9

MEMS: AN ENABLING TECHNOLOGY

FOR THE INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT)

Michael A. Huff
MEMS and Nanotechnology Exchange (MNX), Corporation for National Research
Initiatives, Reston, VA, USA

The Internet of Things (IoT) is defined as a collection of physical objects (i.e.,

“things”) and their interconnected communication networks that allow the physical
objects to gather, store, process, and exchange information. Importantly, the physical
objects can be almost anything, from the smallest devices or products to the largest
systems. In the most general form, the IoT is a world where everything and everyone
is connected together (Figure 9.1). Additionally, the physical objects may also make
decisions about the amassed, processed, and exchanged information, as well as take
actions to control the physical objects and the environment in which they are
embedded. The capabilities that enable the physical objects to participate in the IoT
are usually composed of an assemblage of different types of advanced technologies
including electronics, sensors, actuators, and software. These capabilities are either
connected to or integrated into conventional products and systems, such as vehicles;
appliances; heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems (HVAC); consumer
electronics; entertainment systems; security systems; power generators; medical
devices; sports and recreation equipment; commercial building controls; tools;
industrial manufacturing equipment; health monitoring devices; etc.
There are several important elements that are needed in the realization of the
IoT. The first are the communication networks that enable devices, perhaps using
different operating systems, to communicate with one another. This element lever­
ages the existing Internet standards of the TCP/IP protocol suite. The second is the
enormous and inexpensive information storage and processing power available in

Internet of Things and Data Analytics Handbook, First Edition. Edited by Hwaiyu Geng.

© 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/Geng/iot_data_analytics_handbook/
148 MEMS: AN ENABLING TECHNOLOGY FOR THE INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT)

Figure 9.1  An illustration of the Internet of Things (IoT) showing a myriad of physical

objects represented as devices, products, and systems (including common household and
business appliances) that are all connected together and where information can be gathered by
the devices and then stored, processed, and accessed from the cloud. Reproduced with permission
from MEMS and Nanotechnology Exchange.

modern integrated circuits. The third are inexpensive and unobtrusive devices that
can sense and actuate to control the things and/or environment in which the things
are embedded. Microminiature devices that can sense and actuate are commonly
called “MEMS1” in the semiconductor industry, which is an acronym for “Micro­
ElectroMechanical Systems.” MEMS is an emerging technology that is an important
enabler for the IoT and is the focus of this chapter.

9.1  THE ABILITY TO SENSE, ACTUATE, AND CONTROL

As noted earlier, a key element of the realization of the IoT is the ability to sense,
actuate, and control. The ability to sense is enabled through the use of sensors, and
the ability to control is enabled through the use of both sensors and actuators,
combined with decision‐making capabilities enabled by integrated circuit (IC)
devices such as microcontrollers and microprocessors.

Sense and Actuate
Sensors are devices whose purpose is to monitor some physical parameter of interest
(e.g., temperature, pressure, force, etc.) and provide a suitable output signal that
1
 Sometimes MEMS are also referred to as “microsystems.”
THE ABILITY TO SENSE, ACTUATE, AND CONTROL 149

is in the form of information that is an accurate representation of that parameter.

In general, sensors are a type of transducer, which is a device that converts energy from
one form to another; often the sensor measures a mechanical, electrical, magnetic,
chemical, biological, optical, or other parameter (i.e., in one form of energy) and
converts it into an electrical signal (a different form of energy). Having the output
of the transducer in the form of an electrical signal is convenient since it can be
directly inputted into other electronic devices that act as information storage or
communication devices or decision‐making devices or systems, such as microcon­
trollers or microprocessors.
Actuators, like sensors, are another form of transducer device. Actuators take an
energy input, usually in the form of an electrical signal, and usually convert this
energy into a mechanical physical motion. This physical motion can be used to under­
take actions to control physical objects and potentially modify the environments in
which they are located.

Control
The concept of control is slightly more complicated. Control involves several
elements including (Figure 9.2) the knowledge of a desired state of a system (also
sometimes called the “set point” or “target state”), the ability to actively determine
the current state of the system, and the ability to direct and cause the system to move
toward the desired state. The control system as described previously is often called a
control loop. Automatic control is when this process is performed without human
intervention. Control loops are used in vast numbers of products and systems. Control
systems usually involve one or more sensors to measure the state of a system as well
as one or more actuators to direct the system to the desired state. Both sensors and
actuators have been around for a very long time. However, traditionally they have
been only available as discrete components that are relatively large, consume
significant levels of power, and are relatively expensive. However, the recent advent
of MEMS technology has resulted in a revolution in the implementation of sensors
and actuators as explained in the following text.

