered by the opportunity piety movements provide for creating or recreating a sense of community. Rinaldo acknowledges that piety movements tend to ‘reproduce patriarchal relationships to some extent. For ‘example, they may sometimes legitimate and justify male domination within the household. However, she does not follow radical feminists in seeing religion in a wholly negative light for women. Her approach has more in common with liberal feminism, arguing that, even within the most ‘conservative religions, which appear to support traditional gender roles, there are opportunities for women to further their own interests. Her approach suggests that many religions cannot be seen simply in terms of oppressing or liberating women; they can have both effects simultaneously. Rinaldo admits that ferninist versions of piety movements have not been particularly successful. Nevertheless, she sees some possibilty that piety movements could lead to greater equality, because they are not entirely controlled by men for the benefit of men. It ends to be'women of the urban lower middle to upper middle classes’ who are most likely to join these groups, and iti just these types of women who seem most likely to push forward an agenda that provides more opportunity for women in the future, Islam and the veil Perhaps the most controversial issue in the development of piety movements is the issue of velling and modest dress among Islamic women. Rinaldo (2010) notes that. as velling reguined popularity in the 1970s and 1980, the reaction from feminists was overwhelmingly negative’, seeing the practice asa 'reassertion of patriarchy’ After the Islamic revolution in Iran in 1979, veiling was made compulsory, and some saw this asa direct assault on women's rights, However, these assumptions have been challenged by a number of feminist writes. Helen Watson (1994) argues thatthe veiling of Islamic women can be interpreted as beneficial to Muslim women. She examines three personal responses by Islamic women 10 veling and finds that Islamic women in a globalised world can use wearing veils in a positive way. ‘As Western culture tries to influence Islamic countries, and more Muslims lve in the Western world, the veil an take on new meanings for women. For example, Nadia, a second:-generation Britsh-Asian woman studying medicine at university actively chose to start wearing a veil when she was 16. She was proud of her religion and wanted others to know that she was Muslim, She fele that‘ is liberating to have the freedom of movernent, to be able to communicate with people without being on show. I's what you say that’s important, not what you look like’ She found that, far from making her invisible, wearing a vell made her stand out, yet it also helped her to avoid'lecherous stares Cor worse’ from men. Watson concludes that veiling is often a reaction against an increasingly pervasive Western culture| 444 | SOCIOLOGY THEMES AND PERS Some Muslim men, too, have begun to reject Western- style clothes — for example, by refusing to wear ties. All this can be seen as ‘a sign of the times’ that entails the assertion of independence, separate identity and a rejection of Western cultural imperialism. Rather than seeing the veil as a sign of male oppression, it has become ‘a reaction against the secular feminism of the West, and as part of the search for an indigenous Islamic form of protest against male power and dominance in public society’. Watson's conclusions should be treated with some caution. Her observations are based upon studying only three women. She appears to have made no attempt to find Muslim women who felt men or patriarchal society forced them into wearing the veil against their will.Attempts by women to subvert patriarchy by changing the meaning of traditional practices may not always succeed in liberating women from domination through religion. There is always a danger that they might have the opposite effect. Rinaldo (2010) argues that there is a big difference between societies where the practice is compulsory and those where it is not. She believes that it is dangerous to generalise about its effects: ‘in societies where it is not mandatory, it carries a multiplicity of meanings that are decidedly context dependent’. Only by examining those contexts can the real meaning of veiling be understood.