Set point Output

+ Decision making Actuator System under
– capability control

Sensor
Measured output response Feedback loop

Figure 9.2  An illustration of a control loop that employs a decision‐making capability

that based on the difference between the set point and the measured output directs an actuator
to make a physical motion; an actuator that makes a physical motion; a system under control
that based on the motion of the actuator changes its state; and a sensor that measures the output
parameter of the system and converts it into a form that can be compared to the set point.
Reproduced with permission from MEMS and Nanotechnology Exchange.
150 MEMS: AN ENABLING TECHNOLOGY FOR THE INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT)

9.2  WHAT ARE MEMS?

MEMS is a technology that in its most general form can be defined as microminia­
turized electromechanical devices that are made using the techniques of micro‐ and
nanofabrication.2 That is, MEMS are made using many of the same manufacturing
technologies as used in the production of ICs. However, instead of being purely
electronic in function as are ICs, MEMS typically have some type of electromechanical
functionality. It is this electromechanical functionality that enables MEMS technology
to be used for the implementation of the most common device types of MEMS,
which are microminiaturized sensors and actuators.
Over the past two decades, researchers and developers have demonstrated an
extremely large diversity and number of MEMS‐based sensors for almost every
possible sensing application. Examples of the types of MEMS sensors reported to
date have included temperature, pressure, inertial forces, tactile forces, chemical
and biologic species, sound, magnetic fields, radiation in several bands of the
electromagnetic spectrum, proximity, fluid level, flow rate, seismic, and many more
[1–4]. Importantly, many of these MEMS sensors have demonstrated performances
far exceeding those of their discrete large‐dimensional‐scale device counterparts.
Not only is the performance of MEMS sensors exceptional, but also their method
of manufacturing allows them to be produced in high volume with exceptionally
low cost levels. This is because MEMS manufacturing leverages the same batch
fabrication techniques used in the IC industry whereby hundreds to thousands of
individual devices are fabricated simultaneously on each substrate and each manu­
facturing lot contains a number of substrates that are processed together (i.e., as a
batch). This method of manufacturing translates into low per‐device production
costs, similar to what is seen in the IC industry where the number of transistors
per microprocessor approximately doubles every 2 years (this is known as “Moore’s
Law”) and the quality‐adjusted price improvement of microprocessors halves every
2 years3 [5, 6].
Consequently, it is possible to not only obtain exceptional device performance,
but this high level of performance can be obtained at relatively low cost levels. Not
surprisingly, the pace of commercially exploiting MEMS sensors has been acceler­
ating, and the markets for these sensors is growing at a very rapid rate.
The research and development community has also demonstrated a number of
MEMS‐based actuators as well. The MEMS‐based actuators reported include micro­
valves for control of gas and liquid flows; optical switches and mirrors to redirect or
modulate light beams; independently controlled micromirror arrays for displays;

2
 As noted before, nanofabrication can be used in the implementation of microminiaturized electromechan­
ical devices. Often electromechanical devices having nanodimensional critical features are called nano­
electromechanical systems (NEMS). For the purposes of our discussion, we will only use the term MEMS
to refer to both since MEMS is the term most commonly used in the industry.
3
 The rate of quality‐adjusted microprocessor price improvement likewise varies and is not linear on a
log scale. Microprocessor price improvement accelerated during the late 1990s, reaching 60% per year
(halving every 9 months) versus the typical 30% improvement rate (halving every 2 years) during the
years earlier and later.
WHAT ARE MEMS? 151

microresonators for a number of different applications such as communication

filters and chemical sensors; micropumps to develop positive fluid pressures for
drug delivery and other fluidic applications; microflaps to modulate airstreams on
the airfoils of airplane wings; radio‐frequency (RF) switches; relays; as well as many
others [3]. While these MEMS actuators are extremely small, remarkably they often
have been able to produce consequences on much larger dimensional scales, even at
our size scales. That is to say, these microscopic‐sized actuators can perform
mechanical feats far larger than their microminiature sizes would suggest [7].
The true potential of MEMS technology really only begins to become fully
realized when MEMS sensors and actuators of any conceivable type are merged with
ICs onto the same microchip substrate. This is a compelling paradigm shift in
technology systems. The sensors are able to monitor parameters of interest in the
environment and provide this sensory information to the electronics; the electronics
communicate with other devices and the cloud, process this sensory information, and
make decisions about how to influence the environment; and the actuators act to
influence the environment. This represents the major components of the control loop
concept we described in the preceding text, but enabled by tiny microscopic devices
potentially all on a single substrate that can be attached or integrated into anything,
and having remarkable levels of functionality combined with exceptional performance
and low cost.
By bringing together the computational capability of microelectronics with the
perception and control capabilities of microminiaturized sensors and actuators,
MEMS technologies are enabling smart systems on a chip to be mass‐produced.
The use of smart systems that can actively and autonomously sense and control
their environments has far‐reaching implications for a tremendous number of
applications.
For example, MEMS technologies have become some of the most important
advanced technologies in the automotive safety markets. Initially, the first MEMS
sensors for safety on automobiles were the crash airbag sensors. These devices
were smaller, were lower in cost, and provided much higher performance levels
compared to the macroscale technologies they replaced (the older technology was
a metal ball held with a tube attached to a magnet, and the impact of the car would
cause the ball to overcome the magnetic attractive forces allowing the metal ball
to travel down the tube to close a switch to initiate the charge to allow the airbag
to deploy).
The MEMS crash airbag sensing devices were lower in cost, smaller, and higher
in performance than the technology they replaced. Importantly, the previous crash
airbag technology was so expensive that it was only deployed on very expensive
vehicles (it was not found on moderately priced cars and trucks) and typically only
used to provide protection to the driver and maybe the front seat occupant.
As a result of the lower‐cost MEMS airbag sensors, crash airbag technology
quickly expanded to be placed on nearly every vehicle. Additionally, the use of these
devices has expanded from protection of only the driver in frontal crashes on very
expensive vehicles to the protection of all of the passengers in front, side, rear, and
rollover accidents on every vehicle sold.
152 MEMS: AN ENABLING TECHNOLOGY FOR THE INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT)

Subsequent advancements in MEMS technology enabled vehicles to progress

from merely protecting the occupants in a crash to being able to avoid crashes alto­
gether. These MEMS devices have included steering stabilization sensors; tire air
pressure sensors; brake pressure sensors; rollover protection sensors; sensors to
detect other vehicles, pedestrians, and potential obstacles; detection sensors and
warning systems for nonalert drivers; and many more.
Now the automakers are moving toward driverless vehicles wherein a number of
MEMS are being deployed on vehicles to provide sufficient information to the
control system of the vehicle to correctly and safely navigate as well as avoid
potential problems and obstacles. Undoubtedly, the automobile industry will be
more and more dependent on MEMS technologies in the future. Figure 9.3 shows
some of the sensors commonly used on vehicles at the present time.
Despite all these revolutionary changes in vehicle technologies enabled by MEMS
devices, the auto industry has yet to fully introduce vehicles that encompass the IoT
and embrace the importance of MEMS to the implementation of IoT. Therefore, it is
expected that MEMS devices will have an even larger role to play in vehicle technol­
ogies as the concept of IoT rolls out into the wider markets in the future.

Axial rotation sensors Lane assist sensors

Security system sensors Crash airbag sensors
Wheel rotation sensors
Anti-skid sensors
AC pressure sensors
Tire air pressure sensors Anti-collision sensors
Exhaust sensors Oil quality sensors

Navigation sensors
Parking assist
Y Road condition
sensors
sensors
Driving X Force sensors
cameras

Air flow sensors

Suspension Manifold air

control sensors pressure sensor
Fuel injector nozzles
Theft control
sensors Brake pressure sensors Microphones
Fire monitoring sensors Transmission
management sensors
Underbody corrosion
sensors

Figure  9.3  Illustration of some of the variety of sensors being deployed on vehicles.
Automakers originally only employed MEMS‐based manifold air pressure sensors and Hall
effect sensors early on, but the number and diversity of MEMS sensors have radically increased
over the past decade and will continue to increase as consumers demand increased safety,
drivability, and reliability. The dramatic growth of MEMS sensors on vehicles is expected to
significantly increase with the future introduction of autonomous vehicle technology.
Reproduced with permission from MEMS and Nanotechnology Exchange.
MEMS AS AN ENABLING TECHNOLOGY FOR THE IoT 153

Products of every type are increasingly dependent on a large diversity of different

MEMS sensor and actuator technologies to successfully control and operate these
products as well as perceive the user and their surrounding environments. Increasingly,
MEMS technologies are being exploited in more and more products due to the
advantages of their extremely small size and weight, ability to have extremely high
levels of functionality, high levels of reliability, low cost, and reduced power
consumption.
With MEMS technology every conceivable product and system can be outfitted
with any type of MEMS device, thereby enabling every product and system to
become smart wherein it constantly is monitoring any and all parameters of
interest to the user, processes this information, and, based on desired or optimal
conditions, can perform functions to alter or modify these parameters to the
desired or optimal state. Therefore, MEMS devices are a key element to enable the
Internet of Everything.

9.3  MEMS AS AN ENABLING TECHNOLOGY FOR THE IoT

As discussed in the preceding text, MEMS is an enabling technology for the IoT
because MEMS manufacturing makes possible small, low‐cost, high‐performance
sensors and actuators. Nevertheless, there are other unique and important benefits
that can be derived from MEMS that have not been discussed that are very beneficial
and impactful for the deployment and advancement of the IoT. This section discussed
some of these less obvious but immensely useful and valuable aspects of MEMS
technology for the IoT.
Humans sense and interact with their environments and the world through their
major senses. The most commonly cited human senses include vision, hearing, touch,
smell, and taste. These sensing capabilities are the result of millions of years of
evolution and have allowed humans to build relatively technically advanced, safe,
healthy, comfortable, and wealthy societies.
While human senses have evolved to be quite good at specific functional capabil­
ities, they are very limited compared to MEMS sensor technologies. For example, we
are limited in the number of things going on simultaneously that we can pay attention
to at any moment of time. That is, when confronted with monitoring multiple stimuli
going on at the same time, humans can easily suffer sensory overload. The result is
that some important sensory information may be overlooked completely or detected
too late for an adequate response.
MEMS sensors on the other hand, particularly when coupled with enormous
information processing power, do not get overwhelmed and can continuously and
simultaneously monitor a very large number of important parameters of interest in
the environment (and on the user) without suffering sensory overload situations. This
makes for a safer, more productive, and rewarding environment.
Second, while humans can detect changes in some parameters in the environment,
we tend to have difficulty with detecting modest rates of change in parameters over
longer periods of time.
154 MEMS: AN ENABLING TECHNOLOGY FOR THE INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT)

In contrast, MEMS sensors can continuously monitor parameters of interest to us

over both short and long periods of time and analyze this collected data to give the
user information about trends, warn the user about anomalies or unexpected events
occurring, prevent failures and accidents, prevent disruptions and failures of activities
and services, as well as maintain higher‐quality and safer services.
Third, human senses can be limited by the amount of additional information (i.e.,
above and beyond the information provided by the senses) that is available and can
be received and processed along with the sensory information for decision‐making
purposes. This means that we may miss important clues from the environment that
would otherwise assist us.
In comparison, MEMS sensors and their associated vast processing power can
continuously exchange information with the environment and thereby give us
increased contextual awareness and perceptive capabilities about our environments.
For example, when we walk into a local environment, the MEMS sensors can notify
or alert us to opportunities and dangers in that environment that we might be oblivious
to otherwise.
Fourth, most of the human senses have limited levels of sensitivities. Humans
have a limited sense of smell compared to some animals such as dogs. It is well
known that scent hounds have a sense of smell sensitivity orders of magnitude higher
than that of humans. For example, the bloodhound dog has a sense of smell that is
reportedly 10–100 million times more sensitive than a person. And bears, such as the
silvertip grizzly bear, have a sense of smell seven times more sensitive than even the
bloodhound.
MEMS sensors, on the other hand, can have sensitivities far higher than any
human, or even some animals, thereby enabling the ability to detect far smaller levels
of an olfactory parameter, or any other parameter, than otherwise would be possible.
Fifth, most of the human senses also have limited dynamic ranges. For example,
the human ear (before age‐related degradation or noise‐related hearing loss) can
detect sound in the frequency band from about 20 and 20,000 Hz, but we mostly
cannot hear anything outside this limited spectrum. However, some animals have
evolved the capabilities to hear sound waves far outside the human bandwidth range.
For instance, dogs can detect sound from about 60 to over 60,000 Hz. Some other
animals have even larger ranges; the porpoise marine animal has a range from about
75 to over 150,000 Hz, and bats have the ability to determine their relative location
by detection and processing of reflected sound signals within a dynamic range from
about 10,000 to over 200,000 Hz.
Similarly, while the human eye can detect reflected light from objects within the
optical wavelengths from about 400 to 700 nm, we cannot see anything outside this
range, specifically in the infrared or ultraviolet parts of the spectrum as well as
other electromagnetic bands. In fact, the part of the spectrum visible to humans is
quite a tiny portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Some animals have evolved
the ability to see in the visible as well as the infrared and ultraviolet spectrums. For
example, snakes can detect heat (i.e., infrared signals) from their prey. Arctic caribou,
bees, and other animals have the ability to see in the ultraviolet. The caribou using
its ultraviolet vision has the ability to detect wolves that are virtually invisible
MEMS MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES 155

above 400 nm in the arctic winter landscape. Bees use their ultraviolet vision to
find nectar in flowers.
MEMS sensors can be engineered to have dynamic ranges far exceeding that of
humans and even exceeding that of animals as well. For example, MEMS acoustical
sensors can be engineered and deployed to measure virtually any part of the acous­
tical spectrum. It is well known that rotating machinery will emit a very‐high‐­
frequency acoustical signal if the bearings are just beginning to wear. While a human
cannot hear this phenomenon, a MEMS sensor can detect sound waves at these
frequencies and provide an alert to check the system before a catastrophic event were
to occur. Additionally, MEMS sensors have been reported that can “see” in many of
the portions of the spectrum nonvisible to humans, including far outside the known
detectable spectrum of any animal.
Sixth, humans do not have sensing capabilities for many parameters of interest.
For example, some animals, such as sharks and dolphins, can detect changes in
nearby electrical fields, while no humans have any known ability to sense this
parameter.
In contrast, MEMS sensors that can sense almost any known parameter have been
developed and reported in the literature.
Seventh, humans and even the most capably trained animals fatigue in sensing
duties after some relatively short period of time. However, MEMS sensors as inanimate
devices can operate almost indefinitely without tiring.
Obviously, these are extremely powerful benefits that can provide considerably
more capability for the IoT than is currently possible using human senses alone, or
large‐scale discrete sensor devices.

9.4  MEMS MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES

MEMS manufacturing uses many of the same fabrication processes that are used in
the IC industry (e.g., photolithography, oxidation, diffusion, ion implantation,
LPCVD, sputtering, etc.) and combines these fabrication methods with specialized
fabrication processes that are often collectively called “micromachining” processes.
In this section, we briefly review some of the more widely known and commonly
used MEMS fabrication processes. We will highlight a small number of the most
popular methods of micromachining in this chapter. Readers interested in a more
comprehensive discussion of MEMS fabrication techniques and manufacturing
methods, including the challenges of custom manufacturing process development,
are referred to [2], and readers interested in material covering conventional micro­
electronics manufacturing technologies are referred to [8].

9.4.1  Wet Chemical Bulk Silicon Micromachining

One of the first technologies specifically developed for MEMS manufacturing is
known as wet chemical bulk silicon micromachining and involves the selective
removal of the silicon substrate material to implement MEMS devices. The ability to
156 MEMS: AN ENABLING TECHNOLOGY FOR THE INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT)

{100} Boron-doped
{111} Frontside mask Si membrane

54.74°

{111}
Backside
<100>
{111 Self-limiting etches

Membrane
Figure 9.4  Illustration of shape of the etch profiles of a (100) oriented silicon substrate
after immersion in an anisotropic wet etchant solution. Copyright CNRI/MNX, used with
permission.

delineate the different crystal planes of the silicon lattice in wet chemical etching
provides the ability to form three‐dimensional features in silicon substrates with a
reasonable level of dimensional control. Figure 9.4 shows an illustration of some of
the shapes that are possible using anisotropic wet etching of a <100> oriented silicon
substrate.

9.4.2  Deep Reactive Ion Etching Bulk Micromachining

Deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) is a highly anisotropic plasma etch process that
can be used to etch very deep features into silicon with high aspect ratios. It was
first introduced in the mid‐1990s and has been widely adopted by the MEMS
community [9]. The sidewalls of the etched features are nearly vertical, and the
depth of the etch can be tens of microns, hundreds of microns, or even completely
through the entire silicon substrate. The etch is a dry plasma etch and uses a high‐
density plasma to repeatedly alternate between an etch cycle of the silicon and a
deposit cycle wherein an etch resistant polymer layer is deposited on the sidewalls.
The protective polymer layer is deposited on the sidewalls as well as the bottom of
the etch pit, but the anisotropy of the etch removes the polymer at the bottom of the
etch pit faster than the polymer being removed from the sidewalls. Figure  9.5
shows a cross‐sectional SEM of a silicon microstructure fabricated using DRIE
MEMS MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES 157

Figure 9.5  SEM of the cross section of a silicon wafer demonstrating high aspect ratio
and deep trenches that can be fabricated using DRIE technology. Copyright CNRI/MNX, used
with permission.

technology. As can be seen, the etch is very deep into the silicon substrate and the
sidewalls are nearly vertical.

9.4.3  Surface Micromachining

Surface micromachining is another very popular technology for the fabrication of
MEMS devices. Surface micromachining involves a sequence of steps starting with
the deposition of some thin‐film material to act as a temporary sacrificial layer onto
which the actual device layers are built, followed by the deposition and patterning of
the thin‐film device layer of material which is referred to as the structural layer and
followed by the removal of the temporary sacrificial layer to release the mechanical
structural layer from the constraint of the underlying sacrificial layer, thereby allow­
ing the structural layer to move [10]. An illustration of a surface micromachining
process is given in Figure  9.6, wherein an oxide layer is deposited and patterned.
This oxide layer is temporary and is commonly referred to as the sacrificial layer.
Subsequently, a thin‐film layer of polysilicon is deposited and patterned and this
layer is the structural mechanical layer. Lastly, the temporary sacrificial layer is
removed and the polysilicon layer is now free to move as a cantilever. Figure 9.7
shows an SEM of a polysilicon microresonator structure made using surface
micromachining.
158 MEMS: AN ENABLING TECHNOLOGY FOR THE INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT)

Oxide Poly-Si Anchor Cantilever

10 μm

Si Si substrate Si substrate

Figure  9.6  Illustration of a surface micromachining process. Copyright CNRI/MNX,

used with permission.

Figure  9.7  Polysilicon resonator structure fabricated using a surface micromachining

process. Copyright CNRI/MNX, used with permission.

9.4.4  Other Micromachining Technologies

In addition to wet chemical bulk micromachining, DRIE bulk micromachining, and
surface micromachining, there are a number of other techniques used to fabricate
MEMS devices, including wafer bonding, XeF2 dry‐phase isotropic silicon etching,
LIGA, electrodischarge micromachining, laser micromachining, focused ion beam
micromachining, and others. The reader is referred to [1–4] for an exhaustive catalog
of MEMS fabrication methods.

9.5  EXAMPLES OF MEMS SENSORS

As noted earlier, sensors are a type of transducer that converts a form of energy (that
represents a parameter of interest) into another form of energy. Over the recent past
almost every imaginable type of MEMS sensor has been demonstrated including
pressure, acoustic, temperature (including infrared focal plane arrays), inertia (including
acceleration and rate rotation sensors), magnetic field (Hall, magnetoresistive, and
EXAMPLES OF MEMS SENSORS 159

magnetotransistors), force (including tactile), strain, optical, radiation, and chemical and
biological sensors [1]. In this section we review a few selected MEMS sensor devices
that have been developed successfully for the commercial market. There are far too
many types of MEMS devices to provide a comprehensive review of all the MEMS
sensors developed, and therefore we will only review a few selected examples. The
reader is referred to [1–4] for more information.

9.5.1  MEMS Integrated Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor by Freescale

Piezoresistivity is one of the oldest and most common material properties used for
the implementation of transduction in MEMS sensors. A piezoresistive material is a
material wherein an applied mechanical strain to the material results in a change in
the resistance across the material. This material property has been most widely used
in MEMS pressure sensors.
A notable example of a MEMS pressure sensor that employs the piezoresistive
effect is the Integrated Pressure Sensor (IPS) process technology that was originally
developed and put into production by Motorola (now Freescale Semiconductor) and
represents one of the most successful high‐volume MEMS products (Figure 9.8). The
manufacturing of this device employs bulk micromachining to make a thin pressure‐
sensitive diaphragm onto which the piezoresistive strain sensors are positioned
(Figure 9.9). The sensor employs the piezoresistive effect to measure the mechanical
deflection of a thin silicon membrane and combines bipolar microelectronics for
signal conditioning and calibration on the same silicon substrate as the sensor device.
Freescale employs an electrochemical etch stop to precisely control the pressure‐
sensing membrane thickness [11].

Figure  9.8  An overhead optical photograph of the MEMS integrated pressure sensor
device that employs a piezoresistor configuration. Reprinted with permission, Copyright
Freescale Semiconductor Inc.
160 MEMS: AN ENABLING TECHNOLOGY FOR THE INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT)

Silicon wafer

n+ Si n-type Si epi p+ Si p– Si SiO2 CrSi SiN Al

Figure  9.9  Cross‐sectional illustration of the Freescale Pressure Sensor. The materials
used in the fabrication of this device are given in the legend shown earlier. Reproduced with
permission from MEMS and Nanotechnology Exchange.

9.5.2  MEMS Capacitance‐Based Microphone Sensor by Knowles

Capacitive sensing is very commonly utilized in MEMS sensors due to its inherent
simplicity and high sensitivity. In general, the capacitance, C, of a two terminal
device is given by

C o r A / d Farads ,

where εo is the dielectric constant of free space, εr is the relative dielectric

constant of any material between the electrodes, A is the area of the capacitor,
and d is the separation of the electrodes. Capacitors can be used as sensors in
several different ways with the most common method varying the distance between
electrodes.
As an example of how a capacitive structure can be used to implement a micro­
phone device, we consider the MEMS capacitance‐based microphone sensor devel­
oped by Knowles. This device is made using a combination of surface and bulk
micromachining. This device was the earliest commercially successful MEMS
microphone process technology that was developed [12]. This device has gained
successful entry into most cell phones sold in the market, as well as other consumer
electronic applications. As a result, the Knowles MEMS microphone is now one of
the highest‐volume and most successful MEMS devices ever produced with volumes
in excess of five billion components.
The basic design requirement for a microphone is the construction of a low
mass and mechanically compliant diaphragm offsetting a short distance from a
mechanically rigid “backplate.” The diaphragm and backplate form the electrodes
of a variable capacitance‐type microphone. The combination of the flexible
diaphragm and the stiff backplate makes a variable capacitor whose capacitance is
a function of the diaphragm deflection. The Knowles manufacturing process
fabricates the diaphragm and backplate on a single wafer (Figure 9.10). The sensor
is assembled, along with an associated readout ASIC, in a package. Figure 9.11
shows an optical photograph of the Knowles microphone looking downward on
the device.
EXAMPLES OF MEMS SENSORS 161

Backplate electrode
Air gap Backplate
Bond pad Bond pad

Substrate
Diaphragm

Figure  9.10  Cross‐sectional diagram of the Knowles, Inc. microphone sensor structure.
Reprinted with permission. Copyright Knowles Inc.

Figure  9.11  Top‐down optical micrograph of the Knowles, Inc. microphone sensor.
Reprinted with permission. Copyright Knowles Inc.

9.5.3  MEMS Capacitance‐Based Accelerometer by STMicroelectronics

Another example of capacitive‐based transduction used for implementation of a MEMS
sensor is the STMicroelectronics accelerometer product series. STMicroelectronics,
Inc. has very quickly captured a significant portion of the consumer electronics MEMS‐
based inertial sensor market by introducing a line of accelerometer devices that have
excellent performance levels and are sold at an extremely attractive price: this is an
important requirement for most consumer applications [13].
This strategy has been very successful and has allowed STMicroelectronics to rapidly
become one of the largest producers of MEMS devices. STMicroelectronics’ MEMS
devices are currently used in such notable and highly recognizable consumer products
such as Nintendo’s Wii, Apple’s iPhones (Figure 9.12) and iPod Touch, and others [14].
The STMicroelectronics MEMS inertial products are based on their Thick Epitaxial
Layer for Microactuators and Accelerometers (THELMA) process technology [15].
162 MEMS: AN ENABLING TECHNOLOGY FOR THE INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT)

Figure  9.12  Photographs of products employing STMicroelectronics’ inertial MEMS

sensor technology that provide the customer with increasing capabilities in consumer products,
in this case for properly orientating the screen to the user. Copyright CNRI/MNX, used with
permission.

Epitaxial
Silicon Silicon dioxide Polysilicon PECVD oxide Metal
polysilicon

Figure  9.13  Cross‐sectional illustration of MEMS device structure on substrate made

using the STMicroelectronics’ THELMA process technology that is used to manufacture
their line of inertial sensors. Reproduced with permission from MEMS and Nanotechnology
Exchange.

The THELMA process is a nonintegrated MEMS process technology that has

the distinct advantage of allowing thicker structures to be implemented, which
is extremely useful for capacitive‐based inertial sensors. The THELMA process
technology is used to implement capacitive‐based inertial devices but is sufficiently
flexible to be used for the production of other MEMS device types.
The THELMA process uses a thick layer of polysilicon deposited using epitaxial
deposition as the structural material for the accelerometer proof mass. The thick
polysilicon layer is patterned and etched using DRIE. The DRIE allows very high
aspect ratio structures to be made in the thick polysilicon layer (Figure 9.13).
THE FUTURE OF MEMS FOR THE IoT 163

9.6  EXAMPLE OF MEMS ACTUATOR

9.6.1  MEMS Electrostatically Actuated Digital Light Processor (DLP) by

Texas Instruments
A number of different basic physical principals are used to implement MEMS
actuators including electrostatic, piezoelectric, magnetic, magnetostrictive, bimetallic,
shape memory alloy, and others. Each of these has its respective advantages and
disadvantages, and therefore careful consideration of the specific application require­
ments must be part of the selection process. We shall review one of the most popular
methods for MEMS actuators called electrostatic actuation in this section. The reader
is referred to [1–4] for a more comprehensive review of MEMS actuators.
Digital Light Processor (DLP™) technology developed by Texas Instruments
Corporation is used in various large‐volume commercial markets such as projection
televisions and projection display systems. DLP technology is a disruptive tech­
nology for movie theaters since it replaces the 100‐year‐old celluloid film with a
completely digital format. Already, DLP is currently used in more than 100,000
theaters. The key component of DLP® technology is the micromirror array chip
(called the Digital Micromirror Device (DMD) [16]). Essentially the DMD chip is a
large array of individually and digitally controlled MEMS micromirrors—there are
up to millions of mirrors in each chip array. The mechanism for actuation of each
mirror is electrostatic actuation.
Each mirror in the array measures just over 10 µm by 10 µm and is electrostatically
actuated by the microelectronics physically located underneath the mirror array [17].
This enables the fill factor of the DMD to reach levels of over 90%, thereby allowing
very high optical efficiency and contrast. Integrated microelectronics is a necessity in
DLP technology since the number, density, and size of the mirrors combined with
individual addressability would preclude having all the electronics off‐chip. The
DMD fabrication is made using a surface micromachining process on top of a micro­
electronics substrate [18].
Figure 9.14 shows an SEM of a portion of the DMD device showing the center
pixel in the actuated state and the surrounding pixels in the unactuated state. For a
description of how DMDs are used in projection optical systems, see [18]. The DMD
pixel consists of an SRAM cell fabricated in the silicon substrate with a MEMS
superstructure implemented on top (Figure 9.15). The DMD is made using a low‐
temperature, surface micromachining, MEMS‐last, monolithic, integrated MEMS
process technology.

9.7  THE FUTURE OF MEMS FOR THE IoT

As discussed in the preceding text, MEMS devices as they are currently embodied
are being used to implement the IoT. However, it is important to point out that the
MEMS devices that are currently available on the market are mostly either discrete
devices, either an individual sensor or an actuator, or an array of the same device type
164 MEMS: AN ENABLING TECHNOLOGY FOR THE INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT)

Figure 9.14  Magnified SEM image of Texas Instrument’s DMD device with center
pixel in actuated (i.e., rotated) state. Reprinted with permission, Copyright Texas
Instruments, Inc.

CMOS silicon wafer

Silicon Oxide Metal plug Electrode oxide

Polymer Aluminum

Figure 9.15  Cross section of one pixel of the Texas Instruments DMD. Reproduced with
permission from MEMS and Nanotechnology Exchange.

replicated many times over the surface of a substrate. That is, the MEMS devices
currently available do not combine any type of sensor, actuator, and IC all on the
same substrate. Nevertheless, as MEMS technology matures, specifically as the
manufacturing methods continue to develop, it is expected that combining different
MEMS devices onto a single die will become not only feasible but also desirable and
cost effective. Moreover, this ability will provide an enormous catalyst to the further
development and proliferation of the IoT.
REFERENCES 165

9.8 CONCLUSION

MEMS are revolutionizing the implementation of sensors, actuators, and control

systems through miniaturization, batch fabrication, and integration with electronics.
MEMS technology is enabling smart systems on a chip with high levels of function­
ality, performance, and reliability to be available in a small microsized chip and at
very low cost levels. Presently, the largest market drivers for MEMS industry include
silicon‐based pressure sensors for automotive, medical, and industrial control appli­
cations; crash airbag inertial sensors for automotive applications; inertial sensors for
consumer electronics; microphones for cell phones and computers; DLP for displays
and projectors; and ink‐jet cartridges for printers. In the industrial, commercial,
medical, and defense sectors, MEMS devices are already emerging as product
performance differentiators in numerous applications and markets. Because of these
success stories and the applicability of this technology in so many other products,
the market potential for MEMS is very promising. Nevertheless, since MEMS is a
nascent and highly synergistic technology, it is expected that many new applications
will emerge, thereby expanding the markets beyond that which are currently known
or identified, particularly as the IoT develops and matures. In short, MEMS is a new
and extremely important technology that has a very promising future. The diversity,
economic importance, and extent of potential applications of MEMS for the imple­
mentation of the IoT make it the hallmark technology of the future.

REFERENCES

[1] Madou, M., Fundamentals of Microfabrication, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1997.
[2] Huff, M.A., Bart, S.F., and Lin, P., MEMS Process Integration, Chapter 14 of the MEMS
Materials and Processing Handbook, editors R. Ghodssi and P. Lin, Springer Press,
New York, 2012.
[3] Huff, M.A., Fundamentals of Microelectromechanical Systems, Chapter 23 of the Semi­
conductor Manufacturing Handbook, editor H. Geng, McGraw‐Hill, New York, 2005.
[4] Kovacs, G.T.A., Micromachined Transducers Sourcebook, McGraw‐Hill, New York, 1998.
[5] Aizcorbe, A., “Why are semiconductor prices falling so fast?,” U.S. Department of
Commerce Bureau of Economic Analysis. Retrieved 2005.
[6] Liyang, S., “What are we paying for: A quality adjusted price index for laptop micropro­
cessors,” Wellesley College. Accessed July 11, 2014.
[7] Huff, M.A., Mettner, M.S., Lober, T.A., and Schmidt, M.A., “A Wafer‐Bonded
Electrostatically‐Actuation Microvalve,” Solid‐State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, 4th
Technical Digest IEEE, 1990.
[8] Jaeger, R.C., Introduction to Microelectronic Fabrication: Volume 5 of Modular Series
on Solid‐State Devices, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, 2001.
[9] Larmar, F., and Schilp, P., “Method of Anisotropically Etching of Silicon,” German
Patent DE 4,241,045, 1994.
[10] Howe, R.T., and Muller, R.S., “Polycrystalline and amorphous silicon micromechanical
beams: Annealing and mechanical properties,” Sensors and Actuators, vol. 4, p. 447, 1983.
166 MEMS: AN ENABLING TECHNOLOGY FOR THE INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT)

[11] G. Bitko, A. McNeil, and R. Frank, “Improving the MEMS pressure sensor,” Sensors
Magazine, vol. 17, no. 7, July 2000.
[12] Loeppert, P.V., and Sung, B.L., “SiSonic—The first commercialized MEMS microphone,”
Solid‐State Sensors, Actuators, and Microsystems Workshop, Hilton Head Island, SC,
June 4–8, 2006, pp. 27–30.
[13] Vigna, B., “MEMS Epiphany,” MEMS 2009 Conference, Sorrento Italy, January 26, 2009.
[14] Source, iSuppli Corporation, See: http://www.isuppli.com. Accessed August 13, 2016.
[15] De Masi, B., and Zerbini, S., “Process builds more sensitive structures,” EE Times,
November 22, 2004.
[16] Hornbeck, L.J., “From cathode rays to digital micromirrors: A history of electronic
projection display technology,” Texas Instruments Technical Journal, vol. 15, no. 3,
1998, pp. 7–46.
[17] Grimmett, J., and Huffman, J., “Advancements in DLP® Technology—The New 10.8 µm
Pixel and Beyond,” IDW/AD’05, Proceedings of the 12th International Display
Workshops, (in conjunction with Asia Display 2005) Vol. 2, pp. 1879–1882 (2005).
[18] Hornbeck, L.J., “Combining Digital Optical MEMS, CMOS, and Algorithms for Unique
Display Solutions,” IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting Technical Digest,
Plenary Session, pp. 17–24 (2007).

OTHER INFORMATION

The reader is referred to three very popular additional sources of information concerning
MEMS technology. The first source is a website called the MEMS and Nanotechnology
Clearinghouse which is located at http://www.memsnet.org and is a general informational
portal about MEMS technology and includes events, news announcements, directories of
MEMS organizations, and a MEMS material database. The second source is the MEMS and
Nanotechnology Exchange (MNX) located at http://www.mems‐exchange.org. This website
represents a large MEMS foundry network and offers MEMS design, fabrication, packaging,
product development, and related services as well as considerable information about MEMS
and nanotechnologies. Lastly, the reader is referred to several electronic discussion groups
concerning MEMS technology that have very active participation from several thousand
MEMS developers and researchers from around the world. These groups can be accessed
through the following URL: http://www.memsnet.org/memstalk/archive.